ROZVI STATE(CHANGAMIRE STATE)

PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS-
D.N.BEACH(1984),T.O.RANGER(1968),R.GRAY(1972),R.W.JULLY
(1992),CURTIN AND MARTINS,S.I.G.MUDENGE(1988),OLIVER
AND FAGE(1962)
CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF AFRICA VOL 4
ORIGINS OF THE STATE
 The founder of the state was Changamire Dombo
who rose to power in the 1680s and 90s.
 Beach(1984) says there are two myths i.e that of
European and Shona view.
 There is a controversy and is shrouded by two
myths.
European Myths
 The Rozvi state first appeared to be the Portuguese as the folowers of
the Changamire who conquered the Torwa State of the South West who
drove them from the Dambarare and Manyika feira.
 The Portuguese viewed the Changamire at the greatest single power at
the plateau.
 As a result the Portuguese of Zumbo decided to enter into alliance with
them.
 Beach(1984 :221) ascribes that the Portuguese saw it as a powerful African
Unity of the kind which they were accustomed ,its power being based
on the control of the herds and mines of the South West
 The next European writers to record the traditions of the Rozvi were
travellers and missionaries who recorded the information after the decline
of the Changamire State.
 Historians argue that these travellers and missionaries entered the Ndebele
State and its tributary areas after the 1850s
 Beach (1984) is of the view that the writers were citing what their
information believed to be true.
COMMENT ON THE EUROPEAN
MYTH
 The fact that the travellers were foreigners basing
their writings on oral tradition may lead us to
believe that the information about the origin was
distorted as well as biased.

AFRICAN MYTHS
 The third group were the Native Department who
begun a short research by its officials.
 Posselt F.w.T of Marandelous collected oral traditions
but the great deal consisted of an unknowledged
borrowing from the Native Department files
containing the earlier of researchers.
COMMENT ON THE AFRICAN MYTHS
 The idea that his work was inreferenced ,it is
inaccurate to beleive whether some pieces of
information comes from the Rozvi communities or
other sources.
 Posselt says the Rozvi political unity in the South
west before the Ndebele figured in the local
histories of many other Shona dynasty.
 The Rozvi existed in the South West of Zimbabwe
before the Ndebele .
 Posselt says all Shona rulers were appointed by
the Rozvi in the ceremony of Kugadzaishe(coronation)
ARCHAEOLOGiCAL EVIDENCE ON
THE ORIGINS OF THE ROZVI.
 Traditionally the Changamire Rozvi were well
known to have occupied stone buildings of Khami
culture .
 Beach(1980:193) says Changamire Rozvi dynasty
was not linked at the Khami Culture centres
upto the 19th C and the prestigious pottery
claimed by Changamire Rozvi as theirs was found
at all levels in the Capital.
 Archaeological eveidence shows that it was not
Changamire but rather the Torwa who had
founded the Khami Culture.
RISE AND EXPANSION OF THE
ROZVI STATE
 The rise of the Rozvi State like all other pre-colonial states in Central
and Southern Africa are a subject of much debate/controvesy amongst
the historians.
 Some argues that after the decline of the Torwa and after expelling the
Portuguese from the Mutapa State ,the Rozvi State emerged.
 The civil war in the Torwa State paved way for the Changamire and
his people to conquer the State.
 Rozvi state conquered the State and drove them from Dambarare and
Manyika.
 D.N.Beach(1984 :201) says in the Torwa State itself the civil war, which
left the Torwa unsupported by the forces that had helped him back
to power was probably a weakening factor that encouraged the
Changamire in the 1860s to occupy Bayao and take the State’’
 Some historians argue that the Torwa continued to serve them and they
were known as the Rozvi.
 Beach(1984) points out that ,other groups in the Torwa were the
Chihunduru ,Tumbare,Ndunda continued to play an important part in the
running of the Changamire State and like the rest of the people of the
Torwa they adopted the ‘Rozvi’ name.
 This was a policy of assimilation so they adopted to be Rozvi.
 This shows some people who called themselves Rozvi were in fact
descendants of the Torwa State.
 Besides the conquering of the Torwa State the Rozvi State play a
pivotal role towards expelling the Portuguese out of Manyika back to
their former position at Masekesa.
 The Portguese Prazeros had become very strong as a result they
wanted more land so they tried to move further to Mbire and
Guruuswa which they called Butua.
 Gray(1972:400) says ,’’ to controll the source of economic power the
Changamire excluded the Portuguese traders,they also prevented their
subjects from gaining direct access to the Portuguese .
 It shows that Changamire did not want his subject people to trade
with the Portuguese.
 Beach (1984) is of the view that Changamire
succesor against the Torwaa and Mutapa Mukombwe
insipired the Portuguese with a profound respect
for the Changamire and Rozvi followers so that
they would call him their ‘fatal enemy’.
 This argument cements the idea that the
Changamire State came into power after expelling
the Portuguese from Manyika back to their position.
REBELLION AGAINST THE MUTAPA
STATE
 The Rozvi also rebelled against the Mutapa ,the Mutapa
had tried to cut the Rozvi by taking the land of Butua
but Dombo returned to Butua province were he inflicted
a shuttering blow to the Mutapa way.
 Conceicao cited by Beach says the 17th C Changamire
made his base in some land Mukaranga which borders
him with a Butua i.e lands between Mutapa and Rozvi
State.
 In support of Beach a certain historian argues that
Changamire Dombo began the building of his power
with the seizure of the land under the Mutapa.
 The Changamire in a campaign lasting from 1693-95 finally
drove the Mutapa and Portuguese overlords out of the
Plateau.
TRADE
 The Rozvi also rose to power because of its economic power
based on trade.
 Trade was important in the Rozvi State the Rozvi controlled
long distance trade routes along the Zambezi valley.
 Curtinand Feireman says the Rozvi traded gold and ivory to
Arabs and brought in them guns used for conquering other
States.
 Trade played a pivotal role towards cementing the relationship
between the Changamire State as well as the Arabs.
 Through trade the Rozvi imported guns and were used for
defensive purpose.
 This shows that trade played a crucial/pivotal role towards
the rise and foundation of the State.

MILITARY /ARMY
 The strong military force also helped the Rozvi to seizure
power .
 In the Rozvi state young men were conscripted in the process
of building a formidable army which extended the Rozvi frontiers
or border and consilidate the power base of Dombo.
 Mudenge(1988) is of the view that the precolonial ties for the
state to survive it requires a strong military army.
 This shows that a state needed a strong army ,to defend its
people.
 For the Rozvi the main evidence for the power laid(rest) on the
army of the Changamire which earned the Rozvi the name
plunderers’ or ‘destroyers ‘

 In short it is an open secret that ,from the declining kingdom

the new kingdom emerges.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE
CHANGAMIRE STATE
-Mambo was the head of the State .
_He was a hereditary ruler .
On his death all changamire sons wait for power until they rule(Ushe
madzoro hunochinjanwa)
-However,this could not hold water in the sense that it did not give
equal opportunity for all.
Many historians regards this system as a political weakness as it led to
leadership crisis .
This was due to the fact that too many people qualified for the post- the
sons (System of polygamy complicated the whole system) and the
kings brothers .
-In short,too many people vied for the post.
Leadership vacuum led to civil wars.
-The hereditary ruling in appointing leaders in the capital also worked in
the provinces.
-The Changamire alone held political authority to appoint any new
provincial chiefs.
 The fact that Changamire alone was responsible
for appointing provincial chiefs and rulers shows
that the Rozvi State contained some absolutism.
 The mambo had all powers and also appointed
his own relatives weman,sons inlaw to position of
influence.
 They acted as the ears and eyes of the king.
 According to Gray ,shona traditions contain
duplicity of royal Rozvi women who successfully
murdered or emobilised enemy leaders.
 The Mambo ruled with the help of a council of
elders called Dare.
 It acted as a check and balance on the King’s power,
so that the king would not be an absolute dictator.
 It was wise for the king to listern to the king to
listern from the council of the elders to avoid
disputes and civil wars.
 They were not total autocratic.
 Members of the Dare included priests ,millitary
leaders and provincial governors.
 The Mambo as a political leader was a figure of
great respect,he was commander in chief of the army.
 T.O.Ranger indicates that the supremacy of Rozvi
Mambo was recognised by the Chief who
continued to rule the districts.
 The Changamire was the head of the following
,land distribution and legal system.
 Curtin et al says ,Changamire Rozvi systematically
collected tribute from their subjects.
POLITICAL HIERARCHY
 MAMBO

 ROYAL COURT

 PROVINCIAL CHIEF

 DISTRICT CHIEF

 VILLAGE HEADMAN

 COMMONERS
 Politics and religion are interwoven therefore,it is
equally in accurate to discuss the political organisation
of the Rozvi State without discussing the issue of
religion.
 Politics relied on religion to convince the ordinary
people that the ,political organisation was correct or
legitimate.
 Ranger(1968:13) says the key integrative factor in the
Shona political system was religion. The Mambo was
the ultimate religious authority in his Kingdom ,he
alone could ,commute(go back and forth ) with the
spirits of his ancestors.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION OF THE
CHANGAMIRE STATE
 AGRICULTURE
 A)PASTORALISM
 The Rozvi State kept large herds of cattle.
 Cattle in the Rozvi were very crucial and they had numerous purpose
such as ,they were used to pay lobola ,for barter exchange to obtain
grain from the more fortunate regions or eaten when Shangwa occurs
,for milk and meat to the diet of the Rozvi people.
 Samkange (1968:4) noted that ,’’ herds of the Rozvi’s small but
beautiful cattle lowered in every valley and their rich and fertile
doubtful ,avoided abundance of food’’.
 They provided leather for clothing and tribute to the Changamire.
 Cattle were also used as a mode of transport.
 They used them as transport on long distance .
 Randles(1979) pointed out that in the Changamire state the cattle was
used for riding.
 The Changamire rode them as a means of moving about the country.
 Cattle was also used for special ceremony such as appeasing the
ancestors.
 Beside cattle the Rozvi kept goat and sheep.
 Beach(1994) said that the Rozvi rulers and their people herded
cattle,sheep and goats.
 This means that although it was important in the Rozvi economy they
also kept goat and sheep maybe for extra supply in times of shangwa
.
 The largest herd of cattle was owned by the Changamire .
 People who could not afford cattle of their own looked after
other people’s cattle under cattle leasing system(kuronzera).
 Under the system a person was free to use manure milk,but could
not kill the animal without the owners permission .
 He was also required to report birth and death among cattle.
CROP PRODUCTION
 It was the back borne of the Shona economy under the Rozvi ruler,this
means that all economic activities depended on farming.
 The men cleared the land /field planted and weeded and eventually harvested
the crops.
 The Rozvi grew cereal crops ,finger millet ,and sorghum.
 Beach (1984) says some new crops were later introduced by the Portuguese
for example rice and yams .
 Some were introduced by the Indians such as cowpeas and groundnuts.
 Grain was used for paying tribute to the king and as food for the Rozvi
subjects.
 In the Rozvi system there was a system known as kuzvarira which was a
system wereby women were given out to those who were rich in exchange
of grain.
 To support this point Beach(1984:23) noted that the Tonga villages supplied
women to the Rozvi in return for grain.
 This means that grain was so crucial to the extent of exchanging human
being.
 There was also Zunderamambo a scene that
supported the common court and army.
 Subjects who could not afford to pay tribute were
used to work in these fields.
 Beach(1984:24) said ,’’ a powerful ruler could
make use of grain surplus to feed his army and
court and his stores could be used to a limited
extent ....’’
 There was also food for work scheme ,this is when
the changamire gave food to his laboures after
work.
 People were given food after work.
TRIBUTE
 The subject of the Rozvi paid tribute to the Changamire in form of cattle ,grain,gold,animal
skins,leopard and lions(royal game) cheater and other valluables.
 Keeping royal game was a form of revolt even today.
 The Portuguese also paid tribute to the Changamire they paid in form of cloth beads
flintlocks ,guns and other valuable goods.
 Beach(1994) noted that the Changamire forced the Portuguese at Zumbo feira to pay
tribute to him.
 Sub chiefs also paid tribute to the king inform of gold this was to show loyalty .
 To support this Beach is of the view that the Portuguese at Zumbo were punished by
the Changamire for not paying tribute.
 It shows loyalty.
 Some historians are of the view that tribute was not paid annually /per year but they
had to skip for years before paying tribute.
 One of the Rozvi subject in the 1900 said that ,’’tribute was paid after every few years .
 However other authorities vehemently disputed this view saying that tribute was paid
annually.
 T.O.Ranger(1968) is of the view tribute was paid in form of agricultural produce and metal
ornaments therefore,the issue of tribute is a controversial issue because different scholars
project different views.
TEXTILE PRODUCTION
 Cloth was woven from wild cotton barks and cotton.
 The cloth from cotton was very special and were
known as machira in Shona.
 This shows that the Rozvi people had developed an
early form of civilisation.
 Samkange(1968:15) says that the later while observers
claimed in the 1880s that Shona technical skills
were really astonishing and that they stood first in the
industrial arts of rudimentary civilisation of all the tribes
of the Zambezi.
 This means that the Rozvi had developed an early
form of civilisation since they were able to make their
cloths.
MINING
 They mined gold and copper ,Gold was used for
manufacturing gold beads and wire .
 Iron was used by specialist to make iron tools and
weapons axes ,razors,spears ,hoes,knives.
 Gold was also used to pay tribute to the
Changamire as well as for trading
 Historians argued that all gold and other metals
were only found in possession of the Changamire
and if found in possession of the vassal chief
punishment was death.
 So gold was a state monopoly.
HUNTING
 It was done around Khami were there where areas were animals
where in abundance
 Numerous iron arrow heads had been recovered by archaeologists.
 These were believed to have been used by the Rozvi hunters around
Khami.
 The common tools were axes bores and arrows and spears.
 People were very organised they could stay in the bush for several
weeks drying the meat.
 Hunters surrendered to the chief all the meat,he was entitled to as
chief guardian e.g elephant tasks ,hoves which were used as stools by
the chief and leopards skins.
 Beach(1994 :77) one task from every elephant killed belonged to the
chief of the area were the elephant was killed .
 The Rozvi people were skilled in the art of horn and borne curving
so this was one of the uses of ivory.
 Bracelets made of ivory was in common use by the important people
e.g the Changamire.
TRADE
 It was divided into two -internal and external trade (foreign or long distance trade)
 EXTERNAL TRADE
 The Rozvi had a valuable trade links with the Portuguese on the Zambezi for example the
traders at the Zumbo feiras.
 T.O.Ranger(1968 :120) noted that ,’’there continued the long established trade and gold
ivory with agents of the Portuguese traders from the Zambezi towns(Zumbo,Tete and Sena).
 These were major ones.
 External trade was controlled by the Changamire and to a lesser degree the kraal of the
chiefs.
 Beach(1984:204) noted that the Changamire enjoyed a monopoly over the gold trade.
 This shows that the Changamire had authority and benefited mostly from external trade
and to a smaller extent his chiefs.
 The Portuguese got a surplus of gold from the Rozvi while in return received
cloth,beads ,flintlock guns and other valuable goods.
 Foreign trade has been evidenced by archaeological findings which were recovered were
the Rozvi existed.
 The goods were glass beads black and white calico cloth which was sent by the
Rozvi Mambo as part of ceremonial clothing when ever they install new king.
RELIGION ORGANISATION OF THE
CHANGAMIRE STATE
 The Rozvi believed in the power and guidance of ancestrial
spirits and Mwari whom they worshipped through the
spirit mediums.
 The Mwari was responsible for the rain and the fertility
of the soil.
 Beach(1994) ‘’Mwari cult was concerned with rain ,well
being of the crops.....’’
 The Mwari cult had local representative (man drawn from
local people in each area) and were functioned like
missionaries in that it was to their interest to gain as
many worshippers as possible .
 Sinning against Mwari include ,destruction from God of
which the God spoke ,ungratefully the king could not offer
shield of the defeated elements of God.
Role of the Spirit Mediums
 To act in between the living people and the dead -you give
the grievances of the people through Mwari .
 Beach(1994) noted that,’’ the medium in a trance afford to the
leaving in particularly to the king ,a verytable dialogue with
the ancestors who have passed on’’.
 The 1st Changamire Dombo was believed to be the son of the
high God whose mother experienced a virgin birth.
 Beach(1994) says that Dombo was believed to be the son of
God .
 Mwari was believed to talk to people and his voice could come
from anywhere ie the sky,grass,a cow, a rock or a woman.
 The high belief that God spoke from the curves and
people still go there upto the present day in Matonjeni and
Matopos .
 The ruins were organised through rain ceremonials.
THE DECLINE OF THE ROZVI
STATE
 It was caused by a fatal combinition of civil wars ,drought,economic
decline,the Nguni incursions(Mfecane) during the period 1830s -40s

 ECONOMIC DECLINE
 During the period 1830-40 the economy of the Rozvi was deteriorating
drastically due to a number of reasons fro example internal trade was
hindered by the Nguni who raided the Portuguese of trade for example
Sofala and Tete.
 Moreover,the Portuguese were made to pay tribute to the Ngoni instead
to pay to the King.
 The gold fields were also worked out Beach(1994) noted that the
there was a time when the entire gold mining industry was on the
verge of extinction .The mines were depleted and it was fading.
 This weakned the Rozvi power since her power was almost rested
upon the economy of the Rozvi.
DROUGHTS
 During the 18th C and 19th C there were serious
droughts in the Rozvi State .
 The Rozvi people blamed Changamire Chirisamhuru
for the drought because Chirisamhuru had rebelled
against the high priest of the high God.
 This resulted in some people rebelling against
the Changamire and some even fled away from
him.
CIVIL WARS
 During the 18th and 19th C serious civil wars
erupted in the Rozvi State for example war
between Chirisamhuru and Dyembeu,over the
succession of their father Changamire
Gumboreshumba.
 This weakened the state because it created
divisions within the state as well as loss of man
during those sporadic wars.
MFECANE
 The Changamire State was attacked by six groups from the Mfecane .
 The 1st group was led by Mapanga of Zhou tottem.
 He entered from the west part of Mzingwane to attack the Rozvi and he was
decisively defeated.
 The second group was led by Ngwane Maseko a Ngoni leader and was forced
Northwards .
 The third group was led by Zwangendaba and was defeated and crossed the
Zambezi River in 1835.
 Nyamazana a Ngoni Queen a relative of Zwangendaba led the forth group.
 Beach(1980) says by the time Nyamazana arrived in the Rozvi State ,the
strength of the State had been badly shaken for the effort of fighting
three,different hordes of rival groups and the spirit and ability to resist had gone.
 Nyamazana defeated Chirisamhuru and skinned him alive as the Rozvi believed
that he had two hearts.
 The state was left leaderless which resulted in internal divisions in 1836-1837 as
well as succession disputes..
NXABA
 The fifth group was led by Nxaba he came in 1836 and raided
and further weakening the state.
the Rozvi tribes

 THE COMING OF THE NDEBELE

 The Ndebele came in 1838 and crushed the State because the state was
leaderless.
 They attacked the Mutinhira house defeated it and it fled to the Eastern area
of the Rozvi.
 Some voluntarily submitted them to Mzilikazi for Swabasvi and Lukuluba.
 Some historians are of the view that the Rozvi seized to exist with the
coming of the Ndebele.
 Ranger(1968) in the early 1830s 1st Zwangendaba’s Ngoni and eventually the
Ndebele completely destroyed the state.
 However,some historians vehemently dispute Ranger’s view saying that the
Rozvi continued to exist after the Ndebele invasion until the coming of the
BSAC under C.J.Rhodes.
 The Rozvi claimed to have power.
 Beach(1994) noted that,’’ the great Changamire State of the South West had
been submerged first by the Ndebele in the 1840s and then by the Rhodesians
in the 1890s’’.
 Some historians are of the view that the Rozvi State did not exist after the death
of Changamire Chirisamhuru.
 After the death of Chirisamhuru the empire continued to exist although it had
lastly reduced interms of geographical size ,jealousies and traditional rivalries
hindered the Rozvi from uniting against the Ndebele.
 Mambo Tohwechipi failed to mobilise the various Rozvi chiefdoms into a common
front against the Ndebele intruders thus Mzilikazi was left to keep up the
different Rozvi successor groups into the South West of the country one by one
and forced them either into absorption into the Ndebele State or force them to
migrate to the original homes.
 Tohwechipi was forced to flee to the Duma country in the South East were he
continued to resist the Ndebele power until 1866.
 After which he had to pay tribute to the Ndebele Kingdom .
 This was a sign of admission.
VAINONA HIGH SCHOOL
 MAKOMEKE KELVIN TREVOR

 HISTORY DEPARTMENT

 2017