Curricular Foundations, Trends & Issues - ECE - The Teacher and School Curriculum

UNIT 2
Curricular Foundations, Trends &

Issues
Philosophical Foundations ● Starting point in curriculum
of Curriculum development
● Function interdependent with
Philosophy other functions in curriculum
● Deals with the larger aspects of development
life and the way we organize our
thoughts and interpret facts Major Philosophies
● It is an effort to understand life –
its problems and issues in full IDEALISM
perspectives ● One of the oldest philosophy
● It guides our educational ● Plato is the father of Idealism
decisions, choices and ● The highest aim is the search for
alternatives truth and enduring values.
● Learning is a primarily intellectual
Philosophy and Curriculum process that involves recalling
● Philosophy provides a framework and working with ideas;
or frameworks for organizing education is properly concerned
schools and classrooms with conceptual matters.
○ What schools are for? ● The curriculum is hierarchical; it
○ What subjects have value? constitutes humankind’s cultural
○ How students learn? heritage and is based on learned
○ What methods, materials and disciplines (liberal arts).
assessments to use? ● At the top of the hierarchy are
● It clarifies the following: the most abstract subjects:
○ Education goals philosophy and theology
○ Suitable content ● Mathematics cultivates abstract
○ Teaching and learning thinking
processes ● History and literature offer moral
○ Experiences and activities and cultural models
○ Materials and resources ● Language enables
○ Assessment tools and communication and conceptual
Processes thought
● Lower on the curricular ladder
Philosophy as a Curriculum Source are the Sciences, which deal
with particular cause-and-effect
relationships.
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Issues
●TEACHER’S ROLE To bring their reason.
latent knowledge and ideas to ● Everything is derived from nature
consciousness: to be a moral and and is subject to its laws.
spiritual leader ● Human behavior is rational when
it conforms to nature’s laws
● Curriculum Focus and when it is governed by
Knowledge-based; subject- physical and social laws
based; classics or liberal ● Stresses a curriculum comprising
arts; hierarchy of subjects: separate content areas, such
philosophy, theology and as history and zoology.
mathematics are important ● Ranks the most general and
abstract subjects at the top of the
IDEALISM-PROPONENTS curricular hierarchy.
● Plato believed that ideas could ● Lessons that cultivate logic and
be integrated into universal abstract thought are stressed
concepts and a meaningful ● They value the sciences as much
whole. Truth is inherent in as the art.
reasoning, intuition and religious ●TEACHER’S ROLE To cultivate
revelation rational thought; to be a moral and
spiritual leader; to be an authority
● Kant believe it is possible to ● Curriculum Focus Knowledge-
achieve moral clarification but based; subject-based; arts and
not possible to arrive at absolute sciences; hierarchy of subjects:
or universal truths. humanistic and scientific
● Hegel thought that one could subjects
progress toward truth by
continually synthesizing thesis REALISM-PROPONENTS
and antithesis, thereby arriving ● Aristotle believed that everything
at ever-higher levels of had a purpose and that humans’
understanding purpose is to think.
● For Aristotle and later Aquinas,
REALISM the universe is ordered; things
● View the world in terms of happen for a purpose, and
objects and matter. education should illuminate
● People can come to know the purpose.
world through their senses and ● People should live a rational life
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Issues
of moderation “What?”, “Who? Or “When?”
● Johann Pestalozzi’s instructional ● Generally accepted scientific
principle to begin with explanations for phenomena
concrete and end with abstract ● Charles Peirce and William
concepts James developed the principles
● Harry Broudy and John Wild of pragmatism, which
○ Rejected the dogmas of
preconceived truths and
eternal values; and
PRAGMATISM ○ Promoted testing and
● Also referred to as verifying
experimentalism ideas
● Based on change, process and ● John Dewey viewed education
relativity as
● Knowledge as a process in which a process for improving the
reality is constantly changing human condition through
● Learning occurs as the person problem
engages in problem solving solving and the scientific
which is transferable to a wide method.
variety of subjects and situation ● TEACHER’S ROLE To cultivate
● There is no immutable truth; critical thinking and scientific
people when they interact with processes
their social world are guided by ● Curriculum Focus
established generalizations, No permanent knowledge or
assertions subject to further subjects; appropriate
research and verification. experiences that transmit culture
● Teaching should focus on critical and prepare individuals for
thinking. change; problem-solving
● Teaching is more exploratory activities
than explanatory
● The method (pedagogy) is more EXISTENTIALISM
important than the subject ● Stress on individualism and
matter. personal self-fulfillment
● Questions such as “Why?”, “How ● People continually make choices
come?” and “What if?” are and thereby define themselves.
much more important than ● The essence we create is a
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product of our choices. ● The oldest and most
● Students should be free to conservative
choose ● Rooted in Realism
how and what they study. ● It stresses on preserving the best
● The most important knowledge is knowledge, values,
knowledge of the human dispositions and mores of
condition. societies from the distant and
● Education should develop recent past
consciousness of choices and ● The goal of education is to
their significance. develop the rational person and
● Believes that schooling is a uncover universal truths by
process that limits students’ developing one’s intellect and
freedom and is based on adult moral character
authority and generally ● The curriculum is subject-
accepted behavior and beliefs centered; it relies heavily on
● The curriculum consists of defined disciplines or logically
experiences and subjects that organized bodies of content,
lend themselves to individual emphasizing language,
freedom and choice. literature, mathematics and
● Literature, drama, filmmaking, sciences
music, and art reflect ● Teachers are authorities
self-expressive activities and ● Teaching is based primarily on
illustrate emotions, feelings and Socratic method” oral exposition,
insights lecture and explication
● TEACHER’S ROLE To cultivate ● Character training as a means of
personal choice and individual developing the student’s
self-definition moral and spiritual being.
● According to R. Hutchins, by
● Curriculum Focus Choices in studying the great ideas of the
subject matter, electives; past, we can better cope with the
emotional, aesthetic and present and future. He
philosophical subjects further urges the study of 3R’s,
grammar, rhetoric, logic,
Educational Philosophies advanced mathematics and
philosophy which are broad-
PERRENIALISM based, academic and “calculated
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Issues
to develop the mind”. and serious study are
● M. Adler’s book The Paideia emphasized
Proposal advocated 3 types of ● The teacher is considered a
learning that improve the intellect: master of a particular subject
acquisition of organized and a model worthy of emulation
knowledge, development of basic ● The teacher is responsible for
learning skills and acquisition of the class and decides on the
values curriculum with minimal student
● A. Bloom seeks to reestablish input
the benefits of reading classics ● It emphasizes academics (not
and obtaining a liberal arts play) and cognitive thinking (not
education. He calls for the whole child).
intellectually challenging ● Back-to Basics curriculum to
education that helps preserve raise achievement and close
what is best in the national gaps in reading, writing and
culture. math through annual high-stakes
● C. Murray suggests that there testing
should be an emphasis on ● Improving curriculum standards
cognitive rigor and virtuous living for teachers and students
rather than moral and ● Emphasizing content,
cultural relativism deemphasizing process
●TEACHER’S ROLE Teacher

helps students think rationally; ● TEACHER’S ROLE Teacher is
based on Socratic method, oral authority in particular subject
expression; explicit teaching of area; explicit teaching of
traditional values traditional values
● Curriculum Focus Classical ● Curriculum Focus Essential
subjects; literary analysis; skills (3Rs) and essential
constant curriculum subjects (English, science,
history, math and foreign
ESSENTIALISM languages)
● Emphasizes mastering the skills,
facts, and concepts that form PROGRESSIVISM
the basis of the subject matter. ● Rooted in pragmatism
● Discipline, training, homework, ● It is considered a contemporary
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reform movement in educational, punishment as a form
social and political affairs of
● Dewey viewed the school as a discipline
miniature democratic society in ○ Attempts to separate
which students learn the skills education from
necessary for democratic living. individual experiences
● Emphasizes how to think, not and social reality
what to think ● Call for relevant curriculum
● Schools should nurture advocating:
cooperation and self-discipline ○ Individualized
and transmit the society’s culture instruction
● The curriculum should be ○ Revised and new
interdisciplinary courses of interest to
● Teachers should guide students students
in problem solving and ○ Educational alternatives
scientific projects ○ The extension of the
● Students should analyze and curriculum beyond the
interpret data and to draw their school’s walls
own conclusions ○ The relaxation of
● Teachers and students should academic standards and
plan activities together admission standards to
● Has several groups: the child- schools and colleges
centered, activity-centered, ○ Adaptable, creative and
creative and neo-Freudian digitally fluent 21st
● Opposes the following century curriculum
○ Authoritarian teaching ● Humanistic model of education
○ Over reliance on that emphasizes affective,
textbook methods rather than cognitive, outcomes.
○ Memorization of factual ● Teachers are positive and
data by constant drill supportive who could manage
○ Static aims and students without coercion and
materials that fail to teach without failure. One who
take highlights the personal and social
account of a changing dimensions in teaching and
world learning
○ Intimidation or corporal ● Includes executive function
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capacities, social and emotional unemployment
intelligence and character skills ● It is a crisis philosophy geared
● Radical school reform towards improvement of society.
○ Neill’s Summerhill ● Its curriculum must be
school renounce all transformed in keeping with a new
discipline and formal social-economic-political education
instruction but on the and incorporate reform
ability to work joyfully and strategies.
live positively ● Critical pedagogy begins with the
○ Illich advocated idea that students have the
liberating people from capacity to think, question, and be
indoctrination by critical.
eliminating schools ● Teachers and schools need to
○ Giroux refuse the grant educate students to be informed
of public schooling citizens and agents for change
○ McLaren should not ● The students are major source
follow a structured school for promoting and protecting
● TEACHER’S ROLE Teacher is democracy.
guide for problem solving and ● The schools should educate
scientific inquiry students in the ideas of democracy
● Curriculum Focus Based on and to encourage them to question
students’ interests; addresses textbooks, teachers and
human problems and political pundits.
affairs; interdisciplinary subject ● Tend to be sensitive to global
matter; activities & projects issues, which they analyze as
part of the larger social order.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM ● Terms such as global village,
● Based on socialistic and utopian global interdependence, shrinking
ideas world and greenhouse reflect new
● Advocates a greater emphasis global concerns.
on ● Emphasis on global approach by
society-centered education identifying or reframing real-world
problems by asking questions,
that addressed the needs of all thinking flexibility
social classes like and across disciplines, working
discrimination, poverty and autonomously yet able to
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collaborate across networks, 4. An understanding of historical
manipulating information in new foundations in education helps us
ways, communicating effectively integrate curriculum, instruction
and generating novel solutions. and teaching.
● TEACHER’S ROLE Teacher 5. History illuminates current
serves as an agent of change and pedagogical practices.
reform; acts as a project director 6. In developing a common or core
and research leader; helps curriculum, a historical perspective
students become aware of is essential.
problems confronting mankind. 7. With a historical perspective,
● Curriculum Focus Emphasis on curriculum specialists can better
social sciences and social research understand the relationship
methods; examination of social, between content and process in
economic and political problem; subject areas.
focus on present and future trends 8. References to history, especially
as well as on national and global case examples, contribute to
issues academic education’s moral
dimension.
Historical Foundations 9. The history of education permits
of Curriculum practitioners to understand
relationships between what
“A knowledge of curriculum’s students of the past learned and
history provides guidance for what students now learn.
today’s curriculum makers.” 10. The study of education history
is important for the purposes of
The Need for Historical Perspective education theory and research.
1. The development of ideas in
education is part of our intellectual The Colonial Period: 1642-1776
and cultural heritage. ● Puritans - whose education
2. A truly educated person has a adhered to strict theological
sense of historical context. principles.
3. An understanding of various ● Schools’ purpose was to teach
theories and practices in children to read the scriptures and
education requires an notices of civil affairs.
understanding of historical ● Areas of Study: Reading, writing
foundations and spelling
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● Colonial Schools religious freedom, and new
○ Town school - locally discoveries in the natural sciences
controlled public
elementary school Influencers of National Period
○ Parochial and Private  Benjamin Rush
Schools - missionaries  Thomas Jefferson
and religious  Noah Webster
○ Latin Grammar Schools  William Holmes McGuffey
- as preparation for
college 19th Century European Educators
○ Academies - offers
practical curriculum for Pestalozzi: General and Special
those not going to college Methods
○ Colleges - Harvard or ● Laid the basis for the modern
Yale University elementary school and helped to
reform elementary-school practice.
Old Textbooks, Old Readers ● Believed that children learn
 Hornbook through the senses
 Primer ● He deplored rote learning and
 Westminster Catechism advocated linking the curriculum to
 New England Primer children’s home experiences.
● Proposed the “general” and
The National Period: 1776-1850 “special” method.
● Many leaders began to link free ● Devised the “object” lesson
public schooling with the
ideas of popular government and Froebel: The Kindergarten
political freedom Movement
● Secular education challenge and ● Developed Kindergarten
ultimately reduce religious (children’s garden)
influence over elementary and ● Focused on 3- and 4-year-old
secondary children
schools ● Schooling should be organized
● Emphasis on democracy, strong around play and individual and
federal government, emerging group interests and activities.
cultural nationalism, the idea of ● Encouraged child-centered
curriculum based on
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love, trust, and freedom.
● Introduced “gifts” The Rise of Universal Education
● Monitorial School - based on
Herbart: Moral and Intellectual Joseph Lancaster’s model of
Development education
● Created Herbartian method, a ● Common Schools - spearheaded
highly structured mode of teaching by Horace Mann
● Aim was to produce a good ● Elementary Schools - taught
person who had many interests essentials subjects of 3Rs,
● Virtue is founded on knowledge morality, sciences, arts, home
and misconduct is the product of making and manual
inadequate knowledge or of inferior training
education ● Secondary Schools
● Herbartian Method - instructional ● Academies - for college
or implementation phase of preparatory
curriculum planning ● Private High Schools - more
○ Preparation diverse curriculum
○ Presentation
○ Association Curriculum Theorists (1918-
○ Systematization Present)
○ Application Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
● Purpose: Curriculum as a
Spencer: Utilitarian and Scientific science; emphasis on student
Education needs, prepare students for adult
● Introduced “survival of the fittest” life; clarify objectives; cost-effective
● Advocated a scientific and education
practical curriculum suited to ● Principles: Grouping and
industrialized society sequencing objectives with
● His curriculum aimed at corresponding activities; clarifying
advancing human survival and instructional specifications and
progress for sustaining life, earning tasks
a living, ● Content: 3R’s in elementary,
rearing children properly, academic subjects in high
maintaining effective school; subject matter and related
citizenship, and enjoying leisure activities planned by teacher
time.
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● Major Book: The Curriculum,
1918; How to make a Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
curriculum, 1924 ● Purpose: Education in context
with society; Child-centered
Werrett Charters (1875-1952) curriculum; whole child; curriculum
● Purpose: Curriculum as a specialist as an engineer
science; Emphasis on student ● Principles: statement of
needs; bridging theory and practice objectives, related learning
in curriculum experiences, and outcomes;
● Principles: Curriculum process, Teacher plans curriculum in
described as job analysis; listing of advance
objectives and corresponding ● Content: Social Studies
activities; verification of objectives ● Major Book: The Child Centered
through evaluation Curriculum, 1928;
● Content: Subject matter related
to objectives; subject matter and Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
corresponding activities planned by ● Purpose: Foundations of
teacher Education influence curriculum
● Major Book: Curriculum development; relationship of
Construction, 1923; curriculum, instruction and
learning; student needs and
William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) interests; curriculum organized
● Purpose: School as a social and around social functions, knowledge
community experience; curriculum and learners’ interests
identified as purposeful activities; ● Principles: curriculum as a set of
child-centered curriculum; child experiences; curriculum
development and growth guides as a source of teacher
● Principles: project method, planning; teachers coordinate
teacher and student planning, instructional activities to implement
emphasis on the student; emphasis curriculum
on pedagogy ● Content: Subject matter based
● Content: Educating a generalist, on student needs and
not a specialist; integrated subject interest developed around social
matter; problem solving functions
● Major Book: Foundations of ● Major Book: Curriculum
Education, 1926; Development, 1935;
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Issues
and add costs to the system;
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) teacher input is preferred;
● Purpose: Curriculum as a standards and high-stake tests
science and extension of school’s ● Content: active learning and
philosophy; clarify purposes by critical thinking; involvement of
studies of learners and students in planning curriculum
contemporary life, suggestions content and activities; alignment of
from subject specialists and use of content with standards and testing
philosophy and psychology; ● Major Book: A Place Called
student needs and interests; School 1984; What are Schools
relationship between curriculum for? 1989;
and instruction
● Principles: curriculum as a
rational process; using objectives Paulo Freire (1921-1997)
to ● Purpose: Education as a means
select and organize learning of shaping the person and society
experiences; using evaluation to through critical reflection and
determine outcomes; vertical and conscientization
horizontal relationship of curriculum ● Principles: teachers use
● Content: Subject matter questioning and problem-posing
organized based on KSV, approach to raise students’
emphasis on problem solving, consciousness; understanding the
educating a generalist hidden curriculum to raise
● Major Book: Basic Principles of awareness of social justice
Curriculum & Instruction, 1949; ● Content: questioning, problem
posing, and critical thinking;
John Goodlad (1920-2014) student ownership of social
● Purpose: Curriculum organized problems
around needs of society and ● Major Book: Pedagogy of the
students; wide range of purposes; Oppressed, 1968
realistic reform policies & programs
● Principles: reduce student William Pinar (1947 - )
conformity; constant need for ● Purpose: Broaden the
school improvement; school conception of curriculum to enrich
reforms frequently come and go the practice; Understand the nature
of the educational experience
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● Principles: Curriculum as a objectives are and how our learning
conversation that involves multiple takes place - R. Tyler
disciplines ● Psychology is the unifying
● Content: Curriculum should be element of the learning process; it
studied from a historical, political, forms the basis for the methods,
racial, gendered, materials and activities of learning,
phenomenological, postmodern, and it provides the impetus for
autobiographical, aesthetic, many curriculum decisions
theological, and international
perspective Major Theories of Learning
● Major Book: Understanding 1. Behaviorist or Association
Curriculum, 1995 theories - deals with various
aspects of stimulus-response (S-R)
and reinforcers;
2. Cognitive information-processing
theories - view the learner in
relation to the total environment
and consider the way the learner
applies information; and
3. Phenomenological and
humanistic theories - consider the
Psychological Foundations whole child, including the social,
of Curriculum psychological and cognitive
development
Psychology provides a basis Behaviorism
for understanding the 1.Connectionism by Edward
teaching and learning process. Thorndike (founder of behavioral
psychology)
Psychology and Curriculum ● Focused on testing the
● Psychology was the basis for relationship between S-R.
understanding how the individual ● Learning is habit formation
learner interacts with objects and ● Knowledge is a result from the
persons - J. Dewey accumulation of SR associations
● Psychology serves as a “screen” within the complex structure.
for helping determine what our ● Teaching is arranging the
classroom to enhance desirable
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connections and associations the rigid mechanistic view of
Thorndike and Watson
The LAW of EFFECT states that if ● Clark Hull - the connection
responses to stimuli produce a between SR is determined by its
satisfying effect, they are likely to relation to drive and reward.
be repeated. If responses produce ● Conditioning takes place by
an unsatisfying effect, they are acting upon the individual while he
likely to be avoided. or she is experiencing these drives
and the stimuli that lead to certain
Frequent Connections of stimulus drive-reduction responses.
and response strengthen that Redirection of drives leads to
connection unless the response reward or reinforcement which
has unsatisfying effects. results to habits.
The LAW of READINESS states 3. Operant Conditioning

that the relationship between ● B. F. Skinner is the proponent
stimulus and response is ● Kinds of Responses: Elicited and
strengthened based on the Emitted
subject’s readiness to learn. ● Behavior: Respondent and
Operant
● Behavior was influenced by ● Reinforces: Primary, secondary
conditions of learning; or generalized
● Learners’ attitudes and abilities ● Reinforcers: positive and
could improve over time negative
through proper stimuli
● Instructional experiences could 4. Acquiring New Operants
be designed and controlled; and ● Observational Learning and
● It was important to select stimuli Modeling by Bandura
and learning experiences that ● Hierarchical Learning by Gagne
were integrated, consistent, and ● Consciousness, Choice and
mutually reinforcing Conditioning
2. Behaviorist Reinforcement Behaviorism and Curriculum

Theory ● Learning conditions should be
● Neobehaviorists - believe in the established and needed for
basic SR principles but reject successful attainment of outcomes
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● Outcomes should be carefully ● Recognized that certain cognitive
planned with structure that and social abilities develop before
increasingly approximate the others
desired behavior or learning ● Goals: enrich children’s school
● Basic-skills training programs, environment, provide children with
individualized instruction, direct success in performing tasks to
instruction, mastery learning, bolster their confidence and
instruction training design and provide
competency-based education structural play to teach basic skills.
● Emphasis on remediation, skill
acquisition, matching IM to abilities, 3. J. Piaget’s Theories
step-by-step activities, repetition, ● Described cognitive development
practice, drill, reinforcement and in terms of stages from birth to
review. maturity: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete
Cognitive Psychology operations, formal
1. Cognitive Perspective operations.
● Interested not only in the amount ● Mental operations are sequential.
of knowledge people possess, but The stages are hierarchical, the
also in its type and its influence on mental operations are increasingly
further cognitive actions sophisticated and integrated
● Focus on how individuals ● Assimilation, accommodation
process information, how they and equilibration
monitor ● The three cognitive processes
and manage their thinking, and the coincides with Tyler’s methods of
results of their thinking on their organizing learning experiences:
information processing capabilities continuity, sequence and
● Interested in the mind’s integration
architecture: STM and LTM ● Taba concludes that learning
experiences must be “designed to
match assessment of age levels at
2. The Montessori Method which certain processes of
● Emphasized a rich variety of thought can occur.”
visual and auditory inputs ● For Bruner, learning how things
● Maintained that children develop are related means learning the
at different rates structure of knowledge
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● Piaget’s equilibration forms the mores and norms.
basis of “spiral curriculum”: ● Children could begin to gain
previous command of language prior to
learning is the basis of subsequent arriving at a particular stage of
learning, learning should be development
continuous, and subject matter is ● Cultural and psychological
built on a foundation. functions must be considered in
● Cognitive processes (Bruner): historical context
acquisition, transformation and ● Culture (and thinking) required
evaluation skilled tool use: language, counting
● Moral development: systems, works of art, mechanical
preconventional, conventional and drawings and mnemonic
Postconventional techniques
● Effective teaching or peer
4. Bloom: Early Environment engagement can raise a student’s
● Home environment is crucial level
because of the large amount of ● Focused on developing
cognitive development that has executive function: skills for life and
already taken place before learning
schooling through specific tactics - make-
● All subsequent learning “is believe play, private speech and
affected and a large part other mediated activities.
determined by what the child has
[previously] learned. 6. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
● Learning differences can be ● Contends that there are different
reduced over time with appropriate mental operations associated with
environmental and training intelligence and there are different
conditions types of intelligence.
● Mastery of 5 minds - the
5. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural discipline mind (to master bodies of
Development Theory knowledge and skill; the
● Addressed the social origins and synthesizing mind (to decide what
cultural bases of development is most important and frame
● Children developed their knowledge in useful ways), the
potential via enculturation into creating mind (to explore and
society’s uncover new phenomena), the
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respectful mind (to appreciate ● The cognitive approach
differences between human constitutes a logical method for
beings), and the ethical mind (to organizing and interpreting
act in ways that serve the wider learning;
society). ● The approach is rooted in the
7. Guilford’s theory of intelligence tradition of subject matter, and
● The structure of intellect ● Educators have been trained in
○ 6 products (units, cognitive approaches and
classes, relations, understand them
systems, transformations Phenomenology and Humanistic
and implications) Psychology
○ 5 operations ● Concerned with people and
(knowledge, memory, bettering society
divergent thinking, ● Focus on individual self-
convergent thinking and awareness of an “I” who has
evaluation) feelings and attitudes, experiences
○ 4 contents (figured, stimuli, and acts on the
symboli, semantic and environment.
behavioral) ● Phenomenologists points out that
the way we look at ourselves is
8. Constructivism basic for understanding our
● Addresses the nature of behavior.
knowledge and nature of learning ● Our self-concept determines
● Treats the individual as actively what we do, even to what extent
involved in the process of thinking we
and learning learn.
● The learner is the key player;
they participate and are aware in 1. Gestalt Theory
generating meaning or ● Learning is explained in terms of
understanding the whole problem. People do not
● By reflecting on contexts relevant respond to isolated stimuli, but to a
to their learning, they come to pattern of stimuli.
understand concepts and ideas. ● What people perceive
determines the meaning they give
Cognition and Curriculum to the
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field; likewise, their solutions to ● Established counseling
other problems depend on their procedures and methods for
recognition of the relationship facilitating learning
between individual stimuli and the ● Reality is based on what the
whole. individual learner perceives: “Man
● Learning is conceived as a lives by a perceptual ‘map’ which is
process of selection by the student not reality itself.”
in relation to the whole of their ● Children’s perceptions, which are
experiences. highly individualistic, influence
their learning and behavior in class.
2. Maslow: Self-Actualizing ● Positive human relationships
Individuals enable people to grow; therefore,
● Human needs: survival, safety, interpersonal relationships among
love and belonging, esteem needs, learners are as important as
cognitive, aesthetic, self- cognitive scores
actualization, and transcendence. ● Teachers are facilitators who has
● Maslow coined humanistic close professional relationships
psychology, which stresses: with
○ Centering attention on students and guides their growth
the experiencing person and development
○ Emphasizing human ● The curriculum is concerned with
qualities such as choice, process, not products; personal
creativity, values and self- needs, not subject matter,
realization and psychological meanings, not
○ Showing ultimate cognitive scores; and changing
concern for people’s environments not predetermined
dignity and worth and an environments.
interest in learners
psychological 4. Social and Emotional
development and human Intelligence
Potential ● Emotions can drive action.
● Salovey’s 5 domains of personal
3. Rogers: Non-directive and intelligences: Self-awareness,
Therapeutic Learning managing emotions, motivating
oneself, recognizing emotions in
others and handling relationships
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intellectual skills necessary to
5. Positive Psychology and attain full potential
Mindsets
● Seligman’s positive psychology Social Foundations of
focused on strengths rather than Curriculum
weaknesses. Society, Education and Schooling
● Believed that engagement, ● Society’s values, beliefs and
relationships, meaning and norms are maintained and passed
accomplishment are important to to the next generation not only by
happiness and that it is not the teaching about them, but also by
result of genes or luck embodying them in the curriculum
● Improving one’s well-being is ● Even a society without schools
even more important than just educates its young through the
being family or special ritual and training
happy.
● Dweck’s growth mindset follows Social and Developmental Theories
this positive psychology Havighurst’s Developmental Task
theory
Phenomenology and Curriculum ● Dev’tal tasks are defined as “the
● Affective needs are more tasks the individual must learn” for
important than cognitive needs purposes of “healthy and
● The focus is not on academic satisfactory growth in our society”.
achievement, but on the whole Successful achievement leads to
child happiness and to success with later
● Teachers must support and tasks, while failure leads to
nurture various learning unhappiness, disapproval by the
opportunities; recognize several society and difficulty with later
different domains and provide tasks
rewards for various forms and
levels of achievement. Family forms an integral part of our
● Curricularists must enhance lives. Despite the hectic lifestyle,
students’ opportunities and the family continues to be the soul
alternatives for learning without of any individual.
lessening teacher’s authority Nuclear Family it consists of two
● Learners draw on their parents and children.
experiences, subject matter, and
UNIT 2
Issues
Extended Family comprising of behavior in everyday affairs
uncles, aunts, nieces, and ● Teach through various media:
nephews is becoming common. literature, poetry, songs, films,
Grandparent Family sometimes and others
grave situations force grandparents
to raise their grandchildren. Moral vs Performance Character
Single Parents a mother or father ● Moral character involves
alone raises a child. attitudes and behavior that result
Childless Family the one that from stages of growth, distinctive
chooses to not have children. qualities of personality, and
Stepfamily many divorced, experiences. It entails helping
separated or single form new people; accepting their
relationships. weaknesses without exploiting
them; seeing the best in people
Moral Conduct and Controversy and building on their strengths. It is
● Schools should be sensitive to a matter of priority
students of all racial, ethnic or policy.
and religious groups ● Performance character - internal
● People’s genders, sexual traits of habit and mind that drive
preferences, or disabilities should oneself to perform well, rather than
not elicit discrimination attitudes and behaviors toward
● Sensitivity should not be at the others.
expense of truth
● The most important sources of The Culture of the School
moral knowledge are society’s ● Conformity in class - teachers
laws and customs, which can be control the behavior of students;
taught in courses dealing with law, power struggle
ethics and sociology. ● Coping and caring - effects of
labeling and academic
Moral Teaching expectations; engagement and
● Main areas of moral knowledge giving autonomy
includes: human rights, ethics,
social relationships, economic life Social Dimensions of Curriculum
and political life. ● The purposes of education are
● It is not our moral knowledge that influenced by changing social
counts, but our moral forces, but there tends to be a
UNIT 2
Issues
balancing act between developing and useful to all learners (DepEd
the potential of the individual and Order No. 32, s. 2015)
improving society
● Need to stress intellectual and The degree of contextualization
moral matters may be described and
● Shift from inner-directed to an distinguished into the following:
other-directed and now postmodern • LOCALIZATION refers to the
society process of relating learning content
● The changing landscape of specified in the curriculum to local
family has influenced the individual information and materials in the
● Peer group has an important learners’ community.
influence on social behavior and LEARNING CONTENT + Local
academic achievement information + Local Materials
● The culture of classroom and
school tends to stress passive and • INDIGENIZATION is a process of
conforming behaviors; students enhancing curriculum
adapt to the environment by competencies, education
exhibiting various strategies to resources, and teaching-learning
adapt. processes in relation to the context
of the learners’ community.
Contextualization Curriculum framework, Curriculum
“a diverse family of instructional design, Learning Standards,
strategies designed to more Teaching-learning, Processes,
seamlessly link the learning of Learning resources + bio-
foundational skills and academic or geographical + historical + socio-
occupational content by focusing cultural
teaching and learning squarely on
concrete applications in a specific “Generic” Approach
context that is of interest to the •Technical aspects are taught apart
student “(Mazzeo, Rab, & Alssid, from content.
2003). • It is uninteresting and ineffective
This refers to the educational (Grubb, et al., 1999)
process of relating the curriculum
to a particular setting, situation or Local to National to Global
area of application to make the • People learn when they have a
competencies relevant, meaningful, need that is
UNIT 2
Issues
meaningful and real (Goode, 2000) • Learning by doing (Mazezeo, Rab
• Using authentic materials may & Alssid, 2003)
result in more active, • Students’ experiences were more
generalizable learning (Simpson & valued in contextualized
Nist, 2002) classrooms, which made the
learning more valuable to the
RESEARCH-BASED NOTIONS of learners. Contextualization has the
CONTEXTUALIZATION potential to promote short term
‘contextual’ naturally replaced academic achievement and longer-
‘applied’ academics because the term college advancement of low-
word ‘applied’ was simply too small skilled students (Perin, 2011).
to encompass the startling
innovations achieved by this Contextualization: Bases in the PH
grassroots reform movement. The Article XIV, Section 14 of the 1987
more comprehensive contextual – Philippine Constitution which
in context implies the states that:
interrelatedness of all things. “The State shall foster the
Everything is connected including preservation, enrichment, and
ideas and actions. Contextual also dynamic evolution of a Filipino
directs our thinking toward national culture based on the
experience. When ideas are principle of unity in diversity in a
experiences, in context, climate of free artistic and
they have meaning. (Johnson, intellectual expression”
2002)
Article XIV, Section 5 (1) which
• The use of real-world materials states that:
and activities (Beder & Medina, “The State shall take into account
2001); Jacobson, Degener & regional and sectoral needs
Purcell-Gates, 2003); and conditions and shall encourage
• Using critical thinking, problem local planning in the
solving and creativity on these development of educational
materials/ in these activiites (Beder policies and programs.”
& Medina)
• Connecting the knowledge to its R. A. 10533 , Sec. 10.2 (d) and (h)
multiple applications in students’ IRR
lives (Berns & Erickson, 2001) and
UNIT 2
Issues
“The curriculum shall be • It is effective both for community-
CONTEXTUALIZED and global”; based and workplace classes
“The curriculum shall be flexible • A good curriculum helps students
enough to enable and allow learn, practice and evaluate
schools to LOCALIZE, specific skills and competencies,
INDIGENIZE, and enhance [the and contextualized lessons are
curriculum] based on their effective tools for accomplishing
respective educational and social this.
contexts.” 1. Identify learners’ needs, issues
and themes.
2. Gather information and materials
DepEd’s Mission on Culture-Based 3. Create and teach lessons;
Education practice skills in the classroom
To protect and promote the right of 1. Chunk and sequence
every Filipino to quality, equitable, material
culture-based, and complete basic 2. Adapt authentic
education where: students learn in materials if needed
a child-friendly, gender-sensitive, 4. Put new skills into action in the
safe, and motivating environment. real world
Teachers facilitate learning and 5. Reflect on and evaluate the
constantly nurture every learner. contextualized lessons
Administrators and staff as 6. Revise and add new information
stewards of the institution, ensure or skills
an enabling and supportive
environment for effective learning Indicators of Contextualization
to happen. Family, community and The Teacher
other stakeholders are actively • Begins activities with what
engaged and share responsibility students already know from home,
for developing life-long learners. community and school;
• Designs instructional activities
Contextualized Curriculum that are meaningful to students in
• The use of authentic materials, terms of local community norms
activities, interests, issues and and
needs from learners’ lives to knowledge;
develop classroom instruction • Acquires knowledge of local
norms and knowledge by talking to
UNIT 2
Issues
students, parents or family  Making meaningful
members, community members, connections
and by reading pertinent  Doing significant work
documents  Self-regulated learning,
• Provides opportunities for parents collaborating
or families to participate in  Critical and creative
classroom instructional activities; thinking
• Varies activities to include  Nurturing the individual
students’ preferences – from  Reaching high standards
collective and cooperative to
 Using authentic
individual and competitive;
assessment
• Assists students to connect and
Cognitive Apprenticeship
apply their learning to home and
• This refers to the acquisition of
community;
academic knowledge and/or skills
• Plans jointly with students to
in ways that are similar to those
design community-based learning
employed by craftsmen in technical
activities; and
occupations (Bond, 2004).
• Varies styles of conversation and
• The instructor models the skills
participation to include students’
necessary to complete a task, but
cultural preferences, such as co-
also helps students articulate the
narration, call and- response, and
thinking that accompanies the
choral, among others.
completion of the task
Contextualized Teaching &
CTL Framework
Learning
• The Framework of Contextualized
The primary principle of CTL is that
Teaching and Learning includes 4
knowledge becomes the students’
quadrants on two axes.
own when it is learned within the
• The y-axis represents a
framework of an authentic context.
continuum from academic setting to
An authentic context helps the
real-world setting.
learner see the relevance of
• The x-axis represents a
information and creates a pathway
continuum of learner directed to
for them to understand the
expert directed instruction
material.
Navigating the Framework
Features of CTL
UNIT 2
Issues
•Moving clockwise around the students in connecting new
model, in the upper right-hand information
quadrant, the instructor chooses to schema and show students how
the instructional materials and the skills they are learning may be
method and applies them in a useful in other contexts.
variety of academic contexts. • The upper left quadrant, also
Standardized curriculum for a directed by students, includes
broad audience. academic text that they need or
• Instructor’s Role: Show students want to become more familiar with
how the texts and skills will be in order to succeed in an academic
important in their future academic setting.
lives. • Instructor’s Role: Show how skills
• Lower right quadrant includes learned in basic education relate to
instructor-identified what they are learning in their other
content, but it is pulled from a real- academic courses. Instructors
world context. Texts and lessons make explicit the skills the student
are drawn from materials that the is learning and using and helps the
instructor decides relevant to the student see how those skills can be
learners’ lives outside of the useful in other contexts.
classroom
• Instructor’s Role: Decide what Modes of Implementation
content is relevant for a group of • Stand-alone classrooms focus on
students and relate the content to a single classroom and offer a
the skills and knowledge being flexible format. The primary locus
learned. of control rests with the individual
• The lower left quadrant asks instructor
students to identify real world • Infused academic classrooms are
material relevant to their lives and individual courses focused on
with which they would like academic skill building. The context
assistance. serves as a vehicle for enhancing
• Instructor’s Role: Make the relevance of those skills to
connections between the materials students’ cultural or ethnic
of interest to the students and background and personal
related skills and knowledge that experiences to the incorporation of
are the focus of instruction. service-learning.
Instructors would guide the
UNIT 2
Issues
• Infused occupational classrooms providing this meaningful context
are organized around the teaching for
of specific occupational content. learning becomes more difficult.
Academic skills are taught in the The curriculum that attempts to
context of the vocational place learning in the context of life
competencies, or “embedded” experiences must, first, call the
within the curriculum. The primary student’s attention to everyday
goal is to teach occupational sights, events, and conditions. It
content; academic skill must then relate those everyday
development is the tool that situations to new information to be
advances this goal. In some absorbed or a problem to be
models, an important secondary solved.
goal is for students to be able to
demonstrate academic skills in Experiencing
different contexts. learning in the context of
• Linked courses/ learning exploration, discovery, and
communities. Mazzeo (2008) invention—is the heart of
describes contextual learning contextual
communities as a learning. However motivated or
cohort of students taking 2 or more tuned-in students may become as
courses that are linked in content. a result of other instructional
The learning communities strategies such as video, narrative,
contextualize their basic skills or text-based activities, these
instruction according to a variety of remain relatively passive forms of
organizing principles, such as learning. And learning appears to
students’ occupational goals, social "take" far more quickly when
justice interests or cultural and students are able to manipulate
community experiences equipment and materials and to do
other forms of active research.
REACT Strategy
Relating Applying
Learning in the context of life concepts and information in a
experience, or relating, is the kind useful
of contextual learning that typically context often projects students into
occurs with very young children. an imagined future (a possible
With adult learners, however, career) or into an unfamiliar
UNIT 2
Issues
location (a workplace). This
happens most commonly through
text, video, labs, and activities, and
these contextual learning
experiences are often followed up
with firsthand experiences such as
plant tours,
mentoring arrangements, and
internships.
Cooperating
learning in the context of sharing,
responding, and communicating
with other learners—is a primary
instructional strategy in contextual
teaching. The experience of
cooperating not only helps the
majority of students learn the
material, it also is consistent with
the real-world focus of contextual
teaching.
Transferring
Learning in the context of existing
knowledge, or transferring, uses
and builds upon what the student
has already learned. Such an
approach is similar to relating,
Students develop confidence in
their problem-solving abilities if we
make a point of building new
learning experiences on what they
already know.

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UNIT 2

Curricular Foundations, Trends &

●TEACHER’S ROLE Teacher

The LAW of READINESS states 3. Operant Conditioning

2. Behaviorist Reinforcement Behaviorism and Curriculum

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