3.

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview

This chapter illustrates the research paradigm and research design developed for this

study. The participants, sampling method, data collection method, data analysis tool and ethical

issues of conducting the research are also presented in the preceding chapter.

3.2 Philosophical assumptions

Before heading towards the empirical analysis of the study, identifying the philosophical

approach and research paradigm the study is based on is necessary. Philosophy of qualitative

research is comprised of interpretive, humanistic, and naturalistic (Creswell, 2007). It places

significant importance to the subjectivity. Philosophical perspectives are important because,

when made explicit, they reveal the assumptions that researchers are making about their

research, leading to choices that are applied to the purpose, design, methodology and methods of

the research, as well as to data analysis and interpretation.

In the field of research, several philosophical approaches are possible; however,

according to the authors, more extreme approaches can be delimiting. Only intermediary

philosophical approach allows the researcher to reconcile philosophy, methodology, and the

problem of research. However, Crossan drew attention to the fact that sometimes there is a big

difference between quantitative and qualitative research philosophies and methods, and

triangulation of modern research methods is common. It is therefore very important to

understand the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. This allows preparing for the

research and understanding the analyzed problem better.

 The theories of research philosophy and paradigms, on the basis of which the research in

the monograph focuses on identifying the level of development of the management culture in

order to implement corporate social responsibility, are presented in figures that distinguish the

levels of organizational culture and their interaction, that is, corporate social responsibility

stages, which reflect the philosophy and paradigm of this research. Claim this fact by the

statement that “multi-paradigmatism” is characteristic to the humanities and social sciences, i.e.,

the permanent coexistence and competition of many different theoretical paradigms.

Furthermore Gliner and Morgan [9] describe the scientific research paradigm as the

approach or thinking about the research, the accomplishing process, and the method of

implementation. It is not a methodology, but rather a philosophy which provides the process of

carrying out research, i.e., directs the process of carrying out research in a particular direction.

Ontology, epistemology, methodology, and methods describe all research paradigms [3, 10, 14].

Easterby-Smith et al. [18] discuss three main components of the scientific research paradigm, or

three ways in order to understand the philosophy of research (Table 1)

Components of
research Description
paradigm

General parameters and

assumptions associated with an
Epistemology
excellent way to explore the
real world nature.

General assumptions created

to perceive the real nature of
Ontology
society (in order to understand
the real nature of society).

Methodology Combination of different

techniques used by the
Components of
research Description
paradigm

scientists to explore different

situations.

Table 1; Three components of scientific research paradigm Easterby-Smith et al. [18].

3.3 The qualitative nature of the study

The qualitative paradigm is used for the present study that includes collecting and analysis of data,

modification and development of theory, elaboration of the research questions, and identification of

validity threats going on in the study. According to Best and Kahn (2009) there are five components of

constructing a qualitative research:

1. The context of the study

2. The basic objective of the study which is to be achieved at the end

3. The techniques and approaches used for the collection of data

4. The alternative explanations needed for findings

The qualitative research design is based on themes. The participants are not selected

randomly rather they are selected purposefully and all the study is spelled in detail without

changing any detail, but its design is flexible which has the possibility of change as the data is

collected and analyzed. Emphatic neutrality works as oxygen for qualitative research design. The

researcher has to understand the feelings of the respondents and at the same time he/she has to be

neutral in order to approach unbiased results (Best & Kahn, 2009). Moreover, Conger (1998) has

mentioned the advantages of using qualitative paradigm. According to him the qualitative

research is flexible because it follows unexpected ideas. It is sensitive to explore the contextual

factors and study them in detail. The qualitative research provides an in-depth analysis of the
things and situations. Furthermore, Baxter and Jack (2008) explained that qualitative research

enables the participants to tell their stories because it builds up collaboration between the

participant and the researcher. The qualitative methods are used for social sciences in order to

enable researchers to understand human beings and the related social and cultural phenomena

(Toloie-Eshlaghy et al., 2011).

3.4 Context and participants

The data will be collected through semi-structured interviews. The participants of the

study will be students of SBK Women University and University of Baluchistan (Uob). The

participants will be asked open ended questions from the developed interview guide to get their

deeper insight. The responses will then be transcribed for further analysis. This study will be

within the domain of Quetta Baluchistan.

3.5 Data Collection

3.5.1 Qualitative Interview technique

Interview has been one of the most useful and recognized techniques in the field of social

sciences for qualitative research paradigm. The interview technique is considered as one of the

most powerful tools for collecting in-depth information about the individual views (Alshenqeeti,

2014). The events which are not observable can be understandable with the help of interviews

because the interviews are interactive and can provide the in-depth investigation with the help of
probes coming out of the question (Alshenqeeti, 2014). Interview according to Gay et al., (2011,

p. 386) is a purposeful interaction in which one person obtains information from another.

Interviews permit researchers to obtain important data they cannot acquire from

observation alone, although pairing observations and interviews provides a valuable way to

gather complementary data. In addition, interviews provide an aid to the inaccessible information

which cannot be collected with the help of observation because observation cannot explain the

past experiences and feelings of people. Interview helps the researcher to probe participants’

responses to examine their attitudes, values, beliefs, interests and perceptions (Gay et al., 2011).

According to Creswell (2011) there are different types of interviews; One-on-One

interviews are the most time-taking interviews because individuals are interviewed, Focus group

interviews are used for collecting data from a group of individuals or groups who shared

characteristics, Telephone interviews are conducted when participants are geographically

dispersed and cannot come to a single platform, Email interviews are conducted from the

individuals with the access of the Internet and computers.

3.5.2 Origin and development of interviews for qualitative research

Interview as a data collection tool for qualitative research is taken from the field of

Sociology and Anthropology during 19th century. Sociologists and Psychologists used to

converse with their patients and used to get knowledge about their context and situations in order
to solve their problems. In recent decade, qualitative interviews are used for gathering

information following the research methods. During 1950s, tape records made it easy for the

interviewers to get information about people. Later in 1980s, computers facilitated researchers to

transcribe the recorded interviews (Kvale, 1996).

3.5.3 Language of interviews

Since the respondents belong to various culture and languages but the most common

language being understood in the context of Quetta is Urdu. Therefore The interviews will be

conducted into Urdu language and will be translated to English for transcription. Reason for

opting Urdu language for interview guide is to get better input from the respondents.

Interviewing in English may cause hurdle for EPL learners to express their true feeling regarding

problems being face by them related to large classrooms. This directly or indirectly hinders the in

depth and fair responses which would be possible via interviews in Native Language.

3.5.4 Interview Procedure

Interviews can be conducted in group or individually. They may be taken within one-time

session or multiple sessions. Interviews are basically distinguished by their structure and degree

of formality into different types namely formal/ structured, informal/ unstructured and semi-

structured (Gay et al., 2011).

1. Structured interviews

The structured interviews are arranged on the basis of predetermined questions. In this

type of interviews the researcher and the participants are given little freedom. They are confined

only to ‘yes’ and ‘no’ responses. The unstructured interviews are also called open-ended

interviews and formal interviews. The researcher has to set the questioned in such way that they

elicit the required information (Gay et al., 2011).

2. Unstructured interviews

The unstructured interviews are conversations in which the interest of the researcher is

important. The unstructured interviews do not have predetermined set of questions rather the

qualitative researcher gathers information about participants’ experiences and feelings with the

help of probing. The researcher uses prompts such as who, why, where, when and how and gets

required information about any phenomena (Gay et al., 2011).

3. Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews are not adhering to the rigid rules and regulations unlike

structured interviews. Although, the researcher has to prepare a set of guiding questions which

provides a help to the researcher to bring up some more enhanced questions as compared to the

first draft. Semi-structured interview is like ‘talking’ and talking a naturalistic action. Semi-
structured interviews have flexibility to ask more enhanced questions in order to get more

detailed information from the participants. Moreover, semi-structured interviews are based on

mixed frameworks based on preplanned set of questions and revolving around the general

themes.

3.6 Rationale for semi-structured interview use

The reason for using semi-structured interviews is to get in-depth analysis of a

phenomenon, a situation or an individual. a set of questions based on the themes of the study will

be developed for interview guide to probe in-depth information from respondents. Since the

nature of the study is to probe what are the problems being faced by EFL learners in learning

English, semi structured interviews will be helpful delve deeply into personal and sensitive

issues to explore participants thoughts, feelings and beliefs. Semi structured interviews offer the

measuring abilities of a structured interview. It allows interviewers to compare candidates on the

same set of questions. Another possible reason is semi structured interviews provide high

validity because it increases the consistency across respondent and interviewers.

3.7 Key informant interviews

Key informant interviews are qualitative in-depth interviews with people who know what is

going on in the community. The purpose of key informant interviews is to collect information

from a wide range of people including community leaders, professionals, or residents who have
firsthand knowledge about the community. There are following steps for conducting a key

informant interviews:

 Formulate study questions.

 Prepare a short interview guide.

 Select key informants.

 Conduct interviews.

 Take adequate notes.

 Analyze interview data.

 Check for reliability and validity.

3.8 Observations

Interview questions will be used while speaking with participants. Utilizing the

saturation approach, the sample size will be monitored. In qualitative research, saturation has

received broad support as a methodological guideline. It is typically understood to mean that

additional data collection and/or analysis are not necessary given the data that have been been

gathered or evaluated thus far. However, there seems to be ambiguity surrounding the definition

of saturation as well as inconsistent application of the term Saturation, in general, is a condition

for stopping data collection and/or analysis in qualitative research. Despite having its roots in

grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 1967), it is now widely accepted across a variety of

qualitative research methodologies. In fact, saturation is frequently suggested as a crucial

methodological component in such work. Failure to obtain saturation "has an impact on the

quality of the research conducted," assert (Fusch and Ness 2015); Saturation is described as "the

most commonly touted guarantee of qualitative rigor offered by writers" by (Morse 2015) and as
"the gold standard by which purposeful sample sizes are chosen in research" by (Guest et al.

2006).

3.9 Data Analysis

3.6.1 The Thematic Analysis Process

Thematic analysis, or semi-structured interviews, will then be used to examine the retrieved

data. The goal of a thematic analysis is to locate themes in the interview data. One benefit of

thematic analysis is that it is a flexible method that can be used for both more deductive

research, where you are more certain of the patterns you are looking for, and exploratory

investigations, where you are not as certain of what you are looking for.6

1. Familiarize yourself with your data.

2. Assign preliminary codes to your data in order to describe the content.

3. Search for patterns or themes in your codes across the different interviews.

4. Review themes.

5. Define and name themes.

6. Produce your report.

Step 1: Familiarization

The first step is to get to know our data. It’s important to get a thorough overview of all the

data we collected before we start analyzing individual items.

This might involve transcribing audio, reading through the text and taking initial notes, and

generally looking through the data to get familiar with it.

Step 2: Coding

Next up, we need to code the data. In these step texts, phrases or sentences from the

extracted data is highlighted and labeled as “codes” to describe the content.

At this stage, we want to be thorough: we go through the transcript of every interview and

highlight everything that jumps out as relevant or potentially interesting. As well as

highlighting all the phrases and sentences that match these codes, we can keep adding new

codes as we go through the text. After we’ve been through the text, we collate together all the

data into groups identified by code. These codes allow us to gain a condensed overview of

the main points and common meanings that recur throughout the data.

Step 3: Generating themes

The researcher then examines the codes to find any patterns between them and begins to

formulate themes. Themes are typically more expansive than codes. You'll typically combine

multiple codes into a single theme. At this point, we may determine that some of our codes

should be deleted because they are either too ambiguous or insufficiently important (for

instance, because they don't show frequently in the data). Other codes might develop into

topics unto themselves.

Step 4: Reviewing themes

Making ensuring that our themes serve as accurate and helpful summaries of the data is the

next stage. We now go back to the data set and contrast our themes with it. Do we have

something missing? Do the data actually support these themes? What can we alter to improve

the effectiveness of our themes?

If we run into issues with our themes, it might combine, combine, discard, discard, or

develop new themes: whatever makes them more accurate and useful.

When examining the data, it might determine, for instance, that "changing terminology"

belongs more under the "uncertainty" topic than under "distrust of experts," as the

information associated with this code relates to confusion rather than necessarily distrust.
 Step 5: Defining and naming themes

Once you have a final list of themes, it is time to give each one a name and a brief definition.

The process of defining themes entails articulating precisely what we mean by each theme

and determining how it aids in our comprehension of the facts.

The process of naming themes is coming up with a brief and clear name for each subject.

Consider the issue of "distrust of experts," for instance, and decide precisely who we

understand by "experts" in this context. We may decide that "distrust of authority" or

"conspiracy thinking" are better names for the theme.

Step 6: Writing up

We'll put up our data analysis at the end. Writing up a theme analysis involves an

introduction that lays out our study topic, goals, and strategy, just like any other academic

text.

A methodology section should be included as well, outlining how the data was gathered (for

example, through semi-structured interviews or open-ended survey questions) and how the

thematic analysis was carried out.

Each theme is often discussed in turn in the results or findings section. We discuss the

themes' frequency of occurrence and their significance, providing examples from the data to

support our claims. Our conclusion summarises the key findings and demonstrates how the

study addressed our research topic.

3.10 The researcher

A researcher is someone who conducts research to find the solution for the proposed

problems. He/she identifies problem at its fullest from the literature. These findings for the
 solution to a problem is based on logical and systematic grounds via analyzes of the data. To

conduct a research a researcher must has appropriate identification of the problem. An in

depth review of the literature helps researcher get a preliminary data to get better

understandings of the subject. This in depth literature reviews helps in establishing

hypothesis to test. In this way brings new ideas and creativity to his/her work.

in this study a researcher is conducting a qualitative nature of research. Hence throughout

the research process the researcher will remain unbiased. Biasness can occur at any stage of

the process data collection, instrument development, or analysis and interpretation. It can

distort the results and produces systematic errors. There are four types of bias in research:

1. Selection Bias

Selection Bias occurs in research when one uses a sample that does not represent the wider

population. This could happen if the sample is not diverse or random enough. 

2. Loss Aversion

Loss Aversion is a common human trait - it means that people hate losing more than they like

winning. We all hate losing even in cases where the end result of the loss is the same as the win.

We will do anything to not  lose, even if it means not winning either

3. Framing Bias

When presenting information, people present the data in a way that highlights the good aspects

and plays down the bad ones. People will favor the information which makes them seem better,

and this can be a big problem, especially for an amateur investor/shareholder. 

4. Anchoring Bias
This bias is more focused on the psychological effect of data. Pre-existing information influences

how someone might feel about another piece of data. 

3.10.1 Guarding Against Bias

One of the better ways to guard against the various types of biases is to look at ways that other

people were influenced. This, in combination with critical thought, will make sure we don’t

make the same mistakes as them. 

1. Peer reviews. They involve other people looking at your work, which helps make sure your

data is objective from several points of view. 

2. Involve multiple people in each stage of the study. This helps any specific bias to be

contained to that stage alone, and will help make sure that it does not affect the rest of the study. 

Furthermore while taking interviews from the respondents; researcher will take into

consideration the code of ethic. No respondent will be asked any question irrelevant of the study.

All the data acquired from respondents will remain confidential. Respondents will be asked for

their permission before recording their interviews. Also after interpretation the respondents will

be taken into loop to confirm the extracted meaning from the data provided by them. The privacy

of the respondents will not be invaded for any chance.

3.10.2 The characteristics of a good researcher

1.Curiosity

They pose inquiries. The finest of the best are those who have an unquenchable thirst for

knowledge. The goal of a good researcher is to always learn more, not only in their own subject

but also in other fields. The physics governing how light refracts or the cultural foundations of
our society are only two examples of how intriguing the world is around us. A good researcher

never stops discovering new things and looking for solutions.

2. Analytical ability and foresight

They search for associations. In the absence of interpretation, information is worthless. The

search for significance in our observations and data is what propels study ahead. Good

researchers analyse the data from all possible angles and look for trends. They investigate cause

and effect and unravel the complex web that links commonplace phenomena. Asking, "What is

the wider picture?" goes a step beyond that. How will the study progress in the future?

3. Determination

They attempt repeatedly. It can be frustrating to conduct research. It's possible that experiments

won't turn out the way we hope. Even worse, trials may succeed up to a point when they are 95%

complete before failing. What distinguishes a mediocre researcher from an excellent one? The

diligent researcher never gives up. They acknowledge their displeasure, take lessons from the

mistake, re-examine their experiment, and continue on.

 5. Collaboration

The dream is made possible by teamwork. Contrary to popular belief, which holds that scientists

work alone in their laboratories, research is a highly collaborative process. Simply put, there is

too much to accomplish for one person to handle. Additionally, research is becoming more

interdisciplinary. One person cannot possess knowledge in every one of these domains. The

majority of the time, researchers work in teams, each with specific duties and responsibilities.

One of the most important aspects that can influence one's performance as a researcher is the

ability to organise, communicate, and get along with team members.

6. Communication

They successfully convey their point. Every researcher needs good communication abilities.

They must communicate not only with the other team members, but also with the co-authors,

journals, publishers, and sponsors. A researcher's life revolves around communication, whether it

be in the form of writing a clear and concise abstract, giving a presentation at a conference, or

crafting an excellent grant proposal to obtain financing for their research. The old proverb "If a

tree falls in the forest, but no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound? " has a lesson for

researchers as well. Even if a finding is ground-breaking, it is of no benefit if the researcher

cannot share it with the rest of the world. These are only a handful of the abilities needed for

researchers to succeed in their industry. It's also important to include other qualities like

creativity and time management.

However, if you possess one or more of these top five traits, your research process will go more

smoothly and your chances of getting good results will be higher. By developing these talents,

concentrating on perfection, and seeking assistance when necessary, you can position yourself

for success. You can get help from Elsevier Author Services at any stage of your research
project. You can rely on us to support you along the way with everything from professional

translation services to manuscript preparation services to grant proposal assistance.

3.11 Ethical considerations

A set of principles that direct research designs and procedures are known as ethical concerns.

When gathering data from people, scientists and researchers must always abide by a set of ethical

principles. Understanding real-world occurrences, researching efficient therapies, examining

habits, and enhancing lives in other ways are frequently the objectives of human research.

Important ethical factors, such as preserving scientific integrity, enhancing study validity, and

protecting research participants' rights, should be taken into account when deciding what to

research and how to conduct that research.

Therefore while conducting this study researcher will be vigilant to avoid any types of

unethical conduct. For instance Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data,

manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of

academic fraud.

These behaviors are deliberate and can have major repercussions; research misconduct is

not a simple oversight or a disagreement over data analysis; rather, it is a serious ethical concern

since it can jeopardize institutional legitimacy and scientific integrity.

The 10 items below are the most significant guidelines for ethical issues in dissertations, per

Bryman and Bell (2007)[1]:

1. No harm of any kind should ever be done to research participants.

2. It is important to prioritize treating research participants with respect.

3. Before the study begins, participants should give their full consent.
4. Participants in research must have their privacy protected.

5. The confidentiality of the research data should be adequately protected.

6. Participating individuals and organizations must maintain their anonymity.

7. Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research must be

avoided.

8. Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any possible conflicts of interests

have to be declared.

9. Any type of communication in relation to the research should be done with honesty and

transparency.

10. Any type of misleading information, as well as representation of primary data findings in

a biased way must be avoided.

Therefore, the researcher will ensure the following factors in order to address ethical concerns fo

r this study:

1. It's crucial that respondents participate voluntarily in the study. Additionally, if they choose to,

participants are free to leave the research at any time.

2. Participation by respondents should be based on their free and informed consent. In order to

comply with the principle of informed consent, researchers must provide participants with

enough information and assurances regarding their participation so they may understand the

potential consequences and freely decide whether or not to participate, free from undue pressure

or coercion.

3. The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language needs to be avoided in

the formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.

4. Privacy and anonymity or respondents is of a paramount importance.

5. Using the Harvard/APA/Vancouver referencing style in accordance with the Dissertation

Handbook, acknowledge any other authors' works that were used in the dissertation.

6. Upholding the highest standard of objectivity throughout all discussions and analyses

3.11.1Confidentiality

For honest responses, privacy is essential. Clients should see the interview in observation

rooms or from a distance in order to establish a safe environment for participants. It is not

advisable to invite clients to the interview with you because their presence will tamper with

their candor.

Before recording, participants' consent will be sought. Keep any cameras that you use to

record the session away from the participant's line of sight. Directly in front of participants

with a camera is distracting and feels intrusive. Participants will be assured that their answers

will remain anonymous at the outset of the interview, and it will be made clear how the

recordings will be utilized. It's also helpful to emphasize that the interview is not a test and

that their open feedback is crucial to your goals.

3.11.2 Rapport with participants

Building rapport with participants is the hidden challenge for moderators in getting them to feel

comfortable sharing their genuine ideas and opinions with the stranger seated in front of them.

This is made even more challenging by the fact that since interviews are frequently one-time

events that last about an hour, moderators have a limited amount of time to warm up the

participant.
Sometimes the interview subject's sensitivity can also have an impact on the process of

developing rapport, making it more difficult for the moderator to unearth real feelings and

viewpoints. In my experience, it takes some work to get a participant to talk openly about their

own finances and health. Building rapport and trust with the participant is more crucial to the

design researcher than the list of questions on the discussion guide. If a person is uncomfortable

or nervous the entire session, the list of questions and objectives is useless.

3.11.3 Manage expectations and address resrvations

Participants who are aware of what to anticipate before the interview can win the trust fight by

half. Be frank and transparent so that participants know what they are signing up for. Surprises in

the middle of an interview will breed dissatisfaction and mistrust, which will lower the level of

the interview as a whole.

In a pre-interview call, explain the research topic to participants. You should also use this

opportunity to explain incentives and get consent if recording the session is necessary. Manage

their expectations by giving them a preview of what will happen during the interview (such as

the types of questions, the setting, and the context), and address any issues they may have before

the session even begins. As a result, there won't be any unpleasant surprises for participants

3.11.4 Embrace awkward silences

Participants are given time to consider the issue and are encouraged to express their genuine

sentiments and worries by remaining silent. Holding the silence is another effective method to let

participants know that you are acting as a listener and that it is their right to share their opinions.
You give your participants the confidence to move outside their comfort zone by promoting silence.

After those brief periods of stillness, they frequently say the wisest things, which eventually have an

impact on design choices.

3.11.5 Take note of your participant’s engagement level

It is simple for moderators to find themselves reflecting the participants' vitality; for example,

when they yawn or take longer to react, we start to feel drained or uninterested as well. As a

result, the responses gathered can be scant or shallow.

A helpful tip is to consciously modify your tone and body language to break the mirroring if you

feel your energy waning. If you see that the person is feeling worn out, sit up straight and speak

in a cheerier tone to lighten the atmosphere. Similar to the last point, refrain from responding

angrily if the situation becomes heated, that is, if one participant becomes especially passionate

over anything. Utilize your tone and body language effectively to control the ambiance of the

space.

3.12 Reciprocity

Reciprocity refers to equitable patterns of giving and receiving between individuals. Even though

researches partnerships are not always reciprocal, proper research ethics necessitates that

researcher’s take into account both the things they receive from and give to study participants.

One of the fundamental principles of social psychology is the reciprocity principle. It claims that

in many social circumstances, we give back to others what we have received. Three different

types of reciprocity exist. Anthropologist Marshall Sahlins distinguished three types of

reciprocity in Stone Age Economics (1972):

3.12.1 Positive Reciprocity

Even though there are three primary types of reciprocity, it's crucial to explain positive

reciprocity because it's frequently said that reciprocity can either be positive or negative. Positive

reciprocity often involves at least two parties, and the give-and-take interaction benefits both

sides. A smile and a reciprocal smile are two instances of positive reciprocity. Both sides took

part in the transaction and got a fair or favourable result, a smile, or some other act of goodwill

in return.

Depending on how they are viewed, paying taxes, advertising on social media, and maintaining

diplomatic contacts can all be regarded as good reciprocity. Businesses that support

organisations in need grow their fan base and consumer base.

3.12.2 Generalized Reciprocity

In business or advertising, generalised reciprocity is frequently observed without the immediate

anticipation of a response, one party exchange. Consider a free sample as an illustration.

Frequently, grocery stores will employ chefs to prepare food in a prominent area that will attract

customers as they enter the store. By demonstrating how simple and quick it is to prepare a meal,

offering a free sample, and providing a recipe card, they entice customers. Although there is no

immediate expectation that the customer will buy the ingredients, a display with everything

needed to prepare the meal is neatly placed next to the chef. It is done in anticipation that

eventually the client would discover a dish. Another excellent example of extended reciprocity

is social media marketing. Businesses share information that piques the interest of their target

market to advertise their goods. They might talk about a day when members of their group

participated in a charity 5K to raise money for autism, for example. The post would feature un

posed pictures of workers grinning while donning company shirts. If the post was seen by their
fans or viewers who are enthusiastic about giving to charities or raising money for autism, they

would remark, share, or like it and create a positive opinion of this business. Potentially, this will

result in more money coming in.

3.12.3 Balanced Reciprocity

The exchange of Christmas gifts between two people is a common illustration of balanced

reciprocity. One may also use marriage or diplomatic connections as illustrations of balanced

reciprocity. When two people are married, they exchange rings and make a commitment to each

other. Similar to how countries interested in economic relations agree and pledge to boost trade

between their nations these three instances are all instances of balanced reciprocity. But over

time, each party's viewpoint can vary, and what initially seemed to be in balance might become

unbalanced. The more people there are, the more this is especially true.

3.12.4 Negative reciprocity

3.13 Summary