1-Ph Trafo Design - 2017

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1-PHASE TRANSFORMER DESIGN USING CUSTOM-DESIGNED CORES
(The Design of 1-phase Transformers above about 2kVA using Shell-Type or

Core-Type Construction built-up from Custom-Designed Lamination Strips)
by
Prof. Sujit K. Biswas

Department of Electrical Engineering
Jadavpur University
Kolkata 700032, INDIA
E-mail: sujit_biswas@hotmail.com
1. Calculate Primary and Secondary kVA :
Note down the rms values of voltages and currents of all secondaries. There may be
more than one secondary. The product of rms voltage and current ratings of a
winding is the VA of that secondary. Convert to kVA by dividing by 103. Add the
kVA ratings of all secondaries to obtain the total secondary kVA (denoted as kVAs).
Note down the rms values of voltages and currents of primary. Consider the actual
primary current to be slightly higher (about 2%) than the reflected secondary current
value to take into account the vectorial addition of no-load current (which may be
magnitude-wise 5-10%). Hence obtain the kVA rating of primary (denoted as
kVAp). Under normal conditions, primary kVA is slightly higher than the total
secondary kVA.
The true kVA rating of a transformer winding is the product of the highest expected
rms voltage and the highest expected rms current, divided by 1000, even though the
two magnitudes need not be present at the same time. The calculation for the kVA is
normally done at nominal supply voltage at primary. However, if the supply voltage
is expected to have a large increase over the nominal value, the kVA calculation
should be done at the highest primary voltage. This will ensure that the flux density
will still be within the specified value even though the supply voltage has increased
to its highest value. Similarly, consideration of the highest current ensures
temperature within limits.
In transformers with a rectifier connected to the secondary, the prediction of actual

rms current in the secondary is very important and depends on a prior knowledge of
the current waveform per winding. Note that in rectifier transformers that do not
have current conduction for the full cycle in a secondary winding, the total secondary
kVA can be very large compared to the primary kVA.
Single phase transformers are rarely built above about 50 kVA since electricity rules
do not permit large 1-phase loading while 3-phase transformers are used for 3-phase
loads usually. However, three numbers of 1-phase transformers are sometimes used
in 3-phase supplies to reduce unbalance and maintenance problems.
1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

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2. Calculate volts per turn :
Volts per turn = Et = K Q
Q = Average of total secondary kVA & primary kVA

≈ output kVA approximately under normal conditions
K = An empirical constant for a given type and application
≈ 1.1 for 1-Phase Shell type
≈ 0.8 for 1-Phase Core type
The above values are for copper conductor transformers for 50Hz operation with Bm
near knee point as given below and natural cooling by air or oil with Class B
insulation. Actually, K is proportional to √Bm, √f and inversely proportional to √Kw,
√J, where Bm is peak flux density in Wb/m2, f is the frequency in Hz, Kw is window
utilization factor and J is the current density in Amp/cm2.
Larger type transformers are usually of core type due to flexibilities in choosing
different shape & size of transformer resulting from ease of core assembly. Also, in
core type, cooling is better (as more surface area is available per winding), leakage
reactance is less (as lesser layers exist for same winding height), copper length is
less, hence cost is less, all due to splitting of winding into two halves on two limbs.
However, in shell type, stray flux is low and due to half the yoke area requirement,
the total height is less than core type for the same window dimensions.
Window
Inner wdg. Outer wdg. Inner wdg. Outer wdg.
Side limb Window
Middle
limb Limb
Yoke
Yoke
Shell Type Core Type
Fig. 1. Shell Type Transformer and Core Type Transformer

(both same VA rating, same window & core dimensions, concentric windings)
3. Calculate net iron area :
Ai = Фm = _Et  104 cm2

Bm 4KfƒBm

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The factor Kf is the Form Factor of the applied voltage waveform and is 1.11 for
sine-wave and should be substituted as 1.0 in case of square-wave transformers
Alternatively, Ai can be calculated directly from:
__
Ai = K√Q  104 cm2
4KfƒBm
For transformers operating at 50Hz,
Bm ≈ 1.5 Wb/m2 for fresh CRGO

≈ 1.3 Wb/m2 for re-cycled CRGO (since orientation is partly disturbed
due to mechanical stress during cutting etc.)
≈ 1.3 Wb/m2 for CRNO
≈ 1.1 Wb/m2 for Hot Rolled Steel
For transformers operating at 400Hz, only fresh CRGO is used and the maximum
flux density is reduced in order to control the core loss (due to 8 times increase in
frequency). Typical flux density at 400Hz is:
Bm ≈ 0.65 Wb/m2 for fresh CRGO
4. Calculate gross iron area :
Gross core area is the product of mechanical dimensions of mean core cross section.
Agi = _Ai_ cm2

Ki
actual area of iron in core
Ki = iron stacking factor =
mechanical area of core
≈ 0.95 for CRGO and CRNO

≈ 0.92 for Hot Rolled Steel
Ki arises due to the difference in area due to surface unevenness and since
Laminations are covered with insulation (to prevent eddy current loss). The value of
Ki varies with the pressure applied and values specified are with sufficient tightness.
5. Decide type of core section (rectangular or circular):
If the design is for core type, then the two limbs will have equal area Agi each, which
implies the yoke usually also has the same area. However, if the design is for shell
type, then the two side limbs will have an area half of that of the central limb. Thus,
for shell type, side limbs as well as the yoke will have area half of Agi, while central
limb will have area Agi. For core type, the two limbs may have either rectangular or
stepped construction. However, in shell type, the central limb may be rectangular or
stepped, but side limbs and yoke are normally rectangular to simplify construction.
In oil cooled transformers, for the larger core sizes, ducts are provided inside the core
section for oil flow through the core so that cooling of the core is better.
Decide upon shape of core cross section, which can either be rectangular or circular:

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Spacers Spacers
Core Core
Bobbin Bobbin
Inner wdg. Inner wdg.
Cooling duct Cooling duct
Outer wdg. Outer wdg.
Rectangular Core with Stepped Core with

Rectangular Winding Circular Winding
Fig. 2. Types of Core sections and Windings
i) A rectangular section of core is the easiest to assemble since all laminations are of
the same size. It also yields the design with minimum overall dimensions since a
circular core has larger diameter than a square with same area. For this case of
rectangular core, a rectangular winding gives the smallest mean turn length and
thus minimum length of copper compared to a circular winding over a
rectangular core. Again, for a given core area, the perimeter is the smallest when
the sides are equal (ie, is a square), thus, a square core will require the smallest
length of copper (minimum cost and minimum loss). However, the required
width of lamination for a square core may not be available or when the overall
width of the transformer is restricted, one may be forced to go in for a rectangular
shape. In such a case, the aspect ratio (Kr) of the rectangle should preferably be
within 1:1.5 so that the perimeter is only 2% longer than that of a square section
(a 1:2 ratio generates 6% longer perimeter than that of a square) while winding is
still easy. Large aspect ratios require more length of copper and also cause wide
variations in tension during winding, preventing good finish in short time.
Common equipment transformers use rectangular windings (as the aspect ratio
can be changed for same core area) since the transformers are to be fitted into
available space, something which cannot be achieved with circular windings
(since diameter cannot be changed for a given core area). For the purpose of
comparison, a square core with square winding has the same copper length as a
2-step core with circular winding, both having same iron area.
ii) In applications where the transformer is likely to be subjected to repeated short

circuit stress, a circular winding is the best since the mechanical forces generated
during high short circuit current flow are evenly distributed around the periphery.
The forces will be concentrated at the corners in a rectangular winding, easily
damaging the same. Having being forced to use a circular winding, a near-
circular core shape will have the smallest mean length of turn to use the
minimum length of copper. Thus, stepped cores are used to approximate a
circular section by better area fill. For given iron area, as the number of steps is
increased, the diameter will go on shrinking. For the same core area using
circular winding, compared to a square core structure, a 2-step shape has about
90% perimeter, a 3-step core has about 86% perimeter and a 4-step core has
about 85% perimeter. Above 7 steps, as the benefit per step increase is reduced,
usually only odd values ie., 9 & 11 are used so that a significant benefit is

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obtained after increasing the number of steps. Steps larger than 11 are rarely used
as hardly any significant benefit is obtained compared to the trouble taken. For
larger cores, space is needed at the ends to fit bolts and plates for clamping the
core, hence the shape will never be perfect. Also, too many steps will involve a
large inventory of lamination widths and lengths as well as involve too much
assembly time. Thus, the number of steps is optimized by the factory producing
them. A typical guideline followed is that the width of the different strips formed
due to the steps should differ by at least 10 to 15mm to maintain clear distinction
during assembly. Thus, steps are increased only after the diameter d of the
circumscribing circle increases by a minimum value, as given in the Table I.
Table I
Min. diameter d in cm 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Max. number of steps 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
The above table implies that, as an example, 7 steps cannot be implemented until
the diameter d increases to 20cm. However, at the same time, it is not mandatory
to switch to 7 steps as diameter increases to 20cm and may consider a switchover
only when diameter increases beyond a much higher value.
6. Calculate the actual core dimensions as per selection of core shape :
i) If the selection is rectangular core section with rectangular winding:
Decide on the aspect ratio (Kr) of the core section as explained in section 5(iii). It
will lie between 1.0 to 2.0. For new designs, a typical value of 1.5 can be
selected. This implies that the smallest dimension ‘a’ (the width of lamination) is
given by (since b = stack depth = Kra):
Agi
a= cm
Kr
Hence find depth of stack as dimension ‘b’:
b = Kra
Approximate lamination width ‘a’ to nearest 5mm (or 0.5cm) to standardize and
hence re-utilize surplus laminations in another design. Also, scrap generation is
reduced while cutting from the roll. There is no need to approximate ‘b’. If the
desired width ‘a’ is not available, select the available width only and recalculate
required stack such that Agi is almost constant, but with a modified value of Kr.
Hence core cross-sectional dimensions are finalized.
From the new sectional dimensions of core, calculate the resulting gross core area
Agi using geometry since dimensions might have changed due to approximation.
Note that the flux density Bm can change now. From this point onwards, use only
the new values and discard the first assumed values.
ii) If the selection is circular winding with stepped core section:

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Refer to the Table II for various values of steps. The values are optimized for
maximum utilization of the circle area (derived from Newton-Rhapson solution
of equations). In the table, Ka is Area Factor, which is the ratio of the gross core
area given as per-unit value of area of the circumscribing circle. The dimensions
a1 etc., are the widths of laminations per step size, given as per-unit value of the
diameter d of the circumscribing circle.
a) Since the no. of steps usually varies from 4 to 11, Ka varies from 0.886 to
0.958, ie., an average value of 0.922 can be used to start with.
To the first estimate, calculate
4Agi 4Agi
d = = = 1.175 Agi cm
πKa 0.922π
From this preliminary value of approximate d, select the approximate number

of steps using Table I.
Table II
Steps Ka a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11
1 0.637 0.707 - - - - - - - - - -
2 0.787 0.851 0.526 - - - - - - - - -
3 0.851 0.906 0.707 0.424 - - - - - - -
4 0.886 0.933 0.795 0.606 0.359 - - - - - - -
5 0.908 0.949 0.846 0.707 0.534 0.314 - - - - - -
6 0.923 0.960 0.878 0.770 0.638 0.479 0.280 - - - - -
7 0.934 0.967 0.900 0.813 0.707 0.583 0.435 0.254 - - - -
8 0.942 0.972 0.916 0.843 0.756 0.655 0.538 0.400 0.234 - - -
9 0.948 0.976 0.928 0.866 0.792 0.707 0.610 0.500 0.372 0.216 - -
10 0.953 0.979 0.938 0.884 0.820 0.747 0.665 0.572 0.468 0.348 0.202 -
11 0.958 0.982 0.943 0.893 0.832 0.762 0.707 0.648 0.555 0.450 0.333 0.190
b) For the selected steps, note down the actual value of Ka from Table II.
Corresponding to actual Ka, re-calculate the numerical value of diameter of
circumscribing circle :
4Agi
d = cm
πKa
where Agi is the numerical value from step 4 and Ka is the per-unit value
from Table II. Use this new value of d to select the new value of number of
steps again from Table I. In case the number of steps change, repeat step (b)
above till the number of steps value is constant. Use this value of d and Ka
henceforth.
c) Obtain the actual cross sectional dimensions of the stepped core from Table
II, given as per-unit value of diameter d, since the numerical value of d is
now known.

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d) Approximate lamination width to nearest 5mm (0.5cm) to standardize and

hence re-utilize surplus laminations in another design. Also, scrap generation
is reduced while cutting from the roll. Thus, dimension a1 becomes a1’, etc.
Maintain symmetry of the stepped cores in both directions by selecting same
(modified) step sizes for the stack.
e) From the new sectional dimensions of stepped core, calculate the resulting
gross core area Agi using geometry since dimensions might have changed
due to approximation. First calculate the area of each rectangle formed by a
step and then add them together to get the gross core area. Hence, recalculate
net core area Ai. Note that the flux density Bm can change now. Also,
calculate the new maximum value of diameter of circumscribing circle dmax
using geometry. d is the hypotenuse of the triangle formed by two adjacent
sides of one rectangle created by steps on both sides of the core center. The
largest value of d is dmax. From this point onwards, use only the new values
and discard the first assumed values.
a2'
d1
d2
a2' a1'
a1'
Fig. 3. Calculation of Gross Core area and dmax

(ideally, d1 = d2 = d. Actually, maximum value of d1 & d2 is dmax)
7. Estimate Window Utilization Factor Kw:
actual conductor area in window

Kw =
mechanical area of window
The difference arises due to the presence of insulation on conductor, inter-layer

insulation (if used), bobbin, cooling ducts (if any), space between coils, space
between coil outside and adjacent limbs and empty space between conductors, all of
which occupy window space.
An empirical relationship gives an approximate value of Kw depending on insulation

level and size for windings using cooling ducts :
Kw = _ 8___ for ≤25 kVA

30 + ‘kV’
= __ 9___ for 50 kVA

30 + ‘kV’

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= __10___ for 100 kVA

30 + ‘kV’
= __11 __ for 500 kVA

30 + ‘kV’
= __12 __ for ≥1000 kVA

30 + ‘kV’
where ‘kV’ is the numerical value of the highest kilo-volts rating in transformer, e.g.
in a 11 kV : 400V transformer, substitute 11 for ‘kV’ and in a 415V : 230V
transformer, substitute 0.415 for ‘kV’. Use the appropriate formula which is
specified for a kVA that is closest to that of transformer being designed.
Interpolation may be done, but does give much advantage since the above values are
anyway approximate.
For low voltage windings (<500V) and small size transformers using round
enameled copper wires without cooling ducts, Kw can be assumed as 0.4 with
reasonable accuracy.
8. Assume current density :
The value of current density J depends on the type of cooling, the permitted
temperature rise, the maximum ambient temperature, the class of insulation and the
size of the transformer. If actual temperature rise is very large, the value of current
density has to be decreased.
The value of mean current density of primary and secondary may be estimated from
the guideline given below for transformers with cooling ducts and copper
conductors:
Oil cooled with radiators → 500 to 700 A / cm2

Oil cooled without radiators → 300 to 500 A / cm2
Air natural cooled → 100 to 300 A / cm2
For a new design, take the average value of the range given for the specific type of
cooling used.
The above clearly shows that for better cooling system, the rate of heat removal is
more and hence current density may be kept higher to permit same temperature rise.
Further, for larger size of transformer, as Ap is larger, the current density is lower.
This is because the ratio of surface area to volume for any cube or sphere
(approximate representation for a transformer) decreases as the size increases. This
implies less cooling area per unit mass and thus in order to maintain temperature, the
rate of heat generation has to be reduced by reducing the current density. However,
the addition of cooling ducts within the winding provides an increase of surface area
of contact with the cooling medium (oil or air), thereby permitting higher current
density, at some sacrifice of electrical performance.

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In air-natural cooled transformer, the inner winding is poorly cooled since its heat
has to travel all the way outward radially across the outer winding before being
cooled. Unfortunately, all electrical insulators are insulators of heat also. The outer
winding, on the other hand, has better cooling since its outer surface is directly in
contact with the cooling medium (air). Even with the addition of one cooling duct
between the inner and the outer, the inner winding gets only one surface in the duct
for convection cooling, while the outer has two surfaces: one in the duct for
convection cooling and one outside the winding for both convection & radiation
cooling. Thus, for the same current density in inner and outer windings, it is natural
that the inner winding will run hotter than the outer. Thus, in air cooled transformers
with cooling duct between primary and secondary, different current densities can be
taken in the two windings, the outer having higher value than the inner (about 1.5 to
2.0 times), so that temperatures of both windings are close to each other. The same
arrangement can be done for air cooled transformers without cooling ducts also. The
average current density will be the one decided by average temperature rise.
Sometimes, a duct is also provided between the core and the inner winding in
rectangular windings for better cooling of the core with a second duct located
between the first winding and the second. This method provides a cooling surface for
every 50% layers of inner and outer. This is usually not required in stepped cores as
the gap between the steps does the job. This method is not fully effective due to the
thermal insulation provided by the bobbin and the fact that overall mean length of
winding is increased, leading to higher cost and copper losses.
A better technique is to have two ducts: one within the inner winding, (after about
33% layers) and another between the inner and the outer. This method provides a
cooling surface for every 33% layers of inner, while the first 33% of outer also has a
cooling surface. The balance 67% of the outer has only one surface but almost
double heat dissipation capability due to the combination of convection and
radiation. In this case, the same current density can be taken on both windings.
In oil cooled transformers, which are usually of circular winding type, a single
cooling duct is normally provided between the inner winding and the outer.
9. Calculate the required Area of Window (Aw) :
For a 1-phase transformer,
Q = 2KfƒBmKwJAwAi  10-4  10-3 (with Aw & Ai in cm2)
Aw = _____Q  107_____ cm2

2KfƒBmKwJAi
Remember that Aw = Hw  Ww ,
where Hw and Ww are the heights and widths respectively of the window.
10. For normal transformers, assume ratio of window height to window width as :
Kh = Hw
Ww

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Oil cooled transformers use a range of 2 to 4 with an average value of 3 while air
natural cooled use a range of 3 to 5 with an average value of 4. The higher ratios are
used for air-natural cooled transformers in order to increase surface area and reduce
temperature rise. Higher values of Kh imply lesser number of layers and hence lesser
mean length of turn, saving copper, reducing copper loss and reducing leakage
reactance. On the other hand, the mean length of iron around a window increases
with the value of Kh increasing iron cost, core loss and leakage reactance.
Sometimes, a desired minimum leakage reactance (to limit fault current) dictates the
value of Kh.
From the two equations of steps 10 & 11, calculate Ww and Hw as :

_______
Ww =  Aw/Kh and Hw = Kh  Ww
Thus, Window dimensions have been found out. Approximate the dimensions to
nearest 5mm (0.5cm).
11. Calculate number of turns on LV winding :
First identify which winding has the smallest voltage rating ELV. Calculate the turns
for this winding first to minimize voltage ratio deviation caused due to
approximation of turns to an integer.
NLV = __ELV.  104__

4KfƒBmAi
Approximate to nearest integer NLV′. For shell type, entire turns are wound on central
limb only. NLV′ to be even number for core type since turns per limb is half of NLV′.
This will ensure identical coils per limb.
12. Calculate number of turns in HV winding :
For all the higher voltage windings, calculate the turns from voltage ratio only.
NHV = NLV′ ( EHV / ELV )
Approximate to nearest integer NHV′. For shell type, entire turns is wound on central
limb only. NHV′ to be even number for core type since turns per limb is half of NHV′.
This will ensure identical coils per limb.
The above process of calculating LV turns first and then HV turns gives the most
accurate voltage ratio since the last approximation of one turn in the HV causes only
a negligible change in voltage as turns on HV are large. If the last approximation of
one turn was on LV, percentage change would be large.
13. Calculate area of primary and secondary conductors :
Using selected value of current density J in A/cm2, calculate cross sectional area of
primary and secondary conductors. Current density may be different for primary (Jp)

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and secondary (Js) windings corresponding to currents Ip and Is, if considered so in

section 8.
Area of primary conductor is :
acp = Ip  102 mm2

Jp
Area of secondary conductor is :
acs = Is  102 mm2

Js
14. Select conductors :
a′
d′
b′
Round Rectangular conductor

conductor with with insulation
i l i
Fig. 4. Types of conductor cross section
Rectangular conductors are never made in small sizes since they can be twisted
during winding, resulting in bad space utilization. Round conductors, on the other
hand are not used in large sizes due to large inter-conductor space left, resulting in
bad space utilization.
First check if round conductors can be used. Refer to Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)
Tables for Synthetic Enameled Copper wires. Use SWG between 9 and 42 only. The
conductor area is the area of bare copper while the overall wire diameter is obtained
by adding twice the thickness of enamel insulation to the diameter of bare copper.
Conductors of SWG smaller than 9 are too thick to wind, occupy more space than
rectangular conductors and are difficult to obtain. Thus, if the selection needs SWG
smaller than 9, either use parallel conductors of SWG above 9 or else go for
rectangular conductors. Parallel conductors using round conductors gives poor space
factor and thus more than two or three round wires in parallel are normally not used.
Conductors of SWG larger than 42 are too fragile to wind in normal machines and
are difficult to obtain. Thus, if the selection needs SWG larger than 42, use 42 only,
creating the need for a slightly larger window area than calculated.

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If required area is large, go for rectangular copper strips with Double Paper Covering
(DPC) or Fiber Glass Tape. The conductor area is that of the bare copper while the
overall dimensions are obtained by adding twice the thickness of insulation to the
bare copper dimensions. When using rectangular conductors, select initially a section
of approximately 50 mm2 to 70 mm2 of each conductor. Use multiple conductors if
necessary. Larger sections will be suitable for larger ratings of transformers as
bending of larger sections will be easy for larger radius of coil only. In either case,
select the rectangular conductors with an approximate 1:3 aspect ratio so that later
on, the ratio may be changed to suit layer fill-up requirements and still remain within
the 1:2 to 1:4 preferred range such that eddy current losses remain low.
15. Decide on coil ratings :
If the transformer is core type, then there will be two identical coils, one on each
limb. Hence, each coil will consist of half the primary and half the secondary
windings. The two half primary windings on each coil are usually connected in
series, hence each is rated for half the voltage and full current. The two secondaries
of the two coils are normally connected in series also, hence each is rated for half the
voltage and full current. However, for very large current ratings, it is convenient to
connect the two similar windings (usually secondary) of the two coils in parallel. In
this case, each such winding per coil is rated for full voltage but for half the current.
In some cases with very large current rating and very small voltage for the
secondary, each limb may consist of a number of parallel coils, while the two limbs
are again parallel.
If the transformer is shell type, then there is only one coil on the central limb over
which the full primary and full secondary is wound.
The primary and secondary windings may be placed simply one above the other
radially, but in order to control the leakage reactance between windings, various
techniques are followed. Interleaving of one winding between two halves of the other
radially, reduces the leakage reactance between them. Placing the primary and
secondary separately one above the other axially increases the leakage reactance.
Combinations are also used depending on the desired characteristics. Further, there
may be multiple secondaries over the same coil. In order to control leakage
reactance, each secondary must cover the full available winding length, even if turns
are few.
16. Decide which winding to be started first :
It depends on various practical considerations :
i) Very high voltage windings need special insulation and more clearance from the
core (which is earthed). Thus it is convenient to place such very high voltage
windings on the outside of the coil per limb to reduce insulation cost.
ii) Very high current windings need thick conductors and more bending radius. Thus
it is convenient to place such high current windings on the outside of the coil per
limb. Very high current conductors need better cooling and hence more inter-

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conductor space is needed. Thus if such conductors comprise the inner winding,
then the mean-turn length of the outer winding is increased, increasing its cost.
iii) Tapings on a coil are needed to be brought out radially from the winding surface.
Thus it is convenient to place such windings with tapings on the outside of the
coil per limb. Placing windings with tapings as the inner winding forces either
the mean turn length of the outer winding to increase or reduces the effective
cooling duct width, as the tapings are to be brought out axially through the duct.
17. Calculate dimensions of ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ :
The inner windings are to be supported on a ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ when being wound.
The outer winding is wound over this winding, with ducts (if used). Later, the entire
winding with ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ is inserted over the transformer limb.
The ‘length’ or ‘height’ of the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ is taken to be equal to the
window height Hw less by 0.5cm (5mm). The 0.5 cm or 5mm is for mechanical
clearance so that the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ can be easily fitted within the window.
The thickness tb of the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ depends on mechanical rigidity and

thickness of insulation required from the inner winding to the core. Its value is
usually 2 mm to 8 mm depending on insulation thickness and kVA size. An
empirical relationship for bobbin thickness is :
tb = (2 + 0.5‘kV’) mm
where ‘kV’ is the numerical value of the kilo-volts rating of the inner winding with
respect to earth, e.g. in a 11 kV inner winding, substitute 11 for ‘kV’ and in a 415V
inner winding, substitute 0.415 for ‘kV’.
The cross-sectional dimensions of the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ are obtained separately

for the shape of the winding :
i) In case of rectangular winding, the inner dimension of ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ is

given by the gross outer dimensions of core limb, each dimension being
increased by 0.5cm (5mm). The 0.5 cm or 5mm is for mechanical clearance so
that the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ can be easily inserted over the limb.
In some cases, a duct is provided between the core and the inner winding. In such
cases, the bobbin dimensions are to be increased suitably.
The outer dimensions of the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ is calculated by adding twice

the bobbin thickness to the inner dimensions.
ii) In case of circular winding, the inner diameter Di of the ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ is
given by adding 0.5cm (5mm) to the maximum diameter dmax of the core
circumscribing circle. The 0.5 cm or 5mm is for mechanical clearance so that the
‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ can be easily inserted over the limb.
ie., Di = dmax + 0.5 cm

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Calculate outer diameter of ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’ by adding twice the bobbin

thickness tb to the inner dimensions.
ie., Do = Di + (2  0.1tb) cm
18. Calculate available length of winding :
The winding cannot be spread over the entire length of the ‘bobbin’ or ‘former’ since
there must be adequate clearance from the two ends to prevent flash-over from
winding to the yoke (which is earthed). The clearance on each side is given by an
empirical formula:
ℓ = (5 + 0.9‘kV’) x 0.1 cm
where ‘kV’ is the numerical value of the kilo-volts rating of the winding with respect
to earth, e.g. in a 11 kV winding, substitute 11 for ‘kV’ and in a 415V winding,
substitute 0.415 for ‘kV’.
The heights of both the primary and secondary windings are preferred to be equal in
order to minimize the leakage reactance between them and also to minimize the
mechanical forces between them at the time of short-circuit current flow. Thus, it can
be concluded that the clearance from each end must correspond to that needed for the
HV winding only, ie., the LV winding must have a clearance more than what its
voltage alone demands.
Higher values of end clearances may be taken for large air natural cooled
transformers in order to permit free flow of air into the ducts in the portion of the
duct partially covered by the top and bottom yokes.
Hence, the available length of the winding is:
L = (‘length’ or ‘height’ of ‘former’ or ‘bobbin’) - (2 x end clearance ℓ) in cm
19. Design of the ‘first’ or ‘inner’ winding per limb :
This winding on both the limbs are to be identical and joined together externally. The
coil voltage is decided as explained in section 15.
If the voltage rating of this winding is less than about 3kV, then this winding is likely
be of ‘LV’ type, using a cylindrical or a helical type of winding structure.
If the voltage rating of this winding is more than about 3kV, then this winding is
likely to be of ‘HV’ type, using a cross-over or a disc type of winding structure.
i) If the winding is ‘LV’ type:
a) In cylindrical windings, the conductors touch each other without any gaps
in between the turns. In helical windings, it is similar to cylindrical winding
with gaps in between turns, for better cooling.

15
In L.V windings the conductors are invariably thick and are rectangular for
larger current ratings. Hence support should be given to conductors to prevent
them from slipping from the ends of the ‘bobbin’ or ‘former’. Thus,
cardboard pieces and/or cotton tapes are provided to prevent slip. Cotton
tapes and the windings are interleaved like weaving a basket. As the
conductors are wound and the cotton tapes are pulled manually, they tighten
each other mutually.
b) Obtain dimension of insulated conductor :
For round enameled conductors, increase diameter as per Table to obtain the
overall diameter from the bare copper diameter. This overall diameter is the
axial space taken by the conductor per turn. In case there are two parallel
conductors, side by side, then the axial space taken by the equivalent
conductor per turn is twice the overall diameter of each conductor. Round
conductors cannot be placed one above the other.
For rectangular conductors, increase dimensions as per the thickness of

insulation. For Double Paper Covering (DPC), the increase over bare copper
dimensions is 0.4 to 0.5mm. The overall rectangular dimensions may be
designated as a  b, where b is about twice to four times of a as selected in
point 14. Thus, b is the axial space taken by the conductor per turn. Windings
are rarely wound on the shorter dimensions due to difficulty in bending
(however, such special ‘edge’ windings are used for single layer high current
windings when cooling of the conductors is a critical consideration). In case
there are two parallel conductors, side by side, then the axial space taken by
the equivalent conductor per turn is twice the overall dimension b of each
conductor. However, if the two conductors are placed one above the other,
then the equivalent conductor takes and axial space b per turn but has a radial
space of twice a. The concept is to be extended to higher number of multiple
conductors. Note that conductors placed side by side do not need
transposition as they automatically have the same resistance and leakage
reactance and hence share current well. However, for conductors placed one
above the other, the upper (with larger diameter) has the highest resistance
and leakage reactance, forcing the inner to carry most of the current.
Transposing is the only way to balance the impedance and hence ensure
current sharing. Each transposing requires additional axial space equal to an
equivalent conductor width.
c) Calculate number of turns that can be fitted in one layer :
avaiable length of winding

Turn per layer = -1
axial space of conductor per turn
Assuming n number of turns per layer and axial space of conductor per turn
b, then total space covered is [b  (n + 1)], since after every turn when the
conductor returns to the starting point, it takes the space of one turn plus the
space of the starting conductor. Approximate the number of turns per layer to
the smaller integer. The balance will be extra space.

16
d) If turns per layer < turns per coil, accommodate turns per coil in multiple
layers.
turns per coil
Number of layers per coil =
turns per layer
Take into account that each transposing (if used) requires additional axial
space equal to an equivalent conductor width. A fractional value indicates
that the number of turns in the last layer may be less than other layer(s).
However, it is not desirable to have the last layer with only a few turns, since
it increases window area requirement. If using round conductors, there is not
much choice except to slightly increase the available length of winding so as
to absorb the extra turns of the last layer into the preceding layer. With round
conductors and the last layer having lesser turns, there is no choice other than
to leave the free space unutilized. However, the extra space is usually small
due to smaller diameter of round conductors used.
If however, rectangular conductors are used, the aspect ratio of the conductor
can be changed slightly to make a perfect fit of complete layers. If the turns
in last layer is less than 50% full, select a conductor again with same area but
reduced ‘b’ so that space per turn is marginally smaller, increasing the
number of turns per layer and thereby removing the turns from the last layer
to yield layers with full length winding. If however, if the last layer was
having more than 50% full, select a conductor again with same area but
increased ‘b’ so that space per turn is marginally larger, thereby reducing the
number of turns per layer and filling out the last layer. In either case, it is
possible to work backwards to predict the space per turn for complete layer
fill and thus select the bare conductor. However, each layer cannot have the
same number of turns unless the total turns per coil is an exact multiple of the
number of turns per layer. Thus, the last layer may have a few turns less than
the other layers.
If vacant space is available per layer, the space may be left at the two ends or
else distributed uniformly.
e) If turns per layer > turns per coil, accommodate turns per coil in single layer :
With round conductors and the coil having lesser turns than required to make
it a full layer, there is no choice other than to leave the free space unutilized.
can be changed slightly to make a perfect fit of complete layer. Select a
conductor again with same area but increased ‘b’ so that space per turn is
marginally larger, thereby filling out the layer. It is possible to work
backwards to predict the space per turn for complete layer fill and thus select
the bare conductor. Take into account that each transposing (if used) requires
additional axial space equal to an equivalent conductor width.
If still vacant space is available in the layer, the space may be left at the two
ends or else distributed uniformly.

17
ii) If the winding is ‘HV’ type:
a) In cross-over winding, the available length of winding is split into a series of

smaller coils, assembled axially, with gaps in-between coils. This
arrangement gives lesser volts per layer than cylindrical winding, so that HV
insulation is not a serious problem. Disc winding is similar to cross-over
except that it has one turn per layer, wound with flat strips in spiral fashion.
Support should be given to conductors to prevent them from slipping from

the ends of the ‘bobbin’ or ‘former’. Thus, cardboard pieces and/or
cotton/fiber- glass tapes are provided to prevent slip. The tapes and the
windings are interleaved like weaving a basket. As the conductors are wound
and the tapes are pulled manually, they tighten each other mutually.
b) Obtain dimension of insulated conductor :
For round enameled conductors, increase diameter as per Table to obtain the
overall diameter from the bare copper diameter. This overall diameter is the
axial space taken by the conductor per turn. In case there are two parallel
conductors, side by side, then the axial space taken by the equivalent
conductor per turn is twice the overall diameter of each conductor. Round
conductors cannot be placed one above the other.
For rectangular conductors, increase dimensions as per the thickness of

insulation. For Double Paper Covering (DPC), the increase over bare copper
dimensions is 0.4 to 0.5mm. The overall rectangular dimensions may be
designated as a  b, where b is about twice to four times of a as selected in
point 14. Thus, b is the axial space taken by the conductor per turn. Windings
are rarely wound on the shorter dimensions due to difficulty in bending
(however, such special ‘edge’ windings are used for single layer high current
windings when cooling of the conductors is a critical consideration). In case
there are two parallel conductors, side by side, then the axial space taken by
the equivalent conductor per turn is twice the overall dimension b of each
conductor. However, if the two conductors are placed one above the other,
then the equivalent conductor takes and axial space b per turn but has a radial
space of twice a. The concept is to be extended to higher number of multiple
conductors. Note that conductors placed side by side do not need
transposition as they automatically have the same resistance and leakage
reactance and hence share current well. However, for conductors placed one
above the other, the upper (with larger diameter) has the highest resistance
and leakage reactance, forcing the inner to carry most of the current.
Transposing is the only way to balance the impedance and hence ensure
current sharing. Each transposing requires additional axial space equal to an
equivalent conductor width.
c) Calculate number of cross-over/disc coils per limb :
The kV per coil is restricted to about 3kV and hence the required number of
cross-over/disc coils per limb can be found from :

18
Number of coils = kV of winding per limb ÷ 3
An appropriate integer number Nc is decided upon. Minimum number of

coils is preferred since the utilization of window area is better (more coils
means more space lost between coils). Hence re-calculate kV per coil.
d) Calculate space between coils :
Since the number of coils is now known, calculate the voltage across each
coil. From the voltage difference across one coil, calculate the gap to be left
between coils from :
gap = (5 + 0.9‘kV’)  0.1 cm
where ‘kV’ is the numerical value of the kilo-volts rating of one coil, ie, the
voltage difference from one coil to another. ‘kV’ will be approximately 3.
e) Calculate the height of each coil :
The total length of winding L per limb is to be divided into the number of
coils per limb Nc, and the (Nc – 1) gaps between them. Hence, the ‘height’ or
‘length’ of each coil is given by:
Lc = L – [(Nc – 1)  gap] cm
Nc
f) Since the number of coils per limb is known, the number of turns per coil will
be obtained by dividing the total number of turns by the total number of coils.
In case the value turns out to be a fraction, take the nearest integer and re-
calculate the total turns on the HV winding.
Calculate number of turns that can be fitted in one layer:
avaiable length of coil (Lc)

Turn per layer = -1
axial space of conductor per turn
Assuming n number of turns per layer and axial space of conductor per turn
b, then total space covered is [b  (n + 1)], since after every turn when the
conductor returns to the starting point, it takes the space of one turn plus the
space of the starting conductor. Approximate turns per layer to the smaller
integer. The balance will be extra space. It is convenient to have an odd
number of layers so that the last turn of the last layer end in the opposite side
of the coil from which the first turn of the first layer started. This permits
easy connection of consecutive coils in series on a limb without the start and
finish of the high voltage winding being close to each other. However, it is
not mandatory that the number of layers be odd, since it just implies a little
extra length of wire to take the last turn end to the opposite side of the coil
from which it started its first turn. In the latter case, the radial depth of the

19
coil will increase by one layer (due to dimension of the wire moving across
the coil) without involving a single turn in that layer.
g) If turns per layer < turns per coil, accommodate turns per coil in multiple
layers.
turns per coil
Number of layers per coil =
turns per layer
Take into account that each transposing (if used) requires additional axial
space equal to an equivalent conductor width. A fractional value indicates
that the number of turns in the last layer may be less than other layer(s).
However, it is not desirable to have the last layer with only a few turns, since
it increases window area requirement. If using round conductors, there is not
much choice except to slightly increase the available length of winding so as
to absorb the extra turns of the last layer into the preceding layer. With round
conductors and the last layer having lesser turns, there is no choice other than
to leave the free space unutilized. However, the extra space is usually small
due to smaller diameter of round conductors used.
can be changed slightly to make a perfect fit of complete layers. If the turns
in last layer is less than 50% full, select a conductor again with same area but
reduced ‘b’ so that space per turn is marginally smaller, increasing the
number of turns per layer and thereby removing the turns from the last layer
to yield layers with full length winding. If however, if the last layer was
having more than 50% full, select a conductor again with same area but
increased ‘b’ so that space per turn is marginally larger, thereby reducing the
number of turns per layer and filling out the last layer. In either case, it is
possible to work backwards to predict the space per turn for complete layer
fill and thus select the bare conductor. However, each layer cannot have the
same number of turns unless the total turns per coil is an exact multiple of the
number of turns per layer. Thus, the last layer may have a few turns less than
the other layers.
If vacant space is available per layer, the space may be left at the two ends or
else distributed uniformly.
h) If turns per layer > turns per coil, accommodate turns per coil in single layer
This is a very rare incident.
With round conductors and the coil having lesser turns than required to make
it a full layer, there is no choice other than to leave the free space unutilized.
can be changed slightly to make a perfect fit of complete layer. Select a
conductor again with same area but increased ‘b’ so that space per turn is
marginally larger, thereby filling out the layer. It is possible to work
backwards to predict the space per turn for complete layer fill and thus select
the bare conductor. Take into account that each transposing (if used) requires
additional axial space equal to an equivalent conductor width.

20
If still vacant space is available in the layer, the space may be left at the two
ends or else distributed uniformly.
20. Calculate the radial ‘thickness’ or ‘depth’ of the inner winding :
The radial ‘thickness’ or ‘depth’ of each layer is due to the overall dimension of the
of the insulated conductor in the radial direction, ie., for circular conductors, it is the
overall insulated diameter and for rectangular conductors, it is the overall dimension
‘a’. For rectangular conductors, take into account the number of conductors placed
one-above–the other before fixing dimension ‘a’.
To this value, add the thickness of inter-layer insulation, if provided. Typical values
are 5 to 10mil (1mil = 1milli-inch) insulation between two layers. This is necessary
to prevent inter-layer short circuit, particularly for larger transformers, since
insulation is often damaged during winding due to bending and hitting with mallet.
However, such insulation also prevents heat from flowing out easily from the inner
layers to the outer layers.
Thus, overall radial depth of winding =

[Number of layers  radial dimension of insulated conductor] + [(Number
of layers – 1)  thickness of inter-layer insulation]
21. Provide cooling duct before start of ‘outer’ or ‘second’ winding.
Air is stagnant near the surface though the flow of air is smooth in the center of the
duct. So to improve the effectiveness of duct the width of duct should be more for air
cooling than oil cooling.
Duct radial width = 5 to 9 mm. normally for oil cooling

Duct radial width = 7.5 to 15 mm. normally for air cooling
Higher values of duct width gives progressively lesser benefit, on the other hand
increases the leakage reactance between the two windings, the window area required
and the mean-turn length of the outer winding. All factors contribute to an increase
of iron and copper required as well as poor regulation. However, in the case of air-
natural cool transformer, the increased leakage reactance due to higher duct width is
balanced by the reduced leakage reactance due to the higher height of window, when
compared with oil-cool transformers.
22. Check for ‘bobbin’ or ‘former’ usage for outer winding :
A ‘bobbin’ or ‘former’ may not be always used for the outer winding. If not used,
calculate inner dimensions (diameter for circular winding) of ‘outer’ or ‘second’
winding = overall dimensions after providing cooling duct.
If a ‘bobbin’ or ‘former’ used, calculate inner dimensions (diameter for circular

winding) of former for ‘outer’ or ‘second’ winding as the overall dimensions after
providing cooling duct. Calculate thickness of bobbin as in step 17, where ‘kV’ now
is the kV of the total outer winding. Calculate inner dimensions (diameter for circular

21
winding) of ‘outer’ or ‘second’ winding = outer dimensions (diameter for circular

winding) of former.
23. Design the ‘outer’ or ‘second’ winding :
Design the ‘outer’ or ‘second’ winding applying the logic of <3kV or >3kV logic to
select the type of winding in the same way as done in point 19 for the ‘inner’ or
‘first” winding. Compute the overall radial depth of ‘outer’ or ‘second’ winding.
24. Check fitting of windings in window :
Since the radial depth of both the windings are known along with the width of
cooling duct, using the value of window width, calculate the radial clearance left
between the two adjacent outer windings of two adjacent limbs inside the window.
The clearance required is given by :
clearance = (5 + 0.9‘kV’)  0.1 cm
where ‘kV’ is the numerical value of the kilo-volts difference between the two outer
winding voltages, which is the total voltage of outer winding. However, due to
cooling considerations, the minimum clearance in air cooled transformers is usually
left at 1cm or 10mm.
If the calculated actual value is higher than the required clearance from the formula,
then the transformer is un-necessarily having a larger yoke and cost saving can be
achieved by reducing the yoke size. This reduces iron loss also. Thus, reduce the
window width by the required amount so that the actual clearance is equal to the
required one.
If the calculated actual value is less than the required value, it means that the
windings cannot be fitted. Thus, increase the window width accordingly. Note that if
the calculated actual value is negative, it implies that the windings will overlap and
the windings cannot be fitted. Thus, increase the window width accordingly.
The window height is not to be changed since it will un-necessarily involve redesign
of the entire winding. Thus, the ratio of window height to window width is changed,
but normally, the change is not beyond the acceptable limits of 2 to 5.
Note down the new value of Ww. Recalculate the window area Aw and the actual
value of Kw.
25. Calculate the Yoke dimensions :
Calculate the Yoke dimensions, assuming identical cross section area as in limb. For
CRNO or CRGO material, to obtain low loss in the core structure, it is essential that
the laminations are to be assembled using mitred joints. This implies that the yoke
must have the same shape as that of the limb.

22
For a rectangular limb of dimensions a  b, the yoke will also be of the same
dimensions. For a stepped limb structure, the yoke must have identical steps as the
limb.
a2
a2
a
a a2
b
b
a2
b a2 a2
a a2 a2
Rectangular Limb & Stepped Limb & Stepped Limb &

Rectangular Yoke Stepped Yoke Rectangular Yoke
Fig. 5. Types of Yoke construction for various Limb sections
Sometimes, rectangular yoke structure is also used without mitred joints due to lower
cost of assembly. In such cases, the yoke is rectangular in shape of dimensions a  b
which normally has the same area as the stepped limb. Since core loss at the joints
will now increase due to 90° bending of flux, a slightly higher core area is sometimes
used to lower the flux density in the yoke, resulting in a compensating reduction of
core loss in yoke.
26. Calculate lamination sizes for complete transformer :
5mm
450
even layer odd layer even layer odd layer
Butt joint assembly Mitred joint assembly
Fig. 6. Types of Core construction
Lamination placement is interleaved for every layer such that the joints are not
located at exactly the same point, which would have created an effective air gap

23
throughout the core cross section, leading to increased magnetizing current and
higher core loss. It is not mandatory that every lamination has to be interleaved and
experience shows that as the size of core increases, 2 to 4 laminations can be taken as
a set for interleaving, making assembly easy without significant increase in core loss.
Decide on the type of joints to be made at the corners. A simple Butt joint assembly
makes it easy to decide on the sizes of the two pairs, low cutting cost, no scrap
generation, cheaper production, but results in higher core losses due to bending of the
flux at the corners. The loss is higher with grain oriented core as the flux partly
traverses perpendicular to the direction of grain orientation at the corner. Butt jointed
core is made up of four rectangular laminations, but due to symmetry, only two
different sizes are needed.
A mitred core on the other hand gives low core loss, but higher cutting cost, some
scrap generation, costlier production. Larger transformers are preferred to be mitred
while smaller ones may not be so. Mitred joints are usually made with 45° cuts at the
ends, which does generate some scrap at the end of the sheet. The laminations are
dimensioned so that a small offset of about 5mm is provided during assembly in
order to prevent a continuous air gap at the joint. This leaves behind a small gap at
every corner of the window but such gaps do not affect the performance
significantly. It is made up of four trapezoidal laminations with angular cuts at ends
but due to symmetry, only two different sizes are needed.
27. Calculate the resistance, copper loss and weight of each winding :
The formula for winding resistance is given below for each coil over each limb. The
total resistance for a particular winding (primary or secondary) is to be derived from
knowledge of the total number of coils (1 for shell type and 2 for core type) and if 2,
then their interconnection (series or parallel).
Calculate the length of a mean turn of the winding under consideration (inner or
outer). The actual length of a turn varies as the winding proceeds radially since the
diameter builds up in every layer. Thus, a mean turn is one hypothetically placed in
the radial mid-position so that its length is the mean value between the length of the
smallest turn (innermost) and the largest turn (outermost). Use suitable geometry to
account for the shape of the winding (circular or rectangular with round corners).
Since the cross-sectional area of the conductor is already known from conductor
selection, the resistance for the entire winding per limb (primary or secondary) is
given separately by :
Resistance of each winding per limb (in ohms) =

Mean turn length (cm)  No. of turns in winding  Resistivity (Ω-mm2/m)
Area of conductor (cm2)  104
Where the resistivity of the conductor (copper or aluminium) is taken near the actual
high operating temperature under steady state. If a transformer is working at an
ambient temperature of Ta°C and has an average temperature rise of Tr°C, then its
mean temperature is (Ta + Tr)°C. Thus, the actual resistance of the conductor should
be calculated at (Ta + Tr)°C.

24
From the knowledge of the conductor area and the total length of the winding, it is
also possible to calculate the volume of the material used as conductor. Using
appropriate value of density, the weight of each winding can be calculated.
Since the resistance of each winding is known, the copper loss in each winding can
be calculated from the rms current in that winding.
The total Copper loss is the sum of the copper loss of the two windings. The total
loss should be increased appropriately to account for eddy current loss due to leakage
flux cutting the other winding through free space and the loss in the joints and
terminals.
28. Calculate weight of core, core loss and loss component of no-load current :
Calculate actual flux density in core and yoke respectively from
Bm = Vp×104 . Wb/m2
4Kf×f×Ai×Np
Calculate the volume of limbs and yokes using suitable geometry. Using the density
of silicon steel as 7.65gm/cm3, calculate the weight of each.
Refer to the curves given by the lamination manufacturer for core loss in watts per kg
at the operating frequency (say 50Hz) corresponding to different flux density. Since
the flux density is known, the core loss per kg of limbs and yokes are available from
the curve. Again, since the total weight in kg is known, the total core loss in watts is
obtained. If the frequency is other than 50Hz, refer to the manufacturer’s curves for
core loss changes with frequency change. Calculate separately for limbs and yokes
since the flux density may not be same in both. The total loss should be increased
appropriately to account for stray iron loss in the bolts through the core, loss in the
clamp and loss in the steel tank (if any) due to leakage flux.
The core loss is represented by a parallel resistance in the equivalent circuit and thus
the value of the resistance is calculated from the knowledge of the voltage across it
and the watts dissipated in it. Hence, the current through the resistance at a given
supply voltage is the loss component of no-load current.
29. Calculate the magnetizing component of no-load current and hence the total no-
load current :
From the core structure geometry, calculate the mean magnetic path length of flux
through the core. Referring to the B-H curve for the selected material, find the mmf
required in Amp-turn per meter at the operating flux density. The required Amp-turn
per meter multiplied by the mean magnetic path length in meters gives the total
required Amp-turn. The total Amp-turn should be increased appropriately to account
for additional requirements for the air gaps formed at the core lamination joints.
Since the total turns in the primary are already known, the Amp-turn divided by the
primary turns gives the amperes for magnetization, ie., magnetizing component of
no-load current.

25
The magnetizing current is represented by a parallel inductive reactance in the

equivalent circuit and thus the value of the reactance is calculated from the
knowledge of the voltage across it and the current through it. Hence, the current
through the reactance at a given supply voltage is the magnetizing component of no-
load current.
Since both the core-loss component and the magnetizing component of no-load
current are known and that they are vectorially perpendicular to each other, the total
no-load current is given by:
_______________________________________
No-load current = √ [Loss component]2 + [Magnetizing component]2
30. Calculate leakage inductance and leakage reactance per winding using standard
available formulae :
The formulae for leakage inductance are given below for each coil over each limb.
The total leakage inductance for a particular winding (primary or secondary) are to
be derived from knowledge of the total number of coils (1 for shell type and 2 for
core type) and if 2, then their interconnection (series or parallel). It is assumed that
the primary winding is wound first over the core and then the secondary and the
windings are circular. However, it can be shown that the following expressions are
reasonably valid even if the winding placements are interchanged or even if the
winding is rectangular.
ws wp
Secondary Primary
hs hp
Duct Core
g
Fig. 7. Coil dimensions for calculating leakage inductances
Leakage inductance of the primary winding per limb is given by:
4πTp2 × 10-3  wp g
Llp =  Lmt p × + Lmt g ×  micro Henry
hp  3 2 
where:
Tp is the total turns per limb for primary
hp is the total effective height of the coil in cm
Lmtp is the mean length of one turn of the coil in cm

26
wp is the effective width of the coil (also referred to as radial depth) in cm

Lmtg is the mean length along the gap between the two coils in cm
g is the mean effective width of the gap between the two coils in cm
Leakage inductance of the secondary winding per limb is given by:
4πTs2 × 10-3  ws g
Lls =  Lmt s × + Lmt g ×  micro Henry
hs  3 2
where:
Ts is the total turns per limb for secondary
hs is the total effective height of the coil in cm
Lmts is the mean length of one turn of the coil in cm
ws is the effective width of the coil (also referred to as radial depth) in cm
Lmtg is the mean length along the gap between the two coils in cm
g is the mean effective width of the gap between the two coils in cm
The above are derived with the concept of the coil being a symmetrical shape,
formed purely by conductors alone and the gap created by any physical gap or
insulation between windings. Thus, the word ‘effective height’ implies the mean
height of coil covered by conductors alone (with N turns per layer), which is the total
height of coil for N+1 effective conductors (accounting for multiple conductors side-
by-side), less half the axial dimension of one effective conductor. Similarly, the
‘effective width’ of coil implies the width from conductor to conductor, without
considering bobbin or insulation over the coil. Insulation over conductors or inter-
layer insulation will be however considered. Thus, ‘effective width’ of gap includes
actual gap plus thickness of any bobbin or insulation over the coil that might exist.
In case of a tertiary winding or multiple secondary existing, the same formula will be
applicable except that ‘g’ will now represent the total gap between the primary and
the particular winding, including the width of any other winding that may be present
in-between.
From a knowledge of the operating frequency and the total leakage inductance per
winding (primary and secondary), the leakage reactances can be calculated.
31. Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer:
Using the calculated values of transformer resistances and reactances transformed to

the primary side, draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the
primary side.
R1 X1 X'2 R'2
I1 I'2
Io Im
Vpri V'sec
Ro Xm
In
Fig. 8. Primary referred equivalent circuit of two winding transformer

27
X'2a R'2a
R1 X1 I'2a
V'seca
I1
Io Im
Vpri
Ro Xm X'2b R'2b
In I'2b
V'secb
Fig. 9. Primary referred equivalent circuit of transformer with two secondary
For multiple secondary, the primary circuit will branch out into each secondary
separately from a common pair of points that are across the parallel magnetizing
components.
32. Calculate the efficiency and regulation:
The per-unit efficiency of the transformer on load is given by:
output power in watts

η=
output power in watts + total loss in watts
The total loss is the sum of copper losses in primary and secondary (total secondary
for multiple secondary) as well as the core loss.
The percentage efficiency is obtained by multiplying the per-unit efficiency by 100.
The per-unit voltage regulation at the output of a transformer is given approximately

by:
I1×Req I1×Xeq
ε= cos + sin = ε r cos + ε x sin
Vpri Vpri
where,
Req = R1 + R’2
Xeq = X1 + X’2
 = load power factor angle
r = per-unit resistance
x = per-unit reactance
cos = load power factor
In case of multiple secondary, the voltage regulation for each output is obtained
separately. In addition, there is a problem of cross-regulation, which means that load
changes in first output will affect the regulation of the second, even if the load on the
second remains constant. This is due to the change in voltage drop across the primary
due to load changes in the first secondary.

28
The percentage regulation is obtained by multiplying the per-unit regulation by 100.
The efficiency and regulation are calculated at the desired operating points, typically:
(i) at full load, 0.8pf
(ii) at 75% full load and 1.0pf.

29
33. Calculate temperature rise.
i) Is the transformer air natural cooled ?

In this case, the temperature rise per winding depends upon the total cooling
surface available per winding. Since the core also runs hot and heat can flow from
a point of higher temperature to a point of lower one, hardly any heat due to core
loss enters the winding, neither does any significant heat flow out to the core.
Thus, the heat dissipated from the winding is that generated in that winding only.
Only the vertical surfaces of the winding dissipate heat by convection and
radiation, since insignificant heat can flow out to the winding ends due to the
longer axial distance compared to the radial depth. Further, the winding area at the
two ends is very small compared to the outer surface area.
If the outer winding is wound directly over the inner winding, then the total
copper loss in both the windings is dissipated from the total outer surface only.
If there is a duct between the inner and outer winding on a limb, then the inner
winding dissipates its own copper loss from its outer surface while the outer
winding dissipates its own copper loss from both its inner surface as well as its
outer surface. Note that cooling due to radiation cannot exist within a duct since
both surfaces of the duct are hot. Also, the outer surface of the inner winding as
well as the inner surface of the outer winding are actually the surfaces of the duct,
where air flow will never be as free as the surrounding. To account for this, the
width of the duct is associated with a ‘duct efficiency’ factor, which relates the
effectiveness of the given duct to that of free air cooling. The mean temperature
rise of a winding is calculated based on the Watts per sq. cm. dissipated while the
highest temperature of a winding may be anywhere between 10 to 25⁰C higher
than the mean temperature.
a) Calculate available effective surface area of the inner winding as the vertical
outer surface area multiplied by ‘duct efficiency’. The mean temperature rise of
the inner winding over the ambient is given by :
0
Mean temp. rise = Total Copper loss in Inner Winding__________ C
12  Effective Surface Area of Inner Winding in m2
b) Calculate available effective surface area of the outer winding as the sum of the
vertical inner surface area multiplied by ‘duct efficiency’ plus the complete
outer surface area. The mean temperature rise of the outer winding over the
ambient is given by :
0
Mean temp. rise = Total Copper loss in Outer Winding__________ C
12  Effective Surface Area of Outer Winding in m2
ii) Is the transformer oil cooled with plain tank?

In case of oil cooled transformers with plain tank, there is no conservator in order
to save on cost. Thus, an extra space must be provided for contraction and

30
expansion of air inside the tank. This stagnant layer of air (insulator of heat)
prevents cooling from top surface. For most practical purposes heat dissipation
from top and bottom surfaces are neglected. So only 4 walls are available to
provide heat dissipation.
The tank dimensions are fixed by leaving adequate space (4 – 8 inches) on sides &
bottom while at the top more space (8 – 16 inches) is required for taking out
bushing and the space for expansion of oil. Hence calculate the total surface area
available. The mean temperature rise of the oil over the ambient is given by :
Mean temp. rise = Total Copper loss + Total Core loss______ ⁰C

12.5  Effective Surface Area of tank in m2
The highest temperature of a winding may be anywhere between 10 to 20⁰C
higher than the mean temperature of oil
iii)Is the transformer oil cooled with radiators?

In case of oil cooled transformers with radiators, there is a conservator in order to
permit expansion and contraction of the oil. Thus, there is no stagnant layer of air
inside the tank near the top surface. For most practical purposes heat dissipation
from bottom surface is neglected while only 50% of the top surface is considered
effective since a horizontal surface provides less cooling than a vertical one. So
only 4 walls and 50% of the top surface are available to provide heat dissipation.
The tank dimensions are fixed by leaving adequate space (4 – 8 inches) on sides &
bottom while at the top more space (8 – 16 inches) is required for taking out
bushing.
a) Calculate required total surface area from the permitted mean temperature rise
of oil as :
Total Surface Area = Total Copper Loss + Total Iron Loss m2
12.5  Temperature rise allowed
Calculate the available surface area of tank as stated above

The total surface area required in the form of radiators is the difference of the
two.
b) Select the type of radiator to be used. Calculate the available surface area per
radiator. Hence calculate the number of radiators required. The number is made
an even one so that radiators are distributed on the two longest sides of the
tank.
Please check Table 7.5 & 7.6 for designing of winding.
TEMPERATURE RISE
Radiation depends on color of tank & the tank is provided with deep color. Though the
color of trans. has minor change on heat dissipation.

31
St = 12.5 W / m2-°C for temp. rise of 40°C above 20°C ambient.

The hottest spot has a temp. rise ~ 15°C above avg. temp.
for radiators we have to fix up heights of the radiators pipes
Tube dia = 50 mm.
Surface area of pipe = ( ht. x dia. ) of pipe
Total surface area = Total no. of pipes x Surface area of 1 pipe

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1

1-PHASE TRANSFORMER DESIGN USING CUSTOM-DESIGNED CORES

(The Design of 1-phase Transformers above about 2kVA using Shell-Type or

Prof. Sujit K. Biswas

1. Calculate Primary and Secondary kVA :

In transformers with a rectifier connected to the secondary, the prediction of actual

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

2. Calculate volts per turn :

Volts per turn = Et = K Q

Q = Average of total secondary kVA & primary kVA

Shell Type Core Type

Fig. 1. Shell Type Transformer and Core Type Transformer

3. Calculate net iron area :

Ai = Фm = _Et  104 cm2

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

Bm ≈ 1.5 Wb/m2 for fresh CRGO

Bm ≈ 0.65 Wb/m2 for fresh CRGO

4. Calculate gross iron area :

Agi = _Ai_ cm2

≈ 0.95 for CRGO and CRNO

5. Decide type of core section (rectangular or circular):

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

Inner wdg. Inner wdg.

Cooling duct Cooling duct

Outer wdg. Outer wdg.

Rectangular Core with Stepped Core with

Fig. 2. Types of Core sections and Windings

ii) In applications where the transformer is likely to be subjected to repeated short

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

6. Calculate the actual core dimensions as per selection of core shape :

i) If the selection is rectangular core section with rectangular winding:

Hence find depth of stack as dimension ‘b’:

ii) If the selection is circular winding with stepped core section:

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

From this preliminary value of approximate d, select the approximate number

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

d) Approximate lamination width to nearest 5mm (0.5cm) to standardize and

Fig. 3. Calculation of Gross Core area and dmax

7. Estimate Window Utilization Factor Kw:

actual conductor area in window

The difference arises due to the presence of insulation on conductor, inter-layer

An empirical relationship gives an approximate value of Kw depending on insulation

Kw = _ 8___ for ≤25 kVA

= __ 9___ for 50 kVA

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

= __10___ for 100 kVA

= __11 __ for 500 kVA

= __12 __ for ≥1000 kVA

8. Assume current density :

Oil cooled with radiators → 500 to 700 A / cm2

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

9. Calculate the required Area of Window (Aw) :

For a 1-phase transformer,

Q = 2KfƒBmKwJAwAi  10-4  10-3 (with Aw & Ai in cm2)

Aw = _____Q  107_____ cm2

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

From the two equations of steps 10 & 11, calculate Ww and Hw as :

11. Calculate number of turns on LV winding :

NLV = __ELV.  104__

12. Calculate number of turns in HV winding :

NHV = NLV′ ( EHV / ELV )

13. Calculate area of primary and secondary conductors :

1-Ph Non-Std. Core Transf. Design 10 Aug 2017 Sujit K. Biswas

= 9_ for 50 kVA

= 10_ for 100 kVA

= 11 for 500 kVA

= 12 for ≥1000 kVA

Aw = _Q  107_ cm2

NLV = ELV.  104