FROG

Rana tigrina
• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata
• Group: Craniata
• Sub Phylum: Vertebrata
• Division: Gnathostomata
• Super class: Tetrapoda
• Class: Amphibia
• Genus: Rana
• Species: tigrina
 HABIT AND HABITAT
• Habitat: cosmopolitian in distribution, in
and around fresh water habitats.
• Habits:
• Resting: Squatting posture.
• Locomotion: a. Swimming b.
jumping/Leaping c. Walking
 Histology of the Alimentary Canal of Frog:
Histologically, the wall of alimentary canal of frog and
other vertebrates is made up of four distinct
concentric layers.
These are present in the following order from within-
outwards:
(1) The mucosa;
(2) The submucosa;
(3) The muscularis; and
(4) the visceral peritoneum or serosa.
1. Mucosa: It is the innermost layer or mucous
membrane. It remains folded forming various pits
and different types of glands. It is concerned with
secretion and absorption of digested food, etc.
It is further composed of the following layers:
(i) Epithelium:
It is the innermost layer formed of simple columnar
epithelium (glandular and ciliated) based on thin
basement membrane.
(ii) Lamina Propria:
It is a thin connective tissue layer having blood
capillaries, lymph and nerves.
(iii) Muscularis Mucosae:
It is a narrow smooth muscle layer containing inner
circular and outer longitudinal muscles.
2. Submucosa: It is a thin protective layer
composed of coarse connective tissue, elastic
fibres, fat, blood and lymph vessels and nerve
cells. It contains glands in mammal. It also
possesses Meissner plexus formed of nerve cells
and fibres.
3. Muscularis: It is composed of outer longitudinal
and inner circular smooth muscle fibres which are
in spirals. Between these two layers of muscles is
a thin layer of connective tissue having a network
of nerve cells and nerve fibres of the autonomic
ganglionated myocentric Auerbach plexus.
4. Visceral Peritoneum or Serosa: It is the outermost
thin layer which lacks in the oesophagus. It is
composed of very much thin connective tissue
layer and an outer layer of flattened cells. It is
continuous with the peritoneum lining of the body
cavity called mesentery.
Certain variations are found in different parts
of the alimentary canal because the above said
layers, particularly the mucosa, become greatly
modified in different parts of the alimentary canal
to enable that part to carry on certain specific
functions.
Digestive
glands:
Liver
 Functions of liver:
1. Production of bile juice: It is watery & alkaline fluid. It
contains bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, lecithin and
water. Bile salts are bicarbonate, glycocholate and
taurocholate of sodium. Bile pigments are bilirubin &
biliverdin.
2. Carbohydrate protein and fat metabolism
3. Deamination:
4. Protection: Kupffer cell
5. Detoxification:
6. Hematological function:
7. Storage:
8. Heat production:
9. Production of heparin
10. Synthesis of thromboplastin and Fibrinogen
 Physiology of Digestion
Frog is carnivorous (insectivorous). The
prey is captured by the action of tongue
and swallowed without mastication.
The food becomes lubricated by
mucous secreted by mucin gland.
(Salivary gland is absent). When the
food reach to stomach the chemical
digestion starts.
In stomach:
The gastric glands present on stomach
wall secrete HCl and the Pepsinogen
enzyme.
The food is mixed with HCl, which kills
bacteria and softens the hard food.
The pepsinogen is inactive enzyme. But
in presence of HCl, it becomes active
and then it is called Pepsin which digests
protein into proteases and peptones.
Pepsinogen → Pepsin.
Protein +Pepsin→ Proteoses and
Peptones
After then, food becomes creamy
fluid called chyme. From the pyloric
constriction, the chyme slowly
moves towards duodenum.
In Duodenum
The food is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice.
Bile: It is alkaline juice secreted by liver. It
neutralizes the acidic food and emulsifies the fat.
Pancreatic Juice: It is also a kind of juice secreted
from the pancrease. It contains following
enzymes
Trypsinogen: In presence of enterokinase it is
converted into trypsin and the trypsin digests the
protein into peptones and polypeptides.
Trypsinogen → Trypsin.
Protein + Trypsin → Peptones and Polypeptides.
Amylase: It digests the carbohydrate into maltose.
In Ileum
The food is thoroughly mixed with intestinal juice
in ileum, some enzymes are as following.
Peptidase (Digests peptides into amino acids),
Sucrase (Digests sucrose into glucose),
Maltase (Digests maltose into glucose),
Lactase (Digests lactose into glucose) and
Nucleotidase (Digests nucleic acid into
nucleotides).
Absorption of food: Absorption is a
process by which digested food is taken
into blood. The final products of proteins
(amino acids) and carbohydrates (glucose)
pass into blood capillaries of intestine.
The final products of fats (fatty acids &
glycerol) pass into lymph vessels or
lacteals. Absorption may be passive or
active or both. In active absorption, there
is spend small amount of energy.
Egestion: It is the process
by which the undigested
food is passed outside. The
semisolid undigested food
or faeces pass outside
through cloacal aperture.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF FROG
Respiration can be defined as a process by which
living beings obtain oxygen to oxidize their
reserve digested food in order to release energy.
Due to amphibious mode of life shows different
mode of respiration. Respiration in frog takes
place in following four ways:
1. By Gills (Gill Respiration)
2. By Skin (Cutaneous Respiration)
3. By Bucco-pharyngeal cavity (Bucco-pharyngeal
Respiration)
4. B y Lungs (Pulmonary Respiration)
1. Gill Respiration: The tadpoles of frog live
completely in water and respire by gills. They
possess gills for aquatic respiration. The gills are
richly supplied with blood capillaries and
gaseous exchange take place.
2. Cutaneous Respiration: Frog respires through
skin mainly during hibernation and aestivation
period. The skin is always kept moist by the
mucus and water. Its skin is also richly supplied
with blood capillaries. Atmospheric air comes in
contact with skin & dissolves in water or mucus
on skin. O2 is diffused into blood capillaries
where it reacts with hemoglobin and forms a
loose compound, the oxyhaemoglobin. O2 is
used by the cells and resulting CO2 is produced
and is carried by the blood to the skin where it
diffused into the water or mucus & passed out.
Hb + O2 → HbO2
3. Bucco-pharyngeal Respiration: The
mucus lining of the buccal cavity is
richly supplied with blood capillaries
and remains moist by the mucus. The
mouth & glottis remain closed during
buccalrespiration. The floor of the
buccal cavity is alternately raised and
lowered so that air drawn into &
expelled out of the buccal cavity
repeatedly through the nostrils.
The contraction of sternohyal muscles
brings about the lowering of floor and air
enters the buccal cavity through nostrils.
In the buccal cavity air dissolved in the
mucus and its oxygen diffuses into the
blood capillaries and CO2 diffused out
from the blood into buccal cavity. Now,
the petrohyal muscles contract to raise
the buccal floor so that the foul air is
expelled out through the nostrils.
 Contraction of sternohyal muscles
↓
Lower down of buccal floor
↓
Area of buccopharyngeal cavity increases
↓
Fresh air enters the buccal cavity through nostrils
↓
Gaseous exchange take place in buccopharyngeal cavity
↓
Contraction of petrohyal muscles
↓
Raise the buccal floor
↓
Area of buccopharyngeal cavity decreases
↓
Foul air is expelled out through the nostrils
 4. Pulmonary respiration:
Frog respires by lungs when it lives on land. This type of
respiration is known as pulmonary respiration. When the
frog is more active during swimming, leaping, and jumping
its oxygen requirement is increased, such increased amount
of O2 is maintained by pulmonary respiration. The organs
concerned in the pulmonary respiration are:
1. External nares
2. Nasal passage (chamber)
3. Internal nares
4. Bucco-pharyngeal
5. Glottis
6. Laryngotracheal chamber
7. Bronchi
8. Lungs
1. External nares: A pair of opening lie
between the eyes and snout is known as
external nares. Usually it is always open. Air
is inhaled and exhaled through these
opening.
2. Nasal passage: The space between external
and internal nares is called nasal passage.
3. Internal nares: A pair of small opening is
found in between the maxillary and
vomerine teeth on the roof of buccal cavity
known as internal nares.
4. Bucco-pharyngeal cavity: The space
between upper and lower jaws is
known as buccal cavity. The buccal
cavity and the pharynx in frog is
considered together, known as
buccopharyngeal cavity. Air is passed
into lungs through buccal cavity.
5. Glottis: A slit like opening present in
the middle and floor of pharynx is
known as glottis. It leads into
laryngotracheal chamber.
6. Laryngotracheal Chamber: It is a small thin
walled, rounded chamber formed by the
combination of larynx and trachea. Larynx is
a small sac whose walls are supported by
two arytenoid and one cricoid cartilages.
Cricoid cartilage is a slender ring
surrounding the larynx. The arytenoid
cartilages are a pair of semilunar valves,
which rest upon the cricoid cartilage. Their
upper edges form the lateral margins of the
glottis. They afford attachment to muscles
by which glottis may be opened or closed.
The true sound producing organs are a pair of
elastic bands, the vocal cords, extending
longitudinally across the larynx. Their median
edges are thickened and lie near each other in
the middle line. Sound is produced by the
expulsion of air from the lungs which set the free
edges of the vocal cords in vibration. Vibrations
in the sound are caused by altering the tension
on the cords through the action of laryngeal
muscles. The vocal apparatus of the male frog is
much larger than that of the female. Vocal sacs
found only in male frog serve as resonators to
increase the croaking sound produced by the
vocal cords.
7. Bronchi: The laryngotracheal chamber
communicates with lungs through a pair of small
tubes called bronchi.
8. Lungs: The lungs are oval, thin walled, soft,
spongy and pink coloured organs. They lie on
either side of the heart in the body cavity. Each
lung is covered externally by the peritoneum.
Internally, the surface of each lung is divided by
a series of irregular septa into a large number of
small air sacs called alveoli which increases the
respiratory surface of lungs. It is covered by
epithelium. The walls of the alveoli are richly
supplied with blood vessels.
 Circulatory system of frog:
The distribution of the digested food,
metabolites, hormones and respiratory
gasesto various parts of body through blood is
called circulation. The circulatory system of
frog consists of:
1. Blood vascular system
2. Lymphatic system
Blood vascular system: It consists of heart,
blood vessels and blood.
 Heart:
Heart is a dark red coloured, muscular and
somewhat conical or triangular structure situated
ventrally to liver in the body cavity. Heart is
covered by double walled membranes known as
pericardium; outer is the parietal pericardium
and inner is the visceral pericardium. The space
present between these two membranes is called
pericardial cavity which is filled with pericardial
fluid. It protects the heart from mechanical
injuries, moist and provides frictionless
movement of heart.
 Dorsal view of heart:
On the dorsal surface of the heart,
there is a thin walled triangular sinus
venosus attached with it. The sinus
venosus opens into the right auricle.
The sinus venosus is formed by the
fusion of two precavals and a
postcaval.
 Ventral view of heart:
On the ventral surface of heart, there
is a tubular truncus-arteriosus
attached with it. Truncusarteriosus
arising from right side of ventricle. It
runs obliquely forward and divides
into two main branches, aortic
trunks.
 Internal structure of heart:
Internally, heart of frog is three chambered with
two auricles and one ventricle. The two auricles
(right and left) are separated from one another
by a longitudinal inter-auricular septum. The
right auricle is larger than left auricle. In the right
auricle close to the septum there is a transverse
oval opening called sinu-auricular aperture which
is guarded by two lips like sino-auricular valves.
One valve is arising from the dorsal edge and
other from ventral edge.
These valves prevent the back flow of the
blood. In the left auricle slightly close to the
inter-auricular septum, there is a small
opening of pulmonary vein which has no
valves. The pulmonary veins lack of valves
because blood forcely return from lungs. The
two auricles open into a single ventricle by
auriculo-ventricular apertures which are
provided with two pairs of auriculo-ventricular
valves. Both valves are provided with fibrous
chordae tendinae. The chordae tendinae join
the valves to the wall of ventricle in order to
prevent the back flow of blood.
The ventricle is a thick walled muscular
structure, which open into the truncus-
arteriosus. Internally, the wall of ventricle is
much folded forming columnae cornae. The
opening of the ventricle to truncus arteriosus is
guarded by three semilunar valves. The
semilunar valves divide the truncus into two
parts long proximal part conus arteriosus or
pylangium and a short distal part bulbus
arteriosus or synangium. Conus arteriosus is
further divided into cavum aorticum and cavum
pulmocutaneum. The truncus arteriosus is
divided into two aortic trunks. Each aortic trunk
divides into three opening; carotid arch,
systemic arch and pulmocutaneous arch.
 Working mechanism of heart:
The blood is pumped to different parts of the body by the
contraction of the muscular walls of the heart. One
complete sequence of contraction and relaxation of the
heart is called heartbeat. Contraction of heart is called
systole while its relaxation is known as diastole. One
complete systole and diastole forms a cardiac cycle. The
heart of frog is myogenic as the wave of contraction
originates in the heart muscle. On the dorsal wall of the
sinus venosus there is a nodulated structure called Sinu
Auricular node (SA node). It is known as pacemaker
because it initiates heartbeat. A wave of contraction
originates from SA node and spread throughout the heart
in the muscle fibers and ends at the truncusarteriosus.
The heart of frog beats at the rate of 20-25 times per
minutes.
First the sinus-venosus contracts and
deoxygenated from various parts of body
except lungs is pushed into the right
auricle through sinu-auricular aperture. At
the same time, the left auricle receives
oxygenated blood from lungs through
pulmonary veins. Both auricles contract
together and forcing the blood into
ventricle through auriculo-ventricular
aperture. Now, ventricle contracts and
blood is pumped into truncus arteriosus.
 Old view:
According to Bruke (1858), the
ventricle contracts and pumped the
blood into truncusarteriosus. First of
all deoxygenated blood enters into
pulmocutaneous arch and then
oxygenated blood into systemic and
carotid arch. This sequence is
maintained by the spiral valve.
 Modern view:
According to Vandervael (1933) and
Foxon (1953), the blood is
completely mixed in the ventricle
and the mixed blood is distributed
through the common carotid,
systemic arch and pulmocutaneous
arch to all parts of the body.
Blood vessel
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Frog shows sexual dimorphism i.e. male and
female frog can easily distinguish. The male frog is
generally smaller than female. The male frog
possesses copulatory pad and vocal sacs.
Male reproductive system: The Male reproductive
system consists of testes, vas efferentia, seminal
vesicles and urino-genital ducts (ureters
1. Testes: It is a paired, yellowish coloured and oval
organ, lying ventral to the kidney. They remain
attached to the outer edge of the anterior portion
of kidney. It is encircled by the peritoneum which is
known as mesorchium.
Internally, each testis consists of a mass of
seminiferous tubules which held together by
connective tissue. Connective tissue contains blood
vessels and nerves. A large number of intestinal cells
are also found in the connective tissue which secretes
a male sex hormone, the testosterone. The
testosterone develops the secondary sexual
characters like copulatory pads and vocal sacs. Each
seminiferous tubule is lined by a layer of germinal
epithelium which produces sperms or spermatozoa
by meiosis division. The sperm consists of a small
rounded anterior acrosome, a long cylindrical head
containing nucleus, a short middle piece containing
centrioles &mitochondria, and a much elongated
posterior motile tail.
Vasa efferentia: All the seminiferous
tubules in a testis are connected to form
10 to 12 narrow ducts called vasa
efferentia. These run through
mesorchium and enter the inner margin
of kidney to open into the Bidder’s canal.
The Bidder’s canal is connected to the
collecting tubule of kidney through
transverse ducts and then the collecting
tubule leads into ureter.
Seminal vesicle: Urino-genital duct is slightly
enlarged after emerging out from the kidney,
it is known as seminal vesicle. It helps in
temporary storage of spermatozoa until
needed.
Urino-genital duct (Ureter): A tubular duct
arises from each kidney is known as ureter. It
runs posteriory and open into the cloaca. It is
called urino-genital duct because it carries
both urine and sperms