UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

COLLEGE FOR DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING

DIFFERENTIATED PLANNING AND LEARNING

FOR UPPER PRIMARY

(UNITS 1-3)
UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM
PLANNING

INTRODUCTION

The first Unit of this course is in six sections. Section one looks at: The concept of learning,
section two: differentiated learning; section three, Learning styles and learning strategies;
section four, the concept, nature and relationship between the curriculum and syllabus; section
five, curriculum terminologies; and section six, Basic components of the primary school
curriculum and the syllabus

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Unit you should be able to demonstrate understanding in the:

• concept of learning,
• differentiated learning;
• learning styles and learning strategies;
• nature and relationship between the curriculum and syllabus;
• curriculum terminologies;
• basic components of the primary school curriculum and the syllabus

UNIT 1 SECTION 1: THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING

Introduction
Dear reader, you are welcome to this interesting subject in education. Learning as
a concept is central to the life of every student. As a teacher, you already have prior
knowledge on the concept of learning which will form a strong foundation for
discussions in this unit. You therefore do not have to entertain any fear or doubt so
far as this unit is concerned. Hope you are ready? Good!
Objectives
By the end of the section, you should be able to:
• Explain the concept learning
• Mention at least three issues involve in the definition of learning

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 • State at least five characteristic features of learning
• State at least five factors that affect learning
• Explain at least two means for promoting learning

Meaning of Learning
The concept learning has different definitions to different people. Some people see
learning as a process while others see it as a product or an outcome. Learning as a
process describes how the acquisition of experience (knowledge, skill, information
or idea) leads to learning. Learning as a product describes the end result of the
acquired experience which is a change in behaviour. Literally, learning can be
explained as;
• Being able to do what you could not do before.
• The process of acquiring new knowledge, skill, attitude or information.
Learning is believed to be the process by which we use our senses, experience,
memory and intelligence to acquire much behaviour, many habits, and customs, all
values, knowledge and skills, both mental and muscular. It also comprises the
process by which we modify, refine, extend or develop – what we know or can do.

Basic Philosophical Definitions of Learning

Some basic definitions as cited by (Anyagre & Dondieu, 2007)
Marx (1971) as a behaviourist defines learning as “a relatively enduring
(permanent) change in behaviour which is a function of prior behaviour or
experience”,

Wittock (1977) belonging to the cognitivist tradition sees learning as “a process of

acquiring a relatively permanent information, ability and skill through experience.

Chauhan (1991) defines the concept learning as the means to bring changes in the
behaviour of the organism.

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Gagne (1977) puts it as “a change in human disposition or capability which persists
over a period of time and which is not simple ascribable to processes of growth”.

B.F. Skinner “a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of

experience.”
In general, however, all known definitions of learning seem to point to the fact that
“it is a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience”.
This is in agreement with the most popular definition suggested by Kimble (1961),
which says learning is “a relatively permanent change in behaviour potentiality that
occurs as a result of reinforced practice”.

Issues Involved in the Definition of Leaning

(Nature/Features/Implications of Learning)
i) Kimble’s definition of learning raised some issues and emphasizes some
attributes of learning as a process and a product. Learning has a beginning
(teaching) and an end (response) that makes it a process. The product of learning is
the change in behavior that is relatively permanent.

ii) Learning must involve a change in behaviour. That is, learning must always be
indexed by an overt change in behaviour. This means that after learning, the
organism is able or must be capable of doing something that he/she could not do
before the learning experience or activity.

iii) The behaviour change is relatively permanent; that is, neither transitory nor
fixed, e.g. changes in behaviour as a result of fatigue, drugs, maturational processes,
(ability to walk) cannot be attributed to learning.

iv) The change in behaviour need not occur immediately following the experience
although there may be a potential to act differently. This potential to act may not
be translated into behaviour (observable) immediately.

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v) The change in behaviour should result from experience or practice. MeGeoch
(1982) for example defines learning as “a change in behaviour or performance
which comes under conditions of practice” and Thorpe (1986) stated that learning
is “that process which manifests itself by adaptive changes in individual behaviours
as a result of experience”. The practice component, however, cannot be used as a
sole criterion for differentiating learning from all other processes, which are
capable of producing changes in behaviour.

vi) The experience or practice must be reinforced (rewarded or punished); this is,
only those responses that lead to reward will be learned. This, however, cannot be
said to apply to all learning because some learning can occur without reinforcement
or reward
Characteristic of learning
There are important features which we can observe and say that learning has indeed
occurred. These include the following:
• Learning is an ability hidden in an individual, which we observe in
behavioural change. In other words, after learning, an individual
must be capable of doing something that he could not do before
learning took place.
• Robert Gagne (1970) captures this vividly in his definition of
learning when he states: “A learning event takes place when a
stimulus situation affects the learner in such a way that his
performance changes from a time before being in that situation on
a time of being in it”. Learning is therefore considered as a
construct, an idea or image the presence of which cannot be directly
observed but can be inferred from change in the learner’s
performance.
• Learning has a beginning (for example the teacher teaching) and an
end (the pupil’s response).

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 • Learning is latent or hidden in us and therefore can only be inferred
but cannot be seen.
• Learning is observable in that even though it is an internal act
(covert) it is observed through the individual’s overt response.
• Learning is relatively permanent. In other words, it is neither
transitory nor fixed (for example illness, fatigue or the effect of
drugs or maturation are all temporary. Stone (1927) and Beach
(1942) demonstrate that the compelling behavior in male adult rats
is due to maturation and not learning.
• The change in behavior need not occur immediately following the
learning experience though there may be the potential to act
differently. The potential to act may not be translated into
observable behavior immediately (e.g. the ability to spell correctly
or a football player learning through films).
• Learning is an interaction with experience or practice. In other
words, there is always a response to index the overt change in
behavior. Hence, MC Geoch and Irion (1982) define learning as “a
change in performance which come under conditions of practice”.
Thorpe (1956) also views learning as “that process which manifests
itself by adaptive change in individual behaviours as a result of
experience”.
Activity 1.1
Mention three issues involve in the explanation of learning according to B, F.
Skinner
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Activity 1.2
Explain the concept learning in your own words

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I hope you did not encounter any difficulty? Right. Let us continue with our
discussion.

Factors that Affect or Impede Learning

The factors ranges or are characterized by heredity, congenital and environmental
factors
1. Inattention: Some pupils do not pay attention when lessons are
going on. When this happens the learner may not be able to follow
what is being taught. This inattention makes it difficult for the
learner to understand what has been taught.
2. Insufficient opportunity for practice: for the learner to learn a
particular material well he/she needs to be exposed to that material
several times after the first encounter. If the learner does not revise
or practice what he/she has been taught, retrieving the information
will become a problem.
3. Weak cognitive ability of the pupils: children with weak
intellectual ability may have problems with their learning and this
may leads to their poor performance in class.
4. Fear created by the teacher: pupils get frightened if teachers do
not show love or affection to them. The use of corporal punishment
by some teachers has affected pupil’s concentration in class. This
retards their progress in learning.
5. School environment: A good environment i.e. classrooms,
furniture, teaching/learning material, influence children to initiate
their own learning.
6. Socio- economic factor: existing literature shows that children from
deprived background experience lower school achievements than
their counterparts from enriched background. Specific points to

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 consider are housing and number of facilities in the child’s home,
parental interest and encouragement etc.
7. Intelligence
8. Maturation and Readiness
9. Emotion
10. Peer group influence.

How to Promote Learning

Teachers can promote learning through:
1. ensuring the attention of pupils
2. breaking learning tasks into smaller units and proper sequencing
(task analysis)
3. the use of instructional materials
4. the use of concrete examples and relating learning to everyday life
experiences
5. Providing practice/ exercise and regular assessment of activities.
Activity 1.3
What is the overall purpose of learning?
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Give five factors that affect learning

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How will you promote learning among your students? Give me two ways

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………………………………………………………………………………………
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Answers to Activity 1.1

• Learning as a process and a product. Learning has a beginning (teaching)

and an end (response) that makes it a process. The product of learning is the
change in behavior that is relatively permanent.
• Learning must involve a change in behavior. This means that after learning,
the organism is able or must be capable of doing something that he/she
could not do before the learning experience or activity.
• The behaviour change is relatively permanent; that is, neither transitory nor
fixed, e.g. changes in behaviour as a result of fatigue, drugs, maturational
processes, (ability to walk) cannot be attributed to learning.
• The change in behaviour need not occur immediately following the
experience although there may be a potential to act differently. This
potential to act may not be translated into behaviour (observable)
immediately.
• The change in behaviour should result from experience or practice.
• The experience or practice must be reinforced (rewarded or punished)
Answers to Activity 1.2
Your explanation must involve “relative permanent change in behavior”
Answers to Activity 1.3

a. The overall purpose of learning is change in behavior

b.
Intelligence
Maturation and Readiness
Emotion
Peer group influence.

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Inattention
Fear created by teachers
C.
Breaking learning tasks into smaller units and proper sequencing (task analysis)
Use of instructional materials
Use of concrete examples and relating learning to everyday life.
Summary
Learning had been defined as relatively permanent change of behavior.

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UNIT 1 SECTION 2: DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING
Introduction
Hello learners. I hope you enjoyed the first lesson. This lesson is a follow up of the
previous lesson. I promise you will enjoy this more than the previous one.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate understanding of differentiated learning
• State at least two reasons why differentiated teaching is necessary

DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING
Differentiated Instructional Strategies: One Size Doesn't fit All, stated that teachers
can no longer teach "the lesson" and hope that everyone gets it. Differentiated
learning shows that students prefer instruction in various modalities. They learn in
a variety of ways and have different interest. Some pupils prefer learning with
visual aids, others by talking in groups or with a partner, others by listening to
instruction; while others learn by doing and being physically involved (Kellough
1999) as cited in Gregory & Champman, 2007). Differentiated Instruction is the
new word and most school districts want teachers to be trained with this approach
and want to see it implemented in their schools.
Differentiation is a philosophy that enables teachers to plan strategically in order to
meet the needs of the diverse learner in today's classroom (Gregory & Champman,
2007).
When teachers recognise the diversity of the learners in our classrooms and
provide for their diverse learning needs in our planning and instruction, we
differentiate the curriculum. (Braggett, 1997) as cited in (Youd, 2013)

Activity 2.1
What is the philosiphy behind differentiation?

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All “children are dependent upon their teacher for provision of appropriate
academic challenges [in the classroom]. Gifted students, by virtue of their
advanced intellectual capabilities may be even more dependent upon the
teacher to provide for their specific academic needs.” (Kesner, pp. 222, 2005)
as cited in (Youd, 2013)

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Activity 2.2.
State two reasons that account for differentiation
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Answers to Activity 2.1.
Differentiated learning shows that students prefer instruction in various modalities.
They learn in a variety of ways and have different interest. Some pupils prefer
learning with visual aids, others by talking in groups or with a partner, others by
listening to instruction; while others learn by doing and being physically involved
(Kellough 1999) as cited in Gregory & Champman, 2007).
Answers to Activity 2.2.
• There exist diversity among learners in the classroom
• Learners learn in a variety of ways
• Learners have different interest
Summary
Differentiated Instruction is the new word and most school districts want teachers
to be trained with this approach and want to see it implemented in their schools.
Differentiation is a philosophy that enables teachers to plan strategically in order to
meet the needs of the diverse learner in today's classroom (Gregory & Champman,
2007).

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UNIT 1 SECTION 3: LEARNING STYLES AND LEARNING
STRATEGIES
Introduction
Hello, Dear student, I hope you have begun developing interest in the subject. I
believe you have found the exercises very helpful. This section also presents an
interesting topic for our study. Get yourself ready for action.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Identify the VAK learning style
• State at least two characteristics each of learners who use any of the learning
styles
• Identify at least three techniques teachers can use to explore, develop and
enhance each learning style
The VAK learning style
The VAK learning style uses the three main sensory receivers: Visual (V), Auditory
(A), and Kinesthetic (K) to determine the dominant learning style among a learning
group. Learners use all three modalities to receive and learn new information and
experiences. The original VAK concepts were first developed by psychologists and
teaching (of children) specialists such as Fernald, Keller, Orton, Gillingham,
Stillman and Montessori, starting in the 1920's.

Visual (V) Learners

Visual learners learn through seeing, think in pictures and need to create vivid
mental images to retain information
AUDITORY (A)
Auditory learners learn through listening. Auditory learners tend to benefit most
from traditional teaching techniques. Many teachers use a lecture- style forum,
presenting information by talking to their students.

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Kinesthetic and Tactile learners
These type of learners usually learn through movement of parts of the body. They
prefer using their limbs to experience information through; touch, manipulation,
feeling, kicking, breaking and fixing etc

Activity 3.1
What is VAK learning style?
………………………………………………………………………………………
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Behaviour characteristics of learners

Characteristics of visual learners

• They enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos, and movies.
• They have visual skills which are demonstrated in puzzle building, reading,
writing, understanding charts and graphs, a good sense of direction,
sketching, painting, creating visual metaphors and analogies, manipulating
images, constructing, fixing, designing practical objects, and interpreting
visual images.
• One major characteristics of Visual Learners is; "Show me and I'll
understand." These students will value to-do lists, assignment logs, and
written notes. Many of these techniques, however, also benefit kinesthetic
learners.
• Can visualize how things look from a different perspective
• Enjoy visual games such as jigsaw puzzles, and mazes
• Have appreciation of the arts

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Characteristics of auditory learners
• Have highly developed auditory skills and are generally good at speaking
and presenting
• Think in words rather than pictures
• Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
• Listening to what others have to say
• Auditory learners succeed when directions are read aloud, speeches are
required, or information is presented and requested verbally.
• Auditory learners often talk to themselves.
• They also may move their lips and read out loud.
• They may have difficulty with reading and writing tasks.

Auditory learners have skills demonstrated in

❖ Listening
❖ Speaking
❖ Storytelling
❖ Explaining
❖ understanding the syntax and meaning of words, remembering
information
❖ Arguing their point of view, and analyzing Language

• Characteristics of Kinesthetic learners

❖ Learn through moving, doing and touching
❖ Express themselves through movement
❖ Have good sense of balance and eye- hand coordination
❖ Remember and process information through interacting with the
space around them
❖ Find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted
by their need for activity and exploration
Kinesthetic learners have skills demonstrated in:

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 ❖ Physical coordination
❖ Athletic ability
❖ Hands on experimentation
❖ Using body language
❖ Crafts, acting, miming, using their hands to create or build
❖ Dancing, and expressing emotions through the body.
❖ Quite good at “ do-it-yourself” projects

Activity 3.2
State three (3) behavior characteristic of;
I. Learners who learn best through visual impulses
II. Learners who use aural learning style
III. Tactile learners
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Techniques that you can use to help students develop, explore, and enhance
their learning strengths.

For visual learners

Encourage visual learners to:
❖ Use graphics to reinforce learning.
❖ Colour code to organise notes and possessions
❖ Use colour to highlight important points in text
❖ Illustrate ideas as a picture before writing them down, ask for
written directions.
❖ Use flow charts and diagrams for note taking, visualise spelling of
words or facts to be memorised.

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For Auditory Learners
• Use the Socratic method of lecturing by questioning learners to draw as
much information from them as possible and then fill in the gaps with you
own expertise.
• Include auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups, or Jeopardy.
Leave plenty of time to debrief activities. This allows them to make
connections of what they leaned and how it applies to their situation.
• Have the learners verbalize the questions.
• Develop an internal dialogue between yourself and the learners.
One or two of these receiving styles is normally dominant. This dominant style
defines the best way for a person to learn new information by filtering what is to
be learned.
Encourage auditory learners to:
❖ Read aloud.
❖ Recite information to learn.
❖ Use tunes or rhymes as mnemonic devices
❖ Read aloud and tape test questions or directions.
❖ Use verbal analogies and storytelling to demonstrate their point.

For Kinesthetic Learners

Encourage kinesthetic learners to:
❖ Make models or role play to physically experience learning.
❖ Skim through reading material before reading it in detail.
❖ Annotate text and write questions while reading.
❖ Translate information into diagrams or other visual study tools.
❖ Memorise or drill while moving
Activity 3.3
Describe three (3) ways you will employ as a teacher to improve the learning style of;

a) Visual learners
b) Auditory learner

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 c) Kinesthetic learner
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Answers to activity three (3)

Activity 3.1
The VAK learning style uses the three main sensory receivers: Visual (V), Auditory (A), and
Kinesthetic (K) to determine the dominant learning style among a learning group. Learners use
all three modalities to receive and learn new information and experiences.

Activity 3.2
I).
• They enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos, and movies.
• They have visual skills which are demonstrated in puzzle building, reading,
writing, understanding charts and graphs, a good sense of direction,
sketching, painting, creating visual metaphors and analogies, manipulating
images, constructing, fixing, designing practical objects, and interpreting
visual images.
• Can visualize how things look from a different perspective
II)
• Have highly developed auditory skills and are generally good at speaking
and presenting
• Think in words rather than pictures
• Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
III)
• Crafts, acting, miming, using their hands to create or build
• Dancing, and expressing emotions through the body.
• Quite good at “ do-it-yourself” projects

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Activity 3.3.
I)

• Use colour to highlight important points in text

• Illustrate ideas as a picture before writing them down, ask for written
directions.
• Use flow charts and diagrams for note taking, visualise spelling of words or
facts to be memorised.
II)
• Include auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups, or Jeopardy.
Leave plenty of time to debrief activities. This allows them to make
connections of what they leaned and how it applies to their situation.
• Have the learners verbalize the questions.
• Develop an internal dialogue between yourself and the learners.
III)
• Make models or role play to physically experience learning.
• Annotate text and write questions while reading.
• Translate information into diagrams or other visual study tools.
Summary
Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic are the VAK learning styles the visual learners
best using their eyes/vision. The auditory/aural learners rely mostly on their ears
for learning whiles the Kinesthetic learners draw their learning experiences using
their limbs through manipulations, breaking, fixing and etc. teachers are to identify
the various learners in their classrooms by their learning styles and differentiate
their lessons to meet the various learning needs to satisfy the principles of Universal
Design for Learning.

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UNIT 1 SECTION 4: THE CONCEPT, NATURE AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS
Introduction
Dear learner, I hope you enjoyed reading the materials in section three. Good! We are going to
look at another wonderful topic. It is simply going to be on the nature of curriculum and its
relationship with syllabus. Please sit back and enjoy your reading.
Objectives
By the end of this section you will be able to;

• demonstrate understanding of nature of the curriculum

• state at least four characteristics of curriculum
• list and explain at least five curriculum terminologies
• demonstrate understanding of the basic components of the primary school curriculum and
syllabus

The Nature of the Curriculum

The concept “Curriculum”
Curriculum is a veritable tool for attaining the educational goals of a nation
(Offorma, 2016). Curriculum, like many social science concepts, defies a single
accepted definition (Addai-Mununkum, 2020). Various authors have attempted at
different times to define or describe what it means. Interestingly, it is one concept
that is used very often in education but users convey different understanding of
term any time they talk about it.
The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word “currere” which means “to
run” or a “race course”. Whereas people run for different reasons, as used in this
context “currere” translates literally to mean running a circular athletic track
(Leask, 2003). John Dewey similarly likened curriculum to a route over which one
travels. By this metaphor, the student is a traveler, the teacher is a guide, and
knowledge is a map – (Dewey 1902) as cited in Kliebard, 1982). Much later, Cicero
extended the term to associate with curriculum vitae that means “the course of one’s
life “(Su, 2012, p. 163) as cited in Addai-Munumkum, 2020).

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It appears reasonable to accept the roots of curriculum as running on athletic course
for some semblances between the two. First, in athletic race, there is a start point
and an end point. Participants need to follow strict rules associated with
participating in the race such as starting when the signal is given, and staying in
assigned track for the entire race, such features seem to hold true for curriculum.
Every curriculum has a start pint and an end point. Students are admitted to
programmes and they are made to stay in that programme with limited opportunities
to crisscross between disciplines. When likened to a path as Dewey suggested,
curriculum working as a means of delivering education becomes evident as it
becomes indispensable to ignore a path that will take a person to their destination.
From these roots, several scholars have suggested different definitions for the term
curriculum. Here are a couple of them:
• Bobbit (1918): curriculum that series of things which children and youth
must do and experience by way of developing abilities to do the things well
that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects what adults
should be.
• Bell (1971): the offering of socially valued knowledge, skill and
attitudes made available to students through a variety of
arrangements during the time they are at school, college or
university.
• Caswell and Campbell (1935): curriculum is composed of all of the
experience children have under the guidance of the teacher
From these three definitions we see varied conceptualizations of the
term.
Whereas Bobbit considers curriculum to be things that ought to be
done, Bell consider it as experiences. It in fact, there are as many
definitions of curriculum as there are scholars in the field. For this
plethora of definitions, some scholars have attempted to categorize
the definitions using schemata they propose. Let us look at two of
such categorizations:
• Descriptive vs. prescriptive

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 • Broad, midway narrow
Descriptive vs. prescriptive definitions
A sizeable number of curriculum scholars perceive the concept curriculum in
descriptive versus prescriptive terms. Prescriptive definitions provide us with what
“ought” to happen, and they more often than not, take the form of a plan, an
intended program, or some kind of expert opinion about what needs to take place
in the course of study (Addai-Munumkum, 2020).
After a doctor diagnoses an ailment, he prescribes what to do to feel better or heal
from the ailments. It is as similar understanding that prescriptive definitions exhibit.
Some definitions of curriculum suggest what ought to happen in school. Here are
some examples
• Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must
do and experience by way of developing abilities to do the things
well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects
what adults should be (Bobbi, 1918)
• Curriculum is a sequence of potential experiences set up in the
school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group
ways of thinking and acting Smith (1957)
• Curriculum is all planned learning outcomes for which the school is
responsible (Popham Baker, 1970)
• Curriculum means the planned interaction of pupils with
instructional content materials, resources, and processes for
evaluating the attainment of educational objectives (Indiana Dept.
of Education, 2010).
You might observe form these four definitions that they are
prescribing a means of production. Smith mentions potential
experience, whereas the other two mention planned learning and
interaction between individuals and resources available. They key
idea here then is that, curriculum is what ought to happen in the
school.

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 Conversely, another group of definitions are more descriptive in
nature. Descriptive definitions go beyond the prescriptive terms “not
merely in terms of how things ought to be…………… but how
things are in real classroom” (Ellis, 2004). Prescribing does not
guarantee that expectations will be met. Thus, some definitions
describe the reality of learner’s experiences in schools. Here are
some examples:
• Curriculum is composed of all of the experiences children have
under the guidance of the teacher (Caswell Campbell 1935).
• Curriculum is all experiences of the child for which the school
accepts responsibility (Rogan, 1960).
• The curriculum is al of the experiences that individual learners have
in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals
and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a
framework of theory and research or past and present professional
practice (Hass, 1980).
• Al student’s school experiences relating to the improvement of skills
and strategies in thinking critically and creatively, solving problems,
working collaboratively with others, communicating well, writing
more effectively, reading more analytically, and conducting
research to solve problems (Brown, 2006).
What is common with these four definitions is their descriptive
nature. The term experience appears in all the definitions,
corroborating the suggestion that descriptive definitions describe the
experiences of students.
Interestingly another set of definitions can comfortably be described
as prescriptive- descriptive. They do not neatly belong to any one of
the afore discussed categories, but they appear to combine the tenets
of both. Simply put, prescriptive descriptive definitions suggest that
the term curriculum includes both the plans made for learning and
the actual learning experiences provided. Here are some examples:

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 • Curriculum refers to the programme, a plan, content, and learning
experiences (Oliva, 1989)
• Curriculum is a goal or set of values, which are activated through a
development process laminating in classroom experiences for
students. The degree to which those experience are a true
representation of the envisioned goal or goals is a direct function of
the effectiveness of the curriculum development efforts (Wiles
Bondi, 1989).
• The curriculum is the plan made for guiding leaning in the schools
usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of
generality, and the actualization of those plans in the classroom, as
experienced by the learners and as recorded by a n observer, those
experiences take place in a learning environment hat also influences
what is learned – (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitebead, Boschee, 2018,
p.5).
It might come clear to you at this point that these set of definitions
include elements that suggest curriculum as something to be done,
and at the same time providing elements of learning experiences. It
is for the inclusion of both foci in the definitions that we describe
them as prescriptive descriptive definitions.
Activity 4.1
In your own words explain the concept curriculum
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………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….

Tamakloe’s categorization

26
Tamakloe (1992), having studies a number of definitions of curriculum proposed
a typology of Narrow, Midway and broad definitions of curriculum.

Narrow definitions
Definitions of curriculum are said to be narrow when they include some elements
that may be considered educationally relevant. Educationally valuable experiences
are not only learnt in classrooms. Interestingly there are some definitions that seem
to suggest curriculum as comprising learning that happens in the classroom. Here
are some examples:
• The curriculum must consist essentially of disciplined study in five
great area:
1) Command of mother tongue and the systematic study of grammar,
literature, and writing
2) Mathematics
3) Sciences,
4) History,
5) Foreign language (Bestor, 1956)
6) Curriculum is the content pupils are expected to learn (smith and
Orlouskey, 1978)
• Curriculum is a course of study to be taught to students in an
educational institution (McNeil, 1985)
Interestingly, a significant amount of values adults’ exhibit are
learnt in school, yet only a few of them are directly taught through
instructions. To consider curriculum as content that is taught
students in classrooms means that joining debate clubs or
undertaking excursion are not part of the curriculum. This is too
myopic a view of curriculum. Any such definition that limits
curriculum to class instruction is too narrow.

Broad definitions

27
Another set of definitions are considered broad by Tamakloe (1992). A definition
is considered broad when it suggest the inclusion of experiences and activities that
may not be considered as educationally worthwhile or relevant to learners. Such
experiences may be mis-educative or non-educative. Although aiming to transmit
what is valuable, by their very nature, schools create opportunities for the
incubation for some negative values, such elements that we term mis-educative
elements include: stealing, vandalism, drug abuse, truancy, alcoholism and illicit
sexual practices. Surprisingly some definitions in attempting to describe
curriculum, open up for mis-educative elements to be considered part of the school
curriculum. Consider these definitions.
• Curriculum is what goes on in schools and other training institutions
(Mathews, 1989)
• Curriculum is a way and manner of preparing young people to
participate as members of our society (Taba, 1962)
Definitions such as these are too broad. For instance, Matthew’s
definition of “what goes on in schools” implies that mis-educative
elements such as: stealing, vandalism, cheating, drug abuse et
cetera, are part of the school curriculum, similarly, Taba’s (1962)
definitions suggesting curriculum as a way and manner of preparing
young people opens up curriculum to be great but the process
leading to the attainment of desired results potentially will include
mis-educative elements which we do not want to consider as part of
curriculum.

Midway definitions
Perhaps the most preferred definitions are those Tamakloe (1992) classifies as
midway. Midway definitions strike a balance between mis-educative elements and
educationally valuable experiences of students in school. Midway definitions are
preferred because
1. They define curriculum to exclude mis-educative elements, and

28
 2. They define curriculum to include all educationally valuable
experiences.
Here are some examples
• The curriculum is all of the learning of students which is planned b
and directed by the school to attain its educational goal (Tyler,
1957).
• Curriculum embodies al the teaching learning experiences guided
and directed by the school (Harnack, 1968)
• Curriculum is the sum total of all educationally valuable experiences
that learners undergo under the guidance of a school (Adentwi,
2005).
The definitions are not too broad because they limit experiences in
school to only those that are valuable and for which the school
sanctions. They are not narrow either because every educationally
valuable activity appears to be accounted for under these definitions.
Thus we describe definitions such as these as midway.
Activity 4.2
List and explain Tamakloe’s categorization of curriculum
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Characteristics of curriculum
Whereas curriculum from varied contexts will differ in terms of their structure,
scope and purpose, it is reasonable to expect that they exemplify some common
features. Let us look at some of these generic traits for curriculum.

Informed by societal needs:

Every curriculum developed is based on the needs of society. Curriculum should
reflect broad social values and a country’s aspirations. Curriculum is relevant in so
far as it is effective at transmitting societal ideals, histories, skills, culture to the

29
next generation. It stands to reason therefore that is what society needs that ought
to be included in the curriculum.
Occasional news reports about individuals and groups making suggestions for the
inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum are therefore justified. They go to
attest whenever society sees a need, they expect that school curriculum will make
room for the transmission of knowledge values and attitudes that will solve such
societal needs.
Facilitates the transmission of educationally valuable content
In the above we explained why it is important for definitions of curriculum to guard
against mis-educative elements. It is important to do so because curriculum should
transmit only educationally valuable content. Curriculum exist to provide
opportunities for persons to be developed into useful persons in society.
Consequently, experiences provided for such development to happen must be
valuable to society. As curriculum happens both inside and outside of classrooms,
whatever content is transmitted whether through subjects-physics, social studies,
Twi, English, Geography – or complementary activities like clubs, field trips,
leadership opportunities- the underlining principle is that, it ought to be valuable.

Holistic in nature
Curriculum offers opportunities for the holistic development of an individual.
Consequently, such means of development should themselves be holistic. By
holistic, I mean the development of the mind, the heart and the hand. Curricula that
are effective at his will provide learning experiences to facilitate the development
of cognitive, affective and psychomotor abilities of learners. This is why it is
dangerous for learning to be restricted to classroom discourse. Students need
opportunities to do physical activities and also learn social habits such as
cleanliness, courtesies, perseverance, collaborative skills among others.
Continuously evolves
Consequent to society being the basis for curriculum, it is expected that curriculum
will evolve as the needs of society changes. Society is dynamic.

30
What was valuable a decade ago is less valuable today. New opportunities arise
daily for different needs. For instance, Ghana’s discovery of oil has necessitated
the need for workers who can work in the oil industry. Prior to the discovery, Ghana
had no need of curriculum on crude oil. Similarly, technology revolution has
necessitated the introduction of ICT as a subject which hitherto was not needed. As
the needs of society changes, curriculum ought to transform as well. International
best practices require that curricula are revised every five years in response to this
need.

Arises out of broad-based consultation

Curriculum is developed through broad based consultation. Society is made up of
different subgroups who are all stakeholders in education.
Parents, government, teacher, learners, religious groups, ethnic groups et cetera,
have different expectations for learners. Consequently, any attempt to develop a
curriculum should be consultative enough to include the views of majority of
stakeholders. Such consultations should aim at consensus building to the extent that
no group feels disconnected from the content to be learnt in schools. If such
consultations are ignored, the curriculum develop will be rejected and might not
see implementation. The uproar that greeted a guideline for comprehensive sexual
education is evidence to this fact. Curriculum is democratically conceived and
ought to involve a number of key stakeholders.
Provides varied opportunities for leaning
Consequent to the need to provide holistic development of learners, curriculum is
characterized by providing different opportunities for learning, classrooms are
heterogeneous environments because individuals there are different. Some students
are visual learners whereas others learn through listening. Their abilities also differ
and so do their skills. To accommodate the needs of such diversities, curriculum
provides varied learning experiences within and outside of classrooms to make
learning happen. Undertaking field trips is an example of how a lesson on trees can
happen inside and outside the classroom to satisfy the learning needs of different
individuals.

31
Activity 4.3
List five characteristics of curriculum
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

1.4 Curriculum Terminologies

Curriculum as a field of study has its own concepts and terminologies. It is a truism
that terminologies associated with curriculum are not only used by specialist in the
field, but also, lay persons in social conversations import and use some of these
concepts. Unfortunately, some of these terms are misused and misapplied. Others
misconstrue the original intended meanings, generating some confusion after a
period of consisted misused. Understanding these terminologies is key towards
making meaningful inferences and conclusions in discussions around curriculum.

Official curriculum
As we learnt earlier, every social group has an expectation for their younger
generation. With schools gradually taking over the responsibility of cultural
socialization, states assume the responsibility of deciding what and how students’
study at the basic level of their education.
Consequently, states define their ambition and expectations for tis learners in an
official curriculum.
Official curriculum is therefore “a set of formal documents which specify what the
relevant national education authorities and society expect that students will learn at
school in terms of knowledge, understanding, skills, values, and attitudes to be
acquired and developed, and how the outcomes of the teaching and learning process
will be assessed” (UNESCO, 2013). It is the structured plan for learning I the school
setting that are designed at the national/state level, transmitted through the chain
for implementation at the school level.

32
For these features, official curriculum is also described as intended curriculum,
recommended curriculum, and explicit curriculum, overt and written curriculum. It
is called intended because it embodies the intended expectations of society for its
learners. Since official curriculum always terminologies used to refer to official
curriculum.
Official curriculum is usually written as a bigger document containing the purpose
and rationale for the curriculum, as well as curriculum framework(s) and guides,
syllabi, teachers’ guides, content of test and examinations, regulations, policies and
other official documents.
Another significant feature of official curriculum is the sequential nature in which
content and learning areas are organized. The standards based curriculum in
kindergarten through primary schools in Ghana in 2019 is an example of official
curriculum.

Actual curriculum
When official curriculum is written k, the expectation is that it will be implanted
fully to derive the intended ends. However, real life situations and factors come to
pay during implementation, and for which the order, scope and form of official
curriculum may be altered. It is not uncommon to witness two different classrooms
implement the same curriculum differently at a given point in time. Actual
curriculum is therefore the reality of learner’s experience of official curriculum in
action. It is what an observer will see in action as they visit a school, in terms of
what students are learning and how they are being made to learn.
Some well-resourced schools in big cities might have learners whose knowledge
base is too advanced and consequently will be bored if teachers stick to the
recommended Curriculum. Conversely, a school in the hinterlands might have
learners who come in with weak foundations and as a results are unable to
demonstrate mastery of the background knowledge needed to facilitate teaching of
new content in the intended curriculum in such situations, an observer might see
learners in the city schools learning content that is ahead of their grade, whereas
learners in the under0resourced schools learning content below their grade. In all

33
these instances, the reality of learner’s experiences or the actual curriculum is their
learning of content a year ahead or below their grade.
Representing this mathematically, (as my mathematics students suggested to me)
we can say that actual curriculum is equivalent, but to always equal to the official
Curriculum. Factors responsible for the difference could be conscious or
unconscious. Teachers decisions to switch the order in which topics are treated,
skip topics at times for lack of competencies, may be described as conscious
whereas natural occurrences occasioning loss of contact hours can be described as
unconscious. In Ghana, a major factor that accounts for diversity in learner’s
curriculum experience is teaching to the test or wash back effect. Wash back effect
is the way in which testing or examinations influence teaching and learning and
might shape the curriculum by under concentration on the form, content and focus
areas of the test or examination (UNESCO, 2013). Actual curriculum is also
referred to as Curriculum in use or implemented curriculum.

Formal curriculum
Formal curriculum is a derivative of official curriculum but not exactly the same.
It can be confusing to distinguish between official and formal curriculum hence,
some students use the term interchangeably. When official curriculum is handed
won, schools by way of implementing make significant additions to restructure it
in to a formal curriculum. Formal curriculum is therefore the translation of official
curriculum plus the addition of other activities into a regular school plan.
For instance, Islamic basic schools in Ghana have a shorter school session on
Fridays in order to free Muslims to participate in Friday Jumma. Such arrangements
mean some extended days could be arranged so that students do not miss out on
some periods. Other schools might add additional periods in the morning such as
morning prep and regularize them on the school timetable. Other activities like
singing, library, Sunday/Saturday worship might find spaces on the school
timetable because of a particular schools’ arrangement. The structured plan of
learning as it happens in a given school is termed formal curriculum.

34
Formal curriculum can be equal to official curriculum when the latter is
implemented in toto without any modification. However, in a lot of cases, formal
curriculum in toto without any modifications. However, in a lot of cases, formal
curriculum is more encompassing than official curriculum. The formal curriculum
of most international schools in Ghana is not the same as the official curriculum
because mostly, such schools run both British GCE and Ghanaian WASSCE
curricula. Other schools might include cursive writing, world geography and
computer coding as subjects on the timetable whereas these subjects are not in the
official curriculum.
Co-curriculum & extra curriculum
Co-curriculum or informal curriculum refers to activities and learning experiences
that complement what students learn from official and /or formal curriculum.
Unlike official curriculum, co-curriculum is less structured and very flexible in its
implementation. School activities like sports clubs, and cadet are all co-curricular
activities. Similarly, prefectorial system of schools, entertainment nights, senior
service in the dormitories are all part of the co-curriculum. In effect, any
educationally worthwhile learning experience that takes place in a school but
outside the classroom, and which potentially facilitates a better appreciation of
content learnt in the classroom in part of a schools’ co-curriculum.
A lot of co-curricular activities target the affective domain of learning. Through
participating in such activities, students acquire soft sills such as honesty, grit,
discipline, humility, time consciousness, integrity et cetera. Such values will be
hard to teach in a subject of study or a discipline of learning. Similarly, learning in
the co-curriculum is not necessarily imparted by the teacher. Other actors in the
school environment like colleague students and other non-teaching staff can
facilitate learning, informal curriculum is not graded. Learners only acquire
certificates of appreciation when they demonstrate exceptional achievement sin
these areas of learning.
Co-curriculum is sometimes erroneously viewed as extra-curriculum but there is a
thin line of difference. Unlike co-curriculum, extra curriculum refers to additional
activities students engage in that do not necessarily complement their learning in

35
school. Extra curriculum does not have educational goals as intended outcomes.
For instances, students line up the street to wave at a political leader is an extra-
curriculum. While some might argue that such experiences teach them patriotism,
the actual intent is to show loyalty and appreciation to political leaders. Similarly,
a teacher using students as cheap labour on his farm its extra-curriculum. While we
cannot rule out some learning happening through this exposure, the original intent
that drives this activity is to serve the needs of a teacher and not that of students.
However, a teacher taking students to his farm in order to teach them some concepts
in Agriculture can perfectly be described as co-curriculum. To really differentiate
between co and extra curriculum, the original intent for which the activity was
planned ought to be clearly understood.

Hidden curriculum
Hidden curriculum is the unofficial norms, behaviors and values that teachers teach
and students learn at school. They are practices that are directly or indirectly
transferred by the school culture or ethos, and which are not necessarily a product
of conscious intention (UNESCO, 2013). In other words, hidden curriculum is the
learning which lie outside the intentional efforts of a school. It arises out of the
nature and organizational structure of a school system that affords certain cultures
to emerge. Learning via hidden curriculum is unconsciously done and for this, it is
also called covert curriculum. Some all-girls high schools in Ghana groom their
students to be lady like. In undertaking this noble addenda, such girls may over
extend lady like behaviors to include bring unnecessarily flexy and adapting a slag
in their speech. Similarly, when a school overly emphasizes academic excellence,
students could create a culture of unhealthy competition which will eventually stifle
their collaborative skills. Students who graduate such schools might struggle to
work in a team.
Hidden curriculum is very impactful, most educators pay little attention to it. A lot
of public perception about products of a school is largely informed by the hidden
curricula of those schools. The believed that “teachers teach the way they were
taught” is ample demonstration of the power of hidden curriculum. Although

36
teachers might not intend to be teaching learner how to teach, students inadvertently
learn how the teacher teachers, including their mannerism.
When teachers punish students when they tell the truth about doing something bad,
they indirectly teach students to nicely craft lies in order to escape punishment.
Dishonesty can easily be learnt through the hidden curriculum of schools.

Absent curriculum
Absent curriculum which is also referred to as the null curriculum was propounded
by Elliot Eisner. He defined it as “…….the options learners are not offered, the
perspectives they may never know about, much less be able to use, the concept and
skills that are not part of their intellectual repertoire”. Curriculum development is a
political activity because it is borne out of contestations by various stakeholders to
include or excludes certain forms of knowledge. Consequently, for every content
that tis included in the curriculum, possibility exist that an equivalent content was
rejected. This is very much the case in subjects like history where a historical
account could be rejected because of the ideological orientation of the author. The
decision to include in religious and moral education (RME), only lesson from
Christianity, Islam and African Indigenous Religion (AIR) raise questions about
the absence of content from other minority religions such as Eckankar, Judaism,
Buddhism, et cetera.
While there could be valuable knowledge in the content that is reject, learners are
denied the opportunity to learn from these less popular religions. Such content that
do not make their way into the official curriculum is referred to as Null or Absent
Curriculum. The decision to exclude Apo festival from the social studies
curriculum renders it a null curriculum to the Techiman/Wenchi communities who
celebrate the festival and consider learning about is a worthwhile experience. While
genuine constraints such as time and space, lack of resources, and lack of
knowledge about other content could influence the emergence of absent curricula,
it is also caused by ideology and the quest by powerful groups to subjugate
knowledge about marginalized groups in order to render their knowledge as
illegitimate (Apple, 1993; Pingel, 2010) as in Addai-Mununkum, 2020)

37
Activity 4.4
State and explain two curricular terminologies you are aware of.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..

Other Emerging Terminologies

Attained curriculum
It refers to the knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes that learners actually
acquire as a results of teaching and learning, assessed through different means and
/or demonstrated in practice. Official curriculum recommends but consequent to
the mediation done by official curriculum recommends but consequent to the
mediation done by official and actual curriculum, students might demonstrate less
or more of knowledge skills and attitudes they were intended to have. Attained
curriculum is the scope of official curriculum that students are able to demonstrate
mastery of. It may differ from the intended and the implemented curriculum when
students although might have experienced all the components of the official
curriculum can only demonstrate competency in a fraction of the learning
outcomes. The section for which they demonstrate mastery refers to the attained
curriculum.

Standards-based curriculum
Standards based curriculum is directed towards mastery of predetermined
standards. In contrast to objective based curriculum which targets students’
knowledge to measure success, standard based curriculum sets pre-determined
standards and measure success of learning if learners achieve those standards.
Objective based models will have a single medium for measuring attained
curriculum but with standards based, learners can demonstrate their attainment in
varied ways.

38
Within a standards based curriculum, content standards refer to what learners are
expected to know and are able to do in various subject areas.
Performance standards specify what levels of learning are expected and assess the
degree to which content standards have met (UNESCO, 2013).

Competency based curriculum (CBC)

Curriculum is described as competency based when it is designed around a set of
key competences/competencies, the attainment of which might not necessarily be
through the medium of one learning area or subject.
UNESCO (2013) defined CBC as curriculum that emphasizes the complex
outcomes of a learning process (i.e. knowledge, skills and attitudes to be applied by
learners) rather than mainly focusing on what learners are expected to learn about
in terms of traditionally defined subject content. In competency, based curriculum,
the emphasis is on the knowledge, skills attitudes to be demonstrated. Competency
based curriculum is very appropriate for programmes that seek to train learners for
a particular job like teaching, nursing, medical practice etc. Learners are taken
though a holistic programme that will yield an outcome of competency on the part
of the learner. In CBC, learning activities and environments are chosen so that
learners can acquire and apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes to situations they
are likely to encounter in everyday social/professional life.

Curriculum strands
Strands in curriculum discourse are used to indicate:
➢ The disciplines within a learning area, e.g. history, geography, economics
and civics under social studies, each with its own associated goals for
learning;
➢ Domains that group the related general and specific learning outcomes or
achievements aims and objectives within a particular learning area or
discipline (UNESCO, 2013). In other words, it refers to the broad
areas/sections of the subject content to be studied. For instance, a math

39
 curriculum could have number and operations’, algebra’, geometry’,
measurement’, and ‘statistics and probability’.
It is the structural elements of the curriculum, designating in such a way that content
is organized for the purpose of planning for student learning. Sub strand are the
subgroup of domains of a learning area.

Content standards
Content standards are benchmarks or specifications of what all learners are
expected to know and are able to do within a particular field of study, discipline or
subject at different grade levels, ages or other criteria.
It is the “pre-determined level of knowledge, skill and/or attitude that a learner attains by a set
stage of education” (NaCCA, 2019). For instance, a pupil in class three should be able to read and
comprehend Basic English sentences. This is a content standard based on which evaluation can be
conducted to determine the success or failure of the curriculum. Content standards should be
written in clear, detailed and compete sentences. It should be reasonable in scope; rigorous and
scientifically correct. To facilitate the clarity of content standards, indicators may be given in the
curriculum. Indicators are “a clear outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year
to meet the content standard expectation”

Activity 4.5
Explain the following emerging curricular terminologies

a. Competency based curriculum (CBC)

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................

b. Standards-based curriculum (SBC)

40
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Basic components of the primary school curriculum and the syllabus

Content

Content refers to the information to be learnt in schools. Curriculum content simply implies the
totality of what is to be taught in a school. The content of a subject matter includes organized
knowledge, terms, information, facts, rules, principles, methods, concepts, decisions, phenomena
and the issues related to the same subject matter (Ghoorchian, 1995). Content selection is a very
tedious job. The knowledge worldwide may be very essential for the development of learners.
However, the duration of studies will not permit the curriculum planners to include everything. As
a result of that curriculum planners select content that will reflect the society needs and desires. If
subject matter appropriate to course goals are diligently collected, there would be far more material
than could be used in the allotted class and course time frame (Hoshiko, 1988).

Content standards

Content standards are benchmarks or specifications of what all learners are expected to know and
be able to do within a particular field of study, discipline or subject at different grade levels, ages,
or other criteria. For instance, a learner in basic three should be able to read and comprehend Basic
English sentences. To facilitate the clarity of content standards, indicators may be given in the
curriculum. Indicators are a clear outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year
to meet the content standard expectation (NaCCA, 2018). Content standards can also be seen as
broad descriptions of the knowledge and skills students should acquire in a particular subject area
(National Research Council, 1997). Thus, content standards are not simply a list of important
knowledge and skills. Rather, they are a “vision of what . . . curriculum should include in terms of

41
content priority and emphasis. Content standards should provide a coherent structure to guide
curriculum and instruction” (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995:20). In this part of the curriculum the
teachers and the students finds a description of the central content of every subject matter that must
be addressed in teaching.

Indicators and Exemplars (Learning Experiences)

Indicators refer to the minimum outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year to
meet the content standard expectation. The indicator represent the minimum expected standard
expectation. Exemplars are support and guidance which clearly explain the expected outcomes of
an indicator and suggest what forms teaching and learning activities could take to support teachers
in delivery the curriculum (NaCCA, 2018).

Assessment and Evaluation Practices

Assessment plays a critical role in the successful implementation of the curriculum. Assessment
is a process of collecting and evaluating information about learners and using the information to
take decision on learners. Assessment in education generally refers to a process for obtaining and
interpreting information that is used for making decisions about learners, curricula, programmes
and educational policy (NaCCA, 2018). Evaluation is done for the formal determination of the
quality, effectiveness or value of the programme, process, and product of the curriculum. It is the
last component of the curriculum, yet, a crucial part that give life to the curriculum and prevents
it from staying outmoded.

Activity 4.6

List four (4) basic component of the primary school curriculum

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Answers

42
Activity 4.1
Your answer should include: All planned or unplanned activities, academic or non - academic
activities organized in groups or individual, in or outside the school under the direct supervision
of the school

Activity 4.2
Narrow definitions
Definitions of curriculum are said to be narrow when they include some elements
that may be considered educationally relevant. They include course, subjects or
discipline of study. Eg, English Language, History, Mathematics etc….
Broad definitions
A definition is considered broad when it suggest the inclusion of experiences and activities that
may not be considered as educationally worthwhile or relevant to learners. Such experiences may
be mis-educative or non-educative. Eg what goes on in the schools (learning, eating, stealing,
fighting)

Midway definitions
Midway definitions strike a balance between mis-educative elements and
educationally valuable experiences of students in school. Midway definitions are
preferred because they define curriculum to exclude mis-educative elements, and
The definitions are not too broad because they limit experiences in school to only
those that are valuable and for which the school sanctions. They are not narrow
either because every educationally valuable activity appears to be accounted for
under these definitions.

Activity 4.3

43
 • Informed by societal needs
• Facilitates the transmission of educationally valuable content
• Holistic in nature
• Continuously evolves
• Arises out of broad-based consultations
• Provides varied appropriate for learning

Activity 4.4

I. Official curriculum
Official curriculum is therefore “a set of formal documents which specify what the
relevant national education authorities and society expect that students will learn at
school in terms of knowledge, understanding, skills, values, and attitudes to be
acquired and developed, and how the outcomes of the teaching and learning process
will be assessed” (UNESCO, 2013). It is the structured plan for learning I the school
setting that are designed at the national/state level, transmitted through the chain
for implementation at the school level.

II. Actual curriculum

When official curriculum is written k, the expectation is that it will be implanted
fully to derive the intended ends. However, real life situations and factors come to
pay during implementation, and for which the order, scope and form of official
curriculum may be altered. It is not uncommon to witness two different classrooms
implement the same curriculum differently at a given point in time. Actual
curriculum is therefore the reality of learner’s experience of official curriculum in
action. It is what an observer will see in action as they visit a school, in terms of
what students are learning and how they are being made to learn.

Activity 4.5

a. Standards-based curriculum

44
 Standards based curriculum is directed towards mastery of predetermined
standards. In contrast to objective based curriculum which targets students’
knowledge to measure success, standard based curriculum sets pre-determined
standards and measure success of learning if learners achieve those standards.
Within a standards based curriculum, content standards refer to what learners
are expected to know and are able to do in various subject areas.
B. Competency based curriculum (CBC)
Curriculum is described as competency based when it is designed around a set of
key competences/competencies, the attainment of which might not necessarily be
through the medium of one learning area or subject. It is the curriculum that
emphasizes the complex outcomes of a learning process (i.e. knowledge, skills and
attitudes to be applied by learners) rather than mainly focusing on what learners are
expected to learn about in terms of traditionally defined subject content. In
competency, based curriculum, the emphasis is on the knowledge, skills attitudes
to be demonstrated. Competency based curriculum is very appropriate for
programmes that seek to train learners for a particular job like teaching, nursing,
medical practice etc. Learners are taken though a holistic programme that will yield
an outcome of competency on the part of the learner. In CBC, learning activities
and environments are chosen so that learners can acquire and apply the knowledge,
skills and attitudes to situations they are likely to encounter in everyday
social/professional life.

Activity 4.6

• Indicators and examplars (Learning experiences

• Content standards
• Content
• Assessment and Evaluation practice

Summary

45
All too soon this session has come to a successful end. The session looked at: the concept
curriculum, characteristics of curriculum, terminologies in curriculum studies, emerging
terminologies, and the component of the primary school curriculum.

46
UNIT 2

PATTERNS AND CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF A

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRIMARY CURRICULUM

Introduction

This unit introduces you to patterns and criteria for selecting basic components of a
developmentally appropriate primary school curriculum. The unit will help and equip you with
requisite skills and knowledge in selecting curriculum which is age appropriate. This will help you
to better interpret the curriculum to the understanding of all learners.

Objectives

By the end of this section each learner will be able to:

• Describe the primary school curriculum

• State the principles for the selection objectives

• The criteria for selection of content, learning activities and experience

• State the criteria for selection of assessment procedure

• Distinguish among activity curriculum, integrated curriculum and emergent curriculum

47
UNIT 2 SESSION 1: THE NATURE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Introduction
Dear reader, you are welcome to this interesting topic. This section introduces you
the nature of the primary school curriculum. As teachers you already have advanced
knowledge on the concept of curriculum which will form a strong foundation for
discussions in this unit. I am sure that you will enjoy the session to its fullest.

Objectives
By the end of this session, learners will be able to:
• Discuss the nature of the primary school curriculum
• State the components of the primary school curriculum
• Distinguish learning philosophy and teaching philosophy
• State the aim of the primary school curriculum
• Describe the teaching and learning expectations of the curriculum
• State the core competencies of the curriculum
• Describe the three domains of the curriculum

2.1 Nature of the primary school curriculum

The early grade curriculum is developed for learner in the categories of
Kindergarten to Basic 3. This curriculum seeks to address the challenge of subject
and content overload associated with its predecessor. In doing so, curriculum
developers focus on the essential knowledge and skills that learners need to acquire
during this phase. The Early Years curriculum covers subjects at Kindergarten and
Basic 1 - 3 .Subjects studied at this phase are as follows:

• KG1 - KG2
1. Language and Literacy (using dual immersion approaches) 2.
2. Numeracy

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 3. Creative Arts
4. Our World & Our People (Integrated Themes: History, Religion and Moral
Education, Geography, Science, Physical Education [PE])
• Lower Primary [B1 -B3]
1. Language and Literacy (using dual immersion approaches)
2. Numeracy
3. Creative Arts (Visual, Performing Arts & Life Skills)
4. History
5. . Science
6. Our World & Our People (Integrated Themes: *Religion and Moral
Education, Agriculture, Geography, PE and Computing)
Upper primary (P4 – p6)
The subject studied at the Upper Primary are:
• English
• Mathematics
• Computing
• French
• History
• Our World Our People (OWOP)
• Religious and Moral Education (RME)
• Physical Education (PE)

2.2 Component of the early grade / primary school curriculum

• RATIONALE
The new curriculum for Ghana’s Primary schools is standard-based which is
focused on demonstration of placing learners at the heart of every classroom and
learning situations. The early grade/primary curriculum provides through play and
use of creative learning and teaching approaches and a positive learning
experiences to learners. The first eight years in a human being’s life are the

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formative and the most sensitive and critical years. It therefore requires that the
learning to which they are exposed are appropriate in enhancing their curiosity,
creativity and critical thinking. The kind of physical and psychological
environments that are created, the interactions and the experiences adults have with
these learners must influence and have lasting effects on them. At this stage the
child requires basic needs like nutrition, warmth, health, security, interaction and
stimulation for social, emotional psychological, physical and cognitive
development. It is during this stage that the child establishes learning patterns,
attitudes, personality and a sense of being. Learners generally learn by practice and
this is done naturally and best through play. Learners at this stage are very active,
curious, and explorative and enjoy listening to stories. They learn better in a
positive learning environment, where they feel emotionally and physically safe to
enjoy learning. Therefore play-based learning should be the heart that this
curriculum practices to motivating learners to attend, stay in school and perform
better socially and academically. Play-based learning curriculum will help to
develop the inherent potential of learners and the critical thinking and imagination
skills. This natural tendency should be the basis for designing the curriculum for
the early grades’ category.
An integrated, inquiry and discovery approach to teaching and learning will
promote caring, supportive and committed relationships between teachers and
learners, as well as between learners and their peers. This makes teachers become
more confident in their practice, feel trusted by learners, and can develop better
classroom management and positive discipline practices

• PHILOSOPHY
The Early Years learning curriculum is informed by three main philosophical ideas,
namely the Brain research, Developmental theory and the Social Constructivism.
Firstly, learner’s brain; from birth to ages eight undergoes maximum development.
During this developmental period, the young child’s brain is extraordinarily active,
developing very fast, and this is the optimal time for learning and development for
life. Early years are critical and very important because the experiences a child

50
encounters at that period have a decisive impact on the development of connections
in the brain. During this critical and “sensitive period” of the early years, the child
develops language and literacy skills, physical, psycho motor, cognitive, emotional
control and interpersonal social skills. It is important for every growing child to be
exposed to learning experiences that are positive, appropriate and holistic instead
of fragmented and compartmentalized.

LEARNING PHILOSOPHY
The Early Years learning curriculum is informed by three main philosophical ideas,
namely the brain research, Developmental theory and the Social Constructivism.
Firstly, current international research on brain and neurological development of
children affirms that the early years’ period ranges from birth up to 8 years. It is the
time of maximum brain development. During this developmental period, the young
child’s brain is extraordinary active, and developing very fast; this is the optimal
time for learning and development for life. These early years are critical and very
important because the early experiences that the learner encounters have a decisive
impact on the development of connections in the brain. It is during these critical
and “sensitive period” of the early years that learners develop language and literacy
skills, physical, psycho motor, cognitive, emotional control and interpersonal social
skills. To build a strong foundation for the future of every growing learner, it is
important that the learner is exposed to learning experiences that are positive,
developmentally appropriate and holistic instead of being fragmented and
compartmentalized. Secondly, developmental theories affirm that learners go
through distinct and unique stages in their development as they move through their
early years. Every learner is very unique and develops at their own pace. In
language and literacy development as well as other cognitive skills, learners go
through different stages that are unique. This curriculum identifies the individual
differences and variability in learners’ development and affirms that the differences
would not be seen as deficits and weaknesses. Rather, developmentally appropriate
and rich experiences must be created for learners to help them bridge home and
school experiences. The curriculum will ensure that classroom experiences are

51
made rich and activities are developmentally appropriate to enable our children
blossom and become successful Thirdly, the Early Years as curriculum believes in
social constructivist philosophical notions which emphasize that learners learn
better when they are actively involved in their own learning: learning is a social
and an interactive process, and learners learn better when they interact and share
ideas with adults and other knowledgeable peers around them. The typical
characteristics of the learner at the early years is that they are active, explorers,
builders, extremely curious, and thus learn best when they are involved actively in
their own learning process. For such learners, learning and play are inextricably
linked and as the learner plays and interacts with their peers, they learn better.
Therefore, to promote high quality learning that is functional, meaningful, and
authentic, the growing child needs a safe, warm, nurturing, and welcoming
physical, social, emotional and psychological environment. This is vital because
research affirms that the type of environment created for the child is key to their
successful development and opportunity for a brighter future
Therefore, to promote high quality learning that is functional, meaningful, and
authentic, the growing child needs a safe, warm, nurturing, and welcoming
physical, social, emotional and psychological environment. This is vital because
research affirms that the type of environment created for the child is key to their
successful development and opportunity for a brighter future.

TEACHING PHILOSOPHY
The early grade curriculum teaching philosophy is based on participatory activities,
play-based and child-centred experiences. This must be established in the
classroom to enable learners reflect on their experiences, collaborate and interact
with other peers and adults. Learners must engage actively and connect what they
are learning to their lives daily. Learning must therefore be made functional, with
the use of real life experiences to help the child apply lessons learned to their daily
lives.
Integrated approaches and play methods must be used alongside inquiry and
discovery in delivering the early grade curriculum. To promote critical and creative

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thinking, inquiry and discovery approaches must be used to enable these young
learners solve social problems. Since language development is crucial at this period,
literacy skills will be integrated across the curriculum. This would make these
develop an internal process of inquiry that allows them to think critically and
creatively about their environment and what they are learning. Play is critical for
developing learners’ core skills, which are not only foundational for healthy child
development, but are also building blocks for success in school, especially in the
areas of literacy, numeracy and science.
A child’s brain is not compartmentalized, therefore the child learns better when the
learning is integrated and holistic. At the kindergarten level of the early grade
curriculum, an integrated and thematic approach must be used to integrate the
various subjects and experiences that will be provided to these young ones.
Teachers are encouraged to use experiential teaching and learning methodology to
actively engage learners in their learning processes.
Inclusive and differentiated learning strategies must also be used to connect
learning to the abilities of all learners including learners with special needs.
Interesting and child-friendly digital and ICT programs and software will be
integrated in the learning process to give a hands-on practice for learners to
experience the use of technologies. The rigidly structured and teacher-centred
methods of teaching should be avoided
Activity 2.1
What is differences between teaching philosophy and learning philosophy?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

GENERAL AIMS
The Early grade Curriculum is aimed at developing individuals who are literate,
good problem solvers, have the ability to think creatively and have both the

53
confidence and competence to participate fully in Ghanaian society as responsible
local and global citizens.

SPECIFIC AIMS
The overriding aim for the integrated thematic curriculum is to promote early
literacy and numeracy as well as the requisite social skills that equip young learners
with effective foundational language, literacy and numeracy to enable them:
1. Acquire the six essential skills in language and literacy (phonemic
awareness, concept of print, alphabetic knowledge and phonics,
vocabulary, comprehension, fluency) and use them effectively in
their everyday reading and writing activities, i.e. to communicate
orally, and read fluently with understanding in both the Ghanaian
languages and English and also be able to write.
2. Acquire the basic skills that will assist them decode print thereby
creating love for reading and writing
3. Develop essential numeracy (counting, basic number operations,
shapes, data collection etc.), generic and analytical skills that would
enable them to solve their everyday mathematical problems
4. Develop the appropriate socio-cultural interactive skills that will
assist them communicate knowing what to say to who, how to say it
and when to say it.
5. Develop the spirit of curiosity, creativity, innovation and critical
thinking for understanding and developing themselves, their local
and global environment.
6. Develop the awareness of the effective use of ICT e.g. (digital
literacies, be interested in watching appropriate videos etc.)
7. Develop effective psychosocial skills for long term learning that
would enable them to have a smooth transition in education in later
years.
TEACHING AND LEARNING EXPECTATIONS

54
 ✓ Use play-based learning methods in delivering the curriculum,
providing for experiential teaching and learning to help engage all
learners in their learning.
✓ Prepare and make use of child- friendly instructional materials that
actively engage learners with different learning abilities and
enhance their understanding.
✓ Plan and organise a stimulating environment and print rich learning
materials that support learners’ physical, emotional, social and
intellectual development.
✓ Employ multiple informal assessment methods to gather data about
learners’ abilities to guide teaching and learning and to provide
feedback to both learners and parents.
✓ The instructional practices should encourage learners to use their
senses in a variety of situations to build the skills of observing,
comparing, experimenting, etc. These form the basis for the
formation of positive and practical attitude to life
✓ Central to instructional expectations are the 5Cs, which are key
attributes that need to be developed in all kindergarten learners.
These are:
✓ Self-Confidence
✓ Communication
✓ Cooperation
✓ Curiosity
✓ Concentration

CORE COMPETENCIES

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Core competences describe a body of skills that teachers a must pursue to develop in their learners.
The competences describe a connected body of core skills that are acquired throughout the
processes of teaching and learning. Core competences include the following:

Critical thinking and Problem solving (CP)

Developing in learners’ cognitive and reasoning abilities to enable them to analyse and solve
problems. Learners will be able to analyse and find solutions to problems using their own
experiences. This will allow learners to embrace the problem and take responsibility for their own
learning.

Creativity and Innovation (CI)

This competence will help learners to develop an entrepreneurial skill that requires imagination,
(ingenuity of ideas, arts, technology and creativity. Learners will be able to think independently
and create solutions to address problems.

Communication and Collaboration (CC)

Learners will be able to use languages, symbols and texts to exchange information about
themselves and their experiences. Learners will actively participate in sharing ideas and engaging
in dialogues. This will be able to boost their listening and speaking skills. They will also learn to
listen, respect, value other people’s views and be able to work together with peers.

Cultural identity and Global Citizenship (CG)

Develop learners to put country and service first by making them understand what it means to be
active citizens. Inculcating in them a strong sense of environmental, social, and economic
awareness, with emphasis on protecting the environment. Learners make use of the knowledge,
skills, attitudes acquired to contribute effectively towards the socioeconomic development of the
country and on the global stage. Build skills to critically analyse cultural trends, identify and
contribute to the global world.

Personal Development and Leadership (PL)

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Improving self-awareness, health, building self-esteem; identifying and developing talents, skills,
of self and others. Also, fulfil dreams and aspirations. It involves recognising the importance of
values such as honesty and empathy; seeking the well-being of others; distinguishing between right
and wrong; fostering perseverance, resilience, and self-confidence; exploring leadership, self-
regulation and responsibility, and developing love for lifelong learning.

Digital Literacy (DL)

Developing learners to discover, acquire and communicate through ICT to support their learning
and make use of digital media responsibly.

Personal Development and Leadership (PL)

Improving self-awareness, health, building self-esteem; identifying and developing talents, skills,
of self and others. Also, fulfil dreams and aspirations. It involves recognising the importance of
values such as honesty and empathy; seeking the well-being of others; distinguishing between right
and wrong; fostering perseverance, resilience, and self-confidence; exploring leadership, self-
regulation and responsibility, and developing love for lifelong learning.

LEARNING DOMAINS (EXPECTED LEARNING BEHAVIOURS)

A central aspect of this integrated thematic curriculum is the concept of three integral learning
domains that should be the basis for instruction and assessment. These are:

✓ Knowledge, Understanding and Application

✓ Language Skills
✓ Attitudes and Values

Knowledge, Understanding and Application

At this stage, learners acquire knowledge through some learning experiences. They may show
understanding of concepts by comparing, summarising, re-writing, etc. in their own words and
construct meaning from instruction. The learner may also apply the knowledge acquired in some
new contexts. At a higher level of learning behaviour, the learner may be required to analyse an
issue or a problem. At a much higher level, the learner may be required to synthesize knowledge

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by integrating a number of ideas to formulate a plan, solve a problem, compose a story, or a piece
of rhyme/poem/music. Additional, the learners may be required to evaluate, estimate and interpret
a concept. At the last level, which is the highest, learners may be required to create, invent,
compose, design and construct. These learning behaviours namely, “knowing”, “understanding”,
“applying”, “analysing”, “synthesising”, “evaluating” and “creating” fall under the domain
“Knowledge, Understanding and Application”.

In this curriculum, learning indicators are stated with action verbs to show what the learner should
know and be able to do. For example, the learner will be able to describe something. Being able to
“describe” something after teaching and learning has been completed means that the learner has
acquired “knowledge”. Being able to explain, summarise, and give examples etc. means that the
learner has understood the concept taught.

Similarly, being able to develop, defend, etc. means that the learner can “apply” the knowledge
acquired in some new context. You will note that each of the indicators in the curriculum contains
an “action verb” that describes the behaviour the learner will be able to demonstrate after teaching
and learning has taken place. “Knowledge, Understanding and Application” is a domain that
should be the prime focus of teaching and learning in schools. Teaching in most cases tends to
stress knowledge acquisition to the detriment of other higher-level behaviours such as applying
knowledge.

Each action verb in any indicator outlines the underlying expected outcome. Each indicator must
be read carefully to know the learning domain towards which the teacher has to teach. The focus
is to move teaching and learning from the didactic acquisition of “knowledge” where there is fact
memorisation, heavy reliance on formulae, remembering facts without critiquing them or relating
them to real world – surface learning – to a new position called – deep learning. Learners are
expected to deepen their learning by knowledge application to develop critical thinking skills and
to generate creative ideas to solve real life problems in their school lives and later in their adult
lives. This is the position where learning becomes beneficial to the learner.

Activity 2.2

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State three (3) verbs that can be used to measure each of these

a. application
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

b. Knowledge
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. understanding
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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UNIT 2 SESSION 2: CRITERIA FOR SELECTING CONTENT STANDARDS

Introduction

Hello! Welcome to this lovely topic. This section is going to introduce you to what to look for
when selecting content standards. Hope you will enjoy every bit of this section.

Objectives

By the end of the session each learner will be able to:

• Demonstrate understanding of content standards

• State at least four criteria for selecting content standards

Content Standards

Content standards are benchmarks or specifications of what all learners are expected to know and
be able to do within a particular field of study, discipline or subject at different grade levels, ages,
or other criteria. For instance, a learner in basic three should be able to read and comprehend Basic
English sentences. To facilitate the clarity of content standards, indicators may be given in the
curriculum. Indicators are a clear outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year
to meet the content standard expectation (NaCCA, 2018). Content standards can also be seen as
broad descriptions of the knowledge and skills students should acquire in a particular subject area
(National Research Council, 1997). Thus, content standards are not simply a list of important
knowledge and skills. Rather, they are a “vision of what . . . curriculum should include in terms of
content priority and emphasis. Content standards should provide a coherent structure to guide
curriculum and instruction” (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995:20). In this part of the curriculum the
teachers and the students finds a description of the central content of every subject matter that must
be addressed in teaching.

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Criteria for selecting content standards

The criteria for selecting content standards are:

• Reflect Key Competencies

It is very essential that the content standard reflect the key competencies stated in the curriculum,
such as cultural identity and global citizenship, critical thinking and problem solving, and
creativity and innovation. This is to ensure that learners achieve certain level of the key
competencies at the end of each strand. For instance with a strand like our nation Ghana, students
will learn cultural identity and global citizenship.

• Guide Instruction

Content standard is related to outcomes, curriculum, and instruction in an organized and

meaningful manner. It should be clearly articulated to ensure that teachers teach to them and all
students meet those standards. Content standards should provide a coherent structure to guide
curriculum and instruction (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).

• Guide Assessment

Assessing learners’ level of achievement, will ensure: equal learning opportunities for all learners;
fair assessment of learners’ levels of achievement; accurate evaluation of the quality to determine
whether learners at a given basic school level are progressing as expected. In a sense, content
standards signal the outcomes that the public, policy makers, and educators consider valuable for
students to exhibit at the end of their schooling.

• Direct Allocation of Resources

This criteria guide the allocation of instructional resources by clarifying the goals of instruction
and motivating the government to identify how to use their resources to achieve these goals
(McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).

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Activity 2.3
State four things you will consider before selecting content standards for a lesson
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT 2 SESSION 3: SELECTION OF CONTENTS; SELECTION OF LEARNING
ACTIVITIES/EXPERIENCES

Introduction

Dear learners, I hope you enjoyed the previous lesson. As a teacher, it is incumbent on you to
prepare your lesson note before instruction. Thus, in preparing your lessons, you have to select
content, learning activities/experiences learners will be exposed to. This session gives you the
factors you will consider when selecting them. I hope you will enjoy this session as well.

Objective

By the end of this session, learners will be able to state at least:

• Four factors to consider when selecting content for a lesson

• Four criteria to fellow when settling on learning activities

Criteria for Selecting Content

Content refers to the information to be learnt in schools. Curriculum content simply implies the
totality of what is to be taught in a school. The content of a subject matter includes organized
knowledge, terms, information, facts, rules, principles, methods, concepts, decisions, phenomena
and the issues related to the same subject matter (Ghoorchian, 1995). Content selection is a very
tedious job. The knowledge worldwide may be very essential for the development of learners.
However, the duration of studies will not permit the curriculum planners to include everything. As
a result of that curriculum planners select content that will reflect the society needs and desires. If
subject matter appropriate to course goals are diligently collected, there would be far more material
than could be used in the allotted class and course time frame (Hoshiko, 1988). The following are
the criteria for selecting content.

Significance

Significance is related to the issue of breath and depth (scope) of curriculum content. Murwa
(2018) is of the view that significance refers to the essentials of content to be learned. It requires
that the content to be learned subscribe to the basic ideas, concepts, principles and generalizations.
The content is significant if it is selected and organized for the developed of learning activities,
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skills, processes and attitude that will help in solving the problem of the country. The content
selected must be able to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum. Additionally, for content to be
significant, it must develop the three domains of learning namely the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills and considers the cultural background of the learners (Alvior, 2015). The
content should meet the needs of the learners and the country as a whole. Also, it must relate to
the discipline to which it belongs. Not only that, it should provide opportunity to understand the
discipline and advance learning (Addai –Mununkum, 2020). For instance, Literacy should include
reading at varied degree of difficulty.

Validity

The term validity implies a close connection between content and the goals which it is intended to
serve. According to Addai -Mununkum (2020) content is said to be valid when it is accurate,
current and relevant to the aims and intended learning outcomes. Validity refers to the authenticity
of the subject matter or content selected. The content taught should be up to date. For example,
include typewriting as a skill to be learned by leaners at primary school is not valid. It should be
about Information, Communication and Technology (ICT). Thus, there is a need to check regularly
the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it if necessary. Modern curriculum
experts are after current trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum; otherwise, the school
or the country becomes obsolete (Alvior, 2015).

Relevance

Relevance means the net societal value of including such content in the curriculum. In other words,
how will society benefit from this content being learnt (Addai –Mununkum, 2020). It is the
importance of content for solving the problems of life, enhancing the learners' subject knowledge,
protection and promulgation of cultural heritage and value system.

Utility

This is another criteria for selecting content. Closely related to importance of the content is
usefulness (useful function of content). This is the usefulness of the content in solving problems
now and in future. It is more important in skill or procedural knowledge, whereby learners can put
what they have learnt into practice. In this context, subject matter of a curriculum should be
selected in the light of its usefulness to the learner in solving his/her problems now and in the

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future. Students think that a subject matter or some subjects are not important to them. They view
it as useless. As a result, they do not study it. Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I
need the subject in my job? Will it give meaning to my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it
solve my problem? Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them. In a
video, that went viral on WhatsApp, a man is seen complaining of how the study of pie chart has
no bearing on his current job, therefore content should be selected based on its usefulness (Addai
–Mununkum, 2020).

Interest

Needs and interests of the learner is an important criteria to consider in selecting content. The
needs and interests of the learners have to be considered in the selection of content, to ensure a
relevant curriculum to the student’s world. To also ensure the students will be more motivated to
undertake the curriculum. The interest of the students should be considered in selecting content
because students learn best if the subject matter is meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if
they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject centred, teachers have no choice but to
finish the facing schedule religiously and teach only what is in the book, this may explain why
many fail in subject sometimes. For instance, learners at the primary level are very curious of how
the came into the world. Therefore, including a topic on child birth may be very appropriate to
satisfy the interest criteria. Content selection should account for learners’ interest either through
the selection of content of specific interest, to the suggestion of appropriate pedagogical strategies
to get learners interested in a particular content (Addai –Mununkum, 2020).

Learnability

For this criteria, the content should be intelligible for the learners and it needs to be within the
limits of their own experiences. One factor in learnability is the adjustment of the curriculum
content and of the focus of learning experience to the abilities of the learners. It must be appropriate
to learners. The knowledge of the students is important to ensure that their background, present
attainment, mental age and set up makes it possible for learners to behave as implied in the
objectives. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how subject
are presented, sequenced and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students. For
Piaget, at pre-operational period, child represents things with words and images, but cannot reason
with logic. Therefore, teachers can ask students to write the number thirty but not to perform

65
mental operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (Addai –Mununkum,
2020).

Feasibility

Feasibility means full implementation of the subject matter. It should consider the real situation of
the school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable
time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish. For
example, you have only one week left to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month
for the students to complete. Thus, this requirement is not feasible. Do not offer a computer subject
if there is no even electricity in the area, or there are no computers at all. Further, feasibility means
that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For example, do not offer Arabic as a
compulsory subject, if there is no teacher to handle it (Addai –Mununkum, 2020).

Self sufficiency

This criterion helps learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical manner or
content selection. This system allows them to learn independently. This implies less teaching effort
and less use of educational resources, to assist students gain more results. This is done when the
students or learners are given the chance to experiment, observe and carryout field study. To help
learners attain maximum self-sufficiency in the most economical manner is the main guiding
principle of subject matter or content selection Bilbao et al. (2008) as cited by Alvior (2015).

Integration

It refers to the relationship among learning experiences which brings about a unified view, and
behavior which is a horizontal relationship which cut across several subjects and the areas of
student’s life. One subject should buttress the other. For instance, what is learnt in mathematics to
solve problems can be used for solving problems in other subjects, as this enhances the transfer of
knowledge.

Activity 2.4

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 1. State five factors to consider when selecting content for a lesson

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Explain the following in relation to selection of contents

a. Utility

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

b. Feasibility

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

c. Learnability

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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 UNIT 2 SESSION 4: CRITERIA FOR SELECTING INDICATORS AND
EXEMPLARS (LEARNING EXPERIENCES)
Introduction
Welcome to another interesting session under this very unit. I believe you enjoyed reading
the previous session. This session also exposes you to the criteria for the selection of
indicator and exemplars. Your previous knowledge on the previous session will be of
tremendous help to assimilate the content of this session. Enjoy your reading.
Objectives
By the end of this session, learners will be able to:

• Demonstrate understanding of the concept “indicators”

• State and explain at least five criteria for selecting indicator

Indicators

Indicators refer to the minimum outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year
to meet the content standard expectation. The indicator represent the minimum expected standard
expectation. Exemplars are support and guidance which clearly explain the expected outcomes of
an indicator and suggest what forms teaching and learning activities could take to support
teachers in delivery the curriculum (NaCCA, 2018). According to Addai –Mununkum (2020) the
following are the criteria for selecting learning experiences.

Criteria for selecting Indicators

Validity
In selecting learning experiences, the learning experience must be holistic to serve the
educational purpose. Learning experience is valid when it related to stated objectives, which
results into change in behavior. For instance, if an objective intends to develop a skill,
situations must be arranged in which the targeted skills can be practice. In Physical
Education, if you want students to learn how to kick a ball. You would need to take them to
the field to enable them practice this skills with a ball, which will ensure that your objective

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is met. If you should teach this in a classroom, it will be difficult if not impossible for them
to achieve the objective set.
Variety
Learners are different and learn, in different ways base on their interest and ability therefore
varied learning experience must be provided to help them comprehend. There are visual
learners who prefer to think in pictures and obtain information through visual means such as
diagrams and videos. Auditory learners who gain information through aural channels such as
verbal discussions and listening to others speech, and kinesthetic learners who learn through
doing. Variety of learning experiences must be provided to cater for learners varied needs. In
teaching, facilitators can use diagrams, images, and audio visual aid to assist learners attain
set outcomes.
Relevance to Life
Educational experience should have an impact on learners’ life now and in the future.
Learning experience must prepare learners for real-life situations in school and in the society
and for the future to help learners understand their society and offer solutions to some
problems of the society. This is where community based resources comes to play. Experience
in real content and situation bring realism to teaching and learning. In this 21st century,
technology cannot be separated from our lives. To prepare learners to become functional in
technology driven society of the present and the future, ICT should be a cross-cutting
variable that embeds all activities. To this end, ICT education should not be the end product.
Rather, it must be used for teaching, examinations, payment of fees and communication
within the school community to make it relevant to life.
Suitability
Experiences are suitable when they appropriate to the general and individual levels of
development of learners. Learning experience must not be too simple nor complex but rather
be suitable for the age or level of the learners. Physical, emotional and cognitive abilities of
learners vary between groups of learners and within a group of learners. For example, even
though asking students to elaborate their responses to questions will help them develop their
critical thinking skills, asking a class 1 student the same question will not be suitable because
he or she is not mentally ready for such an activity. Also, there may be students with physical
challenges in your class, when it gets to activities such as singing, dancing and jumping;

69
those students must be exempted from those activities because they might not be able to
participate. A different activity should be given to them, such as count the number of jumps
of other students or decide which student danced or sung best.
Comprehensive
Experiences provided for learning should not be narrowed to particular ends. Learning
experience must cover all the stated objectives in a lesson; it must range from the simplest
learning experiences to the most complex, covering all the domains of learning. This means
that learning experiences are not fashioned for different distinct domains of instructional
objectives. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for learning experiences that will provide for the
three domains as strategy for multiple learning. A single learning experience should involve
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning, hence it is said to be
comprehensive.
Balance
Schools must provide a basic minimum experience in all major aspects of development of the
learner. When this is not done, there will be an imbalance in the development of the learners.
Experiences should be provided to facilitate the personal needs of learner’s where as others
ought to be provided to satisfy the needs of society. If too much attention is given to personal
needs and demands, the curriculum will not be effective as far as societal needs is concerned,
and vice versa.
Continuity
Learning is a continuous process because every experience has somewhat of an effect on
succeeding ones. When experiences are perceived as discrete and unrelated, students lose any
sense of purpose. It is the recurring emphasis on the learners experience on a particular
element or kind of activities, until mastery is achieved. For example, an aspect of
mathematics is taught from early grade to senior high school to reinforce its concepts. Also,
mathematics is used in our daily lives from buying to selling of goods and services to
weighing of goods. Adults will be able to effectively carry out these activities that require
mathematics when there are offered continuous avenues to learn mathematics.

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 Activity 2. 5
a. In your own words demonstrate the difference between indicator and exemplar
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Explain the following concepts used in relation to criteria for selecting indicators
Suitability
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Comprehensive
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Validity
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

71
UNIT 2 SESSION 5: CRITERIA FOR SELECTING ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
PRACTICES

Introduction

Welcome to another interesting session under this very unit. I believe you enjoyed reading
the previous session. This session also exposes you to the criteria for the selection of
assessment and evaluation. Your previous knowledge on the previous session will be of great
help to the content of this session. Enjoy your reading.
Objective
By the end of this section, learners should be able to

a. Explain the concept assessment

b. State and explain five principles for selecting assessment and evaluation practices
Assessment

Assessment plays a critical role in the successful implementation of the curriculum. Assessment
is a process of collecting and evaluating information about learners and using the information to
take decision on learners. Assessment in education generally refers to a process for obtaining and
interpreting information that is used for making decisions about learners, curricula, programmes
and educational policy (NaCCA, 2018). Evaluation is done for the formal determination of the
quality, effectiveness or value of the programme, process, and product of the curriculum. It is the
last component of the curriculum, yet, a crucial part that give life to the curriculum and prevents
it from staying outmoded.

Principles of assessment

Assessment needs the following principles to guide it:

✓ Test developer must be clear about the performance indicators to be assessed

This involves clearly specifying the intended learning goals and selecting the appropriate
assessment technique, which should be clear, explicit and accessible to all stakeholders, including
learners.

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 ✓ The assessment technique selected must match the performance indicators

The main criterion is whether the procedure is the most effective in measuring learning within the
performance indicators. Assessment tasks should primarily reflect the nature of the discipline or
subject but should also ensure that learners have the opportunity to develop a range of generic
skills and capabilities.

✓ Assessment techniques must serve the needs of the learners

They should provide meaningful feedback to the learners about how closely they are meeting the
demands of the performance indicators. Timely feedback promotes learning and facilitates
improvement and should be an integral part of the assessment process.

✓ Assessment is a goal-oriented process

The assessment task should match the purpose of the subject being assessed. It works best when
the programme being assessed has a clear, explicitly stated purpose.

✓ Good assessments use multiple methods

Multiple indicators of performance provide a better assessment of the extent to which a learner has
attained a given learning target. Assessment needs to be comprehensive. Formative and summative
assessment should be incorporated into the programmes to ensure that the purposes of assessment
are adequately addressed.

✓ Assessment is inherently a process of professional judgment

Proper use of assessment procedures requires that the user is aware of the limitations of each
technique. In interpreting the results of the assessment, these limitations must be considered.
Therefore, all those involved in the assessment of learners must be competent to undertake their
roles and responsibilities.

✓ Assessment is a means to an end

It is not an end in itself but a vehicle for educational improvement. Assessment influences learners’
motivation for learning. The nature of assessment influences what is learned and the degree of
meaningful engagement by learners in the learning process. Learners are, therefore, entitled to
feedback on submitted formative assessment tasks and on summative tasks, where appropriate.

73
The nature, extent and timing of feedback for each assessment task should be clear to learners in
advance.

✓ Assessment should be valid and reliable

Evidence needs to be provided that the interpretations and use of learners’ assessment results are
appropriate and reliable. For assessment to be reliable, it requires clear and consistent processes
for setting, marking, grading and moderating assignments/tests.

✓ Assessment decision-making is influenced by a series of tensions

Competing purposes, uses and pressures result in tension for teachers and administrators as they
make assessment-related decisions. For example, good teaching is characterised by assessments
that motivate and engage learners in ways that are consistent with their philosophies of teaching
and learning and with theories of development, learning and motivation. Most teachers want to use
constructed-response assessments because they believe this kind of testing is best for ascertaining
student understanding. On the other hand, factors external to the classroom, such as mandated
large-scale testing, promote different assessment strategies, such as using selected-response tests
and providing practice in objective test-taking (McMillan & Nash, 2000).

✓ Good assessment appropriately incorporates technology

As technology advances and teachers become more proficient in the use of technology, there will
be increased opportunities for teachers and district and regional education directorates to use
computer-based techniques (e.g. item banks, electronic grading, computer-adapted testing and
computer-based simulations), Internet resources, and more complex, detailed ways of reporting
results. There is, however, a danger that technology will contribute to the mindless use of new
resources, such as using items online developed by some companies without adequate evidence of
their reliability, validity and fairness, and crunching numbers with software programmes without
giving sufficient thought to their weighting, error and averaging.

✓ Good assessment is fair and ethical

Usually, four views of fairness are presented by the Assessment Standards as i) absence of bias
(e.g. offensiveness and unfair penalisation), ii) equitable treatment, iii) equality in outcomes, and

74
iv) opportunity to learn. In assessing learners, the rights and responsibilities of test takers, testing
individuals of diverse linguistic backgrounds, and testing individuals with disabilities or special
needs should be considered. Student knowledge of learning targets and the nature of the
assessments prior to instruction (e.g. knowing what will be tested, how it will be graded, scoring
criteria, anchors, exemplars and examples of performance) is also necessary. In short, good
assessment should be inclusive and promote equity principles. It should ensure that tasks and
procedures do not disadvantage any group or individual. Sound ethical principles should lead to
the recognition of learners as individuals who develop at different paces. Every opportunity must
be given to learners to demonstrate achievement (NaCCA, 2018, pp. 31-33).

Activity 2.6
In your own words explain the concept assessment
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
State and explain five principles of assessment
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

75
UNIT 2 SESSION 6: ACTIVITY CURRICULUM, INTEGRATED CURRICULUM, AND
EMERGENT CURRICULUM

Introduction

Dear reader, you are welcome to the last topic for this Unit. This section introduces
you the activity curriculum, integrated curriculum and emerging curriculum. As
teachers you already have advanced knowledge on the concept of curriculum which
will form a strong foundation for discussions in this unit. I am sure you will enjoy
the session too.
Objectives
By the end of this session you will be able to
a. Discuss what activity curriculum is
b. Explain integrated curriculum
c. Demonstrate understanding of emergent curriculum
Patterns of curriculum
A curriculum can be organized either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal organization means,
that the direction of the curriculum elements is sideways. For example, the subject Social Studies
moves horizontally along history, geography, civics, and culture. Taking contents in Mathematics
and relating these to Science is also an example of horizontal curriculum design. On the other
hand, using a vertical arrangement or sequence of curricular elements follows a vertical design.
For example, in Social Studies content, putting the “family” ahead of the topic “community” is
vertical articulations or in Science the bigger topic on “living things” comes ahead of topics on
“plants” and “animals”. There are several patterns of curriculum organization. For the purpose of
this this lesson we shall discuss the activity, integrated and the emergent curriculum.

Activity based curriculum

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When curricular material is translated in terms of activity, it is known as activity curriculum.
Learning of the prescribed material takes place through activities. Activity is used as a media or
means for imparting knowledge and skills.

Activity based curriculum approach is the greatest motivation, provides freedom of expression to
child ‘himself fully. But activity should not be considered as synonym for play. It is rather a play
way of learning things. The emphasis is on the way and then the activity becomes educative.
Activity includes both physical activity and intellectual activity. A purposeful activity must end
in gainful experience. The school must, therefore, plan its activities in such a way that students
gain mastery on various experiences. Such type of projects should be completed under a
problematic situation in a natural setting.

Characteristics of Activity Curriculum (Ahmed, 2018)

1. Children’s interest determines the educational programme.

3. Activities are planned co-operatively by students and teacher.

4. Problem solving is the dominant method of activity curriculum.

5. Practice and individual assistance are provided as needed.

Advantages of activity bases curriculum (Manickam ,2011; Addai – Mununkun, 2020)

1. Provides learners the opportunity to participate actively in class. This method of instruction
can fulfil the natural urge of a growing child on one hand also can help them learn their lesson.

2. Helps the learner to develop critical thinking skills

3. Learner become creative. It inspires the students to apply their creative ideas, knowledge and
minds in solving problems as well as promoting competitive spirit among them.

4. Promotes cooperation and team-learning

5. The method also promotes better understanding of a lesson among students as they learn the
lesson by practicing the task themselves.

6. It also helps learner psychologically as they can express their emotions through active
participation in something useful.

77
7. The method also helps in developing their personalities, social traits and inter-personal
management skills.

Disadvantages of activity bases curriculum

1. It can lead to waywardness if not properly planned

2. It is very expensive and time consuming

3. It requires well trained and competent teachers for the objective of the method to be fulfilled.
This is because the slightest flaw in the planning will do more harm than good.

Integrated curriculum

An integrated curriculum is described as one that connects different areas of study by cutting
across subject-matter lines and emphasizing unifying concepts. Integration focuses on making
connections for students, allowing them to engage in relevant, meaningful activities that can be
connected to real life ((Integrated Curriculum: Definition, Benefits & Examples, 2015)

This style of curriculum makes it easier for students to make connections and to engage in
relevant activities that can be connected to their own lives. Integration is a matter of degree and
method. There are three ways or approaches to integration - Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary
and Transdisciplinary Integration ( Mezni, 2017)

Multidisciplinary Integration: Teachers who use this method focus primarily on the
disciplines. They use a central theme, and standards from each subject are selected to support the
theme. For example, a unit focused on measurement that met standards in Math, Vocational
/Technical, Home Economics, Arts, and Science would be multidisciplinary.

Interdisciplinary Integration: The interdisciplinary approach supports standards from different

subcategories in one subject area. For example, a unit that integrated reading, writing, and oral
communication would be interdisciplinary. Another example might be a unit that integrated
history, economics, and geography.

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Transdisciplinary Integration: The transdisciplinary approach, is organized around student
questions or a real world topic. A common example of transdisicplinary curriculum is problem-
based learning.

Characteristics of an Integrated Curriculum (Kelly, 2001).

Characteristics of an integrated program includes:

1. Experiences to develop children's attitudes, skills, and knowledge and to help them make
connections across the curriculum
2. Activities that provide for a range of abilities
3. Activities that are both teacher-initiated and directed and child-initiated and directed
4. Whole class, small group, and individual experiences
5. Opportunities for critical and creative thinking
6. Teacher, peer, and self-assessment
7. Opportunities to experience learning as a meaningful whole

Benefits of Teaching with the Integrated Curriculum Model

Teaching with an integrated curriculum has many benefits. Research has found that integration:

• Focuses on basic skills, content, and higher-level thinking therefore helps students to
develop higher -level thinking skills

• Provides a deeper understanding of content

• Encourages active participation in relevant real-life experiences

• Provides connections among various curricular disciplines which is helpful because there
is not enough time in the day to teach everything in isolation.

• Accommodates a variety of learning styles, theories, and multiple intelligences.

• They create a positive and collaborative learning environment.

• They intrinsically motivate students to succeed in real life

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On the other hand, there are arguments against integrative curriculum:

• Lack of time to plan effective units.

• Teachers are reluctant to put the time and effort into changing what they already do in the
classroom to implement something that doesn’t guarantee exceptional results.

• Teacher collaboration: A successful integrative curriculum involves input from teachers

from all different disciplines, such as math, science or social studies. Coordinating
schedules and agreeing on ideas across a variety of teachers is often a difficult task.

Emergent curriculum

Emergent curriculum is a philosophy of teaching and way of planning curriculum. The focus is
on being responsive to children's interests to create meaningful learning experiences. It can be
practiced at any grade level. Activities and projects are planned by teachers based on the specific
group of children they are working with, taking into account their skills, needs, and interests.
Side by side classrooms will look different because of the varying skills, interests, and needs of
the children within those classrooms. The teacher plans according to what she knows about
individuals and the particular group of children she teaches. This philosophy encourages active
participation, relationship building, flexible and adaptable methods, inquiry, and play-based
learning. Curriculum is child-initiated, collaborative and responsive to the children's needs
(Bhargava, 2020).

Key features of emergent curriculum

Emergent curriculum is not a linear process. It is constantly evolving in response to children’s

changing needs and interests, parental and community interests and concerns, and teachers’
priorities. Each of these key elements shapes the direction for future learning.

Emergent curriculum is cyclical. As teachers get to know children and their families they
observe children’s learning, discuss and share ideas with colleagues and families, interact with
children and continue to monitor learning progress and document learning. This process is
repeated continually.

80
Emergent curriculum is flexible and responsive. Teachers plan flexibly with children, as
curriculum is constantly evolving in response to children’s interests, building on children’s
strengths, needs and interests.

Emergent curriculum is collaborative. It provides opportunities for adults and children to

contribute to decision- making processes.

Emergent curriculum makes children’s learning and teacher’s thinking visible. Teachers
document learning with children, colleagues and parents. They engage partners in discussion and
reflection about their learning experiences and document learning through a range of tools to
make the learning process visible. In the process, teachers’ own thinking, planning and decision-
making is made visible.

Advantages or benefits of emergent curriculum (The Key Benefits of our Emergent

Curriculum, 2019)
1. Receiving recognition as agents of their own learning;
2. Participating in opportunities to make choices about and begin to take increasing responsibility
for their learning – thus making it more meaningful to them;
3. Co-constructing purposeful curriculum planning with their teachers builds on their interests,
questions, queries and wonder about the world;
4. Participating in exciting, challenging and motivating learning experiences and developing
opportunities for sustained and focused interest;
5. Engaging in enhanced opportunities for the development of their self-expression, oral
language and creative abilities.
6. Opportunities for authentic participation by parents, families and other partners and
community members, which uses their diverse understandings, capabilities and knowledge;
7. Receiving effective communication about children's learning, and also having opportunities
for family and community to share interests and learning from home;
8. It allows for families to develop discussions and experiences at home that engage children in
similar interests as shown at school
9. Develop authentic observation practices that are linked to understanding children's knowledge,
development, capabilities and dispositions.
10. Integrate learning across the areas of learning and development through play, real-life

81
engagements, routines and transitions.
11. Build continuity by connecting children's prior knowledge to new learning, leading to deeper
understandings about topics of interest.
12. Challenge thinking and support children to engage in alternative ways of explaining and
representing their ideas.

Activity 2.7

What is the differences between activity curriculum and integrated curriculum?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

State three features of the emergent curriculum

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ANSWERS

Activity 2.1

Your explanation should include:

Teaching philosophy…….statement of facts, believes, principles that guide and direct teachers
how to teach to cater for diversity, using appropriate instructional techniques and theories that
explain how teachers teach etc

Learning Philosophy………..laws, principles, believes or ideas characterizing how learners

learn.

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Activity 2.2

Application: use, apply, show………..

Knowledge: List, name, state, mention…..

Understanding: Perform, demonstrate, illustrate…….

Activity 2.3

Reflect Key Competencies

It is very essential that the content standard reflect the key competencies stated in the curriculum,
such as cultural identity and global citizenship, critical thinking and problem solving, and
creativity and innovation. This is to ensure that learners achieve certain level of the key
competencies at the end of each strand. For instance with a strand like our nation Ghana, students
will learn cultural identity and global citizenship.

Guide Instruction

Content standard is related to outcomes, curriculum, and instruction in an organized and

meaningful manner. It should be clearly articulated to ensure that teachers teach to them and all
students meet those standards. Content standards should provide a coherent structure to guide
curriculum and instruction (McLaughlin & Shepard, 1995).

Guide Assessment

Assessing learners’ level of achievement, will ensure: equal learning opportunities for all learners;
fair assessment of learners’ levels of achievement; accurate evaluation of the quality to determine
whether learners at a given basic school level are progressing as expected. In a sense, content
standards signal the outcomes that the public, policy makers, and educators consider valuable for
students to exhibit at the end of their schooling.

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Activity 2.4

Utility

This is the usefulness of the content in solving life-long problems. It is more important in skill or
procedural knowledge, whereby learners can put what they have learnt into practice. In this
context, subject matter of a curriculum should be selected in the light of its usefulness to the learner
in solving his/her problems now and in the future. Students think that a subject matter or some
subjects are not important to them.

Feasibility

Feasibility means full implementation of the subject matter. It should consider the real situation of
the school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable
time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish. Do
not offer a computer subject if there is no even electricity in the area, or there are no computers at
all. Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For
example, do not offer Arabic as a compulsory subject, if there is no teacher to handle it (Addai –
Mununkum, 2020).

Learnability

For this criteria, the content should be intelligible for the learners and it needs to be within the
limits of their own experiences. One factor in learnability is the adjustment of the curriculum
content and of the focus of learning experience to the abilities of the learners. It must be appropriate
to learners. The knowledge of the students is important to ensure that their background, present
attainment, mental age and set up makes it possible for learners to behave as implied in the
objectives. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how subject
are presented, sequenced and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students.

Activity 2.5

84
A

Indicators refer to the minimum outcome or milestone that learners have to exhibit in each year
to meet the content standard expectation. The indicator represent the minimum expected standard
expectation.

Exemplars are support and guidance which clearly explain the expected outcomes of an
indicator and suggest what forms teaching and learning activities could take to support teachers
in delivery the curriculum (NaCCA, 2018).

Suitability

Experiences are suitable when they appropriate to the general and individual levels of
development of learners. Learning experience must not be too simple nor complex but rather
be suitable for the age or level of the learners. Physical, emotional and cognitive abilities of
learners vary between groups of learners and within a group of learners. For example, even
though asking students to elaborate their responses to questions will help them develop their
critical thinking skills, asking a class 1 student the same question will not be suitable because
he or she is not mentally ready for such an activity. Also, there may be students with physical
challenges in your class, when it gets to activities such as singing, dancing and jumping;
those students must be exempted from those activities because they might not be able to
participate. A different activity should be given to them, such as count the number of jumps
of other students or decide which student danced or sung best.
Comprehensive
Experiences provided for learning should not be narrowed to particular ends. Learning
experience must cover all the stated objectives in a lesson; it must range from the simplest
learning experiences to the most complex, covering all the domains of learning. This means
that learning experiences are not fashioned for different distinct domains of instructional
objectives. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for learning experiences that will provide for the
three domains as strategy for multiple learning. A single learning experience should involve

85
 cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning, hence it is said to be
comprehensive.
Validity
Learning experience is valid when it related to stated objectives, which results into change in
behavior. For instance, if an objective intends to develop a skill, situations must be arranged
in which the targeted skills can be practice. In Physical Education, if you want students to
learn how to kick a ball. You would need to take them to the field to enable them practice
this skills with a ball, which will ensure that your objective is met. If you should teach this in
a classroom, it will be difficult if not impossible for them to achieve the objective set.
Activity 2.6

Your explanation should include; systematic, process, collection of educational relevant

information, decision making

B.

Test developer must be clear about the performance indicators to be assessed

This involves clearly specifying the intended learning goals and selecting the appropriate
assessment technique, which should be clear, explicit and accessible to all stakeholders, including
learners.

The assessment technique selected must match the performance indicators

The main criterion is whether the procedure is the most effective in measuring learning within the
performance indicators. Assessment tasks should primarily reflect the nature of the discipline or
subject but should also ensure that learners have the opportunity to develop a range of generic
skills and capabilities.

Assessment techniques must serve the needs of the learners

They should provide meaningful feedback to the learners about how closely they are meeting the
demands of the performance indicators. Timely feedback promotes learning and facilitates
improvement and should be an integral part of the assessment process.

86
Assessment is a goal-oriented process

The assessment task should match the purpose of the subject being assessed. It works best when
the programme being assessed has a clear, explicitly stated purpose.

Good assessments use multiple methods

Multiple indicators of performance provide a better assessment of the extent to which a learner has
attained a given learning target. Assessment needs to be comprehensive. Formative and summative
assessment should be incorporated into the programmes to ensure that the purposes of assessment
are adequately addressed.

Activity 2.7

A.

When curricular material is translated in terms of activity, it is known as activity curriculum.

Learning of the prescribed material takes place through activities. Activity is used as a media or
means for imparting knowledge and skills. Activity based curriculum approach is the greatest
motivation, provides freedom of expression to child ‘himself fully.

Emergent curriculum is a philosophy of teaching and way of planning curriculum. The

focus is on being responsive to children's interests to create meaningful learning experiences.
Activities and projects are planned by teachers based on the specific group of children they are
working with, taking into account their skills, needs, and interests. Side by side classrooms will
look different because of the varying skills, interests, and needs of the children within those
classrooms. The teacher plans according to what she knows about individuals and the particular
group of children she teaches.

• Emergent curriculum is not a linear process. It is constantly evolving in response to

children’s changing needs and interests, parental and community interests and concerns,
and teachers’ priorities. Each of these key elements shapes the direction for future learning.
• Emergent curriculum is cyclical. As teachers get to know children and their families they
observe children’s learning, discuss and share ideas with colleagues and families, interact
with children and continue to monitor learning progress and document learning. This
87
 process is repeated continually.
• Emergent curriculum is flexible and responsive. Teachers plan flexibly with children, as
curriculum is constantly evolving in response to children’s interests, building on children’s
strengths, needs and interests.
Conclusion

All too soon this unit has come an end. The unit discussed three of the patterns for curriculum
development, criteria for selecting content standards, contents, the domains, and assessment
principles comprehensively. Learners had been equipped with all the necessary criteria needed in
selecting any necessary information needed in preparing and teaching lessons.

References

Addai-Mununkum, R. (2002). Curricum Studies: Foundational Issues. Ghana:

Sprint Publications Limited
Ahmed T. (2018). Activity-based curriculum: Design/Model.

https://www.slideshare.net/TasneemKhokhar/activity-based-curriculum-designmodel

Alvior, M. G. (2015). Seven Criteria for the Selection of Subject-Matter or Content of the

Curriculum [Blog Post]. In Research-based Articles. Retrieved October 12, 2020 from

https://simplyeducate.me/2015/02/07/7-criteria-for-the-selection-of-subject-matter-or-

content-of-the-curriculum/

Anyagre, P., & Dondieu, C.K. (2007). Child and Adolescent Development and Learning: A
guide to education studies. Accra: Pigment Company Limited.
Bhargava S. Emergent Curriculum. https://azimpremjiuniversity.edu.in/SitePages/pdf/Emergent

Curriculum-Shruti-Bhargava.pdf

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Copple, Carol and Sue Bredekamp, editors (2009). Developmentally Appropriate Practice in

Early Childhood Programs: Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, 3rd Edition.

Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Ellis, A. K. (2004). Exemplars of curriculum theory. Larchmont, NY: Eye on education

Exploring developmentally appropriate practice (2016).

ahttps://extension.psu.edu/programs/betterkidcare/early-care/tip-pages/all/exploring

developmentally-appropriate-practice.

Ghoorchian, N. G. (1995). The appearance of the procedure of curriculum changes. Tehran:

Institute for Research and P
Gregory, G. H., & Champman, C. (2007). Differentiated institutional strategies; one side doesn’t
fit at all (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Hosshiko, B. R. (1988). Curriculum content selection criteria: Beyond Objectives. Nurse
Educator, 13(1), 42.
Integrated Curriculum: Definition, Benefits & Examples. (2015). Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/integrated-curriculum-definition-benefits-

examples.html. Retrieve 21/11/20

Kelly, M. (2001). The Primary Program: Growing and Learning in the Heartland. Leask, B.

(2003). Internationalisation, globalization and curriculum innovation. In Researching

International pedadgogies, 9-26.

McLaughlin, M.W., Shepard, L. A., & O’Day, J. A. (1995). Improving Education. Through
Standards-Based Reform: A Report of the National Academy of Education Panel on
Standards-Based Reform. Stanford, CA: The National Academy of Education.
Murwa, J. (2018). Curriculum Development: What are some of the varied criteria for the
selection of curriculum content? Retrieved October 28, 2020 from
https://mysominotes.wordpress.com/2018/01/20/curriculum-development-what-are-some

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National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. (2018). National Pre-tertiary Education
Curriculum Framework. Ministry of Education: Accra.
NaCCA. (2019). Teacher’s resource pack. Accra: Ministry of Education, Ghana.
National Research Council. (1997). Educating One and All: Students with Disabilities and
Standards-Based Reform. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Offorma, G. C. (2016). Integrating components of culture in curriculum planning. International
Journal for curriculum and instruction, 8(1), 1-8.
Ramesh Manickam (2011) ABL - Merits and Demerits

http://activitybasededucation.blogspot.com/2011/07/abl-merits-and-demerits.html

Scheffler, I. (1970) Philosophy and the Curriculum. Reason and Teaching. 31–44. London:
Routledge.
Tamakloe, E. K. (1992). Introduction to Education in Ghana: the curriculum and its process.
Accra: In C. Abosi & M. Brookman Amissah (Eds); Sedco.
The Key Benefits of our Emergent Curriculum (2019). https://ycis-bj.com/en/school

life/news/2022-the-key-benefits-of-our-emergent-curriculum

UNESCO. (2013). IBE Glossary of Curriculum Technology. UNESCO

What Is the Definition of an Activity-Based Curriculum, (2020)

https://www.reference.com/world-view/definition-activity-based-curriculum-de7cb13c9c296747

Youd, D. (2013). Differentiated institution in the classroom. Victoria Association for the Gifted
and Talented Children Empowered for Giftedness (pp. 1-87). Melbourne: Empowerment through
recognition.

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UNIT 3: CREATIVE APPROACHES AND INDIGENOUS PEDAGOGIES
UNIT 3 SECTION 1: The concept of creative approaches
• Types and categories of creative approaches
• Role-play
• Digital games
• Games
• The concept of indigenous pedagogies
• Storytelling
• Songs
• Modeling
• Building Models
SECTION 2: Plays and socio-emotional development
• The concept socio-emotional development of pupils
• The need for socio-emotional development of pupils
• Types of play that can be used in socio- emotional development of pupils
• Ways of using plays in socio -emotional development of pupils
• Effect of socio-emotional development in learning
SECTION 3: Plays and physical development
• Stages of physical development of a child
• Stages of Prenatal Development
• Birth
• Early childhood motor developmental milestones
• Later childhood
SECTION 4: Plays and cognitive development
• Cognitive development of learners
• Stages of cognitive development of a child
• The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 to 7 Years
• The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years
• The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Up
• Abstract thought emerges
• Mid-childhood, Adolescence
• Effects of cognitive development in learning
SECTION 5. Conditions that support play
• General principles of using play in the classroom
• Demerits of using play in the classroom
• Disadvantages for using plays

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UNIT 3: SECTION 6. Plays for children with special needs
• The concept of special needs
• Types or categories of persons with special needs in the school
• Characteristics of special needs education
• Characteristics of inclusive education
• Importance of inclusive education
• Categories of plays for persons with special needs

UNIT 4 : Using questioning and talk for learning approaches

SECTION 1 Questioning
• Purposes of questions
• Classification questions
• Pitfalls of classroom questioning
• Guidelines for improving questioning technique
• Respond to students' answers under various circumstances.

SECTION 2 Questioning
• QUESTIONING AND RESPONDING
• Type of questions
• Narrowing responses
• Expanding responses,
• Evaluating responses
SECTION 3 Questioning
• Questioning and responding
• Common pitfalls of questioning
• Improving questioning technique
• Responding to students' answers
SECTION 4: The concept of Talk for Learning
• The concept talks for learning
• How to encourage student to talk in the classroom
• How to encourage students to talk in class
SECTION 5 Teaching strategies for Talk for learning
• Teaching Strategies to encourage your pupils to use talk for learning
• Ways to use teaching strategies to help learners to learn
• The use of talk for learning in your Teaching
• Ways of using teaching strategies to help learners learn
• The use of talk for learning in your teaching

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UNIT 4: SECTION 6 Stages in structuring Talk for learning approaches
• The stages in structuring talk for learning
• Engagement
• Exploration
• Transformation

UNIT 5 COLLABORATIVE AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING APPROACHES

UNIT 5 SECTION 1 The concept of collaborative and cooperative learning
Collaborative and cooperative learning
• Collaborative and cooperative learning
• Experiential learning approaches
• The nature walk
• Significance of nature walk
UNIT 5 SECTION 2 Project work
• The project work
• Conditions to consider before giving project work
• Qualities of a good project work
• Procedure involve in preparing and performing the project work
• Advantages of project work
• Disadvantages of project work

UNIT 5 SECTION 3 Problem solving

• The concept of problem-solving method
• The two main approaches in problem solving
• Ways for planning for effective problem-solving skills lessons
• Dewey's general problem-solving
• Importance of using problem-solving by the pupils

UNIT 5 SECTION 4 Discovery

• The Nature of discovery
• Situations in which the use of discovery technique is appropriate
• Qualities of a good discovery
• Preparing and performing the discovery
• Merits and demerits of using discovery technique

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UNIT 5 SECTION 5 Demonstration
• Demonstration as a method of teaching
• Situations in which the demonstration method is appropriate
• Carry out a task analysis
• Preparation you should make in using the demonstration method
• Advantages and disadvantages of the demonstration method
UNIT 5 SECTION 6 Dramatization
• The purposes of using Dramatization in Education
• What teachers teach with the use of dramatization
• Importance of using dramatization in teaching English languages
• Using dramatization in classroom
• Using dramatization to develop students' communication skills
• The role of the teacher Using dramatization
• Learning skills with the dramatization application in the classroom
• The negative aspects in using dramatization in the classroom

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UNIT 3: CREATIVE APPROACHES AND INDIGENOUS PEDAGOGIESI
Introduction
You are welcome to the third unit of this course, Differentiated planning and Learning. The title
of this first section is types and categories of creative approaches. In this section you will do a
general study of some of the types and categories of creative approaches and explain the criteria,
and how you will apply these creative approaches in your teaching.
Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:
• State types and categories of creative approaches
• Explain role-play
• Discuss digital games
• Explain games
• Discuss the concept of indigenous pedagogies
• Explain storytelling
• Discuss songs
• Explain modeling
• Discuss how to build Models

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UNIT 3 SECTION 1: Types and categories of creative approaches
The concept of creative approaches
Creativity is central to human nature and it could be seen in many learning and performing
situations. Our thought, actions, skills, knowledge and attitude are all influenced by creativity. All
persons we admired in the sphere of life are mostly as a result of how they artistically do things
differently. They are potentially to be creative individuals. The approaches to the way individuals
exhibit their experiences, knowledge and skills is well defined by how creative such persons are.
The concepts of creative approaches in teaching and learning are frequently used in current
educational discourse. According to Cremin (2009), creative teaching “includes teachers making
learning more interesting and effective and using imaginative approaches in the classroom”.
Creative approaches in teaching are more of the teacher’s personality, personal creativity and its
manifestations in everyday practice in the classroom. Teaching for creativity includes teachers in
identifying pupil’s creative strengths and fostering their creativity in teaching and learning.
Teaching for creativity becomes possible only if teachers are willing to teach creatively. Creative
teaching has four features; these are relevance, ownership, control and innovation (Cremin, 2009).
The personal creativity of the teacher is the main premise of creative teaching. Creative teaching
must therefore be demonstrated itself in the everyday activities of the teacher in the classroom and
this will assists the personal development of the pupils in psychological, moral, social and cultural
development.
This section therefore presents several approaches for teaching creatively, in both general and
specific to certain fields of study. They make it possible to bring out creativity in the teacher, as
well as in the pupils.

Types and categories of creative approaches

Let’s briefly look at some of these creative approaches.

Play fosters children’s curiosity and social skills, and teachers should know about its value and be
able to use it effectively. Play is explained as an activity that is performed willingly devoid of
ulterior purpose and that on the whole it is done with the intention of enjoyment or expectation of
enjoyment. Play is a subconscious activity that aids the individual in developing mentally and
socially. It is seen as something that is separate from work. As the adage goes; all work and no
play makes Jack a dull boy (Edgeworth, 1825). Play is seen as fun and something that should be
enjoyed. It is actually described as the child’s work by Maria Montessori (Lillard, 2013).
Benefits of play
• Play is the primary mechanism through which children encounter and explore their
immediate environments.
• Play is a natural way by which children are motivated to learn about their environment and
the world around which they live.

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 • Play provides children the opportunity to develop physical competence. Play aids children
to develop and take control of themselves.
• Play serves as a context in which children are able to demonstrate their own learning and
supports as a means of helping children to develop self-confidence, and create positive
characters to support their lifelong learning.
• Play is an activity that enhances language development, social competence and creativity
among children. It is the chief vehicle for the development of imagination, language and
social skills among children.

Six aspects, called ‘fundamentals of play’ by LUDI and presented in the list below, draw a clear
portrait of the play and of the playing child.
•The concept of frame. Play is a special context in life, a frame that one can get in, get out, that
can be suspended for a while, in which behaviours, meanings, rules and roles are different from
reality. Players create, recognise and agree on this play frame, that is contemporarily invisible and
concrete and that they inhabit and defend both from intruders and sceptics.
• The need of doing. Play is related to the human fundamental need to be active, to interact with
the world around. The process of doing seems to be interesting per se, and more important than its
results. Children themselves impose limitations and constraints to their activity, thus obtaining
both the goals of being reassured by repetition and feeling challenged by novelty.
•The role of imagination and fantasy. Play is also the main door for entering ‘another reality’,
for evoking situations, combining representations, developing thought; it is the door to the
profusion of symbols, language, metaphors, creativity and imagination.
•The importance of the rules. Rules in play are not limited to games; they are rather intrinsic to
all the kinds of play at any developmental age, first created by children themselves and later
socially agreed-upon. The essential attribute in play is a rule that has become a desire and rules
can put the players into trouble: getting out of it is the gist of play.
•The social aspects of play. Play is social in two main senses: because children learn to play in
dual relationships or in groups, and because most of the types and modes of play require social
contexts. Play relationships with peers are irreplaceable in childhood to learn by imitation, to face
different opinions, to acknowledge the need for mediation, to develop skills of cooperation, to
overcome conflicts. Adult and parental influence is vital for the child to start and learn how to
play: at the beginning, they can be character models, and then by gradually fading their interaction
they can become prompters, scaffolders, companions, spectators.
•The play development in childhood. Play develops and changes along childhood; it becomes
more complex, it changes its features and its focus, by addressing different tools and/or ways to
interpret the reality and the human beings.
Despite the above benefits associated with play, there are concerns regarding its efficient use by
teachers relative to teaching. For example, teachers must understand and use play as a vehicle for
teaching and learning. Again, if play is to be productive, then it will have to teach children
something beneficial.

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Types of play
Play development has been described along two main dimensions, the cognitive and social, which
has been interpreted contemporarily as a consequence and as a cause of their growing complexity
in time. LUDI has adopted the following classification of types of play.

Cognitive Dimension
Practice play. It is the first type of play that appears in life, related to body actions from simple
to complex and to the visual and tactile experimentation of objects. Repetition is a typical
characteristic of this type of play.

Symbolic play. It starts around the second year of life, and it refers to the symbolic use of one’s
own body and of objects, as they were something else, to pretend and make-believe activities. The
simplest form of this type of play is the simulation of action with the body pretending to eat, to
drive a car, etc.; the most complex is the role playing, acting roles and planning scenes for them.
Constructive play. It consists in gathering, combining, arranging and fitting more elements to
form a whole, and achieve a specific goal. The child combines abilities gained through practice
and symbolic play, and the three types reciprocally co-exist and feed off each other.
Play with rules. It includes play and games based on a specific code and rules accepted and
followed by the players. It starts with simple rules invented by the players to make their play
activities more challenging and it may evolve in the use of board games, as well as in sport
activities.

Social Dimension
Solitary play. The child plays alone and independently even if surrounded by others.
Parallel play. The child plays independently performing the same activity, at the same time, and
in the same place of other persons, also engaged in play, without joining them.
Associative play. The child is focused on a separate activity with respect to his/her peers, but there
is a considerable amount of sharing, lending, taking turns with them.
Cooperative play. Joining others in sustained engagement in activities with objects, toys, materials
or games with a shared goal or purpose. Pupils can organize their play cooperatively with a
common goal and are able to differentiate and assign roles.

Role-play
Role-play is another creative approach that is often used in the classroom to emphasize
performance over the intended lesson. Hence role-playing is often viewed as fun by pupils, and
the real learning experience. Role-play is a technique used to put someone in the position of
another person else. You can use this powerful tool with your pupils to engage them in almost any
classroom situation.

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Role-play is one of the creative approach uses to provide participation, involvement and action
learning. The basic knowledge is that some students are asked to play the part of other people in a
specified situation. It allows the acting out (experiencing) of real-life situations in a protected or
risk free environment. That is to say, it is far safer and wiser to make mistakes as a role player in
the classroom situation than in the work or other social environments. As a teaching approach,
role-play is useful in teaching communication and decision-making skills as well as attitudes.
Role-play is generally a single performance viewed by non-players and the teacher.
How can you increase student participation and involvement in a role-play?
In order to increase pupil participation in role-play the teacher must divide the class into several
groups and ask all groups to carry out the same role-play activity simultaneously. Dividing the
class into groups has the advantages of reducing stage fright problems, involving the whole class,
and giving every pupils practice in the skills. Besides, it is possible to give everyone in a class a
part or observing role in a single role-play activity.
Structured and unstructured role-play
Role-play comes in two forms: structured and unstructured. Informal role playing develops from
the needs and special circumstances in the training situation. It is thus unplanned, unstructured,
unwritten and unrehearsed. In a structured role-play the role-players are given a fairly good set of
role instructions plus time to think about them.
Steps in organizing role-play
Follow a four-step procedure: S-E-R-A (Structure, Experience, Reflection, Application). What
happens at each step?
a. Structure
Introduce the role-play to the class eg. A teacher counsels a student with persistent attendance
problems. Tell them what the role-play deals with.
Do not tell them what they are to do, other than to act according to the roles. Write the scenario on
the chalkboard
• Divide the class into small groups so that everyone can participate in the activity
• Ask for volunteers or assign roles. Since the entire class is to participate, move the furniture
so that one group's behaviour will not interfere with or influence another's. Emphasise the
goal for each role, and make the instructions brief; the players will enjoy filling in the
detail. Don't define characters; the players will feel more involved if they do these
themselves.
• The non-players in each group will be the observers who will provide information on what
happened in each group's role play. Observers should be told to observe for specific actions
or behaviours.

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b. Experience
At the experience stage you are expected to follow these guidelines:
• Do the role-play
• Set a time limit, or call a halt when the task has been resolved or runs out of steam
• You should intervene as little as possible.
• During the role-play itself, move from one group to another ensuring that the work is being
done purposefully and possibly guiding the feedback.
• If skills are being practised, and the players are reasonably confident and used to role-play,
you could consider videoing the session. This allows for self-evaluation, and supplies detail
for the debriefing sessions; but it may inhibit the players.
c. Reflection
The members of the class reflect on the role-play and reach some general conclusions. This can be
done individually on paper, in pairs, in very small groups or in the whole-class discussion.
d. Application
After sufficient time for reflection (2-5 minutes), ask the students to relate what they have learned
to the real world or to the topic under study. This can be done in small groups or in a large group
debriefing.
In this application phase, an alternative way of playing the role may be suggested. If time permits,
go ahead and play out that suggestion. This is particularly powerful in the fishbowl method.
Having studied the process of organizing a role-play you should be able to give some useful
suggestions to your mentees. Take up the challenge by doing this activity.
Guidelines for running a role-play activity
• Keep participant instructions simple and clear.
• The actors should be given a short time to get their thoughts together
• The class members who are to observe should take notes and be instructed in what to look
for
• Do not force a participant to play a role he/she resists. Permit students to “opt out” (and
have them be observers)
• Don't praise or criticize (or even talk about) the participants' acting abilities. The aim is not
dramatic entertainment but the exploration of experience.
• Mind the clock. Make sure that time is scheduled after the role-play for reflection and
application.
• Certain portions of the activity may be improved with re-enactment
• In a “hot” display in which emotions get out of hand, a simple reversal of roles can
accomplish much.
Advantages of role-play

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Role-play has the following advantages:
• Role-play encourages creativity
• This method provides the student with the opportunity to “feel” the situation rather than
merely intellectualize about it.
• The student is motivated
• Role-playing can be used to develop social skills
• Affective learning can be taught and/or effectively evaluated
• One learns to organize thoughts and responses instantly while reacting to a situation or
question.
• Students learn to remain calm in the face of adversity or pressure.

Disadvantages of role-play
Role-play has the following disadvantages
• Students sometimes emphasize performance over the intended lesson
• Role-playing is time consuming
• Some students are unable to identify with the characters or situation
• Those students with talent often monopolize the situation
• Students often get “carried away” in their roles, which can lead to disruption of the class
or distortion of the learning.
• This method may be harmful to those students who lack the necessary skills (those who
are shy, or those who have speech problems).
• Role-playing may benefit only the actual participants unless the objectives for the class
have been clearly specified.

Digital games
Digital games are exploring the development of social integration through recreational
programming for students. The emerging field of video game theory is itself a convergence of a
wide variety of creative approaches including film and television theory, semiotics, performance
theory game studies, literary theory, computer science, theories of hypertext, cybertext,
interactivity, identity, postmodernism, ludology, media theory, narratology, aesthetics and art
theory, psychology, theories of simulacra, and others examples of digital games. Interest in digital
games is so broad that a ‘more or less complete list reads like the A–Z list of subjects from a major
university’.
Digital games can be classified into two groups: informal and educational games. Informal digital
games require no special skills of players and have very simple rules. As such, they can be played
by individuals of varying ages and interests, and their basic aim is entertainment and amusement
of the players. Educational games serve the aim of educating, not only entertaining. Similarly to
informal games, educational games have simple rules however; a game incorporates certain

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information that unconsciously contributes to the enrichment of the knowledge. These games can
be used for gaining new knowledge through interactive communication, or for testing the acquired
knowledge through interactive tests.
A digital game primary aim is education and its secondary aim is entertainment is called a serious
game. Serious games utilise characteristics which offer students authentic learning experiences,
in which entertainment and learning are unobtrusively integrated in a manner that enables their
implementation within a wider range of teaching methods. An educational digital game is created
for the purpose of learning and its goal is to simultaneously combine elements of learning, playing
and entertainment. Educational digital games are expected to contribute to an interactive and
dynamic learning process, with the aim of a clearer and more functional understanding of different
scientific phenomena and/or concepts, as well as encouraging the development of certain
knowledge and skills.
Twelve types of digital games
Today’s digital games are loaded with action, and there are many different categories or genres of
games. A digital game is a game type that is played with different digital devices (computer, tablet,
mobile phone, etc.) Children nowadays use digital games in their everyday lives both for
entertainment and learning. “Like video, film and even books have done in the past, digital games
are becoming a part of the educational process. But, many games can be considered to be more
than one genre. For instance, a soccer game could be considered a sports game, as well as a
simulation game. Here is some information that will help you to better understand the various
digital game categories
1. Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO)
These games are played over a LAN (local area network) or via the Internet. Players use a network
and interact with other players in the virtual game room. You can play against people from all over
the world. The creation of these games involves thousands of hours of programming, giving you,
the player, the most amazing gaming experience possible.

2. Simulations
These games involve taking control of real-world vehicles, including tanks, ships, and aircraft.
You learn how to control these vehicles, and use simulation games that can also be used to train
professionals. In fact, many pilots are trained using airplane simulators before they actually take
flight.

3. Adventure
These are usually single player games, and are often set in fantasy or adventure worlds. You
complete puzzles to advance levels. The game generally starts with a back story of your character,
and let you know what your mission is. You have to figure out how to complete the mission.

4. Real-Time Strategy (RTS)

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For these games, you usually need to build up your inventory of items, armies, etc. Similar to a
strategy game, RTS games move in real time, and players can play at once without taking turns so
you can play together at the same time.

5. Puzzle
These games appeal to those who love to solve difficult puzzles. There are many levels, from
beginner to expert, and games usually have coloured shapes and simple actions. These are brain
games, with no action involved.

6. Action
You need to be fast to enjoy these fast-paced games, and you need to have excellent reflexes.
Complete challenges by fighting with enemies, and use a character of your choice to represent
yourself and jump into the action.

7. Stealth Shooter
These tend to be war games or spy-based games, where you use stealth to defeat your enemies.

8. Combat
Fight one on one with opponents, up close and personal. You need good reflexes, and the ability
to use the controls for all kinds of fighting moves.

9. First Person Shooters (FPS)

You are the protagonist, and the game is viewed through your eyes. You can really get into these
games. The only downfall is that you are not able to see how you look in the game, because you
are seeing things through your own eyes.

10. Sports
Play real-world sports like baseball, basketball, soccer, and more. As you work up through the
various skill levels, your game will involve mimicking real professional athletes and how they
move. The most popular sports games are usually based around specific popular sporting events.

11. Role-Playing (RPG)

If you love fantasy, you will love role-playing games. You get to act out the part of the main
character, be the hero, etc., and make decisions that go along with the games’ story lines. Many of
these games have narrative guides.

12. Educational
While many parents and teachers complain about video games, there are some great educational
games out there that can help with the learning process. Train in a variety of subjects, using games

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to make learning fun instead of boring. There are testing functions, where you can answer multiple
choice questions. The most common types of education games are for math, science, and ICT.

Importance of digital games

Digital games have the following advantages;

• It creates a prominent place in modern forms of education, learning, and teaching. In this
modern digital age, digital types of games have been developed which are now increasingly
responding to the world of children and young people.
• Digital games contribute to spontaneous learning, interactivity, and dynamics through
learning, as well as to the functional adoption of new learning contents.
• The performance of a digital game is accompanied by feelings of joy and satisfaction.
Apart from spontaneous games, there are games that are organized, pre-planned, target-
oriented activities with clear rules and involving a specific start, progress and completion,
such as various social, competitive and sports games.
• Educational video games represent educative computer software and are used as a
supplement to traditional teaching process, or as a separate type of distance learning the
game contributes to the acquisition of new experiences, in relation to the environment and
peers, as well as exercising and developing children’s abilities.

• Children’s interest in the learning content is increasing, they are more satisfied, and they
make progress in their development and they become an active role and takes responsibility
for their work and content management as well as the acquisition of new skills.

• While playing a game, children explore the world around themselves, find new ways and
opportunities to act in different situations, which are usually associated with children’s
everyday life experiences. Games encourage children to be ready to adapt to change at any
time, use different sources of information, explore and experiment in order to find better
solutions for solving the same problem.

• Educational digital games are specially designed to teach users specific topics, expand
concepts, strengthen development, contribute to the understanding of historical events and
culture, or contribute to the development of certain player abilities.

• Digital games help to develop students’ academic skills.

Games

Games are a useful tool to use in teaching. They motivate, engage and help pupils to explore
concepts and ideas. Games are a form of play. They follow rules that can support pupil learning,
and make learning enjoyable. Games are primarily played for pleasure and fun, but they can also
be educational. The aim of the game is to move away the players from reality and transfer them
into another reality guided by different rules and behavioural patterns. Educational games are

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social or computer games that are specially designed to guide them to expand certain concepts,
strengthen their development, understand a historical event and culture, or enhance the
development of certain abilities in pupils. Games can be divided into children’s and adult games,
competitive and cooperative, traditional and modern, and other types of games.

Importance of games
• Games provide powerful and meaningful contexts for learning
• Games are used to stimulate and involve pupils when they interact
with other pupils
• Games motivate, engage and help student teachers explore concepts
and ideas in a playful way.
• Games provide an opportunity for students to learn about following
procedures, and to devise strategies within a given framework.
• Games have an element of competition which many student teachers
enjoy.
• Teaching through a game in an appropriate context and a powerful
tool, because this can shift the focus of a lesson from the teacher to the
student. While student are engaged, the teacher is free to move around
the classroom and support specific groups and individuals. She can
assess whether the game is delivering the required understanding.

Games are an effective way of involving everyone in the class, and can serve
many purposes. The purpose therefore are;
• be used as a review or revision activity at the start of a lesson
• change the pace of a lesson which is ‘dragging
• summarise what has been learnt, at the end of a lesson
• promote many important skills, for example, socialising, negotiating,
taking turns, problem solving, creating, etc
A game should (Characteristics of games)
• be relevant to the subject content you plan to teach (and support
specific learning outcomes);
• be appropriate for the age and ability group
• be suitable for both women and men.
• be in a form of play
• be in learning situation with competition
• co-operation among learners
• follow rules.
• motivate and engage
• give opportunities to learn about following procedures and devising strategies

The concept of indigenous pedagogies

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 Indigenous pedagogies foster an environment where indigenous knowledge is respected, used and
recognised as a valid means by which we understand the world. Indigenous pedagogical
knowledge is gradually gaining prominence in the educational curriculum of most school in
Ghana. The inclusion of indigenous pedagogy into the process of learning uses an appropriate
teaching method for indigenous knowledge to be acquired. And these can be achieved when the
teachers, access the indigenous pedagogy, understand it and then devise an appropriate and
effective teaching method for it. This implies that teachers have to be native and creative.

Teachers must understand that culture is dynamic and changing, so they should acquire the skill
of deeply understanding cultural norms other than their own. Indigenous pedagogy therefore
includes oral traditions such as listening, watching, imitating in group work, or individual
apprenticeship, and in high levels of cultural context.

The use of play in indigenous pedagogy helps pupils to interact with their immediate socio-
cultural environment to improve their performance in other subject areas. For this reason,
indigenous pedagogy is used successfully by teachers at the early childhood level and it must
have relevance to the child’s socio-cultural environment.

Appropriate use of indigenous pedagogy enables learners to exercise, have focus, enjoy and relate
learning to their immediate experiences in their environment. It also strengthens their ability to
cherish their ethical and social values.
Ghanaians have a lot of indigenous games that can be used to enhance teaching and learning,
among them are; oware, ludo, ampe, cards, piloloo, charleskele, alikoto, the theif and the police,
tumatu, skipping robe, pinpinaa, agya reko etc. These games help the pupils to develop some
competencies like; creativity, collaboration, communication, innovation, critical thinking and
problem solving.

Storytelling

Storytelling helps us to make sense of our lives. Stories are a very powerful medium in the
classroom. They can be entertaining, exciting and stimulating, encouraging, thinking about new
ideas, taking us back in time; and much more.
Stories help us to make sense of our lives. Many traditional stories have been passed down from
generation to generation. They were told to us when we were young. They explain some of the
rules and values of the society we were born into.
Stories are also a powerful tool for teaching and learning in the classroom. Stories are an
entertaining way of introducing new ideas and new language. Stories also help to develop critical
thinking, listening and speaking skills.

Stories can:
• be entertaining, exciting and stimulating;

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 • stimulate thinking about new ideas;
• take us back in time;
• help us to appreciate how people used practical solutions to solve problems;
• help to make topics more interesting and less abstract.

Choosing the right story is important. When choosing a story, you might like to think about
the following questions:
• In what situation will you use the story?
• Is it culturally appropriate and gender equitable?
• Is it at the right level for your students?
• Is it the right length?
• Can it help to serve the purpose of my lesson?

It is important to prepare carefully when telling stories. Listening to a story is not just a passive
experience for student. Good stories provide opportunities for dramatisation and “Total Physical
Response” (TPR), as well as visuals.
Practise the key events of the story so that you can tell it in your own words (rather than reading it
from a book). Consider what props and cues to use, how to use the script and how to rehearse the
story.
There are many different ways in which to introduce a story, but you may want to start by
explaining its purpose, presenting the key vocabulary, and alerting the student teachers to the
concepts that underpin the story.

Here are some hints for telling a story effectively:

• engage the student to use different voices for different characters where necessary;
• vary the volume and tone of your voice by whispering or shouting at appropriate times -
for example, for a story about animals, you could include animal noises to make the story
more lively;
• use puppets or animal toys as props;
• decide in advance where will you pause, and when to repeat phrases for dramatic effect;
• involve the student e.g. “What do you think happens next?”
Rather than letting your students listen passively, engage them as the story progresses. As they
listen, your students might write down the key points of the story or draw a picture.
Once you have told the story, you can divide your class into groups, and ask them to retell the
story (perhaps from another perspective). Through analysing the story, student might separate fact
from fiction, debate scientific explanations for phenomena, or solve any subject problems.
Asking student to devise their own stories is another very powerful tool. To ensure that learning
objectives are met, you might want to provide some structure, content and language for them to
work within. Developing their own stories can help to make sense of complex or otherwise
challenging situations or ideas.

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Songs
Using songs in the classroom, as with the other Creative Approaches, is fun and makes the lesson
interesting for your pupils. Songs introduce melody, rhythm and rhyme into the learning process;
songs can contribute to retention; singing is fun, and it is motivating appreciate that songs can be
used for different purposes, e.g. for language practice, for an introduction to a topic, for
highlighting current issues;
Using songs in the classroom, as with the other Creative Approaches, can be fun and motivating
for everybody, adding additional interesting elements for you and your pupils.
This teaching strategy is a little different from the other parts of Creative Approaches. Songs are a
little harder for you to use as a teacher with your pupils, to actually achieve specific learning
objectives. In school, it is a lot easier to find songs that meet certain learning objectives (such as
practising vocabulary or counting). In schools, this is harder, though not impossible. For instance,
you could chose songs that highlight specific social or environmental issues. Also, songs can be
very useful when learning foreign languages.
Songs can be sung together by the whole class. Depending on the structure of the song, the class
could be divided into groups, and asking the groups to sing separate parts. Singing together has a
bonding effect, and makes everybody contribute.
The rhyme and rhythm in songs make them easy to remember. Songs are especially useful in the
language classroom as they can help learners in their retention of language. The melody, rhythm
and repetition can encourage retention: these elements collaborate together as an effective teaching
and learning tool. Indeed, you may find that pupils, who have language and/or learning difficulties
particularly benefit from the introduction of music into the classroom.

It is important that the songs are sung in an active way, and that they relate to the content you are
intending to teach. While some songs could be used because they help pupils practise (e.g. teaching
sentences or counting), other songs might be used as an introduction to topics for discussion,
introducing pupils to current issues. Songs can also illustrate different cultures and raise their
cultural awareness. However, care should be exercised in choosing songs that are appropriate.
Some songs may promote gender stereotypes, and be derogatory towards certain ethnic groups.
As with many activities, you might consider taking your class outside for singing a song. You may
find that this helps the pupils energise, and that they may prefer this as an alternative to a more
formal lesson delivery indoors.

Modeling

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Modelling means building a model: taking a complex idea, and creating a physical representation
of it.
Modelling means creating a three-dimensional representation of a complex idea, or of a real-world
object; the purpose of a model is often to capture and simplify the essential aspects of a process or
an object; building models gives opportunities to engage with concepts in an engaging way.
Another example is a model of an atom made out of beads or seeds, or whole molecules made with
beads joined by pieces of cardboard or wire. Models (and modelling) are a useful tool to assist
learning and understanding. If a pupil has a tangible model to interact with, this allows her to
visualize an abstract idea. Some systems are hard to observe directly. An example is the electrical
circuit. Electricity can be measured. However, pupils sometimes find it difficult to develop an
understanding of what is going on in a circuit. In a physical model of an electrical circuit, bottle
tops might act as electrons. Pupils could pass them around, to depict the movement of electrons.
They can observe such a model and manipulate it.

Purposes and Benefits of Models

Some purposes of using models include
• capturing a particular aspect of an object or process, in order to simplify it;
• introducing ideas and concepts;
• introducing pupils to important terms;
• recreating microscopic or atomic-level processes on an everyday scale;
• creating representations of large-scale industrial systems;
• visualising complex processes or abstract ideas.

Instead of just creating written outputs, pupils can also make models. Like a written text, a pupil-
produced model can demonstrate understanding. Making models enables pupils to engage with
topics in a different way. This might help to interest pupils in topics that they were previously not
interested in.
Classrooms in schools sometimes are resource-poor learning environments. Displaying models is
a good way of making classroom spaces more interesting, giving pupils a sense of achievement,
thus taking ownership and pride in their work.

Building Models
Effective model building requires creativity, some craft skills and manual skill. “Making” is an
important way of expressing and checking on understanding. It is an important form of learning.
Building models usually requires materials and tools, which needs planning. The necessary
materials and tools mean that there is sometimes a cost but with ingenuity many resources can be
found for free. Waste items such as plastic bottles, plastic bags, food tins, pieces of plastic, metal,
rubber, cardboard, and bits of old machines are all useful resources for model making. Using tools
means thinking about safety, following school regulations and making pupils aware of what to do
in the event of an accident.

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Activity 3. 1.1
1. Write short note on any 4 of the following?
• Role-play
• Digital games
• Games
• Indigenous pedagogies
• Storytelling
• Songs
• Modeling
Summary
We discussed creativity has central to human nature and it could be seen in many learning and
performing situations. Our thought, actions, skills, knowledge and attitude are all influenced by
creativity. All persons we admired in the sphere of life are mostly as a result of how they
artistically do things differently. They are potentially to be creative individuals. The approaches to
the way individuals exhibit their experiences, knowledge and skills is well defined by how creative
such persons are.

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UNIT 3: SECTION 2: Plays and socio-emotional development
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Section 2 of Unit 3 which deals with plays and socio-emotional development. You
will remember that Section 1 discussed types and categories of creative approaches. In this section
I shall discuss plays and socio-emotional development in learners. As you read on keep remember
to link your previous knowledge to this section. This section is important to you as a teacher,
because as you may already know, identification of socio-emotional development of learners will
enable you to meet the learning needs of your learners.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section you should be able to:
• Explain the concept of socio-emotional development of pupils
• State the need to know socio-emotional development of pupils
• Mention the types of plays that can be used in socio-emotional development of pupils
• What are the ways of using of plays in socio-emotional development of pupils
• Explain the effects of socio-emotional development in learning

THE CONCEPT SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUPILS

Social-emotional development includes the child's experience, expression, and management of
emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships with others (Cohen and
others 2005). ... Infants experience, express, and perceive emotions before they fully understand
them.Social and emotional development means how children start to understand who they are,
what they are feeling and what to expect when interacting with others. It is the development of
being able to: Form and sustain positive relationships. Experience, manage and express emotions.
Explore and engage with the environment.
THE NEED FOR SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUPILS
Playing can help children develop their social skills with others. By listening, paying attention and
sharing play experiences, this helps a child: explore their feelings. develop self-discipline
Emotional resilience.
• Self-esteem.
• Self-confidence.
• Reduced anxiety.
• Self-worth.
• Understanding winning and losing.
• Exploring feelings.
• Self-expression.

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TYPES OF PLAY THAT CAN BE USED IN SOCIO- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
PUPILS
1. UNOCCUPIED PLAY
I know this can be hard to believe, but play starts at birth. You know those random movements
that Infants make with no clear purpose? This is actually the beginning of play.
2. SOLITARY PLAY
This stage, which starts in infancy and is common in toddlers, is when children start to play on
their own. When engaged in solitary play, children do not seem to notice other children sitting or
playing nearby during this type of play. Just because it starts in infancy and toddlerhood doesn’t
mean it needs to stop. All age groups can (and should!) have some time for independent, solitary
play.
3. ONLOOKER PLAY
Onlooker play happens most frequently during the toddler years, but can happen at any age. This
stage is when children watch others play. The child who is looking at the others who are playing
may ask questions of other children, but there is no effort to join the play. This may happen when
a child is shy, or unsure of the rules, or is hesitant to join the game.
4. PARALLEL PLAY
Parallel play is usually found with toddlers, although it happens in any age group. Parallel play
starts when children begins to play side-by-side with other children without any interaction. Even
though it seems like they are not interacting, they are paying attention to each other. This is the
beginning of the desire to be with other children. This stage really starts to lay the groundwork for
the more complex social stages of play.
5. ASSOCIATIVE PLAY
At around three to four years of age, they eventually become more interested in the other children
rather than the toys. At some point, a child will start interacting more with the other child they are
playing with; this is called associative play. They start asking questions and talking about the toys
and what they are making. This is the beginning of understanding how to get along with others.
During associative play, children within the group have similar goals (for example: building a
tower out of blocks). However, they don’t set rules and there’s no formal organization.
6. SOCIAL PLAY
Children will really begin to socialize starting around three or four. They begin to share ideas and
toys, and follow established rules and guidelines. They play shop and figure out who will play
what role. They can work together to build something or maybe play a simple game together. This
is really where a child learns and practices social skills, like cooperating, being flexible, taking
turns, and solving problems.

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As children proceed in the stages of play, their play becomes more complex and involves more
and more interacting with others. For children to practice social skills like cooperating,
compromising and problem solving, the best way to do that is to let them play. They’ll remember
the rhythms and melodies of social interactions much more smoothly if we allow them the time
and space to play.Develop greater empathy.
Establish and maintain positive relationships and friendships.
Start developing a sense of morality.
Control impulsive behavior.
Identify and manage emotions.
Form a positive self-concept and self-esteem (identity formation has begun).

WAYS OF USING PLAYS IN SOCIO -EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUPILS

Teachers can promote children’s social and emotional health in many ways, for example, by
organizing a material-rich environment to stimulate social interactions among children. This article
focuses on two of the most important practices: building trusting relationships and conducting
intentional teaching. Teachers can intentionally support children's social and emotional health by
using children's books, planning activities, coaching on the spot, giving effective praise, modeling
appropriate behaviors, and providing cues.
EFFECT OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN LEARNING.
How does social and emotional development affect learning? By providing a kind environment, it
helps to encourage optimal brain development as well as social connection and collaboration. In
other words, SEL affects learning by shaping children's developing neural circuitry, particularly
the executive functions.
In other words, SEL affects learning by shaping children's developing neural circuitry, particularly
the executive functions. As children feel safe and learn how to inhibit disruptive emotional
impulses, they exhibit greater self-confidence, better behavior and enhanced memory. SEL is
helpful to children and adults, increasing self-awareness, academic achievement, and positive
behaviors both in and out of the classroom. From an academic standpoint, students who
participated in SEL programs saw an 11 percentile increase in their overall grades and better
attendance.

Activity 3.2.1.
1. Explain the concept of socio-emotional development of pupils?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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2. Explain the 5 effects of socio-emotional development in learning?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT 3: SECTION 3: Plays and physical development
Introduction
Welcome to Section 3 of this unit. In this section you will read on plays and physical development
in learners. The way every teacher apply this knowledge depends on his/her skills in the play or
the kind of play they familiar with but at the end they will achieve the same goals.
I will therefore ask that you will follow this lesson and relate it into your role in the classroom as
a teacher.
Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:
• State the stages of physical development of a child
• Explain stages of Prenatal Development
• Discuss what goes on in Birth
• Explain early childhood motor developmental milestones
• Discuss later childhood

The concept physical development of pupils

Physical growth is continuous until maturity and there are stages of physical development that
produce qualitative differences. Physical development occurs in the same sequence everywhere
And the pace of physical development varies by culture.
Stages of physical development of a child
Three Principles of Physical Development:
1) Cephalocaudal Principle
2) Proximodistal Principle
3) Mass-to specific-action progression
Prenatal Development
• Human gestation is 266 days long –38 weeks (just under 9 months in length)
• Developmental Psychology uses gestational age, which begins counting at conception
• Obstetricians begin counting from the first day of the last menstrual period (LMP)
• This adds 14 days to the length of a pregnancy, as counted by Obstetricians, to 280 days to
40 weeks. (9 months and about two weeks)

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Stages of Prenatal Development
• Obstetricians divide a pregnancy into three equal “trimesters.”
• Developmental Psychology divides a pregnancy into three unequal stages:
a. Germinal Stage–fertilization to implantation
b. Embryonic Stage–implantation to 8 weeks
c. Fetal Stage–from 9th week until birth
Prior to Fertilization
• An Ovum is released by an ovary
• Ejaculation –releases 200-800 million sperm
• Only a few dozen sperm survive to reach the ovum
• Sperm and ovum each live about 48 hours after release
• There is a 25% chance of pregnancy, if intercourse occurs during ovulation

Ovulation
• Occurs in fully mature women on the 14th day of her menstrual cycle
• Younger women can ovulate at any time during the month
• This is the basis for the rhythm method
Fertilization
• 23 Chromosomes of the Father’s DNA is delivered by the sperm
• 23 Chromosomes of the Mother’s DNA is already present in the ovum
• When fertilization occurs, the two sets combine to produce a brand new, genetically unique
cell.
• It is no longer a “part of the mother’s body”
• It has its own DNA sequence
The germinal stage baby is called a “zygote”
• Zygote goes through rapid cell divisions (mitosis) within hours of fertilization
• Cell division is so rapid, the cells do not have time to grow
• Within 48 hours, the cells organize into a hollow, fluid-filled ball called a Blastocyst, no
bigger than the original fertilized ovum
• Germinal Stage lasts 5-7 days.
Germ Layers of the Zygote
• Trophoblast becomes the placenta, amniotic sac and umbilical cord
• The “Inner Cell Mass” differentiates into three germ layers:
• Endoderm–digestive system (including liver & pancreas), lungs, bladder and glands

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 • Mesoderm–bone, muscle & connective tissue
Embryonic stage baby is called an “embryo”
• Begins at implantation in the uterine wall
• Head develops rapidly = ½ body length
• Organogensis occurs
• Highest risk for teratogens
• Limb buds form
• Heart starts beating during the 4th week and brain wave activity begins by the 6th week
• Heart beat is audible by the 8th week
• Ectoderm–nervous system & skin
Fetal stage baby is called a “Fetus”
• Stage lasts from the 9th week until birth
• Primary sex organs develop
• Bones begin to form
• Arms and legs lengthen, fingers and toes develop by the end of the 3rd month
• “Quickening” is felt by the mother in the 4th month
• Lanugo and Vernix covers the fetus by the 5th month
• The eyes are completely formed by the 6th month
• Fetus is viable at 24 weeks (6 months)
• During the 8thand 9th months, subcutaneous fat is laid down
• Initial myelination of the brain occurs
• The lungs are the last organ to mature to full function
• A full-term pregnancy lasts 38 weeks after fertilization (40 weeks from LMP)
Birth
Occurs in 3 Stages:
Stage 1 - Contractions thin out and open the cervix
Stage 2 - Baby moves through the birth canal and out of the mother’s body through active pushing
along with the contractions
Stage 3 - Contractions expel the placenta
Neonatal Reflexes
• Moro Reflex - startle reflex
• Rooting Reflex - moves toward anything that touches the cheek
• Sucking Reflex - sucks on anything placed in its mouth
• Withdrawal - will withdraw from any painful stimulus
• Babinski Reflex - will fan the toes when the sole of the foot is stroked
• Palmar Reflex -will hold tightly to anything that touches the open palm
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 • Stepping Reflex - will alternately raise each leg as if walking, if pressure is applied to the
bottom of the foot
• Swimming Reflex - hold breath and swim if submerged, Crying is NOT a reflex
• Babies habituate quickly to repetitive noises
• Reflexes disappear within a couple of months of birth
Early childhood motor developmental milestones
• Rolling over at 2-4 months
• Intentional grasping at 4 months
• Crawling at 6-8 months
• Walking at 12-14 months
• Running at 2 years
• Fine motor coordination at 4 years
• Cutting with scissors at 5 years
• Skipping by age 6

Later childhood
• Ages 6-12 –period of slow, steady growth
• Consolidation and refinement of motor skills learned at earlier ages
• Two years of rapid growth immediately precedes puberty
• Growth spurt begins at age 12 in girls and at age 14 in boys, on average.
• The need for physical development of pupils
• Types of plays that can be used in physical development of pupils
• Ways of using plays in physical development of pupils
• Effects of physical development in learning
Activity 3.3.1
1. State the stages of physical development of a child?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Explain stages of Prenatal Development?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Discuss what goes on in Birth?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Explain early childhood motor developmental milestones?

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Discuss later childhood?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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UNIT 3: SECTION 4: Plays and cognitive development
Introduction
Welcome to Section 4 of the unit 3 of this course. In this section, I shall discuss Plays and cognitive
development of learners. As you go through those developmental characteristics and play, you
should be thinking of how you can help your learners to develop holistically.
By the end of this section you should be able to:
• State the stages of cognitive development of a child
• Explain the Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 to 7 Years
• Discuss the Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years
• Explain the Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Up
• Discuss the abstract thought emerges
• Explain mid-childhood, and Adolescence
• Discuss the effects of cognitive development in learning
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD
Sensorimotor (ages birth to 18–24 months old)
The sensorimotor stage covers children ages birth to 18–24 months old. Characteristics include
motor activity without use of symbols. All things learned are based on experiences, or trial and
error.
The main goal at this stage is establishing an understanding of object permanence, in other words,
knowing that an object still exists even if you can’t see it or it’s hidden.

The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is
the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue
to think very concretely about the world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of
view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
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For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give
a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a
compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger,
the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the
same size.
The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they
become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to
disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be
very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their
thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings,
and opinions.
The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of seeing
multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

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The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal
operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and
reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative
process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge
as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think
as they gradually process through these four stages.4 A child at age 7 doesn't just have more
information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks
about the world.

THE NEED FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF PUPILS

To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important
first to examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.

The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Schema

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have
four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new
information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

WHAT ROLE DO SCHEMAS PLAY IN THE LEARNING PROCESS?

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences
and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog
and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

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Assimilation and Jean Piaget's Adaptation Process

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.5 New schemas may also be
developed during this process.

The Role of Accommodation in How We Learn New Information

Equilibration

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation,
which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through
the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying
previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought
to the next

Early Childhood:
Infants are exposed to large amounts of screen media well before they are able to comprehend the
content. This exposure (especially television) is distracting to the infants and disrupts their
behavior and sustained toy play. Television and interactive screen media (such as smart phones)
distract parents and reduce the quality of parent-child interactions. The development of language
and attention skills are negatively associated with amount of screen media exposure before two
years of age.
Once children can comprehend screen media content (by about 2 ½ years) television and
interactive screen media can influence their knowledge. Educational media have been shown to be
effective in enhancing educational knowledge and skills, but what remains unclear are the best
methods of using screens to teach very young children, while at the same time ensuring socio-
emotional, sensory, and physical (motor skills) development.

Mid-childhood, Adolescence:
Use of violent entertainment media is associated with impulsive and aggressive behavior which in
turn may induce problems at home, in school, and with friends.
Computer games and other types of software can enhance particular cognitive skills if those skills
are necessary to successfully play the games or use the software. More research needs to be
conducted on short and long-term impacts on executive function (e.g. attention and control of
cognitive function).

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Interactive screen media can have positive or negative impacts, depending on the age,
developmental stage and temperament of the child, dose of media use, content and type of device,
and how the child is using it. More research needs to be conducted about digital media’s effects
on critical thinking, one’s ability to focus, attention, conceptualization, working memory and
short- and long-term memory.
Ways of cognitive development in children, Guidelines for Parents
Limit TV exposure (especially background TV) before age 2 years.
Be aware of the impact of your own media use on your toddlers.
Interact with toddlers and touchscreen devices (including e-books) in the same way you would
interact with children while reading traditional books.
Media diets should be rich in educational content, but heavy screen media use should be
discouraged.
Science of learning approaches should be used in creating educational media programming. Much
current app development is ad hoc and intuitive.
Effects of cognitive development in learning
According to Piaget, there are four interrelated factors that allow movement from stage to stage.
These factors include maturation, experience, social interaction, and equilibration. Maturation is
the physical and psychological growth that occurs in the child at a specific stage.
Experience has to do with the environment factors that influence the child’s development.
Infection, illness, guts function, dietary intake and status, psychosocial stimulation, size at
birth, social interaction, and equilibration can also affect cognitive development in learning.
In brief, environmental and genetic factors can positively or negatively affect the cognitive
development of a child which can go a long way to affect child learning.
Activity 3.4.1
1. State the stages of cognitive development of a child?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Explain the Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 to 7 Years?
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3. Discuss the Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years?
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4. Explain the Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Up?
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5. Discuss the abstract thought emerges?
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6. Explain mid-childhood, and Adolescence?
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7. Discuss the effects of cognitive development in learning?
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UNIT 3: SECTION 5. Conditions that support play
Introduction
You are welcome to Section 5 of this unit. In this section our discussion will be centred on
Conditions that support play in the school. We discuss the general principles of using play in the
classroom. This activity will really help you and encourage you to use play in your teaching.
Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:
• Discuss the general principles of using play in the classroom
• State the demerits of using play in the classroom
• Discuss the is advantages for using plays
General principles of using play in the classroom
Students may have the willingness to play in completely for fun. However, teachers need more
reasons for convincing to play games. Teachers have to be very careful about which plays should
be used, when to use them, and how to connect them with the syllabus, text book, and how, more
particularly, beneficial they are. While choosing and adapting play in the classrooms teachers
should be very careful at many points. It is very important to express when choosing language
games, many points are needed to be considered by teachers:
• Plays should have an aim. They are used to motivate students, not only for fun.
• Plays should focus on the use of language. By their means students have to learn, practice,
or refresh language components
• The content should be appropriate. It should fit the curriculum, be correct from all points
of view and not to promote wrong values (e.g. violence).
• Plays should be technically easy to use in the classroom.
• Plays should be in accordance with students’ age and level of knowledge.
• Plays should keep all of the students interested.
• It is advisable to use short games; otherwise students may lose their interest.

Demerits of using play in the classroom

Constantinescu (2012) states some advantages of play as in the following:
• play build up learners’ English repertoire in a familiar and comfortable environment (even
for students who may have special needs), where they feel confident. More than this,
English is widespread used with computers.
• plays increase motivation and desire for self-improvement.
• Challenge and competition are key factors for any plays or game and students pay more
attention to completing the task.
• Interdisciplinary approach. Students use knowledge from other classes, too.
• plays develop students’ ability to observe.
• plays have clear rules and objectives.

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 • plays develop critical thinking, problem solving, and imagination.
• plays offer new and dynamic forms of teaching/ practicing which replace the traditional
worksheets.
• plays are adaptable for different levels of knowledge.
• Educational games or play are easy to understand and use.
• Educational plays do not take long time to be played in the class.
• There are many online educational plays which are free of charge.
• Immediate feedback both for the students and the teacher.
• The results are more visible (sometimes both visual and acoustic) and have a stronger
impact.
• The working time is usually known from the beginning and it is respected

Disadvantages for using plays

Besides many advantages, there are some disadvantages for using plays in classrooms.
1) Discipline issues, learners may get excessively noisy
2) Straying away from the basic purpose of the game-play activity, perhaps, due to inadequate
rules instruction, resulting in playing too much and the lack of learning
3) If games or plays are already familiar or boring, students might not get equally involved
4) Some learners, especially teenagers, may find plays unnecessary and childish.
Activity 3.5.1
1. Discuss 4 of the general principles of using play in the classroom?
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2. State 5 demerits of using play in the classroom?
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3. Discuss 5 advantages for using play as a teaching technique?
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UNIT 3: SECTION 6. Plays for children with special needs
Introduction
Dear learner, congratulations on you having about to completed unit 3 of this course. At the same
time I welcome you to section 6 which will discuss Plays for children with special needs. This
section will discuss the concept of special needs, categories of persons with special needs
characteristics of special needs education and categories of plays for persons with special needs. I
hope you will enjoy this lesson
Objectives
By the end of the unit you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of special needs
• State the types or categories of persons with special needs in the school
• Explain the characteristics of special needs education
• Discuss the characteristics of inclusive education
• Importance of inclusive education
• Categories of plays for persons with special needs
The concept of special needs
Special needs education is a form of education provided for those who are not achieving through
ordinary provision, the levels of education and other attainments appropriate at their age.
It involves specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of an exceptional child.
Generally, special needs education should be viewed as individually planned, systematically
implemented and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional learners achieve the greatest
possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future environments.

Types or categories of persons with special needs in the school

Exceptional children are those children who deviate significantly from what is considered normal.
The deviation could be sensory, physical, mental and emotional.
a) Sensory deviation includes visual impairment, hearing impairment and communication
disorders.
b) Physical deviations also include the physically challenged and health impaired.
c) Mental deviations comprise mental retardation, gifted / talented and learning disabilities.
d) Emotional deviations include the emotionally disturbed and behavior disorders.
e) And a person with multiple handicap.
From Ghana inclusive education policy categorised these persons with special needs into the
following;
• Persons with intellectual disability
• Street children
• Gifted and alented persons
• Nomadic children (shepherd boys, fisher-folks’ children and domestic child workers)
• Persons with physical disability

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 • Children exploited for financial purposes
• Persons with specific learning disability
• Persons with autism
• Children living with HIV/AIDS
• Persons with attention deficit
• Hyperactivity disorder
• Persons with hearing impairment
• Persons with visual impairment
• Persons with deaf-blindness
• Persons with speech and communication disorders
• Persons with other health impairment and chronic diseases such as rheumatism, epilepsy,
asthma, spina, bifida and Sickle Cell anaemia,
• Children displaced by natural Catastrophes and social conflicts
• Persons with multiple disabilities.
• Persons with emotional and behaviour disorder

Characteristics of special needs education

1. They are children who are considered exceptional and need modification and adjustment in
school and class activities.
2. There are special educators such as special teachers, audiologists, psychologists, nurses, speech
therapists, etc.
3. Special curriculum that may cater for the special need individual.
4. There are special methods that are restricted to special need education, eg. Sign language, lip
reading, finger spelling techniques.
5. Currently, the scope of special education has been broadened to include street children, children
in labour and others from disaster zones.
6. There is special placement setting that caters for the special needs child eg. Special schools,
home / hospital bounds.
7. The focus of special needs education is to help individuals who have specific problems which
prevent them from learning through the regular system.
8. It is concerned with children with disabilities and those without disabilities but cannot learn
through the ordinary method.

Characteristics of inclusive education

1. By inclusive, students attend neighborhood schools with age and grade.
2. Inclusive students receive in school, educational services in general with appropriate in-class
support.
3. There are regular teachers
4. There are special teachers or education consultants.
5. There are resources rooms
6. The school environment is structured to meet the needs of all pupils

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Importance of inclusive education
1. It enables the voice of individuals with special needs to be heard in regular classrooms.
2. It also reduces the level of stigmatization association with special schools.
3. Inclusive education gives individuals with special needs the opportunity of meeting together
and forming friendship across groups.
4. It providers a rich and diverse environment for children to grow.
5. It creates welcoming communication and building inclusive societies.
6. It also reduces begging for alms on the street since this practice is common is segregated schools
but not heard of in the integrated schools.

Categories of plays for persons with special needs / The usefulness of plays to persons with
special needs
Prays are very important for both teachers and pupils more especially to persons with special needs.
For this reason, the following categories of plays can be identified and use by teachers in the
classroom.
Many persons love playing games, puzzle and activity apps to help them relax and unwind. But
how easy are these for disabled people to use? Many games require two hands and the use of
multiple buttons, which is difficult for those who have dexterity issues. Some have no audio or the
ability to magnify, making them tricky for blind persons. And others are too complex if you have
learning disabilities.

Purcell, E. (2016), found 10 accessible, fun games and activity apps for people of all abilities. The
Waveband app allows you to play musical instruments by moving your Apple device, such as
your Apple Watch. You can make music by moving the device up and down, side to side and
twisting. It is great fun and a good source of exercise. It’s suitable app for people who have some
form of movement, are blind or visually impaired and, basically, anyone who loves to have a
dance. The app includes multiple instruments, such as piano, drums, guitar and tambourine.

Audio game hub is designed for people who are blind or visually impaired. With it, you won’t
need the accessibility features on your device as there is a voice over and invert colour feature
already available on the app. There are 10 games including casino, archery and memory skills.
Additional games are due to be released soon. Every game has audio description throughout and
different sound effects to identify colours, animals, numbers and obstacles. Also, you can choose
to have the screen with black text on white background, white text on a black background or in
‘blind mode’, where the screen is totally black.

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The switch accessible mazes app is designed for people who use a switch controller,
an ergonomically designed mouse with a V-shaped based and four-way scrolling dish. It can be
accessed with two switches using step-scanning or one switch with auto scan.
There are multiple mazes that are completed by moving an arrow or car through the maze. The
game can also be played on a touchscreen.

Colour therapy is a colouring book app with a wide variety of pictures, from animals to people,
and places to patterns, plus much more. There are also seasonal pictures, including Christmas,
Easter and Halloween. There are thousands of colours to use, both solid and granite. Completed
pictures can be published on the app, saved to your photos and shared on social media. This app
is really good for those with dexterity issues and those who struggle using a traditional colouring
book and pens. It is also good for people with visual impairments as they can zoom in on the
picture using the zoom function from the accessibility settings on your device. It is also a great
therapeutic tool for those with stress, anxiety and depression.

See me draw is a drawing game, based on dot-to-dot. It is aimed at people with learning
disabilities and is a great form of entertainment and development.
When you touch a red dot, it begins to draw a picture. A green dot will then move between each
dot, which you follow to complete the picture. Once all the dots are connected, the picture will be
revealed. It plays amusing noises and a cheerful tune while drawing. There are four pictures to
complete.

Moodfit is an emotional tool to help people suffering from stress, depression and anxiety to
improve their mood. The app enables you to track your mood, create daily goals and learn
mindfulness techniques. You can use zoom and voiceover functions on this app too.

Pet Rescue Saga is a puzzle game created by King, the same company that created the world-
famous Candy Crush. The aim of the game is simply to rescue the pets!
To do this, you need to clear all the blocks and obstacles to enable the animals to get safely to the
ground. To remove coloured blocks, simply match two or more of the same coloured blocks
together. As well as coloured blocks, there are also other obstacles, such as frozen blocks, cages
and key-locked blocks. The graphics are bold, clear and bright, and the zoom function can be used
for those with visual impairments. It’s also great for those who only have the use of one arm.

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Jigsaw app has a wide selection of animal and landscape jigsaw puzzles. With each puzzle, you
can decide the difficulty by changing the number of pieces, from 84 small pieces to 4 large. As
well as making it as hard or simple as you want, choosing larger piece is also useful for those with
visual impairments. Moreover, correct pieces snap together, indicating that they are the right fit,
which is beneficial for people with limited motor skills.

Sims Freeplay is an app version of the successful computer game the Sims. The aim of the game
is to create and maintain your own virtual town. In the game, you create people known as Sims,
and then run their lives, developing them to get a job, buy houses, form relationships and start
families. Plus, there are tasks to complete to win virtual money, prizes and increase the value of
your town. It is a great form of escapism and very therapeutic. It is also easier access than the
computer game as it allows visually impaired people to use the zoom function and, ideal for those
with dexterity issues, everything is controlled by one finger taps.

Larry King’s Word search app is the ultimate word search game. It has 18 topic categories for
you to complete, including music, geography and science. The app is 100% accessible for blind
and visually impaired people as it allows you to use zoom and voiceover on your device.

1. Explain the concept of special needs?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2. State any 5 categories of persons with special needs in the school?
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3. Explain the characteristics of special needs education?
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4. Discuss the characteristics of inclusive education?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Importance of inclusive education?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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6. Categories of plays for persons with special needs?
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