Integrated Science for Upper Primary I

INTEGRATED SCIENCE FOR UPPER PRIMARY I
UNIT 1 & 2
Written by
Peter Haruna
Isaac Godfred Antwi
Ruth Otison Asante
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General Course Description
Congratulations, dear student teacher and welcome to year 2 of the 4-year Bachelor of
Education Programme. You are welcome to this course titled, Integrated Science for Upper
Primary II. The course for semester one of year two uses the universal design for learning
approach to extend the basic science concepts of the student teacher on the following content
areas: groups of plants, groups of animals, metals, non-metals and rusting, measurement of
temperature, ventilation and psychology of early adolescent learner and science teaching and
learning. This is done through appropriate pedagogies such as Nature walk, Talk for learning
approaches, demonstrations, concept mapping, problem-based teaching /learning, and video
presentations as well as authentic assessments mode such as concept mapping, using checklist
to identify values and attitudes and, mind maps from which provides for the teachers’ attention
on the need to ensure equity and the provision for SEN. This course continues to emphasize on
the essential attitudes and values (NTS, 1a-c) of professional science teaching such as honesty,
carefulness and accuracy. The student teacher, in this course, will be introduced to issues of
transition in terms of use of the English language as medium of instruction and characteristics
and learning styles of early adolescent and Supported Teaching in School (STS) (NTS, 2e), as
well as managing transition from early childhood (B3) to middle childhood (Upper Primary)
(NTS, 2e, p.13), (NTS, 1a-c, p. 12), (NTS, 2c, P. 13).
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TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT PAGES
General Course Description 2
Unit 1: Groups of Plants and Animal 4
Section 1: Group of plants 5
Section 2: The root system 14
Section 3: The stem 20
Section 4: The leaves 26
Section 5: Groups of animals 31
Section 6: Uses of some animals 38
Unit 2: Metals, Non-Metals and Rusting 44
Section 1: Types and Classification of materials 46
Section 2: Metals and their Properties 50
Section 3: Modern uses of metals 54
Section 4: Non-metals and their Properties 57
Section 5: Modern uses of Non-metals 60
Section 6: Rusting: Causes, Effects and Prevention 63
Unit 3: Measurement 68
Section 1: Meaning, units of temperature and Temperature scales 70
Section 2: Temperature scales 73
Section 3: Thermometers 79
Section 4: handling and using thermometers 85
Section 5: Misconceptions about physical measure (Area/volume of plane figures,
Mass or weight) 90
Unit 4: Ventilation 96
Section 1: Meaning of Convection 98
Section 2: Convection Currents and Ventilation 102
Section 3: Applications of Convection 107
Section 4: Causes of poor Ventilation 114
Section 5: Effects of Poor Ventilation 118
Unit 5: Psychology of Early Adolescent Learner and Science Teaching and Learning 122
Section 1: Misconception about adolescents and give examples 123
Section 2: The early adolescent learner 128
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Section 3: Adapting the early adolescent to learn science 133
Section 4: Developmental stages of an adolescent 138
Section 5: Cognitive development of adolescent in science education 148
Section 6: The adolescent learner in inclusive science classroom 152
References 157
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UNIT 1
GROUPS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Dear student teacher am glad to welcome you to the unit 1 of this course,” Integrated science
I”. In this unit we are going to learn a lot of interesting sub-topics under the topics, “Groups
of plants and Groups of animals.” In our basic level of education, we learnt in school that
plants and animals are called living things based on their life processes. Sure, there is no doubt
about that but these plants and animals that are classified as living things have been grouped
based on the features they have in common, which we will be learning in this unit. Whiles we
prepare to go to the classroom to teach the younger ones, there are a lot of knowledge we need
to be equipped with especially concerning the things surrounding us because those are the
materials you will use to teach your students when you go to the classroom. So let us look at
what we are to achieve by the end of this lesson.
Learning Outcomes and Indicators
Learning Outcomes Indicators
On successful completion of this

unit, you will be able to;
1. Link concepts in year one to 1. Develop Concept Maps to link

new concepts in groups of concepts from year 1 to new
plants and animals 1 concepts yet to be developed
2. Classify plants into erect, 2. Student teachers develop a Chart on
creeping and climbing plants different types of plants based on
based on the nature of their the nature of their stems
stems
3. Classify and describe root 3. Student teachers submit a chart on
system of plants different types root system of pants
with their descriptions
4. describe characteristics of 4. Student teachers submit checklists
leaves and stems of plants a of characteristics of leaves and
stems of plants respectively
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5. The student teacher should 5. Student teachers present reflective
be able to discuss the uses of report on the uses of plant.
plants
6. Student teachers to classify 6. Student teachers submit a chart on
animals based on different grouping of animals based on their
movement, and habitats different movement, habitats
7. Student teachers to exhibit 7. Student teachers present group
knowledge of body covering reports on body covering of animals
of animals through for whole class discussion
observation and discussion 8.
8. Student teachers in inclusive 9. Student teachers should present a
mixed ability groups to report on uses of animals and pets
brainstorm to come out with and care of pets for whole class
uses of animals and pets, and discussion
care of pets
This unit has been divided into six (6) sections.
Section 1: Group of plants
Section 2: The root system
Section 3: The stem
Section 4: The leaves
Section 5: Groups of animals
Section 6: Uses of some animals
Unit 1, Section 1
Groups of Plants
Dear student teacher I welcome you to the section 1 of the first unit of this course module. In
this section we are going to talk a lot on the groups of plants. We all come across different
plants all the time. Some of these plants we see have different features. We see some high
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above the ground and some lying flat on the land. All these plants we see have been grouped
into different types and we will get to know more on plants after completion of this section.
Learning Outcome
Learning Outcome Indicators
By the end of this section, you will be able

to;
Demonstrate Knowledge of the classes of 1. Give a brief description of a plant

plants 2. State and explain the three main
groups of plants
3. State the general characteristics
climbing plants
4. State the characteristics of creeping
plants
5. State the differences between
climbers and creepers
The plants that we see today are as the result of billions of years of evolution. Today, plants
cover almost 30 percent of the total landmass. Plants fulfil many roles in the ecosystem. They
are a source of food, nutrition, shelter, maintain the integrity of soil (by preventing erosion)
and most importantly, they are the main source for balancing the oxygen level in the
atmosphere.
Basically, humans are called heterotrophs because we cannot produce our own food and
therefore depend on the plants for food that make the plants autotrophs because they are able
to produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis. It is our duty to study these
plants that give us food and many benefits for survival. So, the question to you is;
In your own knowledge, what are plants?
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If you are able to write something down, that is good if not do not worry we are going to
discuss for you to understand perfectly.
Classes of Plants
Plants are living organisms that grow in the soil or ground, absorb water and inorganic
substances through the roots and synthesize nutrients in the leaves by photosynthesis using the
green pigment chlorophyll.
Basically, we see huge variety of plants all around us. Among which few are aquatic and
terrestrial despite this fact they all have the same parts and same functions; they appear unique
with different types of roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds etc.
These variety of plants are grouped into; erect plant, creeping plant and climbing plant.
1. Erect plants
This is the type of plant that has its stem growing vertically or upwards.
A majority of plants have the erect habit. These again may be subdivided into herbs, shrubs
and trees according to the strength of the stem.
a. Herbs
The herbaceous stem is extremely succulent. The plant is necessarily very small and may not
even rise above the surface of the soil. Very often (especially among Monocots) it gives rise to
some leaves at soil level.
Classification of herbs
According to the duration of its life herbs may be:
1) Ephemerals: when the plants- live only for a few weeks. This happens when the growing
season is very short as near deserts or in very cold countries. The plant has to complete its life
cycle within that short time.
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(2) Annuals: They last for one season every year after which they flower and die. There are a
large number of annuals in our country represented by the seasonal flowers, vegetables and
crops.
(3) Biennials: require two years to complete their life cycle. Many annuals of our country like
the cabbage and the radish are biennials in cold countries as the temperature there does not
allow sufficient growth in one year.
(4) Perennials: grow for a longer time. This perennation may not be in one stage but in annual
stages as in plants growing by rhizomes, etc. In these, the aerial shoot dies every year but the
underground parts (rhizome, etc.) form the link year after year. Bananas are true perennials as
are all the shrubs and trees.
b. Shrubs
Shrubs are medium sized, woody plants taller than herbs and shorter than a tree. Their features
include bushy, hard and woody stems with many branches. Although stems are hard, they are
flexible but not fragile. The life-span of these plants usually depends on the species. Examples
are; rose, jasmine, lemon, etc.
c. Trees
Trees are big and tall plants. They have very thick, woody and hard stems called the trunk. This
single main stem or the trunk gives rise to many branches that bear leaves, flowers and fruits.
Some trees are branchless like coconut tree. The life-span of trees are very large, thus for
several years. Mango, cashew, teak, oak etc. are some examples of trees.
Image of an erect plant
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Source: science fact.net
2. Climbing Plants
Climbers have a very thin, long and weak stem which cannot stand upright, but they can use
external support to grow vertically and carry their weight. These types of plants use special
structures called tendrils to climb. Beans, Cucumber, Grapevine, Gourd, Jasmine, and Money
Plant, are a few common examples of climbers.
General characteristics of climbers
• They are long, flexible stems with abundance of soft tissue that allow for rapid growth,
and vegetative regeneration.
• They are extremely efficient vascular system specialized in water conduction and
lacking internal structural support. Xylem vessels often are wide and long and have
elevated hydraulic conductivities.
• They are specialized climbing mechanisms
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Source; Science; fact.net
Creeping plant
Creepers, as the name suggests, are plants that creep on the ground. They have very fragile,
long, thin stems that can neither stand erect nor support all its weight. Examples include
watermelon, strawberry, pumpkin and sweet potatoes.
Creeping plants are actually herbaceous plants. The plants themselves are erect but they give
rise to small horizontal branches which are weak and after growing for some length get rooted
and give rise to small daughter plants which again increase in a like manner.
Image of a creeping plant
Watermelon (Source: pinterest.com)
General characteristics of creeping plants
• Creepers are the plants with soft stem.

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• They cannot stand erect on their own.
• They usually creep along the ground.
• Life span of creepers may be for one year or long (many more years.)
How are climbers different from creepers?
The main difference between climbers and creepers are:
• Creepers spread their stem, leaves horizontally along with the soil on the ground and
also bear flowers along with the fruits on the ground.
• The leaves of the creepers produce fiber-like roots which fix the plant to the ground and
provide external support to grow further.
• Climbers are plants with a tender stem which grow with the help of external support.
These plants produce a twine or hook from their leaves to climb. Some plants produce
special roots that serve as the holdfasts to climb around certain objects.
Activity 1.1
State the three main groups of plant
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Mention the difference between creepers and climbers
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Summary
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Dear teacher learner, in this section we have been able to understand the three different groups
of plants, namely;
• Erect plant
• Creeping plant and
• Climbing plant
1. Erect plants have its stem growing vertically or upwards.
2. Creepers are long, flexible stems with abundance of soft tissue that allow for rapid
growth, and vegetative regeneration.
3. Climbers have a very thin, long and weak stem which cannot stand upright, but they
can use external support to grow vertically and carry their weight
Self Assessment
Describe the following groups of plants stating 3 examples each
a. Erect plants
b. Creeping plants
c. Climbing plants
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Unit 1, Section 2
The Root System of Plants
Dear student teacher, I once again welcome you to section 2 of this unit. In the previous section
we talked about the various groups of plants and their characteristics. In this section, we are
going to concentrate on, “the root system of plants.” The groups of plants we discussed in
section 1, have different root systems and modifications. It is important to know these various
root systems that these groups of plants have to enable us have more knowledge on the plants
we see around us.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the section, you will be able

to;
Exhibit knowledge of the root system of 1. Describe a root system

plants 2. State the types of roots
3. Mention the characteristics of
roots
4. State the parts of a plant root
5. State the functions of plant root
6. Mention the uses of root
We usually see the root of some plants outside the soil, for some, we have to uproot the plant
before we see the root and for some, the root system bear food for consumption like cassava
and potato.
Anatomically, plants are very complex organisms and are classified into various types based
on certain defining characteristics. Roots are very important structures that provide a variety of
functions, but contrary to popular belief, all plants do not have roots. Roots are absent in plants
like mosses and liverworts.
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However, not all plants have their roots underground, some plants have their roots growing
above the ground. These are called aerial roots. unlike underground roots, these aerial roots
are also responsible for absorbing nutrients, anchoring and affixing the plant by supporting
them to the structures such as nearby walls, rocks, trellises, etc.
Few examples of plants with the aerial roots are: Bonsai, Banyan Tree, Mangroves, etc.
What are Roots?
Roots are the underground parts of all vascular plants which is mainly responsible for
anchoring the plant down into the ground and absorbing the essential elements, nutrients, and
water from the soil.
A root consists of the hard root cap, primary root meristem and root hairs. The growth of
the root system depends upon the soil composition, soil type, type of plant species and growth
conditions. Roots are complex structures whose total dry weight may exceed the total weight
of the plant body. A seed first develops into a radicle or primary root and later forms
secondary, tertiary etc., roots.
Types of Roots
Roots are of the following types:
• Taproot system: A taproot is a primary root system consisting of lateral branched

roots with fine rootlets. Example: beetroot, Carrot, turnip etc.
• Fibrous root system: It appears as a large and equal-sized root, which originates
from the base of the stem by replacing a primary root. Fibrous roots possess a bushy
appearance and consist of thin root fibers. Example: Wheat, rice, maize grass etc.
• Adventitious root system: In this type, massive root growth occurs from any part
of the plant body other than the primary root. Example: Banyan, Monstera etc.
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Source: Boundless biology
Characteristics of Roots
A root system possesses the following key characteristics:
• Root comprises of unicellular structures or root hairs that absorb water from the soil.
• The cuticle or waxy coating that surrounds the leaf epidermis is absent in the root
system.
• The root system lacks chlorophyll and stomata.
• Unlike stems, it does not have nodes and internodes.
Sometimes, a root undergoes structural modification to perform functions like storage,

respiration, physical support etc.
Parts of Root
A structure of root generally comprises of three parts:
Root cap: It is found at the tip of the root system and has a thimble-like appearance. Root-cap
is a multicellular structure present proximal to the primary meristem. It also secretes mucilage
that acts as a lubricating agent. A mucilage secreted by the root cap protects the root system
against dryness. Few aquatic plants like Pistia, Ecchornia etc., have a root pocket instead of a
root cap.
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Root meristem: It is found 1 mm above the root cap and refers to the “Zone of meristematic
activity”. This region contains cells of small size, thin-walled and dense protoplasm. Here, the
cells undergo repeated cell divisions. The “Zone of elongation” refers to the region where some
cells enlarge rapidly, located proximal to the meristematic zone. The cells in the elongation
zone extend the root length.
Root hairs: The cells in the zone of elongation undergo multiplication and differentiation to
develop mature cells. The mature cells proximal to the area of elongation constitute a region
of maturation. The epidermal cells of the maturation zone give rise to the fine, thread-like root
hairs. Root hairs perform a functional role in water and mineral absorption from the soil.
Functions of Root
Roots perform five distinct roles in plants:
• Anchorage and Physical support: A root system anchors the plant body or the shoot
system to the soil. Roots under the ground help in maintaining the plant’s posture by
giving physical support. Taproots provide better attachment of the plant to the soil and
make a plant resistant to toppling during storms.
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• Absorption and Conduction: Roots promote absorption of water and conduction of
dissolved minerals and nutrients in the soil to the plant body. Root hairs are fine
structures existing in close vicinity to the ground and absorb nutrients from the soil.
The root hairs uptake the nutrients and conduct them to the shoot system via xylem
through capillary action. Therefore, the root system provides nourishment to the plant
for growth or development. In addition, fibrous roots are more efficient in absorbing
nutrients deep inside the soil.
• Food Storage: The root system also acts as a storage organ of the plant, which mainly
stores water and carbohydrates. The plant prepares its food during photosynthesis and
stores in the specialized part of the plant like leaf, stem and roots. Taproots are more
effective in food absorption than fibrous roots.
• Role in Photosynthesis: Roots play an essential role in the process of photosynthesis.
A plant gets water from the root system and releases excessive water through stomata
through transpiration. As the water vapour release out of the stomata, CO 2 enters the
plant cell necessary for photosynthesis.
• Ecological functions: Roots are part of soil ecology, promoting soil aggregation and
protecting a plant from being carried away by wind or water.
Activity 1.2
Mention the types of roots
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State the parts of a root
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Summary
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At the end of this lesson, we have been able to understand the root system, the types of roots;
1. Taproot system: A taproot is a primary root system consisting of lateral branched

roots with fine rootlets.
2. Fibrous root system: Fibrous roots possess a bushy appearance and consist of thin
root fibers.
3. Adventitious root system: In this type, massive root growth occurs from any part
of the plant body other than the primary root.
4. The parts of a root are;
a. Root cap,
b. Root meristem,
c. Root hair
5. The functions roots are;
a. Food Storage: The root system also acts as a storage organ of the plant, which
mainly stores water and carbohydrates.
b. Role in Photosynthesis: Roots play an essential role in the process of
photosynthesis. A plant gets water from the root system and releases excessive
water through stomata through transpiration.
Self Assessment
1. Draw the structure of a root indicating the three main parts

2. State any functions of the root to the plant
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Unit 1, Section 3
The Stems
Dear teacher learner, you are welcome to section 3 of this unit. In this section we will be
discussing the “stems and leaves”. Plants develop into the root system and the shoot system.
The root system has already been discussed. The shoot system is made up of the stems and
leaves. We see different kinds of flowers and fruits on different trees around us. The shoot
system of the plant bears these fruits. As we learn more on the shoot system, we will get to
know their various functions and characteristics.
Learning Outcomes

to;
Demonstrate knowledge on the stem of 1. Describe a stem

plants 2. State the functions of a stem
3. Describe the specialize storage of
stems
4. Mention the varieties of a stem
5. External features of a typical
stem
6. State the characteristics of a stem
What is a stem?
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. It
supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances between the roots
and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, stores nutrients, and produces new living tissue.
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The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:
The nodes hold one or more leaves, as well as buds which can grow into branches (with leaves,
or inflorescences (flowers). Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes.
The internodes distance one node from another.
In most plants, stems are located above the soil surface but some plants have underground
stems.
Functions of stems
Stems have the following functions:
• Bearing and Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems
keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and
fruits.
• Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots occur in the xylem and phloem
store nutrients.
• Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three
years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue.
• Storage of food in some plants
• Stems have two pipe-like tissues called xylem and phloem.
The xylem tissue transports water by the action of transpiration pull, capillary action
and root pressure.
The phloem tissue consists of sieve tubes and their companion cells. The two tissues
are separated by cambium which is a tissue that divides to form xylem or phloem
cells.
Specialized storage stems
Stems are often specialized for storage, asexual reproduction, protection or photosynthesis,
including the following:
• Bulb: a short vertical underground stem with fleshy storage leaves attached, example;
onion, daffodil, tulip.
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• Rhizome: a horizontal underground stem that functions mainly in reproduction but
also in storage, example; ginger, most ferns, iris.
• Runner (plant part): a type of stolon, horizontally growing on top of the ground and
rooting at the nodes, aids in reproduction. Example; garden strawberry.
• Stolon: a horizontal stem that produces rooted plantlets at its nodes and ends, forming
near the surface of the ground.
• Thorn: a modified stem with a sharpened point.
• Tuber: a swollen, underground storage stem adapted for storage and reproduction,
example, potato.
• Woody: hard textured stems with secondary xylem.
Stem structure
Stem usually consist of three tissues, dermal tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissue.
The dermal tissue covers the outer surface of the stem and usually functions to waterproof,
protect and control gas exchange.
The ground tissue usually consists mainly of parenchyma cells and fills in around the vascular
tissue. It sometimes functions in photosynthesis.
Vascular tissue provides long distance transport and structural support. Most or all ground
tissue may be lost in woody stems.
Stems can be of several different varieties:
• Herbaceous stems are soft and typically green

• Woody stems are hard and wooded
• Unbranched stems have a single stem
• Branched stems have divisions and side stems
External features of a typical stem
• Terminal bud: it consists of small overlapping leaves at the tip of young stems and it
is the growing point of the shoot. In some plant, like the crotalaria, a terminal bud can
develop the flower.
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• Axillary or lateral buds: an axillary bud is an embryonic shoot in the axil of the stem.
An axil is the region between a leaf and a stem. They develop into the branches called
axillary shoots or flowers.
• Nodes and internodes; nodes are the point of attachment of leaves to the stem
• An internode; is a segment between two successive nodes
• Leaves; normal stems bear leaves
• Floral buds; these are the points where flowers may blossom or emerge
Plant stems, whether above or below ground, are characterized by the presence of nodes and
internodes (shown below). Nodes are points of attachment for leaves and flowers; internodes
are the regions of stem between two nodes. The tip of the shoot contains the apical meristem
within the apical bud. An axillary bud is usually found in the area between the base of a leaf
and the stem where it can give rise to a branch or a flower.
Source: Boundless biology
Characteristics of a Stem
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i. The stem is an ascending axis of the plant and develops from the plumule and
epicotyl of the embryo.
ii. It is generally erect and grows away from the soil toward the light.
iii. Therefore, it is negatively geotropic and positively phototropic.
iv. In flowing plants, the stem is differentiated into nodes and internodes.
v. The young stem is green and photosynthetic
Summary
Dear learner in completion of this section we have come to know the stem. The structure and
functions of the stem.
1. A stem supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances
between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem.
2. Specialized storage stems;
a. Bulb: a short vertical underground stem with fleshy storage leaves attached,
example, onion, daffodil, tulip. Rhizome: a horizontal underground stem that
functions mainly in reproduction but also in storage, example, ginger, most ferns,
iris.
b. Runner (plant part): a type of stolon, horizontally growing on top of the ground and
rooting at the nodes, aids in reproduction. example, garden strawberry.
c. Stolon: a horizontal stem that produces rooted plantlets at its nodes and ends,
forming near the surface of the ground
Activity
What is a stem?
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State four functions of a stem

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State the external features of a stem
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Unit 1, Section 4
The Leaf
Dear student teacher I welcome you to the section 4 of this unit. In this section we are going to
discuss the structure of a leaf. Well, we see several leaves around us and we use them for
different purposes. Sometimes we consume the leaves as food or us them for medicinal
purposes. Now let us give a brief discussion on the structure of the leaf, the parts and the
functions.
Learning Outcome

to;
Exhibit knowledge of the structure and 1. Describe a leaf

functions of the leaf 2. Describe the structure of a leaf
3. State the parts of a leaf
4. State the Characteristics of a leaf
5. Draw the Internal structure of a
leaf
6. State the Internal structure of a
leaf and their functions
7. Mention the general functions of
the leaf to the plant
The leaves
Leaves are the main sites for photosynthesis: the process by which plants synthesize food.
Most leaves are usually green, due to the presence of chlorophyll in the leaf cells. However,
some leaves may have different colors, caused by other plant pigments that mask the green
chlorophyll.
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A typical eudicot leaf structure is shown below. Typical leaves are attached to the plant stem
by a petiole, though there are also leaves that attach directly to the plant stem. The vascular
tissue (xylem and phloem) run through veins in the leaf, which also provide structural support.
Parts of the Leaf (Source: The sciencefact.com)
• The petiole is the stem of the leaf.

• The midrib is a vessel that extends from the petiole to the leaf tip. Veins branch from
the midrib.
• The lamina is the wide, flat part of the leaf.
• The margin is the edge of the leaf.
• The vein is made up of phloem and xylem tissues. It branches into a network that run
throughout the leaf
The thickness, shape, and size of leaves are adapted to specific environments. Each variation
helps a plant species maximize its chances of survival in a particular habitat. These needle-like
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leaves have sunken stomata (pits that allow gas exchange) and a smaller surface area: two
attributes that aid in reducing water loss. Many aquatic plants have leaves with wide lamina
that can float on the surface of the water, and a thick waxy cuticle (waxy covering) on the leaf
surface that repels water.
Characteristics of leaves
• A leaf is always borne at the node of the stem

• Generally, there is always axillary bud in the axil of a leaf
• The leaves obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by diffusion through
openings called stomata.
• Leaves are broad, flat and thin, thereby maximizing the surface area directly
exposed to light and enabling the light to penetrate the tissues and reach the
chloroplasts, thus promoting photosynthesis
The internal structure of the leaf and their various functions
The epidermis:
It is a continuous single layer of cells that cover the entire leaf. The epidermis has numerous
small openings called stomata. In the leaves, we have upper and lower epidermis. The upper
epidermis is covered layer of waxy cuticle and thicker than the lower side.
Function
i. Protects leaf against physical damage

ii. Is impermeable to water and so prevent excessive water loss
iii. Protects the leaf against microbial attack
Guard cell and stomata
• Guard cells are specialized epidermal cells that contain chloroplast. They are oriented
in such a way to give an oval or crescent or sausage-shaped pore between them. The
pore is called stoma or stomata. Stomata are found on the epidermis of both leaves
and young stems.
Function
• Because they are openings, stomata facilitate the exchange of gases thus oxygen and
carbon dioxide, between the internal tissues of leaf and the atmosphere.
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• Guard cell regulate the size of the stomata, hence regulation of gaseous exchange and
transpiration.
Mesophyll tissue
This is the ground tissue of the leaf consisting of parenchyma cells. It is packed between the
upper and lower epidermis and contains chloroplast.
Function
• By virtue of its position near the upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll maximally
absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis.
• Due to the high concentration of the chloroplasts, palisade mesophyll is the main
photosynthetic tissue in the leaf.
Source: the science fact.com
General functions of the leaf to the plant
• Absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis

• Actively carry out gaseous exchange
29
• Regulation of water through transpiration
• Aids in water uptake from the roots through the stem due to transpiration pull
Activity
State three characteristics of a leaf
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Mention any five parts of a leaf and state their functions
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Summary
1. Leaves are the main sites for photosynthesis: the process by which plants synthesize
food.
2. Most leaves are usually green, due to the presence of chlorophyll in the leaf cells.
However, some leaves may have different colors, caused by other plant pigments that
mask the green chlorophyll.
a. The petiole is the stem of the leaf.
b. The midrib is a vessel that extends from the petiole to the leaf tip. Veins
branch from the midrib.
c. The lamina is the wide, flat part of the leaf.
d. The margin is the edge of the leaf.
e. The vein is made up of phloem and xylem tissues. It branches into a network
that run throughout the leaf
3. Characteristics of leaves
a. A leaf is always borne at the node of the stem
b. Generally, there is always axillary bud in the axil of a leaf
Self Assessment
1. State 5 functions of the leaf

2. Draw the external structure of a dicotyledonous leaf
30
Unit 1, Section 5
Groups of Animals
Dear teacher learner I once again welcome you to section 4 of this unit. In this section we are
going to talk about, “groups of animals”. Well animals are of great benefits to humans including
you and I in many ways. If I may ask, what are the benefits you get from these animals around
you? Or you consuming them as food is the only benefit you think you can get from animals?
Dear the answer is should be No; animals are not meant for food only. By reading and
understanding this section you will get to know more about different groups of animals and
their purposes.
Learning Outcomes

to;
Demonstrate knowledge of the groups of 1. Describe an animals

animals 2. State the categories of animals
3. Mention the group of animals based
on their, Movement, Body covering
and Habitat
Before we start let me ask you, what are the uses of animals?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
Mention any five animals and where they are mostly located.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
31
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
If you have been able to answer the above question then you have done well. If no do not worry
we are going to learn more on the topic.
Groups of animals
Animals are complex, multicellular organisms equipped with nervous systems and the ability
to pursue or capture their food
Animal categories
Animals can be divided into six broad categories. Here are the six main animal groups, ranging
from the simplest (the spineless invertebrates) to the most complex (mammals, which can adapt
to a wide range of habitats);
• Invertebrates are characterized by their lack of backbones and internal skeletons as

well as their relatively simple anatomy and behavior, at least compared with those of
most vertebrates. Today, invertebrates account for a whopping 97 percent of all animal
species, a widely varied group that includes insects, worms, arthropods, sponges,
mollusks, octopuses etc.
• Vertebrates: vertebrates are large group of animals that possess backbone or spinal
column, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes.
• Fishes have dominated the world's oceans, lakes, and rivers ever since. There are three
main types of fish:
i. bony fish, which includes such familiar species as tuna and salmon
ii. cartilaginous fish, which includes sharks, rays, and skates
iii. and jawless fish, a small family made up entirely of hagfish and lampreys.
Fish breathe using gills and are equipped with "lateral lines," interconnected
networks of receptors
• Amphibians: Amphibians are characterized by their semi-aquatic lifestyles (they must
stay near bodies of water to maintain the moisture of their skin and to lay eggs).
examples are; frogs, toads, salamanders etc.
32
• Reptiles: There are four basic types of reptiles: crocodiles and alligators, turtles and
tortoises, snakes and lizards. Reptiles are characterized by their cold-blooded
metabolisms. They fuel themselves by exposure to the sun. Their scaly skin, and their
leathery eggs, which they, unlike amphibians, can lay some distance from bodies of
water.
• Birds are characterized by their coats of feathers, their warm-blooded metabolisms,
their memorable songs (at least in certain species), and their ability to adapt to a wide
range of habitats. Example; the ostriches of the Australian plains and the penguins of
the Antarctic coastline.
Activity 1.5
Mention any different types of fish you consume and classify them under;
i. Bony fish…………………………………………………………………………
ii. Cartilaginous fish………………………………………………………………
iii. Jawless fish……………………………………………………………………
Animal habitat, movement and their body coverings
Grouping of animals based on habitat, movement and living space
What is a habitat?
Habitat is the natural place where particular species of organisms live successfully.
Types of habitats
There are two types of habitats;
• Aquatic habitat and

• Terrestrial habitat
Animals live in different habitats around our world. Over thousands of years, animals have
evolved different movement styles. Generally, animals can be classified in three ways: walking
animals, flying animals, swimming animals.
33
Walking animals
• Habitat
Like humans live on the land and walk or run during most of their lives. Some of them live in
caves, others live above ground.
• Body covering
Walking animals’ bodies are covered with fur or hairs, which can protect them from cold
weather or strong sunlight.
• Movement
Most of them can run fast and move easily in mountain or rocks because of their strong limbs.
Bones are an important part of their body. Some of the walking animals are good hunters, such
as lions and tigers, but some others are hunted by these hunters such as wolves hunt sheep.
Teeth are useful while they are hunting or eating. Walking animals use their teeth to hunt,
protect them from their enemies and cut their food into pieces. Lions and tigers often use their
teeth to snap at zebras and other herbivorous animals, kill them and then eat them.
Source: Live science.com
Flying animals; Flying animals are always birds.
• Body covering
Feathers cover their bodies instead of fur or hair. Feathers also can protect them from cold
weather or strong sunlight. The difference is that feathers can help these creatures fly more
easily.
34
• movement
Flying animals have streamlined bodies which can reduce air resistance during the flight. Light
and hollow bones can reduce unnecessary weight while they are flying.
• Habitat
Flying animals build nests on trees for shelter
Source: Live science.com
Swimming animals
• Habitat
Swimming animals live in the water.
• Body covering
They have scales for protection. And their bodies are covered with mucus which can help them
swim through the water.
• movement
In order to swim more easily and quickly, they have fins. Soft bones are helpful for swimming
animals while they are squeezing through narrow underwater passages. In addition, swimming
animals use gills to breathe, an apparatus which can gain more oxygen than lung in the water.
35
Animals adapt their movement styles to their habitats. It is interesting to classify different styles
of animals’ movement. We can figure out the development of animals’ migration, and learn
from changes animals made to adapt to their environment.
Source: livesciece.com
Activity 1.6
Mention any different types of fish you consume and classify them under;
iv. Bony fish

v. Cartilaginous fish
vi. Jawless fish
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Mention five animals and indicate their habitat, movement and body covering
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Summary
We have discussed in this section that animals can be divided into six broad categories.
1. Invertebrates are characterized by their lack of backbones and internal skeletons as well
as their relatively simple anatomy and behavior, at least compared with those of most
vertebrate.
36
2. Vertebrates; vertebrates are large group of animals that possess backbone or spinal
column, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes.
3. Amphibians; Amphibians are characterized by their semi-aquatic lifestyles, examples
are; frogs, toads, salamanders etc.
4. Reptiles; there are four basic types of reptiles: crocodiles and alligators, turtles and
tortoises, snakes and lizards. Reptiles are characterized by their cold-blooded
metabolisms.
5. Birds; are characterized by their coats of feathers, their warm-blooded metabolisms,
their memorable songs (at least in certain species).
6. Fishes have dominated the world's oceans, lakes, and rivers ever since. There are three
main types of fish
37
Unit 1, Section 6
Uses of Animals
Dear teacher learner I welcome you to section 5 of this unit. In this section we are going to
discuss the general uses of animals. Animals are of great benefit to humans and other organisms
in different ways. Though we mostly consume them as food, we also live with some in our
houses. They become our friends and companions. Animals help us in so many ways; from
the food we eat, clothing protection and companion. Please take your time to learn this section
and you will enjoy it.
Learning Outcomes

to;
Demonstrate knowledge on the uses of 1. Define animals

Animals 2. State the uses of some animals
Uses of some animals
Let us learn some of the following uses of animals and the important things we get from them.
1. For Food: Some animals help us in obtaining food.
• Animals like cow, buffalo, goat (she) gives us milk. Milk is considered as a complete
food and it is necessary for growth and health.
• We get many milk products, which are prepared from milk for example; butter, cheese,
curd, sweets, etc.
• Some people use the meat of certain animals as food. The meat of some animals is
eaten like goat, sheep, pig, fish, deer, etc.
• Hen, duck, etc. and some other birds lay eggs. Egg is considered as healthy food which
is rich in protein.
2. Transport: Some animals are used for carrying people or goods from one place to another.
Bullock, camel, donkey, elephant, horse, etc. are such animals.
38
• Bullocks draw bullock carts. Camels draw camel-carts and in deserts they are specially
used for used for conveyance and carrying loads. Horses and elephants are also used
for conveyance
• In old days pigeons and hawks were used for sending letters from one place to another.
• Bullocks are very useful for agricultural purposed. They are used for ploughing the
fields and threshing the crops.
3. Safety and Recreation: Some animals and birds are kept as pets like dogs, cats, parrots,
pigeons, etc. A pet dog guards our house and very faithful to its master.
4. Wool and Silk: Wool is obtained from the fur of animals like sheep, goat, etc and is used
for making woolen clothes to keep us warm during winter season. Woolen yarn is also used to
make woolen blankets and carpets.
• There are silk-worms feeding on mulberry leaves. These worms produce silk-threads
which we get from cocoon. These threads may be dyed into different color to have
colored silk-clothes.
• The hair of certain animals is also used to make brushes for painting, white washing
and coloring walls etc.
5. Leather: When animals die, their hides or skins are taken out. These hides are coated with
different types of chemicals and dried in sunlight. That gives us leather which we use to make
various kinds of things such as belts, shoes, purses, bags, etc.
6. Honey and Wax: Honey is obtained from bee-hives made by honey-bees. Honey-bees also
make wax which is used for making candles and honey is used as medicine.
7. Manure: Animal dung and bird-drop-pings are used for making manures.
Pets and care of pets
A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or

entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock or a laboratory animal.
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Popular pets are often considered to have attractive appearances, intelligence and relatable
personalities, but some pets may be taken in on an altruistic basis (such as a stray animal) and
accepted by the owner regardless of these characteristics.
Two of the most popular pets are dogs and cats. The technical term for a cat lover is an
ailurophile and a dog lover a cynophile.
Other animals commonly kept include: rabbits; ferrets; pigs, rodents such as rats, mice, and
guinea pigs; avian pets, such as parrots, passerines and fowls.
Reptile pets, such as turtles, alligators, crocodiles, lizards, and snakes, aquatic pets, such as
fish, freshwater and saltwater snails, amphibians like frogs and salamanders.
Small pets may be grouped together as pocket pets, while the equine and bovine group include
the largest companion animals.
Importance of pets
Pets provide the following benefits for their owners
• both physical and emotional benefits. Walking a dog can provide both the human and
the dog with exercise, fresh air and social interaction. Pets can give companionship to
people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social
interaction with other people.
With almost no effort at all, pets manage to bring so much joy into our lives. They make us
laugh, comfort us when we’re sick or upset, and are always there for us no matter what.
• They keep you fit
All breeds of dog need regular, daily walks in order to stay happy and healthy, and so do we!
However, we sometimes have the tendency to get a bit lazy – if that sounds like you, a dog is
the perfect cure! They’ll be dragging you out the front door and making you run around the
park each and every day. Yes, a dog is possibly the best personal trainer you could ask for.
• They make sure you’re never lonely
If you live by yourself, or your partner works different shift patterns to you, it can get awfully
lonely at home – unless you have a pet, of course! Cats and dogs make great companions –
they’ll always be waiting for you to come home.
40
• They lower your stress levels
Modern life is stressful and high levels of anxiety can lead to numerous health problems.
Luckily, pets can really help us relax – stroking your cat or simply watching fish swim around
in a tank can make your worries melt away. Previous studies have proven that pet owners tend
to have lower blood pressure, cholesterol and triglyceride levels than people who don’t own a
pet. That means having a furry pal can decrease the chances of suffering a heart attack later in
life.
• They can help you make friends
The pet owner community is an incredibly friendly one – you’ll often find that people will stop
to talk to you about your dog in the park. Having a pet is a great way to meet new people and
create bonds quickly, especially if you’re not too good at small talk.
• They can improve your immune system
Pets spend a lot of their time outside and therefore bring all sorts of dirt and germs into your
home. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing though – the additional germs can help improve your
immunity to colds and other mild illnesses. In fact, previous studies have shown that babies
who live with a dog tend to experience fewer infections and are generally healthier than those
who don’t.
• They can stop your children from developing allergies
While it’s no guarantee that owning a pet will stop your children from developing certain
allergies, the evidence suggests the dander in their fur may help. However, it’s worth noting
that you should never own a cat or dog if you are allergic to them.
• They make you feel safe
Not everyone likes being home alone, but having a cat or dog there can make you feel a lot
safer. Plus, burglars are less likely to target a house that’s clearly home to a dog. Some breeds
make excellent guard dogs and will even protect you when you’re out for a run or walk.
• They can provide companionship to children with learning difficulties
Children with autism and similar learning disorders often find it difficult talking to fellow
human beings, but they have no problem at all with chatting away to friendly animals. After
all, your pets cannot answer back and will always keep your secrets!
41
Source: forbes.com
Care of pets
Having a pet sounds interesting and fun. But, adopting a pet and taking care of them is a big
responsibility. Here are some of the tips which will help you to take good care of your pet and
keep them happy, active and healthy:
• Feed your pet a good and high-quality foods

• Take them for a walk every day for at least half an hour
• Provide them with the needed vaccination on time
• Keep a clean and hygienic environment for them
• Visit Veterinary on a weekly/monthly basis
• Engage and do not leave them alone for a long time
• Provide them with a good and comfortable shelter
• Love them unconditionally, treat them like your family, talk to them
Activity 1.7
Mention five animals and their uses
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Define pet and state four benefits of pets
42
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Summary
Dear student teacher this brings us to the last section of unit one of this module. After
completion of this section, we have understood the importance of some selected animals;
1. Animals like cow, buffalo, goat (she) gives us milk. Milk is considered as a complete
food and it is necessary for growth and health.
2. We get many milk products, which are prepared from milk for example ghee, butter,
cheese, curd, sweets, etc.
3. We have also gotten to know about pets and how to care for pets.
4. Pets and care of pets
5. A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or
entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock or a laboratory animal.
43
UNIT 2
METALS, NON-METALS AND RUSTING
Dear student teacher, congratulations for successfully completing unit 1. Hope you enjoyed
unit 1? I assure you that you are going to find this unit too very interesting. This unit is designed
to equip the student teacher with requisite pedagogic knowledge, understanding and skills
necessary to differentiate between metal, non-metals and rusting. The contents include types
of materials, characteristics of metals and non-metals, modern uses of metals and non-metals,
the causes and effects of rusting of iron, cleaning rust from surface of iron and methods of
preventing rusting such as: painting, oiling or greasing; insolating the surface of iron from air.
The unit is divided into the following sections;
Section 1: Types and Classification of materials
Section 2: Metals and their Properties
Section 3: Modern uses of metals
Section 4: Non-metals and their Properties
Section 5: Modern uses of Non-metals
Section 6: Rusting: Causes, Effects and Prevention
The topics will be delivered using the following methods: Discussion, presentations
(group/individual), demonstrations, brainstorming, and simulation. The following assessment
modes will be used: Examination, tests, class assignments and presentations.
Learning Outcomes and Indicators

Learning Outcomes : Learning Indicators
On successful completion of this unit, you
will;
• Describe and demonstrate knowledge of • Report and chats on how to

how to differentiate between different differentiate between different
materials in the environment. materials in the environment.
• Design activities to identify different • Designed activities for

materials and classify them into two main classification of materials into
groups, metals and non-metals. metals and non-metals
• A list of modern day uses of
metals and non-metals.
• Use ICT resources (video) to discuss the • Report on a mini project on
modern day uses of metals and non-metals. metals and non-metals
44
• Exhibit knowledge and understanding of the • Reports and chats on the
causes of rusting causes of rusting
• Designed activities on
• Design practical activities/means for the prevention of rust
prevention of rusting
• Micro teaching of the topic
• Engage in micro teaching of rusting and its rusting and its prevention
prevention
45
Unit 2, Section 1
Types and Classification of Materials
Hello student teacher! You are welcome to section 1 of unit 2. In this section, you will be
introduced to various materials in our environment. In our environment, there are so many
materials which are used for various purposes. Let us now go straight into the topic
Learning outcome(s)
On successful completion of this section,

you will;
Exhibit knowledge and understanding of
classification of materials 1. Explanation of materials
2. List of classified materials
3. Explanation of basis of classification

of materials
What is a material?
In your own words, write down what materials are. In the space provided. Compare your
answer with a colleague.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
Let us now see if your answer (s) is/are the same as it is hear.
A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be
included) that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are several materials around
us – they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft.
Classification of Material
Let us now see how materials are classified. Let us go through figure 3.1.
On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are classified into 2 general
categories.
46
Materials
Non-
Metals
Metals
Non-
Ferrous Ceramics Polymers
ferrous
Figure 3.1: Classification of materials
• Metals. Metal is a material (usually solid) comprising one or more metallic elements
(e.g., iron, aluminum, copper, chromium, titanium, gold, nickel), and often also
nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen) in relatively small amounts. The
unique feature of metals as far as their structure is concerned is the presence of charge
carriers, specifically electrons. This feature is given by the nature of metallic bond. In
metallic bond, the atoms do not share or exchange electrons to bond together. Instead,
many electrons (roughly one for each atom) are more or less free to move throughout
the metal, so that each electron can interact with many of the fixed atoms. The electrical
and thermal conductivities of metals originate from the fact that their outer electrons
are delocalized.
• Ceramics. A ceramic is a solid material comprising an inorganic compound of metal,
non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. Common
examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick. In nuclear industry, uranium dioxide is
a ceramic refractory uranium compound, in many cases used as a nuclear fuel.
• Polymers. Polymers are compounds (macromolecules) composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and other nonmetallic elements. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such
as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental
to biological structure and function. Some common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber
How Can We Compare Materials?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
Materials are mostly compared using,
• Performance
• Physical and Chemical Properties
• Composition and Structure
• Processing and Synthesis
47
These four categories are useful ways to sort different materials. Metals, polymers and ceramics
tend to have great differences in these categories.
Performance
The performance of a material is discussed in the context of an application. For example, many
materials are used for building houses. Once upon a time, three little pigs and a big bad wolf
did an experiment to find out if a house should be made of straw, sticks or bricks.
When the wolf huffed and puffed, the straw and stick houses fell down. Brick had the best
performance. However in an earthquake, the brick house would be the worst place to be! The
vibrations can rattle the bricks apart. California’s building codes favor wood or steel reinforced
concrete.
What should a good house material do? Protect the things inside from weather - wind, cold,
heat, rain, snow, hail - and from fire. A medieval castle was designed to withstand cannonballs
but since that is not usually a concern in modern construction, most people would decide that
its superior performance is not worth the extra cost.
Properties
To choose a material with the best performance for a particular application, we will need to
consider the properties of the available materials. Properties are the observed characteristics of
a sample.
Physical properties
Some physical properties describe how an object responds to mechanical forces.
Hardness is one example of a mechanical property. If you drag a steel knife blade across a hard
object, such as a plate, the hard surface is unchanged; if you drag the blade across a soft object,
such as a piece of chalk, the soft surface will be scratched. An object is tough if force is unable
to break or tear it. The response to force depends on the material's structure, and also on its
shape and size. A piece of notebook paper can be torn easily, but a telephone book requires
much greater force.
We can easily bend a flexible object such as a nylon jacket, but more force is required to bend
a stiff object like a polyethylene milk jug. If an object returns to its original shape and size
An object is strong if an applied force is unable to deform or break it. A nylon windbreaker is
strong, since pulling on it does not change its length. Sometimes the manner of applying a force
makes a difference to the strength of an object. Ceramics can bear a lot of weight, but will
break if stretched or bent. Nylon survives compression, pulling and twisting.
Color, texture, and reflectivity can be observed by shining light on a sample. Mirrors are
colorless, smooth, and shiny. Electrical conductivity is detected by applying a voltage across
an object. Applying heat to a sample reveals its ability to conduct heat, its melting point
(temperature at which a solid changes to liquid), and its boiling point (temperature at which a
liquid changes to gas).
Some properties are independent of the amount of sample. Melting point does not change if a
sample is divided in half. Other properties, including mass and volume, increase with the
amount of sample being studied. When observing properties in a laboratory, scientists use the
Metric System of measurements. Mass is measured on a balance or scale. A ruler can be used
to find the volume of a regularly shaped object.
Chemical properties
What comes into mind when we talk about chemical properties of materials?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
48
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..
Let’s now compare what we have written down to what we have in the book.
Chemical properties describe what chemical reactions are likely to occur in the material. A
material that can burn is described as flammable. Some materials rust (a type of oxidation
reaction). Some materials dissolve in water or other liquids.
Usually a chemical reaction involves a transformation of the sample into a different substance,
and it may be difficult to reverse the process. For example, wood is flammable. When it burns
it combines with oxygen from the air. The reaction produces ashes, smoke and water; it cannot
be reversed to make wood. The products of the reaction have quite different properties from
the original wood.
Table 1: Characteristic Properties of Major Classes

Metal Polymer Ceramic
hard but malleable stiff or flexible hard but brittle
shiny Dull shiny if glazed
little color Colorless many colors
Intermediate low melting highest melting point
conduct electricity Nonconductive nonconductive
high density low density intermediate density
difficult to burn Flammable not flammable
Activity 3.1
1. Pick 2 test tubes and label them A and B
2. Put 5 g of sugar crystals into a test tube A
3. Put 5 g of sand into a test tube B
4. Add 10 cm3 of water to the test tubes A and B
5. Stir the content in each test tube for 1 minute.
6. Observe and record your observation.
Composition
Composition tells what chemicals are in the material. The most specific description will reveal
the chemical elements that are present in the sample. Chemists determined that matter is
composed of combinations of about 110 elements. The simplest pieces chemists can make are
atoms. Atoms of the same element are identical (have the same properties) and atoms of
different elements are different. Some Chemists can change oil into nylon only because they
are composed of the same elements.
Structure
The three dimensional arrangement of atoms in a material creates its structure. When sand
changes into glass, its silicon and oxygen atoms shift positions to make a continuous sheet.
Even though the chemical composition is the same, some of the properties have changed. The
49
structure determines virtually everything about a material: its properties, its potential
applications, and its performance within those applications.
Processing and Synthesis

Various methods can be used to create materials from existing substances. Although Star Trek
writers imagined a replicator which could produce any item of known composition and
structure, real transformations are slower and messier.
Processing a material could be as simple as hammering a piece of copper, or flaking arrowheads
from a piece of flint. When sand is melted and formed into glass, the primary change occurring
is in the arrangement of the silicon and oxygen atoms. There are several ways to change iron
ore, a compound, into iron metal. The different processes used to produce cast and wrought
iron result in different ratios of iron and carbon which create different properties in the final
objects, and make them suitable for different applications.
Synthesis implies a major change in chemical composition; for example, polymers are
synthesized by cooking mixtures of chemicals. New molecular structures result.
Summary
• A material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications.
• Materials are classified into
❖ Metals (Ferrous and Non-ferrous )
❖ Non-Metals (Ceramics and Polymers)
• Materials are mostly compared using,
❖ Performance
❖ Physical and Chemical Properties
❖ Composition and Structure
❖ Processing and Synthesis
Self Assessment
1. What are materials?

2. Classify the following materials into metals and non-metals; stone, nail, needle, book,
pencil, chalk, cutlass, plastic bucket.
3. Write 3 characteristic properties of
a. Metals
b. Ceramics
c. Polymers
Unit 2, Section 2
50
Metals and their Properties
Hello, student teacher! You are welcome to this section. Metals and Nonmetals are different
types of materials present around us. Elements can be divided into metals and nonmetals and
it is important to know whether a particular element is a metal or nonmetal. This section deals
with metals and their properties. We will start the section by finding out what Metals are.
Learning outcome(s)

you will;
metals and their properties 1. Explanation of metals
2. List of physical and chemical

properties of metals
What are Metals?
Think about the question carefully and write down your answer in the space provided
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
If you were not about to describe what metals are, do not worry. As you go through this section
you will get to know more about metals.
Metals are a class of substances characterized by high electrical and thermal conductivity as
well as by malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of light. Do not worry about the big
terminologies used, you will get to understand them as we go through the lesson
Most (approximately three-quarters) of all known chemical elements are metals (Figure 3.2).
51
Figure 3.2: the Periodic table showing metals and non-metals
(Source: http://www.ssc.education.ed.ac.uk/BSL/chemistry/nonmetald.html)
Where can we find metals? Please, write them down your ideas
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Most metals can be found in the Earth’s crust examples, aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium
(Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). Quite a number of metals are found
in ores (mineral-bearing substances), but a few such as copper (Cu), gold (Au), platinum (Pt),
and silver (Hg) frequently occur in the free-state because they do not readily react with other
elements.
Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively simple crystal
structure (solid material in which the component atoms are arranged in a definite
pattern) distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of symmetry. Typically,
the atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement of electrons in their outermost
shell. Because of this characteristic, metals do not tend to form compounds with each other.
They do, however, combine more readily with nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which
generally have more than half the maximum number of electrons in the outmost shell.
Now, I am sure you what metal are. Let us now look at the properties of these metals
Properties of Metals
52
The properties of metals are grouped into physical and chemical properties. We will start with
the physical properties.
Physical properties of Metals
Some physical properties of metals are familiar to you from your everyday experiences. These
may include their colour/appearance, how the conduct heat and electricity and their hardness.
1. Most metals are hard solids. A few of them such as sodium and potassium are however
soft and can be cut through with knives. Mercury is the only liquid metal at room
temperature (250C).
2. Most metallic elements have a silvery lustre (surface appearance), except copper and
gold, whose colour have entered the English language as the names of the metals
themselves (have a look your copper and gold ornaments).
3. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They have good or high thermal and
electrical conductivity. When you feel or touch an aluminum pot on fire, how does it
feel?
4. Metals are malleable. You can hammer or beat many solid metals into different shapes
5. It is also possible to draw metals into wire. With this, we say metals are ductile. Think
of how a piece of copper could be drawn in wire. How would you do it?
6. Most metals have high density. Most of the metals you are familiar with will sink in
water due to the high density. Exceptions are Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na) and Potassium
(K)
7. You know it is not easy to melt the common metals like iron, gold, copper, etc. Metals
have high melting points. The melting points range from room temperature (250C) to
thousands of degree Celsius.
Now, let us look at some of the chemical properties of metals.
Chemical properties of Metals
The above physical properties we discussed are mostly obvious because they are things you
usually come across in your everyday life. Chemical properties, which concern how the metals
react with other substances, are however not so obvious. Some of the chemical properties of
metals are;
1. Metals easily corrode
2. Metals lose electrons easily. Their outer shell has 1, 2 or 3 electrons
3. Most metals form metal oxides when they come in contact with oxygen
4. Metals have low electro-negativities, they are electropositive elements
5. Metals are good reducing agents
Summary
• Metals are a class of substances characterized by high electrical and thermal
conductivity as well as by malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of light.
• The properties of metals are grouped into physical and chemical properties
Self Assessment
1. State 5 physical properties of metals
2. State 3 chemical properties of metals
Unit 2, Section 3
53
Modern Uses of Metals
Dear, student teacher, you are warmly welcome to section 3 of this unit. In section 2, you learnt
about metals and their properties. In this section we are going to learn about some modern uses
of metals in our environment. I wish you all the best as we go through this section.

you will;
uses of metals 1. Exhibits of uses of metals in the
environment
2. A list of modern day uses of metals
Metals are usually very strong, most durable and highly resistant to everyday wear and tear. As
such, they have been used since ancient times for a lot of things. And even today with advances
in technology and a lot of other things the uses of metals have broadened greatly. Metals even
play a key role in the economy. Let us look at some important and popular metals uses.
• In the Construction Industry

• Storage of food and Drinks
• In electronics
• In medicine
• Machinery, Refractory and Automobiles
• Decorative products
• Other Uses
In the Construction Industry

Metals are the main component in the construction industry. Metals like iron, steel amongst
others are the main materials used in construction of buildings and even homes. For example,
in construction, the alloy steel is the usual choice for structural building materials due to its
strength and flexibility while copper is used for a range of architectural parts such as roofs and
gutters, due to its durability and appearance.
Storage of food and drinks
In the case of the food and drink industry, stainless steel is the ideal alloy due to its inertness
and resistance to any acids present in foods. It is also tolerant to a wide range of temperatures
allowing heating and freezing, and stainless steel equipment can be repeatedly sterilized.
In Electronics
Another important application of metals is in electronics. As discussed, metals are good
conductors and play an important role in electronics. They are used to making wires and parts
54
for equipment and gadgets that function on electrical current. Popular examples are TV,
mobiles, fridge, iron, computers etc. For example, copper is commonly used in electrical
wiring; gold is used in many computer technologies and silver is often used in electronic
circuitry.
In medicine
If you are wondering how, well from a biological perspective metals are found as micro-
elements in our bodies. Besides, the presence of metal elements is crucial for several functions
like transmission of nerve impulses, oxygen flow, reaction between enzymes etc. Some
medicines are therefore liaised with metal compounds to treat certain deficiencies or sickness.
Metals like, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium titanium, and aluminum are used commonly
in medicine in the form of antacids.
Apart from this, most of the equipment and tools used are made from metals.
Metals have also been extensively used as medical implants. Stainless steel and titanium alloys
are commonly used in biomedical devices, such as joint replacement parts, while gold, silver
and platinum are often used in dentistry. Anti-cancer drugs with different metals are also
commonly used in chemotherapy.
Machinery, Refractory and Automobiles

This is one of the most common uses of metals. They are used extensively in manufacturing
machines for industries, agriculture or farming and automobiles which include road vehicles,
railways, airplanes, rockets etc. Here, the commonly used metals are iron, aluminum and steel.
Aluminum has become one of the most commonly used metals in aircraft manufacturing,
shipbuilding and the train and automobile industry. Aluminum is a resistant and light material
that reduces the weight of transport vehicles, minimizing their fuel consumption.
Besides these, most of the utensils that are used in the kitchen are made from metals like steel,
aluminum, and copper. Due to a high temperature withstanding nature metals are preferred the
most.
Decorative products
Metals such as platinum, gold, and silver come under the category of precious metals and have
high economical value. These metals are widely used in making jewelry sets or for some
decorative piece.
Other Uses of Metals

Some other uses and applications of metals are, they play an important role in security as the
metals are used in making locks, strong safe, doors etc. Apart from this, furniture are made
from metals these days. Metals also find their uses in the military where they are used to
manufacturing weapons and ammunitions. Some metals are used in galvanizing to protect from
rusting.
Summary
• Metals even play a key role in the economy.

• Metal are used for
55
❖ In the Construction Industry
❖ Storage of food and Drinks
❖ In electronics
❖ In medicine
❖ Machinery, Refractory and Automobiles
❖ Decorative products
❖ Other Uses
Self Assessment
Discuss any 3 modern uses of metals in your environment
Unit 2, Section 4
Non-Metals and their Properties
56
Learning outcome(s)

you will;
metals and their properties 1. Explanation of metals
2. List of physical and chemical

properties of metals
3. Differentiate between metals and

non-metals
Elements that tend to gain electrons to form anions during chemical reactions are called non-
metals. These are electronegative elements with high ionization energies. They are non-
lustrous, brittle and poor conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite). Non-metals can
be gases, liquids or solids. They are on the right of the periodic table. They include carbon (C),
Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O) etc. (Please refer to Figure 3.2)
Properties of Non-metals
Properties of Non-metals have less in common with each other than metals. Their physical and
chemical properties vary widely. Some non-metals are solids and some are gases at room
temperature.
Physical Properties of Nonmetals

• Physical State: Most of the non-metals exist in two of the three states of matter at room
temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon). Only bromine exists as a liquid at
room temperature.
• Non-Malleable and Ductile: Non-metals are very brittle, and cannot be rolled into
wires or pounded into sheets.
• Conduction: They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Luster: These have no metallic luster and do not reflect light.
• Melting and Boiling Points: The melting points of non-metals are generally lower
than metals, but are highly variable.
• Seven non-metals exist under standard conditions as diatomic
molecules: H2(g), N2(g), O2(g), F2(g), Cl2(g), Br2(l), I2(s).
Chemical Properties of Nonmetals
• Non-metals have a tendency to gain or share electrons with other atoms. They are
electronegative in character. Nonmetals, when reacting with metals, tend to gain
electrons (typically attaining noble gas electron configuration) and become anions:
57
3Br2(l)+2Al(s)→2AlBr3(s)
• Compounds composed entirely of nonmetals are covalent substances. They generally
form acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen that that dissolve in water to form acids:
CO2(g)+H2O(l)→H2CO3(aq) carbonic acid
As you may know, carbonated water is slightly acidic (carbonic acid).
• Nonmetal oxides can combine with bases to form salts.
CO2(g)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)
Differences between Metals and Non-metals
Let us now try to differentiate between metals and non-metals based on their properties we
learnt. Here are some differences between metals and non-metals (Table 3.2)
Table 3.2: Differences between metals and non-metals
Metals Non-metals
These are solids at room temperature except These exist in all three states
mercury
These are very hard except sodium These are soft except diamond
These are malleable and ductile These are brittle and can break down into
pieces
These are shiny These are non-lustrous except iodine
Electropositive in nature Electronegative in nature
Have high densities Have low densities
Summary
• Elements that tend to gain electrons to form anions during chemical reactions are called
non-metals.
• These are electronegative elements with high ionization energies.
• They are non-lustrous, brittle and poor conductors of heat and electricity (except
graphite). Non-metals can be gases, liquids or solids.
Self Assessment
1. What are non-metals?
2. Mention some non-metals on the periodic table
3. State 3 physical and 3 chemical properties of non-metals
58
Unit 2, Section 5
Modern Uses of Non-Metals
59
Dear student teacher, you are welcome to this section which deals with the modern uses of no-
metals in our environment. You have successfully gone through what non-metals are, and their
properties. In this section, we are going to look at the modern uses of some non-metals in our
daily lives and in different fields.

you will
Exhibit knowledge and understanding of 1. List of uses of non-metals

modern uses of non-metals
2. List of non-metals with their
respective uses
Non-metals are very useful and their modern uses of non-metals can be grouped under the
following headings;
1. Uses of nonmetals in our daily life

2. Nonmetals used in fertilizers
3. Nonmetals used in crackers
4. Other uses of Non-metals
1. In our daily life

❖ Amorphous form of carbon, charcoal is used for ultrafiltration in modern water
filters. Also, it is used in refrigerators to control bad odour.
❖ Oxygen which is 21% by volume helps in the respiration process. It is also used for
manufacturing of steel and provides high temperature in metal fabrication process.
Oxygen, a gas, is absolutely essential to human life. Not only do we breathe it and
use it for medical purposes, but we also use it as an important element in
combustion. Oxygen cylinders are used in hospital.
❖ Chlorine is useful in removing stains and colour patches as a bleaching agent.
Various graded plastics and insecticides are made with chlorine. It helps in
purification of water. How? Adding chlorine to drinking water kills the bacteria.
❖ Helium is used as inert gas for scientific experiments. It is also used in weather
balloons.
❖ Sulfur can be employed in gunpowder, fireworks, and matches to facilitate
ignition. This element is also widely used as an insecticide, a fumigant, or a means
of eliminating certain types of fungus. An important role for sulfur is the
manufacture of rubber for tires and other materials. First discovered in 1839 by
Charles Goodyear, the process of vulcanization makes the rubber more flexible and
60
elastic as well as being more resistant to changes in temperature. A major use of
sulfur is for the preparation of sulfur-containing compounds such as sulfuric acid.
❖ Bromine is a versatile compound, used mainly in manufacture of flame-retardant
materials, especially important for children’s clothing. For treatment of water in
swimming pools and hot tubs, bromine is beginning to replace chlorine as a
disinfectant because of its higher effectiveness. When incorporated into
compounds, bromine atoms play important roles in pharmaceuticals for treatment
of pain, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease.
❖ Iodine helps from throat infections and is used as antiseptic on wounds and cuts.
2. Fertilizers
Fertilizers contain nitrogen. It helps in plant growth. It enhances the rate of plant
growth. Non Metal phosphorus is also used for better plant growth. These two
nonmetals play a major role in plant growth.
3. Crackers
Sulphur and phosphorus are used in fireworks.
4. Others
Non-metals are used to make handles for pots and pans since they cannot conduct
heat. No heat will be transferred to the handle when cooking.
(Source: qknowbooks.gitbooks)
They are also used to cover cable wiring since they cannot transfer electricity.
61
(Source: qknowbooks.gitbooks)
Summary
The uses of non-metals could found
1. in our daily life

2. in the production of fertilizers
3. in crackers
4. Other uses
Self Assessment
State 2 uses of the following non-metals in our daily lives
a. Sulphur
b. Oxygen
c. Bromine
Unit 2, Section 6
Rusting: Causes, Effects and Prevention
Welcome to section 6 of unit 2. In section 2, you learnt about metals and their properties. You
learnt that metals are able to react with water and air. In this section, we are going to learn
about rusting of metals, which comes as a result of metals reacting with water and air. Get
yourselves ready as we go through this section.
Learning outcome(s)
62

you will;
rust formation effects and prevention 1. Evidence of rusted materials
2. List of effects of rusting on materials
3. List of ways of preventing rust
Let us start with the meaning and formation of rust.
What is Rust?
Rusting is the process in which iron combines with air (oxygen) and moisture to form a red-
brown solid called rust. The reaction can be simply represented as follows:
Iron + Oxygen + Water → Hydrated Iron (III) oxide
Fe + O2 + H2O → Fe(OH)3
The oxide which is red-brown material seen in the interaction is called rust (Figure 3.1).I am
sure you have seen some rusted materials in your homes.
Figure 3.1: Some rusted materials in our environment

(Source: Sciencing.com)
Factors that affect the Rusting of Iron

Now that we know what rust is, let us now look at what brings about rusting of irons.
Many factors speed up the rusting of iron, such as the moisture content in the environment and
the pH of the surrounding area. Some of these factors are listed below.
63
• Moisture: The corrosion of iron is limited to the availability of water in the
environment. Exposure to rains is the most common reason for rusting.
• Acid: if the pH of the environment surrounding the metal is low, the rusting process is
quickened. The rusting of iron speeds up when it is exposed to acid rains. Higher pH
inhibits the corrosion of iron.
• Salt: Iron tends to rust faster in the sea, due to the presence of various salts. Saltwater
contains many ions that speed up the rusting process via electrochemical reactions.
• Impurity: Pure iron tends to rust more slowly when compared to iron containing a
mixture of metals.
• The size of the iron object can also affect the speed of the rusting process. For example,
a large iron object is likely to have small deficiencies as a result of the smelting process.
These deficiencies are a platform for attacks on the metal from the environment.
Activity 3.5
1. Take three test tubes A, B and C and place one clean iron nail in each of them.
2. In the test tube A pour some water and close its mouth with the help of a cork.
3. In the test tube B pour boiled water which does not contain dissolved air.
4. Also pour some oil in test tube B to form a layer over boiled water. The layer of oil will
prevent the entry of air in water.
5. In the test tube C put some anhydrous calcium chloride and cork it. Anhydrous calcium
chloride is drying agent. So, it is added into test tube C to absorb all the moisture present
in the air of test tube.
6. Keep these test tubes undisturbed for some days.
Effects of Rusting
Rusting is not a desirable phenomenon and I am sure you can attest to that looking around in
your environment. Think, pair and share with you colleagues some of the effects of rusting in
your environment.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
Compare your answers to the following

• Rusting causes iron to become flaky and weak, degrading its strength, appearance and
permeability. Rusted iron does not hold the desirable properties of iron. The rusting of
iron can lead to damage to automobiles, railings, grills, and many other iron structures.
• Many buildings made up of reinforced concrete also undergo structural failures over
long periods of time due to rusting.
• Rusted iron can be a breeding ground for bacteria that cause tetanus. Cuts from these
objects that pierce the skin can be dangerous.
• Since rusting occurs at an accelerated rate in humid conditions, the insides of water
pipes and tanks are susceptible to it. This causes the pipes to carry brown or black water
containing an unsafe amount of iron oxides.
• It affects the magnetic properties of a metal.
64
• Iron is a good conductor of electricity. But rust is an insulator and when it affects iron,
it decreases its conductivity. If there is any electric connection in the car made with
iron, it can go bad with rusting.
How can Rusting be prevented?

Iron and its alloys are widely used in the construction of many structures and in many machines
and objects. Therefore, the prevention of the rusting of iron is very important. Prevention of
rusting, involves the exclusion of air (oxygen) and moisture from the metal (iron). Some
preventive methods are as follows;
1. Alloying
Alloying is a process in which two or more metal elements are melted together in a
precise combination to form a specific material, or alloy. Alloying the metal surface
prevents rust from developing. Some alloys of iron are rust-resistant. Examples include
stainless steel (which features a layer of chromium (III) oxide) and weathering steel.
COR-TEN steel rusts at a relatively slower rate when compared to normal steel. In this
alloy, the rust forms a protective layer on the surface of the alloy, preventing further
corrosion.
2. Galvanization
Galvanization is the process of applying a protective layer of zinc on a metal. It is a

very common method of preventing the rusting of iron. This can be done by dipping
the metal to be protected in hot, molten zinc or by the process of electroplating.
Zinc is a relatively cheap metal that sticks to steel easily. It also offers cathodic
protection to the iron surface by acting as an anode. The zinc layer is corroded instead
of the iron due to this.
The disadvantages of galvanization are that it only provides protection from rusting for
a limited amount of time since the zinc layer is eaten up in the process. It is not very
effective in highly corrosive areas (where cadmium coating can be used instead).
3. Cathodic Protection
Providing the metals with an electric charge can help inhibit the electrochemical
reactions that lead to rusting. This can be done by making the iron/steel a cathode by
attaching a sacrificial anode to it. This sacrificial anode must have an electrode potential
that is more negative than that of iron. Metals that are commonly used as sacrificial
anodes are magnesium, zinc, and aluminum. Once they are corroded away, they must
be replaced in order to protect the iron/steel.
65
4. Coatings
Many types of coatings can be applied to the surface of the exposed metal in order to
prevent rusting. Common examples of coatings that prevent rusting include paints, wax
tapes, and varnish. Smaller objects are coated with water-displacing oils that prevent
the rusting of the object. Many industrial machines and tools made of iron are coated
with a layer of grease, which lubricates the metal to reduce friction and prevents rusting
at the same time.
Solution to Activity 3.5
After some days, you will observe that the nail in test tube B does not rust because the nail was
exposed only to water and no air was present in it. In the same way the nail present in test tube
C does not rust because in this tube air is dry and water is not present. But the nail present in
test tube A rusts because in test tube A the nail was exposed to both air and water.
Summary
• Rusting is the process in which iron combines with air (oxygen) and moisture to form
a red-brown solid called rust
• Factors that speed up the rusting of iron include moisture content in the environment,
salt, air (oxygen), acids, impurities and the pH of the surrounding area.
• The rusting of iron can lead to damage to automobiles, railings, grills, and many other
iron structures.
• Rusting can be prevented by
❖ Galvanization
❖ Alloying
❖ Cathode protection
❖ Coating
Self Assessment
1. What is rusting?
2. State 3 factors that speed up rusting of iron materials
66
3. Describe 3 negative effects of rusting in the environment
4. Discuss, 3 way of preventing rusting in the environment
67

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INTEGRATED SCIENCE FOR UPPER PRIMARY I

Learning Outcomes and Indicators

Learning Outcomes Indicators

On successful completion of this

1. Link concepts in year one to 1. Develop Concept Maps to link

This unit has been divided into six (6) sections.

Section 1: Group of plants

Section 2: The root system

Section 3: The stem

Section 4: The leaves

Section 5: Groups of animals

Section 6: Uses of some animals

Learning Outcome Indicators

By the end of this section, you will be able

Demonstrate Knowledge of the classes of 1. Give a brief description of a plant

In your own knowledge, what are plants?

According to the duration of its life herbs may be:

Image of an erect plant

General characteristics of climbers

Image of a creeping plant

Watermelon (Source: pinterest.com)

General characteristics of creeping plants

• Creepers are the plants with soft stem.

How are climbers different from creepers?

The main difference between climbers and creepers are:

State the three main groups of plant

Mention the difference between creepers and climbers

Describe the following groups of plants stating 3 examples each

Learning Outcome Indicators

By the end of the section, you will be able

Exhibit knowledge of the root system of 1. Describe a root system

What are Roots?

Roots are of the following types:

• Taproot system: A taproot is a primary root system consisting of lateral branched

A root system possesses the following key characteristics:

Sometimes, a root undergoes structural modification to perform functions like storage,

A structure of root generally comprises of three parts:

Roots perform five distinct roles in plants:

Mention the types of roots

State the parts of a root

1. Taproot system: A taproot is a primary root system consisting of lateral branched

1. Draw the structure of a root indicating the three main parts

Learning Outcome Indicators

By the end of the section, you will be able

Demonstrate knowledge on the stem of 1. Describe a stem

The internodes distance one node from another.

Stems have the following functions:

Specialized storage stems

Stems can be of several different varieties:

• Herbaceous stems are soft and typically green

External features of a typical stem

Source: Boundless biology

State four functions of a stem

Learning Outcome Indicators

By the end of the section, you will be able

Exhibit knowledge of the structure and 1. Describe a leaf

Parts of the Leaf (Source: The sciencefact.com)

• The petiole is the stem of the leaf.

• A leaf is always borne at the node of the stem

The internal structure of the leaf and their various functions

i. Protects leaf against physical damage

Guard cell and stomata