ABSTRACT

This project describes the design of flat plate solar collector for Sheba Tannery
which is sited in Wukro. Basically the design is made to construct a collector
which provides hot water for one of the many processes called deliming. In this
process, hot water at 38-400C is needed to create conducive environment for the
enzymatic action made on sheep and goat skins.

Amongst many types of flat plate solar collectors, this report presents the design
of flat plate collector with forced fluid and non-circulating type. In this type of
collector, cold water at adequate pressure enters the collector, circulates in the
zigzag tubes of the collector, stored in the hot water tank after exit from the
collector and finally pumped to the desired tanning drum by means of pump and
hose. In this particular design, however, a pump is not used to pressurize the
fluid into the collector, but pressure from the cold water reservoir of the tannery
is adjusted by means of a small pressure and flow rate stabilizing tank, thus cost
is reduced. After the cold water is stabilized, it passes through a piping system
that delivers cold water to sets of collectors. There is also another insulated
piping that gathers the heated water from collectors and deliver it to the
insulated hot water tank.
The major design considerations undertaken are the design of cold water piping
systems, the solar collector, the hot water piping system with it’s insulation and
the design of the hot water tank with insulation. The major problems
encountered is attributed to the design of the collector, where the high demand
of hot water consumption resulted in large heating loads and, therefore, larger
collectors. Obviously, this large size of the collector has negative impact
regarding the cost, manageability and usage of different materials for
construction of the collector. We, however, managed the problem by using
scraps of materials to reduce the cost and partitioning the collector into
manageable sizes.

1
 CHAPTER ONE
LITERATURE REVIEW

To appreciate the objectives and the usefulness of the present work on

collectors, a review of some previous works on solar energy collectors seems
appropriate.

For centuries people have studied various concentrating and flat plate collectors.
Solar energy collection has been plagued by the deceptive simplicity of the
physics. Many people feel qualified to design collectors to heat swimming pools
after having experienced hot water coming from a garden hose left lying in the
sun. Many have worked in the field without understanding what they were doing,
and without knowing what others had done before them.

The energy crisis and oil embargo in the early 1970s provided a stimulus to solar
energy research and development in the United States, just as sputnik some 15
years earlier had stimulated aerospace research and development. The result
was an explosive growth in the solar energy literature that paralleled the earlier
growth in aerospace literature.

Regarding the analysis of collector performances, it has become almost universal

to express the efficiency of flat plate collectors as a linear function of the
differences between a collector temperature and the ambient temperature
divided by the solar radiation incident on the collector. Most of these linear
equations derived from the early MIT work of Hottel and his coworkers.

2
The Hottel-Whiller (HW) linear model of the flat plate collector has in the past
few years received more attention than they probably intended. Although Hottel,
Woertz and Whillier derived all the linear equations of the HW model, second-
order effects were carefully considered even though at the time it was an
excruciatingly time consuming task to do the calculations. The linear equations
were only considered to be an approximate description of collector behavior.

Tabor, Hottel, Woertz, Whillier and many others often worked with make shift
and inadequate results on convection heat transfer coefficients in the flat plate
collector glazing systems. For some curious reasons the results of Juerges (1924)
were used for decades by almost everyone in the field for the external
convection heat transfer losses.
The Juerges values led to the prediction of very low collection efficiencies for
unglazed collectors. Standard boundary layer theory led to much lower losses
and agreed fairly well with experimental results. Convection heat transfer for flat
plate collectors is now understood quite well.

3
 CHAPTER TWO
STUDY OF HOT WATER REQUIREMENT

The following data is gathered regarding the deliming process of goat and sheep
skins.

Skin type Time Volume (lit) Temperature(0C)

2AM 2400 40
Goat
5AM 8600 38
1PM 9900 37
Sheep
5PM 8800 37
Table 2.1 Hot water consumption

Graphically, it can be represented as follows.

Hot water consumption

12000
1PM
10000 5PM
5AM
8000
Volume (lit)

6000

4000
2AM
2000

0
Time

4
 Fig 2.1 Graphical representation of hot water requirement

For the above particular tanning process, called bating, temperature ranges from
370C to 400C can create favorable conditions for the enzymatic action on the
skins. However, we have chosen 400C as the outlet temperature of the solar
collector so that heat lost due to piping and pumping via flexible pipes can
reduce it to suitable range.
In order to determine the flow rate of hot water from the collector to the delivery
tank, it is assumed that the collector works from 2AM up to 5PM.
The size of the hot water tank must be, at minimum,
2400lit + 8800lit = 11200lit.
Let the time duration from 2AM to 5AM be period 1, from 5AM to 1PM period 2
and from 1PM to 5PM period 3.
Now, after 8800lit is consumed at 5PM, 2400lit will remain at 2AM. Thus
Vp1 = 8600lit/3hrs = 2866.67 lit/hr
Vp2 = 9900lit/2hrs = 4950 lit/hr
Vp3 = 11200lit/4hrs = 2800 lit/hr
Where Vpi is the volumetric flow rate of water at ith period.
From the above results, the design value must be 4950 lit/hr which is very large
for flat plate solar collectors. However, if the collector is made to fill X liters in
addition to the 8600 liters at period 1, Vp2 reduces and Vp1 increases.

i.e. and .

Equating Vp1 with Vp2, yields, X = 2500 lit. Thus Vp1 = 3700 lit/hr, Vp2 = 3700 lit/hr
and Vp3 = 2800 lit/hr. Still the design value (3700 lit/hr) is too large.
Now, if we add “d” amount of volume to the total tank volume, we can reduce
both Vp1 and Vp2 but increase Vp3 slightly.

5
 i.e.

Since the above equations are functions of two variables, tedious trial and error
calculation is necessary to obtain lower values of volume flow rates. After much
iteration, the following results are obtained.
X = 3300 lit and d = 2000 lit.
Therefore, the volume flow rates will be; Vp1 = Vp2 = Vp3 = 3300 lit/hr.
Since water is incompressible, smallest volumetric flow rate implies smallest
mass flow rate. Thus 3300 lit/hr = 0.912 Kg/s at the average density. This is the
smallest possible mass flow rate one can achieve.
The hot water tank, finally, becomes 11200 lit + 2000 lit = 13200 lit = 13.2 m 3.

6
 CHAPTER THREE
CALCULATION OF SOLAR INTENSITY

According to the data 2004-2005 of Mekelle University we took the dominant

months in temperature in a year. For our calculation may 22 is taken which is
with in the range of months we took. The average value is taken in order to
compensate all the available solar intensity values.
Had it been for other purposes like air conditioning, the design should be for the
specific time you are in.

,i = 22

n = 142

i. Declination angle

Substituting n = 142, =20.340

ii. Angle of incidence ( )

For Wukro
Latitude,

Tilt angle,
Hour angle,

7
Substituting all the values

iii. Zenith angle

but

Therefore
iv. Extraterrestrial intensity

Substituting the constant Iext = 1367 W/m2 and n = 142

Iext = 1332.4W/m2
v. Integrated daily extraterrestrial radiation

Where =

= =94.91

Substituting all values:

Ho = J/m2
vi. Daily radiation on horizontal surface : - given by

8
Substituting all the values of , , : a=0.29, b=0.44

Finally substituting the values of a & b in eqn (3.1)

vii. Hourly total radiation : given by I = rt*H

The coefficients a and b are given by

a=0.409+0.5016sin ( -60)
=0.696
b=0.6609-0.4767sin ( -60)
=0.39
Substituting the values of a & b in eqn (3.2) gives
rt = 0.135 and I = rt*H = 3.34*106J/m2
In order to change it to W/m2

I= W/m2

9
viii. Diffused radiation : clearness index,

kt =

For the range of clearness index 0.22<kt<0.8

Substituting kt = 0.697

ix. Beam radiation :

Substituting all the values Ib = 696.656W/m2

The Total Radiation on the inclined collector

1. The isotropic diffuse radiation ;

2. The beam (isotropic) radiation;

3. Ground-reflected radiation contribution for ordinary ground, = 0.6

Then

After substituting Rr = 0.0077

Substituting all the known values, IT = 888.33W/m2

Calculation of the absorbed solar radiation

10
All the solar intensity won’t get absorbed in but there is some portion which is
being transmitted, reflected away from the collector. The transmittance,
reflectance, and absorptance are functions of the incoming radiation, thickness,
refractive index, and extinction coefficient of the material. Generally, the
refractive index n and the extinction coefficient K of the cover material are
functions of the wavelength of the radiation.
Refractive index of air, n1 = 1
Refractive index of glass, n2 = 1.526
Extinction coefficient = 32m-1
Thickness of glass, L = 0.004m

KL value =

I. Beam reflected transmittance:

From snell’s law

=13.1660
For smooth surfaces has derived expressions for the reflection of unpolarized
Radiation on passing from medium 1 with a refractive index n 1 to medium 2 with
refractive index n2.
The perpendicular component of unpolarized radiation;

..................................eqn(3.3)

The parallel component of unpolarized radiation;

...............................eqn (3.4)

Substituting the values =0.049

= 0.036

11
The transmittance is found by averaging the transmittances for the parallel and
perpendicular components of polarization:

.........................eqn (3.5)

Substituting all the values

II. Ground reflected transmittance

After substituting the values

=82.9310

Now, = 40.5660

Substituting these values of in eqn (3.3) &eqn (3.4)

= 0.653

= 0.364

Now after substituting all values in eqn(3.5)

= 0.261

III. Diffused transmittance

Substituting

=57.9210

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Now,

Substituting all the values of the in eqn (3.3) &eqn (3.4)

= 0.168

= 0.0002

After substituting in eqn(3.5)

= 0.730
From figure in reference [1]

For = 20.34, = 0.99

For = 82.931, = 0.55

For = 57.921, = 0.94

Assuming =0.93

= 0.93*0.99 = 0.921

= 0.93*0.55 = 0.511

= 0.93*0.94 =0.874
Now,
= 1.01* = 1.01*0.804*0.921=0.748

=1.01* = 1.01*0.261*0.511=0.135

= 1..01* = 1.01*0.730*0.874 = 0.644

The total solar energy absorbed is given as

Substituting all the above values

13
 S = 638.416W/m2

CHATPTER FOUR
DESIGN OF SOLAR COLLECTOR

1. Calculation of area requirement

Prior to the determination of collector area, the total heating load must be
known. As mentioned earlier, the purpose of the collector is to heat water
flowing at the rate of 0.912 Kg/s from 20 to 400C.

Thus where QL = heating load in watts

QL = 76133.76 W
The total energy falling per square meter, S, is determined to be, S = 638.416
W/m2.

14
Therefore, to generate QL amount of power,

Note that the above value is the ideally minimum value. I.e. it holds only for
collector with 100% efficiency and absolutely no energy loss. However, it implies
that the area of the collector cannot be less than this value.
Taking efficiency of 50%, an estimate of the collector can be made.

The exact area of the collector is determined by considering the flow rate of
water through the circulating copper pipes. The flow rate must not exceed a
certain value. In order to reduce the flow rate, collector area is increased so that
each panels or units share equal flow rates. Determination of the collector area is
presented in the next topics.

2. Selection of suitable area

The only suitable place to mount the collector is at the roof of the tanning hall on
which hot water is desired. The hall is oriented in North-South direction. The
best way to mount the collector is by welding the fur supporting legs of each
collector onto the truss. See Fig. 4.1

15
 Fig 4.1 Positioning of the collector on roof top

3. Reduction of the collector to manageable size.

The collector is cut into three pieces (units) that are easier to handle. A 0.025 m
of insulation is placed around the periphery of the collector.

Fig 4.2 Partitioning of a collector

From the diagram, a collector is composed of three units which are of 1.719m X
5.4m or 1.694m X 5.4m. Each of the units must deliver hot water at 40 0C. The
total flow rate in a collector is equally shared by each unit. Thus a complete
design of a single unit is done which also works for other arrays of units.
Note that the unit at the middle of the collector has insulation on the two sides
only. This is because the other two uninsulated sides completely fit with the

16
adjacent units so that edge loss occurs only around the periphery of the collector
assembly. Also note that the cold water entry and hot water exit pipes are
located on opposite sides. This is because the cold water supply line and hot
water storage tank are located at the opposite corners of the tannery hall.

4. Collector assembly

Fig. 4.3 Sectional view of a collector panel

5. Determination of collector parameters

Calculation of overall heat transfer coefficient, UL
In order to determine the top heat transfer coefficient, heat transfer coefficient
due to wind, hw, must be determined.

hw=max where V=volume of the house

L=

Vhouse = Vspace + Vtruss

Vtruss = 16trusses x Veach truss
Veach truss = 1/2x5x12.672x3.503=110.975
Therefore, Vtruss=1775.6m3

17
 Vspace=20x40x6=4800m3
Therefore, Vhouse=6575.6m3 thus, L=18.735m

Substituting the values, hw = max =19.573W/m2C

Now,

Ut = .eqn(4.1)

Where N=number of glass covers (=1 in our case)

f = (1+.089hw-.1166hw)(1+0.07866N)
C=520(1-.000051β2) for 00< β<700
e = 0.430 (1-100/ Tpm)
β=collector tilt (degrees)
g =emittance of glass(.88)
p =emittance of plate
Ta=ambient temperature (k)
Tpm=mean plate temperature (k)
hw=wind heat transfer coefficient (W/m2C)
f=2.556….taking p =0.09
For β = 130, C = 515.518

Ut is determined by iteration. As initial start, let Tpm = 350C or 308K.

Substituting the values into the equation yields,
Ut = 2.912 W/m2C

Now, Ue = . Where Ue is heat transfer coefficient for the edge of the

collector.
The selected insulating material is urethane foam with the following properties.

18
 ρ = 70 Kg/m3
K = 0.026 W/mK
Cp = 1045 J/KgK

U= = = 1.04 W/m2K and

A = 0.072m * perimeter = 0.072x20.86 = 1.502 m2

Therefore Ue = = 0.057 W/m2K

Ub= = = 0.52 W/m2K. Where Ub is the heat transfer coefficient for

the back of the collector.

Note that Ue and Ub are independent of Tpm , unlike Ut, and are constant.
UL = Ub + Ue + Ut = 3.484 W/m2K

FR = … eqn(4.2)

Where FR = heat removal factor. It is a quantity that relates the actual useful
energy gain of a collector to the useful gain if the whole collector surface were at
the fluid inlet temperature.

= mass flow rate

Tfo = outlet fluid temperature = 400C

Tfi = inlet fluid temperature = 200C
Ta = ambient air temperature (taken as 230C for Wukro)
AC = collector area (fin area)
Cp = heat capacity of water = 4174 J/Kg 0C
At first trial, let’s assume that there are two collectors (though it cannot be).

Therefore, per unit becomes, .

19
In determination of AC, the area which is not covered by fins must be subtracted
from the available collector area which is 1.694m X 5.35m. For the case that
there are 5 parallel pipes, and thus 4 pipe bends, A C reduces to 8.489m2. The
reason why it’s made 5 parallel pipes is to avoid the forth coming failure which
will be shown later. Now, substituting all the values in eqn (4.2) yields
FR = 2.306 (which should NOT be greater than unity).

where Qu = useful or collected energy. Substituting the values, Qu = 4828.00 W.

Finally, , for the above values, Tpm = -72.4520C which is

indeed a big failure.

Such big heart-breaking failures keep occurring frequently for one primary
reason: FR >1 or the mass flow rates are very high to be collected by two
collectors or six units. Thus collector area, A C must be increased or flow rate
must be reduced (i.e. adding more collectors).
For the limiting case where FR = 1, from eqn (4.2),

Substituting the values gives, = 0.066 Kg/s which implies that there should

be 13.82 units or 4.61 collectors are necessary. Checking it out for 5 collectors or

15 units, i. e. , FR reduces to 0.924.

Now, calculating for Tpm gives, Tpm =33.4270C which is different from what we
have guessed initially (430C). Thus the whole calculation from equation 4.1 is
iterated again and again!
After this iteration, the following results are obtained.
Tpm = 340C (accepted) , UL = 3.417 W/m2K and FR = 0.925.

20
However, this is not enough to decide whether 5 collectors are enough or not.
The mean fluid temperature, Tfm , must also fall in suitable range i. e. from 25 to
350C.

Determination of mean fluid temperature, Tfm

…eqn(4.3)

Where F is the standard fin efficiency

where = the thickness of the fin = 0.001m and

K = thermal conductivity
W = the distance between parallel pipes
D = outside diameter of pipes
Let n be the number of parallel pipes (which is 5 for the time being).

, substituting all the values in eqn(4.3) gives, F = 0.861.

Where = collector efficiency factor

1/ Cb = bond factor which is zero in our case
hfi = the fluid convective heat transfer coefficient = 4564.534 W/m 2/C (the
determination of hfi is to be shown later).
Substituting the values gives, = 0.861

(This must be less than unity)

Now, . Again, substituting the values for Tfm,

21
Tfm = 1.2630C, which is, again, a failure. To get acceptable result, the parameters
must be changed and steps from eqn(4.3) must be repeated. The results are
shown below.
For n = 7; W = 0.242, F = 0.926, = 0.925, = 1.019. Thus Tfm = 16.220C.
The length of the copper pipe in this case will be, 39.731metres per unit * 15
units = 595.965m.
For n = 9: W = 0.188, F = 0.954, =0.953, =0.989. Thus Tfm = 22.1350C.
Also, the length in this case will be 757.687m.
Note, for the collector pipe inlet and outlets to be on opposite sides, n must be
odd number. That is if, for example, n = 6, both the inlet and outlet pipes are on
the same side.
Conclusion from the above results- even if T pm falls in acceptable ranges, T fm
cannot be so. Therefore, 5 collectors or 15 units are not enough. Besides length
of the copper pipe is very large which is indeed very costly. Therefore, the only
choice we have is to add another collector.
For the analysis of 6 collectors (18 units) the processes discussed so far are
repeated (i.e from equation 4.1).
The fluid heat transfer coefficient is calculated as follows.

, this implies, .

=0.671m/s. Where Vm = the average speed of fluid.

= .

Where Re = Reynolds number

= viscosity of water

22
The Prandtl number, Pr, at this temperature is 5.12. The Nusselt number, Nu,
will be
, substituting the values, Nu = 62.837

W/m2K

Other collector parameters obtained are:

n = 5 pipes, W = 0.330m, AC = 8.489m2, UL = 4.06 W/m2K,
F = 0.861, =0.856, FR = 0.783, =0.915,
Tpm = 54 0C, Tfm = 33.7 0C
Finally, from the above parameters, the useful heat collected by the collector is
calculated as follows.

23
 CHAPTER FIVE
DESIGN OF HOT WATER PIPE SYSTEM

In this section heat losses from different piping systems are calculated. The
pipes subjected to heat loss are:
 Pipe bends inside collector (which lay outside the fin area)
 Pipe system that connect panels of the collectors to hot water tank
 The hot water tank, during the idling times.

1. Heat loss in pipe bends inside collector

Known values are:

Mass flow rate in a panel,

Tfm = 33.70C
Length of the copper pipe that lays outside the area covered by the fin, l bend, is:

24
The thermal network will be: [2]

Where Rcnv,fld = thermal resistance to convective heat transfer of the fluid

Rcnd,pp = thermal resistance to conductive heat transfer of the pipe
Rcnd,ins = thermal resistance to conductive heat transfer of the
insulation
Rcnv,air = thermal resistance to convective heat transfer to ambient
air
Tmean = the average of the Ta and Tpm

where Asi = inner surface area of pipe

di = inner diameter of pipe

where ro = outer radius of pipe

Ri = inner radius of pipe

Kco = thermal conductivity of copper =

386 W/mK
Substituting and solving gives,
Rcnd,pp = 3.54*10-5 0C/W
In order to determine Rcnv,air , the convective heat transfer coefficient of the air
trapped inside the collector, htr, must be calculated.
For the state of the air mentioned above,[1]

25
 where μ = viscosity

υ = kinematic viscosity

ρ = density

ΔT = 327 – 296 = 31 K

where Ra = Raghleigh’s number

g = gravity constant = 9.81 m/s2

L = the distance between the collector
fin and the glass cover = 0.021m (see
Fig 4.3)

Substituting the values gives, Ra = 22342.142

[1]

Where β = tilt angle of the collector = 130

Positive exponent means that only positive values are taken for the values
in the parentheses and zero if negative.

Substituting the values gives, .

26
 where Aso = outer surface area of pipe
do = outer diameter of pipe

Now,

Since the thermal resistances are in series, the total resistance, R tot, will be,

Rtot = + + =

Thus the heat loss in a panel will be,

Totally, there are 18 units or panels, therefore,

2. heat loss from output pipes of collector

From economic considerations pipes I, II and III are made of steel rather than
copper. The selected pipe is,
3/8”, schedule number 40, with OD = 17.145 mm and ID = 12.522 mm.
Since the output tubes of a collector are made of copper, a rubber bush/sealing
must be used to prevent leakage.

2.1 heat loss from pipe I

Known values,

27
 , which implies .

Thermal network

To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient of hot water, h f,

where Ai = cross sectional area of

pipe

where vm = mean fluid speed

The Reynold’s number becomes,

where n = 0.3 for cooling and 0.4

for heating

For this state of water, Pr = 4.53

Substitution gives, Nu = 46.965

where Kw = thermal conductivity

of water

Therefore,

28
 where Kst = thermal conductivity of steel = 43

where ha = convective heat transfer

coefficient of ambient air = hw = 19.573

Thus = 7.568 and total resistance, Rtot = 7..572 0C/W.

Since there are 6 pipes that are designated as pipe I, the total heat loss will be,

2.2 heat loss from pipe II

The calculation is similar to pipe I except that there is change in length of pipe
II. That is, lII = 0.421 m. The results are shown below.

29
Therefore,

2.3 heat loss from pipe III

Here also, only the length is changed, i.e.

0.568 , thus

3. heat loss from pipe “a”

Known values,

, la = 1.547 m.

Thermal network

From economical considerations, selected pipe is,

3/4”,schedule number 40, with OD = 26.67 mm and ID = 20.93 mm.
From similar procedure discussed above, hf = 2202.742W/m2 K.

30
Substitution gives, =7.294*10-4 .

The thickness of insulation of the pipe is calculated from the critical insulation
equation.

where r’o = critical radius of insulation

Kins = thermal conductivity of insulation =

0.026

Substituting the values, r’o = 1.328*10-3 m. Since r’o is less than the outer radius
of the pipe itself, any addition of insulation decreases the heat transfer rate.
Let lins = 1cm where lins = length (or thickness) of insulation

2.4

4. heat loss from pipe “b”

Known values:

which implies . The selected pipe is:

1” schedule number, 40 with OD = 33.401 mm and ID = 26.645 mm

31
Similarly,

Note that the thickness of insulation is 1 Cm i.e. the same as pipe “a”.
The thermal resistances are determined to be,

0.916 . Note that there are two pipes that are

designated as pipe “b”.

5. heat loss from pipe “c”

The sizes (length and diameter) and insulations of pipes “b” and “c” are the
same. However, they are different in the rate of fluid flow they handle.
Therefore, the convective heat transfer of the fluids differs.

hf = 2424.8

= 9.729 * 10-4

0.915

6. heat loss from pipe “d”

32
Pipe “d” differs from pipe “b” and “c” only in its length, which is 2.5 m, and the
fluid flow rate it handles. The calculation shown previously is repeated for the
new value of mass flow rate and length. The results of thermal resistances are as
follows.

= 1.406 * 10-3

3.149 * 10-4

1.706

0.244

1.952 . Thus qd = 17.42 W.

7. heat loss from pipe “e”

The overall length of pipe “e” is comprised of two parts. The first part lies
outside the tannery hall and the second part lies inside the tannery hall where
the ambient air conditions are different from outside. Designating them as
exterior and interior pipes, respectively, the heat losses from each is calculated
as before.
Note that the pipe collects hot water from the six solar collectors and delivers it
to the tank at the desired rate i.e. 3300 lit/hr.

7.1. heat loss from the exterior pipe

Known values:

, and lext = 9.34 m

Similarly, hf = 36840.092 and thermal resistances will be,

33
 = 3.472 * 10-5

8.956 * 10-5

0.456

0.032

0.488 . Therefore, qext = 34.836 W.

7.2. heat loss from the interior pipe

Since this portion of the pipe is in the tannery hall, the ambient air conditions will
be different. This difference affects only Rcnv,air and, obviously, ΔT. The
parameters are determined to be:

= 1.353 * 10-4

4.360 * 10-4

2.256

ha = 4 and the inside temperature of the room is 250C. Thus ΔT = 40 -

25 = 150C.

0.779

3.035 . Therefore, qint = 4.941 W.

In order to calculate the net heat transfer to the fluid, the total heat losses due
to the piping system must be known.

34
 Item Heat loss (W)
Pipe bends of collector 25.542
I 13.471
Output pipes of collector II 44.717
III 179.577
A 42.496
B 37.118
Delivery pipes
C 37.152
D 17.42
Exterior 34.836
Pipe “e”
Interior 4.941
Total 437.270
Table 5.1 Summary of heat losses in different pipes

With this total heat loss, the temperature of the water at the hot water tank is
calculated.
where Qnet = the net heat the water takes
Qu = useful heat gathered by the
collector
Qloss = heat loss due to piping system

From . Therefore, the collector raises the

temperature of water flowing at the rate of 0.912 Kg/s from 20 0C to 40.460C.

Comment:- The increase of the hot water by 0.46 0C at the tank input arises due
to the fact that, in Chapter 4, the calculated value for the number of collectors

35
was 4.61 which was taken to be 5 to avoid failure (if 4 collectors were taken).
However, from the calculation of Tfm, 5 collectors gave a result implying failure
and, therefore, 6 collectors were used.

8. Heat loss from the hot water tank

There is heat loss from the hot water tank during the idling times i.e. during the
night times where there is no inflow to the tank. The tank remains idle from 5
PM to 2AM in the next day (see Fig 2.1). In other words, the tank must keep the
water it contains at suitable range even if it is idle for 15 hours.
The calculation for the drop in temperature of the water is more or less similar to
what has been discussed earlier. The analysis is presented shortly as follows.
Known values:
From the design of the tank, outer radius of the shell, r o = 1.242 m, inner
radius of the shell, ri = 1.236 m, height of the shell, L sh = 2.485 m, of the
torispherical end, ttor = 0.0092 m.

Thermal network

Where Rcd,sh = thermal resistance to conductive heat transfer through the shell
Rcd,in,sh = thermal resistance to conductive heat transfer through insulation
of shell
Rcv,ar,sh = thermal resistance to convective heat transfer to ambient air
through shell
Rcd,ed = thermal resistance to conductive heat transfer through the ends
Rcd,in,ed = thermal resistance to conductive heat transfer through insulation
of ends

36
 Rcv,ar,ed = thermal resistance to convective heat transfer to ambient air
through ends
Notes:
 For analytical purposes, the ends of the tank are assumed to be flat rather
than torispherical.
 The critical radius of insulation is calculated as before and the obtained
value is 6.5 mm which is less than the outer radius of the shell. In this
case, since any addition of insulation decreases the heat transfer rate, the
thickness of insulation for both the ends and shell is taken to be 0.01 m.
The result of thermal resistances is shown below.

From the above values and the network diagram, 0.022 .

Therefore, heat loss will be .

In other words, if the tank loses 681.818 Joules per second, it will lose
15 * 3600 * 681.818 = 36818172.000 Joules in 15 hours.

37
Mass of the water in the tank is V * ρ = 13136.640 Kg. Now the decrease in
temperature is calculated as,

0
C. Therefore the temperature after the 15 hours idling

period
will be, 40 – 0.671 = 39.3280C. This falls in the acceptable range.

CHAPTER SIX
CALCULATION OF PRESSURE DROP IN COLD WATER PIPE
SYSTEM

In order the fluid to pass through the pipes and raised to a roof easily, it should
be forced by a pump. But considering the cost in using the pump; we preferred
to use the already installed reservoir which is 25m high.
The turbulent flow of a fluid runs on the collector and pipes before and after the
collector, it should surely withstand the major loss, the friction loss and the
minor losses. The minor losses are losses of energy due to change of velocity of
the fluid in magnitude.
Mostly the minor head losses are due to:
 Sudden enlargement
 Sudden contraction
 Entrance to a pipe
 Exit of a pipe
 Obstruction in a pipe
 Bend in the pipe

38
Having this 25m head, let’s calculate the losses from the tower to the collector
which is to be positioned on the roof of the production hall.
The steel pipes have nominal dimensions of 4,3,2,3/8 inches stretched from the
reservoir to the collector .And the respective internal diameter in mm from
reference [2] through interpolation respectively are 102.3,77.9,52.5 and 12.522.
And the water properties and at a temperature of 200C are found to be
1.01*10-3Kg/ms and 997.6Kg/m.
The average flow rate that the production shop uses is 417 litres/minute.

The utilities other than the production shop like the cafeteria use one-fifth of the
total flow rate. Therefore the production uses four-fifth of the whole flow rate.
= 8.6875*10-3m3/s
The major and minor losses in each pipe are as follows:

In pipe number 1

For a diameter of 0.102m, V = 1.063m/s

The major loss, friction loss, is given by

Where f the coefficient of friction is a function of

Reynolds number, Re.

But Re is given by

Since Re is between 4000 and 106 f is given by

hf ,for l = 20.22m & d = 0.102m, =0.199m

39
 =0.029m

Pipe number 2
Since it has the same diameter to pipe number one; they are equal in velocity
hf ,for l = 3.4m & d = 0.102m, =0.0335m

, for an elbow 900 K=0.9

Substituting hb1 = 0.052m

Pipe number 3
Note that all the pipes from 3 to 7 do have V =1.5 m/s and d = 0.0779m

, K =1 for tee along branch

= 0.115m
=1.2*105
f = 4.3*10-3
hf ,for l = 5.8m, =0.147m

Pipe number 4
= 0.103
hf ,for l = 0.5m, =0.013m

Pipe number 5
= 0.103m
hf,for l = 77.5m, = 1.96m
Pipe number 6
= 0.103m

40
 hf,for l = 1.6m, = 0.04m
Pipe number7
= 0.103m
The total pressure loss for the 7 pipes =3.0405m
hf, for l = 1.5m, = 0.041m
The total pressure loss =2.995+10.168=13.163m
The pressure difference is 25-13.163=11.837m
Therefore this pressure difference is more than enough in order to push the fluid
up to the collector.

Stabilizing tank
The stabilizing tanker is to be set on the roof in order to stabilize fluctuating flow
rate and it gives the necessary pressure through the collector and other pressure
drops through the different bends.
The nominal diameter of the pipe that goes out from the stabilizing tank is
assumed to be 2 inch i.e. 52.5mm internal diameter. And the total mass flow
rate after the tank is 0.912kg/s.

=9.14*10-4M3/S

Then V=0.42m/s

=21779 & f = 6.5*10-3

hf, for l = 7.3m, = 0.0325m

h = hi + hf

41
h =0.0369m
Loss along the copper tubes of the collector
The and properties of water at a mean fluid temperature of 33.70C through
interpolation are 7.43*10-4 and 994.4 kg/m3.

f = 8.115+10-3
Therefore head loss due to friction for the 2 end pipes, length =5.206,

= 0.776m

Head loss due to friction for the 3 central pipes hf = 1.120 m. For a length of
5.012 m.
The four bends are neither flanged nor threaded type. Therefore taking the

perimeter of the pipes for the length, the head loss =

The total head loss per unit collector, hu = 2.054m

Finding the pressure loss from the unit collectors to the stabilizing tank

Fig.6.1 Hydraulic resistance network

42
The selected nominal pipe diameter for the pipes at the entrance to the unit
collectors is 3/8 inch (12.522mm).They are of equal in length i.e. 0.2m and flow
rate of 5.11*10-5.
Using these values V = 0.416m/s

=5141.1m/s and f =9.33*10-3

Pipe number a1

, K = 0.9 for a 900 elbow

= 7.94*10-3
hf, for l = 0.2m, = 5.267*10-3m

For the rest of collectors from hsa2 to hsc3 , K=1 for tee along branch

Then =8.82*10-3m & hf, for l = 0.2m, = 5.267*10-3m

Using the same procedure for the mass flow rates for the pipes designated 3, 2,
1 & 0 respectively equals 0.456, 0.304, 0.152 & 0.051 and the major and minor
loses are found.
For hI
Using the common procedure of finding hf & ht
hf, for l = 1.652m, = 2.018*10-4m
ht = 1.174*10-3m
hI = 2.135*10-4 m
For hII
hf, for l = 1.652m, = 1.576*10-4m

43
 ht = 4.446*1.174*10-3m
hII = 2.021*10-4
For hs1
hf, for l = 1.697m, = 3.229*10-4m
ht = 0.99*10-4m
hs1 = 4.22*10-4m
For hIII
hf, for l = 1.652m, = 5.36*10-4m
ht = 1.8*10-4m
hIII = 7.161*10-4m

For hIV
hf, for l = 1.652m, = 7.896*10-4m
ht = 2.805*10-4m
hIV = 1.07*10-3m
For hs2
hf, for l = 1.697m, = 1.106*10-3m
ht = 3.996*10-4m
For hV
hf, for l = 1.652m, = 1.425*10-3m
ht = 5.51*10-4m
The total loss for
hV = 1.976*10-3m
For hVI
hf, for l = 1.652m, = 1.803*10-3m
ht = 7.206*10-4m
hVI = 2.524*10-3m
For hs3
hf, for l = 0.848m, = 1.132*10-3m

44
 hs3 = 3.402*10-3m

Then the summation of the loses in series with the unit collectors up to the tee
joint of the 3/8 pipes are in parallel with the loses before them and are in series
with the loses after them. Therefore the total sum of the loses is equal to
0.155m.

CHAPTER SEVEN
DEISGN OF HOT WATER TANK

This hot water tank with a design volume of V=13200 litres is to be for the
storage of hot water. Since this volume is high, in order to be conservative we
have designed the hot water tank by the methods of pressure vessel principles.

45
 Fig. 7.1 Hot water tank

1. Design of cylindrical shell

Assuming thickness of shell (e) to be 6mm, the internal pressure of the

cylindrical shell can be calculated from ………………………eqn (1}

Volume cylinder is given by:

V=A*L, L assumed to be equal to do

Assuming the top and bottom part of a torispherical ends can hold 10% of the
total volume i.e.

m3

The remaining volume is volume of cylindrical shell;

V”=V-V’
=11.88m3

From this di =2473mm

Substituting all values

46
The nominal design stress, is given as follows

And for asteel-37 material yield stress = 220Mpa

Ultimate stress = 360Mpa

From eqn (1) p = 0.6Mpa for Z = 0.8-0.9 and 0.9 is taken for this design.

2. Design of the torispherical end

Condition of application
0.06di<r<0.2di

148.4<r<494.6 taking the small radius r = 300mm and the large radius R do

and it can be taken to be equal in value i.e. R = 2485 mm

The value of e should be the greatest of es, ey and eb

i. es is obtained from es =

Substituting all values es = 6mm

47
 ii. ey is obtained from ……………………………eqn

(2)
is calculated from the table on EN 13445 European standard P. 30 using the

coordinate . Substituting the values and using the

coordinate equals 0.95.

Finally substituting all values in eqn (2), ey = 9.2mm

iii. eb is obtained from = 8.4mm

Therefore, e=max (es, , ) = 9.2mm.

The inside height of a Torispherical end (hi) is calculated from

Then substituting all values hi = 510.869mm

The total height of the hot water tank including its leg, RHS material of length
1m with a 1200
Gap between them, is equal to 4.5m

3. Design of inlet and outlet openings

The inlet and outlet pipe opening are designed to be in equal dimensions. Inside
radius of curvature of the shell at the opening centre is: r

ris = or ris =

Assuming the thickness of the reinforcing ring; ear = 40mm and its width; lr =
5mm and its effective thickness; er = min (ear; max (3ea, s: 3lr) = 18mm.
Maximum length of ring and shell in reinforcing rings for reinforcement is give by

48
 ................................................eqn (3),

Substituting = 172.7mm

And substituting = 6mm

, ea,m=6mm

Substituting = 120mm
The general equation for the reinforcement of an isolated opening is given by

The value of the components is found as follows

Assume lso = 80mm length of shell from the edge of the opening
Substituting = 80mm
Afs=ea, s*l’s = 480mm2

Afw is the weld size and assuming weld size to be 5mm, = 12.5mm2

Afr=er*lr = 90mm2
Apr =0.5*di*er Taking di to be 40mm Apr = 360mm2
Aps=AS+0.5d*ea,s, As=ris*(l’s+a), a=0.5d
=129982.5mm2 =129832.5mm2 =25mm
Checking the reinforcing equation

Substituting the values

85278>=78205.5
The inlet and outlet openings satisfy the equation. This implies that they are
safe.

49
 4. Design of inspection hole

By the same procedure to that of the inlet and outlet openings, the design of the
inspection hole is as follows:
Assumption: ear = 80mm and lr = 30mm
er = min (ear; max (3ea, s: 3lr) = 80mm

In iteration calculation

= 177.7mm

l’s = min (lso, lo-lr)

=120
Afs = ea,s*l’s = 720mm2

Afw = Afw is the weld size and assuming weld size to be 5mm, =

12.5mm2
Afr = er*lr =2400mm2
Apr = 0.5*di*er = 17600mm2
Aps =AS+0.5d*ea,s, =45900mm2
As = ris*(l’s+a), a=0.5d = 250mm

50
 =457505mm2
Checking the reinforcing equation

Substituting all the values

473238>=285963
Therefore, the inspection hole is safe.

51
 CHAPTER EIGHT
COST ANALYSIS

1. Solar water heating cost

Currently flat-plate collectors cost less than concentrating collectors. It is
because flat- plate do lack of need for a complex tracking system. And many
more flat-plate than concentrating collectors are being produced today.
The savings to be made after the installation of the solar water heating system
have been computed for the Sheba tannery.
In order to know how much is the project feasible economically; cost analysis is
done for the following materials.

Material pieces Unit cost(Birr) Total cost(Birr)

Steel sheet 93 180 16740
Angle 24 44 1056
iron(20x20x2.5)
Angle 24 57 1368
iron(30x30x2.5)
Legs 3 45 135
Glass 163.134 m2 70Birr/m2 11419.38
Aluminium 77 195 15015
Copper pipe 496.22 m2 25 Birr/m2 12405.6
Steel pipes
3/8 inch 6 75 450
3/4 inch 2 110 220
1 inch 2 380 760
2 inch 7 420 2940

52
 3 inch 2 450 900
Pump 1 700 700
Stabilizing tank’s 2 180 360
sheet
Hot water tank - 6500 6500
Sum 70968.98

2. Machining and Manual costs

Since there are six collectors with a lot of frames to be welded to each other, it is
wisely guessed that 3 welders can take them two days to weld & combine them.
Assuming that they will be paid 50 birr salary per person.
50birr/person*3persons = 150birr/day
150birr/day*2days = 300 birr
The machining i.e. rolling and welding of the Hot water tank can be carried on
side by side since it is performed at another place. The total cost (including
material and manufacturing)of the hot water tank is Birr 6500.00.
Finally the fitting of the pipe system can be performed with in two days. The
persons involved in this work can be paid 40 birr individually and it is assumed
that the work can be finished by two persons.
40birr/person*3persons = 120 birr/day
120birr/day*2days of work = 240 birr
The total cost of the installation of the solar system is the sum of the cost of the
materials and the manual cost i.e. 70968.98+540 = 71508.98birr.
The useful energy collected by the collector is calculated to be 78319.582W.

When this is changed to kWh it becomes Wh per day.

Assuming that the service year of the solar collector to be 20 years, the kWh for
the coming 20 years becomes 21.755*20*365 = 158811 .5kwh.
As from the EELPA information the electrical cost for one kWh in Ethiopia is 0.58
birr for institutions and 0.36 birr for house hold.

53
The corresponding electrical cost will be 158811.5kwh*0.58birr/kwh = 92110.67
birr.
The difference in birr between the solar water heating system and the electrical
system will be
92110.67-77008.98birr = 15101.69 birr with out including the cost of the
electrical of boiler and other installations.
Due to the low cumulative cost, no emission and low risk of accident of the solar
collector makes the cost the power produced be higher than the cost of the
electrical power. So it is recommendable to use solar collector to boil water.

54
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

From this project, it can be concluded that the design of solar collectors of the
type specified earlier needs great effort and patience for the cumbersome
iteration involved. Since the collector is designed for industrial application, its
size is bigger from what it may have been thought to be. Therefore, reducing the
collector area in as much as possible was one of the major concerns. In addition,
the issue of manageability has to be dealt with without making the piping
systems complicated.

It may seem for many people that flat plate collectors are of low cost because of
the absence of tracking system and machining of complex parts during
manufacturing. Even though for industrial application like this project, the total
cost is mainly attributed to the collector materials such as aluminum sheets and
copper tubes, the cost of other system parts such as water tanks, piping and
insulations have big effects.

Like any industrial equipment, the collector involves high initial cost. Since such
types of collectors are maintenance free, run time costs are almost negligible.
Therefore, the company is strongly recommended to implement the collector we
have designed. Unlike mast water heaters which operate by usage of fossil fuels,
using solar water heaters is beneficiary in the light of environmental issues.

Finally, since flat plate solar collectors are most commonly used, we would like to
recommend further work to be done on the development of software for this
purpose. The software, obviously, saves lot of time and energy spent on the
iterations and other calculations.

55
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] John A. Duffie, William:’’ Solar engineering of thermal processes,’’2 nd ed.,
19991
[2] J.P.Holman:’’ Heat transfer,’’8 th ed., Mcgraw-hill, Inc.1997
[3] Sonntag, Borgnakke, van wylen:’’Fundamentals of thermodynamics,’’5 th ed.,
John Wiley & sons, Inc.1998
[4] Charles A.Bankstron,:’’solar collectors, Energy storage, and Materials,’’
Massachusetts institute of Technology, 1990
[5] Dr.R.K.Bansal,’’ A Text book of fluid mechanics & Hydraulic Machines,’’Laxmi
publication (p) LTD, 1983.
[6] internet

56