LESSON 2: RESPIRATION

Respiration – conversion of starch and sugar in plant tissues to CO2, water, and energy in the
presence of O2. Usually, the higher the respiration rate, the shorter the shelf life of a fresh
product is.

Factors Affecting Respiration

a. Atmospheric composition – the reduction of oxygen or the increase in carbon dioxide
content in the atmosphere surrounding a fruit can reduce its rate of respiration and
increase the shelf life of some fresh fruits.
▪ When oxygen is readily available, the respiration process is called aerobic
▪ However, if the surrounding atmosphere becomes deficient in oxygen, then the
metabolic pathways shift and anaerobic respiration occurs.
▪ The products of anaerobic respiration include ketones, aldehydes, and alcohols.
▪ These products are often toxic to plant tissue and hasten its death and decay.

b. Temperature
▪ In addition to the final products of aerobic respiration (carbon dioxide and
water), there is also the evolution of heat.
▪ For every 10OC temperature increase, biological reactions involved in the
respiration processes are increased by a factor of 2.
Heat of Respiration of Selected Fruits and Vegetables
Watts per Megagram (W/Mg)
Commodity 0
0C 50C 100C 150C
Apples 10-12 15-21 41-61 41-92
Apricots 15-17 19-27 33-56 63-101
Beans, green, or
- 101-103 161-172 251-276
snap
Broccoli sprouting 55-63 102-474 - 514-1000
Cabbage 12-40 28-63 36-86 66-169
Carrots, topped 46 58 93 117
Garlic 9-32 17-29 27-29 32-81
Peas, green (in pod) 90-138 163-226 - 529-599
Potatoes, mature - 17-20 20-30 20-35
Radish, topped 16-17 23-24 45-47 82-97
Spinach - 136 327 529
Strawberries 36-52 48-98 145-280 210-273
Turnips, roots 26 28-30 - 63-71

▪ The rate of heat respiration is associated with the functional aspect of the
vegetable tissue.
For example, a growing part of a plant such as a leaf (in leafy vegetables) has a
higher rate of heat generation than plant tissue where growth has ceased, such as
in a tuber crop.
 ▪ Furthermore, the respiration process produces a decrease in the product mass as
some of the food components are oxidized as well as a loss of sweetness in many
commodities.
Respiration Rate Range of CO2 Production at
Commodities
50C (mg CO2 / kg h)
Very Low <5 Nuts, dates, dried fruits, and
vegetables
Low 5-10 Apple, citrus, grape, kiwi
fruit, garlic, onion, potato
(mature), sweet potato
Moderate 10-20 Apricot, banana, cherry,
peach, nectarine, pear, plum,
fig (fresh), cabbage, carrot,
lettuce, pepper, tomato,
potato (immature)
High 20-40 Strawberry, blackberry,
raspberry, cauliflower, lima
bean, avocado
Very High 40-60 Artichoke, snap beans, green
onion, Brussels sprouts
Extremely High >60 Asparagus, broccoli,
mushroom, pea, spinach,
sweet corn

c. Mechanical Damage – (during harvesting or postharvest handling) can increase

respiration and other metabolic reactions, accelerating the fruit deterioration.

d. Other factors which influence the rate of respiration are the stage of maturity of the
fruit, water stress, light, growth regulators, pathological growth, and chemical stresses.

ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
Ethylene (C2H4)
▪ a naturally occurring gas which participates in various biological processes in
fruits
▪ colorless and effective at very low concentrations
▪ can be produced in very small quantities by most of vegetables tissues, which
require it for growth and development, but it diffuses rapidly from the sites of
production
▪ the response to ethylene presence depends on the maturity stage of the fruit
▪ favors uniform texture changes as the fruit ripens
▪ stimulates color development with the synthesis of anthocyanin and
carotenoids, and chlorophyll degradation (degreening) and yellowing
▪ Low concentrations of ethylene can promote its autocatalysis in mature fruits
and senescent tissues, increasing its production.
 ▪ Autocatalytic response is due to the destruction of endogenous ripening
inhibitors in the presence of ethylene, which at the same time triggers its
production. In contrast, ethylene presence can also inhibit its own production in
some products.
▪ Ethylene production is also promoted by extrinsic factors such as mechanical
damages (cuts, bruising, scratches), decay, insect damages, and climate
conditions (temperature, relative humidity), as a response of the tissues to
different type of stress.
▪ The rates of ethylene production vary for different fruits and may be controlled
by storage temperature, atmospheric oxygen, and carbon dioxide concentration.
▪ The consequences of ethylene gas on the maturation process of fruits and
vegetables include a change in the green color due to loss of chlorophyll,
browning of tissues due to changes in anthocyanin and phenolic compounds,
and development of yellow and red colors due to the development of
anthocyanin and carotenoids, respectively.
▪ Ethylene also favors some physiological disorders and increased sensitivity to
microbial spoilage.

CLASSIFICATIONS
Fruits can be classified (based on their respiration pattern) into:
a. Climacteric
- An abrupt increase in the respiration rate is
observed during ripening; it reaches a
maximum (climacteric peak), followed by a
rapid decrease.
- Climacteric fruits exhibit a high production of
ethylene and carbon dioxide at the ripening
stage
- Climacteric peak cannot necessarily correspond to the fruit maximum edible
quality; however, these fruits must reach their physiological maturity before
harvest to develop all desirable characteristics as they ripen.
- Ethylene promotes rapid and uniform ripening of climacteric fruits (e.g.,
banana, papaya, tomato) and some nonclimacteric fruit.

b. Nonclimacteric
- respiration rates show very little change during
ripening
- In non-climacteric fruits, the general production
of carbon dioxide and ethylene gas remains quite
low and there is no increased evolution rate of
these gases at the ripening stage.
 Classification Examples
Climacteric fruits Avocado, banana, breadfruit, cantaloupe,
cherimoya, fig, guava, honeydew melon,
jackfruit, kiwi fruit, mango, muskmelon,
papaya, passion fruit (yellow), plantain,
rambutan, sapote, soursop, watermelon
Nonclimacteric fruits cashew apple, date, sweet passion fruit,
grapefruit, lemon, lime, litchi, loquat,
mandarin, mangosteen, olive, orange,
pineapple, purple or red mombim, rose
apple, starfruit, tangerine

UNDESIRABLE ETHYLENE EFFECTS

▪ Undesired ripening and excessive softening of fruits in storage
▪ Accelerated respiration rate
▪ Accelerated senescence and loss of green color in leafy vegetables and immature fruit
(e.g. cucumbers, tomatoes)
▪ Undesirable discoloration
▪ Abscission of leaves (e.g., cauliflower, cabbage, foliage plants, etc.)
▪ Sprouting (stimulation or retardation; e.g., potatoes)
▪ Reduction of storage life
▪ Synthesis of bitter compounds in carrots.
▪ Induction of phenolic synthesis
- Bitter principle (isocoumarin) in carrot roots
- Toxic ipomeamarone in sweet potato roots
- Russet spotting on lettuce
- Lignification of asparagus
▪ Physiological disorders of ornamental crops
- ‘Sleepiness’ of carnations (failure of bloom to
open)
- Flower and leaf abscission
- Inhibition of shoot and root elongation, bud
necrosis, and flower bud blasting in bulb crops.

OTHER CHANGES
▪ In certain cases, the conversion of certain compounds may be undesirable.
- If potatoes are to be processed as French fries, the conversion of starch to
reducing sugars causes browning in the final product.
- Adverse flavor changes due to the formation of organic acids may influence the
edible quality of fruits.
- Asparagus becomes tough due to continuing elongation even after they are
harvested.
▪ Other changes, such as sprouting of potatoes and root corps (e.g., onions, garlic, and
potatoes), reduce their utilization and increase their rate of deterioration.
 ▪ Furthermore, there are nutritional losses.
▪ The loss of water from a commodity causes major deteriorative changes. Not only is
there a loss of weight, but the textural quality is altered, causing a commodity to lose
its crispness and juiciness.
▪ Poor management of storage temperature accelerates physiological breakdown in fruits
and vegetables.
✓ For example, the chilling injury occurs mostly in commodities from
tropical and subtropical regions when they are stored at temperatures
above their freezing point and below 5°C–15°C. This type of injury
causes uneven ripening, decay, growth of surface molds, development of
off-flavors, and both surface and internal discoloration.
▪ Similar physiological damage of a commodity is also observed when storage
temperatures cause freezing leading to freezing injury, or excessively high temperatures
leading to heat injury.
▪ Physical damage from impact bruising and surface injuries causes deterioration.
▪ Similarly, pathological breakdown due to bacteria and fungi results in product
deterioration.

LESSON 3: FRUIT RIPENING

RIPENING STAGE
Ripening
▪ is the process by which fruits attain their desirable flavor, quality, color, palatable
nature and other textural properties.
▪ Ripening is associated with change in composition (i.e. conversion of starch to sugar),
color, texture, or other sensory attributes.
▪ It is a combination of the processes (i.e., not a single process) that occur from the latter
stages of growth and development through the early stages of senescence.
▪ Many fruits are harvested from the plant when fully mature and ripe. Their quality is at
its peak at the time of harvest and so they should be eaten within a short time after
harvest.
▪ However, there are numerous other fruits that may be harvested when fully mature and
then allowed to ripen during storage and transportation.
Fruits Harvested at Different Stages of Ripening
Group B
Group A
Fruits Harvested from the Plant when Fully
Fruits Harvested from the Plant when Fully
Mature and Allowed to Ripen during
Mature and Ripe
Storage
Strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, cherry, Apple, pear, quince, persimmon, apricot,
citrus (grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, nectarine, peach, plum, kiwifruit, avocado,
mandarin, tangerine), grape lychee, banana, mango, papaya, cherimoya, sapote,
pineapple, pomegranate, tamarillo guava, passion fruit
RIPENING STAGE
A. Process associated with fruit ripening
o Seed maturation – ability of seeds to germinate successfully
o Development of wax on peel
o Abscission of fruit
o Change in C2H4 production (climacteric fruits only)
✓ increase in endogenous ethylene concentration until adequate to initiate
ripening
✓ autocatalytic ethylene production
o Increased sensitivity to C2H4 (climacteric fruits only)
o Change in respiration rate
✓ increased O2 consumption and CO2 production in climacteric fruits.
o Membrane and cell wall changes:
✓ increased membrane permeability affect juice leakage.
✓ depolymerization of pectins and other cell wall polysaccharides results
softening.
o Protein and nucleic acid changes
✓ synthesis of enzymes involved in compositional changes
o Compositional changes
✓ starch to sugar conversion
✓ loss of acids
✓ pigment synthesis (anthocyanins & carotenoids) and degradation
(chlorophyll)
✓ polymerization of tannins and resulting loss of astringency
✓ formation of flavor volatiles
CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Climacteric
- fruits that enter ‘climacteric phase’ after harvest, i.e. they continue to ripen.
- During the ripening process the fruits emit ethylene along with increased rate of
respiration.
- Ripe fruits are soft and delicate and generally cannot withstand rigors of
transport and repeated handling.
- These fruits are harvested hard and green, but fully mature and are ripened near
consumption areas.
- Small dose of ethylene is used to induce ripening process under controlled
conditions of temperature and humidity.

2. Nonclimacteric
- fruits that once harvested do not ripen further.
- Produce very small amount of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene
treatment.
- There is no characteristic increased rate of respiration or production of carbon
dioxide.
RIPENING PRACTICES
Normally, the number of days taken for edible ripening varies for different fruits and prevailing
climatic conditions.
▪ A simple technology practiced in households to trigger ripening is to keep unripened
and ripened fruits together inside an air tight container. Since the already ripened fruits
release ethylene, ripening will be faster.
▪ Another method is to place the fruits intended for ripening inside an air tight room and
induce ripening through smoking inside smoke chambers.
- Smoke emanates acetylene gas.
- But the major drawback of this method is that the fruits do not attain uniform
color and flavor.
- In addition, the persistence of smoke odor on the product impairs its quality.
▪ Spreading unripe fruits as layers over paddy husk or wheat straw for a week to ripen is
another alternative.
▪ Stress ethylene
a. Wounding a fruit – insertion of a pointed stick into the stem end of a jackfruit
✓ scouring (rubbing vigorously so that part of the skin comes off; ex:
chico)
✓ pinching or cutting a piece of tissue (ex: avocado, papaya)

b. Plasmolysis - the sap moves out of the cells due to higher concentration of salt
outside the cells; cells injured, ethylene released
ex: putting salt on the stem scar of chico, immersion of banana fruits in salted
or sea water
▪ Use of smoke – contains ethylene and acetylene
▪ Calcium carbide, once dissolved in water, produces acetylene which acts as an artificial
ripening agent.
✓ Industrial-grade calcium carbide usually contains traces of arsenic and
phosphorus, and, thus, use of this chemical for this purpose is illegal in
most countries.
✓ Acetylene is believed to affect the nervous system by reducing oxygen
supply to brain.
✓ Arsenic and phosphorus are toxic and exposure may cause severe health
hazards.
▪ Another practice is that some farmers dip unripe mature fruits in 0.1 per cent ethrel
solution (1 ml of ethrel solution in 1 litre of water) and wipe it dry. The fruits are then
spread over a newspaper without touching each other and a thin cotton cloth is covered
over this.
 In this method, the fruits will ripen within two days.
▪ In one of the simple and harmless techniques, 10 ml of ethrel and 2 gm of sodium
hydroxide pellets are mixed in five litres of water taken in a wide mouthed vessel.
✓ This vessel is placed inside the ripening chamber near the fruits and the
room is sealed air tight.
✓ About a third of the room is filled with fruits leaving the remaining area
for air circulation.
✓ Ripening of fruits takes place in about 12 to 24 hours.

RIPENING CHAMBERS
▪ To ripen fruits, specially constructed ripening
rooms are used where temperature, humidity,
carbon dioxide, and ethylene gas concentration
as well as airflow rates are controlled.
▪ In a conventional ripening room, boxes of
product are tightly stacked into a pallet.
▪ The pallets are raised above the ground,
creating about 10–15 cm ground clearance.
▪ This spacing allows unimpeded air movement under the pallets.
▪ Tarps are used to cover air passages between pallets.
▪ The ripening process involves warming the room either using electric resistance heaters
or indirect heat exchangers heated by hot water.
▪ After the stored product in the ripening room is cooled to the required temperature, the
room should be maintained at that temperature. The stored product continues to respire
and generate heat.
▪ Therefore, refrigeration is necessary to maintain the desired storage temperature.
▪ The refrigeration system for such products must be properly designed to remove the
extra heat generated within the room.
▪ Fruit to be ripened ideally is placed in an airtight ripening room maintained at a constant
temperature (18-21oC for most fruits, but 29-31oC in mango).
▪ Humidity in ripening rooms should be maintained at 85%–95% to keep moisture loss
at a minimum.
▪ Typically, a spacing of 10–15 cm between pallet loads ensures good air circulation.
▪ Method selected for applying ethylene depends on cost, convenience and safety factors.
▪ While the requirements for airflow rates are low for distribution of ethylene or removal
of carbon dioxide, higher airflow rates are necessary for removal of heat given off by
the product due to the respiration process.
▪ Use of diluted ethylene gas mixtures is safer than using pure ethylene, which is
explosive and flammable at concentrations of 3% or higher
 Ethylene Ripening Storage
Ethylene Conc.
Commodity Exposure Time Temperature Temperature
(ppm)
(hr) (oC) (oC)
Avocado 10-100 12-48 15-18 4.4-13
Banana 100-150 24 15-18 13-14
Honey dew
100-150 18-24 20-25 7-10
lemon
Mango 100-150 12-24 20-22 13-14
Orange
1-10 24-72 20-22 5-9
degreening

a. Trickle Method – involves trickling ethylene gas into room so as to maintain a

concentration of 10 μl per litre, usually for a period of 24 hours.
- Pure ethylene gas may be used directly out of pressurized cylinders. Another
method is to use ethylene gas diluted in nitrogen.
- Room is then ventilated after 24 hours to prevent carbon dioxide exceeding 1%
concentration, which would retard ripening.
- Fruits that are inside rooms that are poorly sealed are packed in vented cartons
stacked on pallets.
- Fruit temperature is controlled by forced air circulation as in a cooling facility.
- A small fan can be used to ensure a uniform continuous flow of ethylene into
and through the room.
- Forced-air ripening provides more uniform temperature and ethylene
concentration throughout ripening room.

b. Ripening can also be initiated using ethylene generated by passing ethanol over a bed
of activated alumina (ethylene generator). This method is safer than using pure ethylene
gas.

c. Ethylene-releasing compounds such as ethephon (2-chloroethy1 phosphonic acid) are

sometimes used to ripen fruits destined for processing. When using ethephon as spray,
the amount of ethylene released will increase as pH and/or relative humidity increase.

- Since ethylene gas at concentrations of 2.8%–28.6% is explosive in air, the

electrical systems used in the ripening room must be explosion-proof.
- Ethylene can also be harmful to certain fruits and vegetables.
- Carbon dioxide gas, at a concentration of 0.5%, can retard the ripening process.
Regular venting of ripening rooms is necessary to maintain low carbon dioxide
levels.
 Commodity Symptoms of Ethylene Injury
Asparagus Increased lignification (toughness) of spears
Beans, snap Loss of green color
Broccoli Yellowing, abscission of florets
Cabbage Yellowing, abscission of leaves
Carrots Development of bitter flavor
Cauliflower Abscission and yellowing of leaves
Cucumber Yellowing softening
Calyx abscission, browning of pulp and
Eggplant
seeds, accelerated decay
Leafy vegetables Loss of green color
Lettuce Russet spotting
Parsnip Development of bitter flavor
Potato Sprouting
Sweet potato Brown flesh discoloration and off-flavor
detectable when cooked
Turnip Increased lignification (toughness)
Watermelon Reduced firmness, flesh tissue maceration
resulting in thinner rind, poor flavor

Optimal ripening conditions for fruit ripening

Temperature 18 to 25oC
Relative Humidity 85 to 95%
Ethylene concentration 10 to 100ppm
Duration of Treatment 24 to 74 hours depending on fruit type and
stage of maturity
Air circulation Sufficient to ensure distribution of ethylene
within ripening room
Ventilation Require adequate air exchange in order to
prevent accumulation of O2 which reduces
effectiveness of C2H4

DE-GREENING
▪ Controlled degreening sometimes is carried out on citrus grown in tropics. Many citrus
cultivars mature before green color disappears from peel.
▪ Breakdown of chlorophyll and production of a rich orange color require exposure to
low temperature during maturation, and this explains why mature citrus frequently is
sold green on markets in humid tropics, where even night temperatures may not drop
much below 25oC.
▪ Degreening is carried out in ripening rooms.
▪ This process takes 2 to 3 days, and it is again necessary to ventilate daily to ensure that
carbon dioxide levels do not exceed 1%.
▪ The ceiling of room is relatively high, allowing boxes to be stacked at least four boxes
high.
▪ A false ceiling is added to provide for adequate air.
 ▪ The most rapid degreening occurs at temperatures of 25 to 30oC but the best color
(concentration of peel carotenoids) occurs at 15 to 25oC.

LESSON 5: COOLING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

During aerobic respiration
- Starch and sugars are converted into carbon dioxide and water, including
intermediate products like organic acids.
- Heat is evolved, causing the product temperature to increase.
During anaerobic respiration
- Ketones, aldehydes, and alcohols are produced which cause death of tissues

WATER LOSS
▪ Loss of water is irreversible in fruits and vegetables except in flowers.
▪ A loss of 3%–5% initial weight due to water loss shows wilting and shriveling of the
product.
▪ Water loss is due to gradient in vapor pressure.
▪ The loss of water is largely from the surface of a product, but it may also occur from
the stem end and from any injury at the surface.
Weight Loss in Fruits and Vegetables due to Moisture Loss
Commodity Maximum Weight Loss (%) Reason for Loss
Spinach 3 Wilting
Tomato 4 Shriveling
Leaf lettuce 3-5 Wilting decaying
Crape 5 Berry shriveling
Pear 6 Shriveling
Cabbage 6 Shriveling
Apple 7 Shriveling
Carrot 8 Wilting
Green pepper 8 Shriveling
Peach 11 Shriveling

▪ Typically, the inside of a fruit or vegetable is near saturation of water.

▪ The vapor pressure in the surrounding air depends on the specific humidity of the air.
▪ By quickly lowering the temperature of the product to its recommended storage
temperature, immediately after harvest, the vapor pressure of the product is lowered.
▪ The storage room air humidity is maintained at a high level, 90%–95%, minimizing the
vapor pressure gradient between the product and the surrounding air.
▪ The rate of moisture loss for different commodities has been determined and expressed
as transpiration coefficient.
 Transpiration Coefficient of Selected Commodities
Transpiration Coefficient Range of Coefficient
Commodity
(mg/kg s MPa) Reported in Literature
Apple 42 16-100
Potato 44 2-171
Onion 60 13-123
Orange 117 25-227
Grape 123 21-254
Tomato 140 71-365
Cabbage 223 40-667
Peach 572 142-3250
Carrot 1207 106-3250
Lettuce 7400 680-8750

COOLING
▪ The activity of microorganisms is retarded at lower temperatures. A common cause of
degradation, Rhizopus rot, does not grow below 5°C and most organisms grow at a very
slow rate near 0°C.
▪ The time between harvest and cooling is critical in some commodities. For example,
strawberries deteriorate fast unless they are cooled within 1 h of harvest and sweet
cherries should be cooled within about 4 h. Caution must be exercised if the cooled
commodity needs warming.
Various factors determine the cooling method for a given commodity. Some of these factors
are as follows:
▪ Type of product, such as leafy, ▪ Type of packaging material
stem, root crop ▪ Susceptibility to physical damage
▪ Product size sustained by product
▪ Quantity of product to be cooled ▪ Costs of operation, both capital and
▪ Package size and shape operating

Methods Used for Cooling Fruits and Vegetables

Room cooling
Forced-air cooling
Cooling prior to storage or transport Hydrocooling
Package icing
Vacuum cooling
Top icing
Cooling during transport Channel icing
Mechanical refrigeration
FORCED-AIR COOLING
- It is one of the most common methods used in commercial operations.

▪ Air is first cooled by forcing it over evaporator coils of a refrigeration system.

▪ As the air is cooled it contacts the evaporator coils, because heat is transferred from air
to the refrigerant flowing inside the coils.
▪ The cooled air is then brought into contact with fruits and vegetables that are usually
packed in containers with openings in the walls.

▪ As cold air is forced through the container with the product, heat transfer occurs
between product and the air.
▪ While the product temperature decreases, the temperature of air increases.
▪ The warm air leaving the product is directed back toward the evaporator coils to be
recooled.

A. Tunnel Cooling
- In tunnel cooling system, rows of pallet boxes
are set up in a cold storage room so that there
is an empty channel, or tunnel, between them.
- Typically, the two rows of loads are stacked
on each side of the tunnel.
- The two ends and the top of the tunnel are
covered with a tarp that guides the airflow
through the boxes.
- A portable exhaust fan is operated to draw the
air through the boxed product.
- The air is then directed toward an evaporator coil of a refrigeration system to be
recooled and used again.
- The tunnel covers are operated as a batch system.
- The fan speed may be controlled manually reducing it toward the end of the
cooling cycle in order to conserve energy.
 B. Serpentine Cooling
- In a serpentine cooling system, the product is typically
packed in pallet-size bins with air vents in the bottom.
- When pallet bins are placed on each other, the tines, used
by the fork lift to connect with a bin, help create an open
channel for airflow.
- An even number of pallet bins are stacked along a wall.
- Each alternate opening between the pallet bins is closed
using tarp tape.
- Typically, the bins are placed only 10–15 cm from the
wall, so that there are sufficient air openings.
- Air speeds of 5–7.5 m/s are used through the bin
openings.
- The airflow rate is typically 0.25–0.5 L/s/kg, with a cooling time of 10–12 h.

C. Cold Wall Cooler

- Commonly used for smaller lots of product
- Pallet loads are placed against a specially constructed
wall.
- When a pallet load is placed against this wall, a lever
is pushed to open a damper that allows air to be drawn
into the plenum.
- This damper opening system may be arranged in such
a manner that it opens only when it is actuated by the
bin.
- Thus, pallets of different heights may be stacked
along the wall and only the required number of
dampers may be opened.
- Similarly, shelves may be used to place smaller boxes along the cold wall.
- After cooling, individual bins may be removed and replaced with new products.
- The cost of manual labor, shelves, and damper systems is higher than the other
systems.
- However, there is a greater flexibility in the number of loads that may be cooled
at a given time.

HYDROCOOLING
▪ Found to be most cost-effective in cooling fruits, root crops, and stem vegetables in
commercial practice
▪ Not recommended for grapes and berry fruits.
▪ To effectively transfer heat, water must contact as much of the product surface as
possible, must flow with a certain velocity over the product surface, and must be cold
and free of microorganisms that may promote decay.
A. Batch Shower System
- Water cooled by contact with
evaporator coils is conveyed to a
distribution pan.
- The pan has small openings that
create a uniform shower underneath.
- The product, in packages, is
positioned under the shower.
- Warm water collects in the water
reservoir from which it is pumped to
the top and recooled by contact with
the evaporator coils.
- Water flow rate is maintained around at 480–490 L/min/m2 for double-parallel
bin depth.

B. Continuous Shower System

- The product is moved on a
conveyor belt.
- The shower system is created in
a manner similar to the batch
shower system.
- The speed of the conveyor is
adjusted to cool the product to
the desired temperature.
- In this system, damage from the impact of water on product should be
minimized.
- The distance between the shower and product should be less than 15–20 cm.

C. Water Immersion Cooling System

- The conveyor belt contains cleats to aid product movement and move the
product through a water bath.
- Products suitable for immersion cooling are those that have a density higher
than water, such as cherries.
- Water must be pumped to create
water speeds of 0.076 m/s.
- Water temperatures should be 0°C–
0.5°C even for chilling-sensitive
products, as long as the cooling is
stopped when the required
temperature is achieved.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS:
▪ The containers are vented at the top and bottom. Correct alignment of vent holes is
important.
▪ The material used for packaging must be water-resistant.
▪ Wax-dipped corrugated fiberboard is commonly used, although use of waxed
packaging materials is more costly and there are problems in recycling waxed
fiberboard.
▪ Clean, potable well, or domestic supply water should be used at temperatures near 0°C
with 100–150 ppm chlorine. The water in the cooler must be changed at least once
daily.
▪ Chlorination is achieved by adding either chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite, or calcium
hypochlorite.
▪ The pH of the water must be between 6.5 and 7.5 for chlorine to be effective.

LESSON 6: PACKAGING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

I. TRADITIONAL PACKAGING

IMPORTANCE
1. Maximizes the shelf life of fruits and vegetables;
2. Helps to contain a specific quantity of a food product;
3. Provides a certain level of protection to the product from environmental factors such as
light, oxygen, humidity, and temperature;
4. Plays an important role in communicating information regarding the packaged product
to the consumer such as quantity, recommended storage conditions, expected shelf life,
instructions on how to prepare for consumption, and nutritional information.
REQUIREMENTS
▪ Nontoxic;
▪ Provide a clean environment for the product;
▪ Lightweight to minimize its effects on transportation costs;
▪ Should make it easy for the product to be displayed on a grocery store shelf;
▪ Easy for the consumer to open and, when necessary, reclose;
▪ Should not become an environmental pollutant.
WOOD AND TEXTILES
a. Wooden crates and burlap bags
- are still in widespread use in many developing countries.
- Provides good mechanical strength when used as a packaging material
Not desirable for several reasons:
▪ The heavy weight of wood means higher transportation costs
▪ Wood causes damage to packaged product due to splinters and sharp walls.
▪ A package made of wood, jute, or other textiles harbors mold and other spoilage
microorganisms that can infect the packaged product.
▪ The large quantity of wood required for packaging contributes to deforestation.

POLYMERS
The different gas and water vapor permeabilities of polymeric films offer a wide range of
opportunities for applications in packaging.
Common examples are:
▪ Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) ▪ Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
▪ Polystyrene (PS) ▪ Ethyl vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
▪ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

a. Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

- Has the simplest structure of any polymer.
- At high pressures of more than 138 MPa and temperatures above 150°C,
ethylene promotes one of the carbon – carbon bonds to break and form a free
radical. These free radicals join together to form polyethylene in a process free-
radical polymerization.
- After polymerization, pressure is reduced in stages. The polymer is isolated as
solid particles, which are then melted and extruded through a die, followed by
cutting the extruded strands into pellets for shipping and later processing.
- Has good moisture-barrier properties and is therefore suitable for maintaining
high relative humidity within a package.
- Inexpensive and have good clarity.
- Often used to package fresh produce, frozen foods, and baked goods.

b. Polypropylene
- Obtained from polymerization of monomer propylene.
- Soft and clear glossy film with good moisture barriers and high oxygen transfer
rates.
- Often used as plastic food bags in bakeries and food markets.
- It is more transparent, stiffer, and tougher than LDPE but less flexible.
 c. Polystyrene
- Obtained from the polymerization of styrene.
- Suitable for its gas-barrier properties.
- On adding hexane during the polymerization process, PS foam is obtained.
Although PS foam has poor gas- and moisture-barrier properties, PS trays are
widely used when the product requires a rigid bottom support and is
overwrapped.

d. Polyvinyl Chloride
- Obtained from the polymerization of vinyl chloride carried out at low pressure.
- In order to soften the film, a large amount of plasticizers is added.
- Has low gas and moisture permeabilities and is often used as an overwrap.

e. Ethyl Vinyl Alcohol

- Is a hydrolyzed copolymer of vinyl alcohol and ethylene.
- Provides excellent gas-and moisture-barrier properties.
- Because the EVOH film is hygroscopic, its moisture barrier properties
diminish as it absorbs moisture. Consequently, it is more suitable as a laminate.
In selecting a plastic film for packaging FAV, the following characteristics should be
considered:
▪ Moisture-barrier properties (to prevent shriveling and wilting of FAV, as well as
prevent anaerobic respiration)
▪ Gas-barrier properties (a certain amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide transmission is
necessary for creating modified atmospheres inside the package to enhance the
product’s shelf life)
▪ Mechanical strength (physical protection)
▪ Antifog properties
▪ Sealability and machinability
▪ Cost

CONTROLLED-ATMOSPHERE AND MODIFIED-ATMOSPHERE STORAGE

CONTROLLED-ATMOSPHERE
▪ Reduced level of oxygen and increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
immediate environment surrounding a fruit or vegetable retards its respiration rate.
▪ With reduced respiration rate, the storage life of the product is enhanced.
▪ The controlled atmosphere technology is well developed and is used worldwide.
▪ First suggested by W.R. Philips of Canada.
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF CA
▪ Mechanical refrigeration is used to maintain temperature of -1 to 3°C.
▪ The CA storage room is constructed gas tight (in order to allow creation of an
atmosphere different from normal).
▪ Reduction of O2 . Nitrogen gas is
introduced into the storage by cylinder
to reduce the oxygen level after room is
filled and sealed.
▪ CO2 is added into storage from CO2 gas
cylinder.
▪ Excess CO2 is removed by dry
hydrated lime, ethanolamine,
aluminum calcium silicate, activated
carbon, magnesium oxide, and other
CO2 scrubbers.
▪ Atmospheric composition is crop specific. However, as a general rule the most common
combinations are 2-5% oxygen and 3-10% carbon dioxide.
▪ The storage room atmosphere samples are taken daily for CO2 and O2 monitoring.

BENEFITS OF CA
▪ Retardation of senescence and associated biochemical and physiological changes.
▪ Reduction of produce sensitivity to ethylene action at O2 levels below 8% and/ or CO2
levels above 1 %.
▪ Useful tool for insect control in some commodities.

LIMITATIONS OF CA
▪ Causes certain physiological disorders such as black heart in potatoes and brown stain
of lettuce.
▪ Irregular ripening of produce such as banana, pear, tomato etc.
▪ Development of off flavors and off odors at very low O2 concentrations.
▪ Availability of gas.
▪ Costly and technical knowhow is required.

MODIFIED-ATMOPSHERE STORAGE
▪ The modified atmosphere contains lower oxygen and higher carbon dioxide
concentrations when compared with the ambient air.
▪ Thus, concentration gradients are set up between the package atmosphere and the
surrounding atmosphere.
▪ Implies a lower degree of control of gas concentration in atmosphere surrounding the
commodity.
▪ The MA and CA differ only in degree of control, CA is more exact.
 ▪ After a certain transient period during which the concentrations of these gases inside a
package change, a final steady state can be reached.
▪ This factor is kept in mind in the design of a package for modified-atmosphere
applications.
▪ Advances in the manufacture of polymeric films with wide range of gas permeability
have stimulated interest in creating and maintaining modified atmospheres within
flexible film packages.

BIOCHEMICAL BASIS
▪ The rate of respiration and metabolism doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
▪ Respiration can be therefore reduced by decreasing the temperature.
▪ Both O2 and CO2 levels exert independent effects on respiration.
▪ When O2 concentration is reduced below 10%, respiration rate is decreased. However,
when O2 concentration falls below 2%, anaerobic respiration may set in, thereby
leading to the accumulation of ethanol and acetaldehyde.

FACTORS AFFECTING MAS

a. Temperature and Relative Humidity
- Ambient temperatures of the surrounding atmosphere affect the commodity
temperature.
- Temperature changes also affect the permeability of the film, which increases
with increase in temperature. CO2 permeability responds more than O2
permeability.
- Relative humidity has little effect on permeability of most film packages. Most
common films are good barriers to moisture and vapor because they maintain
high internal humidity even in dry, ambient conditions.

b. Light
- Green vegetables consume large amount of CO2 and reduce O2 through
photosynthesis and would antagonize the process of respiration which aids in
maintenance of specified MA within the package.
- Greening of potatoes can cause loss in quality unless light is excluded. Hence,
opaque packages should be used for such commodities.

c. Sanitation Factors
- The high humidity maintained within MA packages may enhance the growth of
plant pathogens.
- So, care must be taken to ensure proper sanitation and to avoid conditions
favorable to growth and reproduction of such microorganisms.
- Fungicidal treatment of packaged vegetables is thus very important.
 Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Modified-Atmosphere Storage
High degree of control over gas
Low degree
concentration
Longer storage life Less
More expensive technology Less
Atmosphere is modified by adding gas It is created by either actively (addition or
removal of gas) or passively (produce
generated)
Specific temperature should maintain May or may not be maintained

ACTIVE PACKAGING
- Defined as ‘packaging in which subsidiary constituents have been deliberately
included in or either the packaging material or the headspace to enhance
performance of the package system’.
- They are designed to intentionally release or absorb substances into or from the
food or its surroundings.
- Packaging intended to extend the shelf life or to maintain or improve the
condition of packaged food
- Comes in the form of sachets, labels, films
USES
▪ to remove an unwanted compound
▪ add a desirable compound
▪ prevent microbial growth
▪ change a film’s permeability to gases as the temperature changes by several orders of
magnitude greater than normal polymeric films
▪ change the physical conditions inside the package (e.g., remove water vapour by
absorption or change the temperature of the food).
CLASSIFICATION
1. Scavengers/ Absorbers
o Remove undesired components:
→ Oxygen
→ Excessive water/ moisture
→ Ethylene
→ Carbon dioxide
→ Flavor/ odor traits
→ Other specific constituents

1.1 Oxygen Scavengers

Oxygen – reactant in several chemical reactions such as lipid oxidation
Reduced oxygen concentration in the headspace:
• Inhibited growth of spoilage microorganisms
• Reduced respiration rate and ethylene production
 Used in bread, cakes, cooked rice, biscuits, pizza, pasta, cheese, cured meats and fish,
coffee, snack foods, dried foods and beverages
• Mixture of iron powder and sodium chloride.
• Non-ferrous variant – used if packaging of products intended for international
shipping where metal detection would pose a problem
• Packaging films – rely on polymers with double bonds reacting with oxygen

1.2 Ethylene Control

• Scavenge or absorb ethylene from the surrounding environment of the packaged
produce.
• Have been developed to reduce and control the levels of ethylene, reducing
ripening and respiration.
• Ethylene is scavenged through an oxidation reaction → manganese oxide,
potassium hydroxide and carbon dioxide.
• Removing substances are in sachets or integrated into the packaging material.
• Zeolites, clay or nanoclays, Japanese oya stones, powdered pumice stones, and
aluminum silicate.
• Potassium permanganate on an inert porous support material (perlite, silica,
activated carbon or celite).
• Minerals that of local kinds of clay embedded in polyethylene bags which are
used to package fresh produce.
• Most bags are marketed by Japanese or Korean companies, though some are
sold in United States and Australia
Disadvantages:
• Possible migration of KMnO4 onto the fresh produces
• Desirable aroma scalping
• General lack of user enthusiasm

1.3 CO2 Control

• Carbon dioxide – formed due to deterioration or respiration reactions
• Used in fresh roasted coffee, fresh meats and fish, nuts and other snack foods
and sponge cakes
• A mixture of calcium oxide and activated carbon has been used in
polyethylene-lined coffee to scavenge CO2 but a dual-action sachet is more
common for canned and foil pouched coffees in Japan and the USA

ACTIVE RELEASING SYSTEM

▪ Components migrate from the packaging material to the packaged food with the
aim to extend shelf-life or improve the quality of the packed food
▪ Add compounds to the packaged food: carbon dioxide, water, antioxidants,
preservatives.
ANTIMICROBIAL PACKAGING
▪ Used in meat, fish, poultry, bread, cheese, fruits, and vegetables.
▪ In Japan, ag-substituted zeolite is the most common agent incorporated in plastics.
▪ Other substances: ethanol and other alcohols, carbon dioxide, propionate, bacteriocins,
fungicides, and enzymes
▪ Disadvantages: Limited effectiveness, effectiveness influenced by several factors, and
microorganisms may build up resistance against the antimicrobial compound by
excessive use
FLAVOR-RELEASING SYSTEMS
▪ Used to mask off-odors coming from the food or the packaging.
▪ Improve sensory quality of the product.

ANTIOXIDANT-RELEASING SYSTEMS
▪ Can be incorporated in plastic films for polymer stabilization in order to protect film
from degradation.
▪ When antioxidant migrates into the food, it may have an additional positive effect on
the shelf-life of the packed food.

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVE PACKAGING SYSTEM

▪ Microwave susceptors – paperboard with embedded aluminum patterns as well as
paperboard laminated to metallized polyester film.
▪ Delivers cooked product textures similar to those of conventional cooking.
▪ Advantage: Makes it possible to microwave products that include an uncooked protein
component (e.g. fish).
TRENDS
▪ Main drivers: shelf life extension and convenience foods.
▪ In US, Japan, and Australia, active packaging is already being successfully applied to
extend shelf-life while maintaining nutritional quality and ensuring microbiological
safety.
▪ Meanwhile, in Europe, few of APs are applied and global market is relatively small.

ISSUES
Food safety, consumer acceptability and regulatory issues:
▪ First, any need for food contact approval must be established before any form of active
packaging is used.
▪ Second, it is important to consider environmental regulations covering active-
packaging.
▪ Third, there may be a need for labelling in cases where active packaging may give rise
to consumer confusion.
 ▪ Fourth, it is pertinent to consider the effect of active packaging on the microbial ecology
and safety of foods.

INTELLIGENT PACKAGING
A packaging system that is capable of carrying out intelligent functions to facilitate decision-
making to extend shelf life, improve quality, enhance safety, provide information and warn
about possible problems.
A package can be intelligent if:
▪ It has the ability to track the product.
▪ It can sense the environment inside or outside the package.
▪ It can communicate with human.
SYSTEM BASED ON FUNCTION
1. Indicate product quality
2. Provide more convenience
3. Provide protection against theft, counterfeiting and tampering

A. INDICATING PRODUCT QUALITY

1. Time-Temperature indicator 4. Biosensors (Ripeness indicator)
2. Gas Concentration indicator 5. Radio Frequency Identification
3. Quality or Freshness indicator Tags (RFID)

TIME-TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
▪ It gives information on temperature and it shows the variation and history in
temperature.
▪ It is visualized as a color movement or color change.
OXYGEN INDICATOR
▪ It gives information on leakage.
▪ The usage area for this indicator is in controlled or modified atmosphere food
packaging.
CO2 INDICATOR
▪ It gives information on concentration of carbon dioxide.
▪ The usage area for this indicator is in controlled or modified atmosphere packaging.
FRESHNESS INDICATOR
▪ It indicates the microbial quality of the product by reacting to the metabolites produced
in the growth of microorganisms.
RIPENESS INDICATOR
▪ It sense aromatics emitted from ripening fruit.
▪ Signals ripeness by label visual cue/color change.
** Orange to yellow when the fruit is very ripe (juicy); Red color for unripe (crisp) fruit

RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION TAGS

▪ Tags could be classified as passive tag or active tag.

B. PROVIDING MORE CONVENIENCE

1. Thermochromic Inks
- The inks will change color at specific temperatures, and if appropriate colors
are chosen, hidden message become visible.

2. Microwave Doneness Indicator

- It detects and visually indicate the state of readiness of foods heated in a
microwave oven.
- LIMITATION: Difficulty in observing whether or not a color change has
occurred.

C. PROVIDING PROTECTION AGAINST THEFT, COUNTERFEITING AND

TAMPERING
- Intelligent tamper-evident technologies are being developed based on labels or
seals which are transparent until the package is opened or tampered with.
- Use of holograms, special inks and dyes, laser labels and electronic tags.
- However, their use in food packaging is minimal for cost reasons.