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Topic 5. Calculus
Topic 5. Calculus
MATHEMATICS
Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes
TOPIC 5
CALCULUS
5.1 THE LIMIT limf(x) – THE DERIVATIVE f (x) : A ROUGH IDEA! ….…….. 1
Only for HL
November 2021
TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
This paragraph may look very “technical”. Do not pay much attention on
your first reading. You may skip and proceed to paragraph 5.2; you will
realize that the derivative in practice is much easier than it appears here!
that is that is
if x 2= then f(x) 7 if x 2+ then f(x) 7
Thus in general
if x 2 [x tends to 2]
then f(x) 7 [f(x) tends to 7]
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
lim f(x) 7
x 2
Remark
In fact for the right column we write lim- f(x) 7
x 2
and these are called side limits. If the side limits are equal then
lim f(x) 7
x 2
In this example
lim f(x) 7 f(2)
x 2
The situation lim f(x) f(a) occurs very often, however, this is not
x a
always the case (otherwise the limit would be nothing more than a
simple substitution!).
sinx
lim .
x 0 x
Notice that the function is not defined at x=0. The graph looks like
y
x
-5 5
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
that is that is
if x 0= then f(x) 1 if x 0+ then f(x) 1
sinx
lim 1
x 0 x
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Remember:
We also define limits of the form lim f(x) or lim f(x) . Thus, we
x x
1 1
Let us find informally (by using our GDC) the limits lim , lim .
x x x x
x approaches - x approaches +
x f(x) x f(x)
-1000 -0.001 1000 0.001
-1000000 -0.000001 1000000 0.000001
1 1
lim =0 and lim = 0 .
x x x x
Remember:
If lim f(x) a or lim f(x) a then y=a is a horizontal asymptote.
x x -
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
y
5
4
3
2
x 3
f(x) 1
x2 x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
We know that
x=2 is a vertical asymptote.
The formal explanation is that lim f(x) and lim f(x)
x 2 x 2
EXAMPLE 2
x
1
Investigate informally (by using your GDC) the limit lim 1 .
x x
x approaches +
x f(x)
1000 2.7169239…
1000000 2.7182804…
1010 2.7182818…
x
1
lim 1 = e .
x x
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
Notice that
when x changes from 1 to 2
then y changes from 5 to 7
Δy f(2) f(1) 7 5
= = = 2
Δx 2 1 2 1
Δy f(2) f(0) 7 3
= = = 2
Δx 20 20
Next, we will see that the gradient is not only defined for straight
lines but also for other curves.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Δy f(2) f(1) 4 1
Rate of change from x=1 to x=2: = = 3
Δx 2 1 2 1
Δy f(3) f(1) 91
Rate of change from x=1 to x=3: = = 4
Δx 31 31
gradient at x=0: m =0
gradient at x=1: m =2
gradient at x=2: m =4
4
gradient at x=3: m =6
gradient at x=-1: m =-2
-2 2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Δy (1 h)2 - 1 1 2h h 2 - 1 2h h 2
2h
Δx (1 h)- 1 h h
lim (2 h) =2
h 0
Δy (x h) 2 x 2 x 2 2xh h 2 x 2 2xh h 2
= = = 2x h
Δx h h h
We write
f (x) 2x
The new function f (x) , which is derived from f(x), is called the
derivative of f. Thus
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f (x) =3x2.
f(x) f (x)
xn nxn-1
sinx cosx
cosx -sinx
ex ex
1
lnx
x
1
x 2 x
c (constant) 0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
1 2
Show that (a) 2 3 (b) x 21x
x x
Solution
1 2
(a) 2 x 2 , so the derivative is -2x-3 = 3
x x
1 1 1
(b) x x 1/2 , so the derivative is x-1/2 = 1/2
=
2 2x 2 x
EXAMPLE 2
Let f(x)=x7. Find
(a) f(0), f(1), f(2)
(b) f (x)
(c) f (0) , f (1) , f (2)
(d) the rate of change of f(x) at x=2
(e) the gradient of f(x) at x=2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Solution
(a) f(0)=0, f(1)=1, f(2)=128
(b) f (x) = 7x6
(c) f (0) =0, f (1 ) =7.16=7, f (2) =7.26=448
(d) it is f (2 ) = 448
(e) it is f (2) = 448
NOTATION
If y=f(x), the derivative is denoted by the following symbols
dy d
y΄ or f (x) or or f(x)
dx dx
dy
f (2 ) or
dx x 2
Notice that the GDC does provide f (x) but it gives the derivative at
a specific point, for example f ΄(2) (check!)
dy
Finally, the notation is more indicative when we use other
dx
variables.
For example,
ds
if s=t2, then 2t .
dt
dP 1 dQ
If P=lnQ, then . Also Q=eP, so that eP .
dQ Q dP
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
EXAMPLE 3
For f(x) = x5+x3 , f (x) = 5x4+3x2
For g(x)= x7-ex+sinx-x+5, g΄(x) = 7x6-ex+cosx-1
EXAMPLE 4
For f(x) = 3sinx, f (x) = 3cosx
For g(x) = 7ex, g΄(x) = 7ex
For h(x) = 5x3, h΄(x) = 5(3x2)=15x2
EXAMPLE 5
For f(x) = 2x3-3x2+7x+5, f (x) = 6x2-6x+7
3
For g(x) = 5x7+3lnx-7cosx, g΄(x) = 35x6+ +7sinx
x
NOTICE:
The differentiation rules above may also be expressed as follows
d d d d d
[f(x) ±g(x)] = f(x) ± g(x) [af(x)] =a f(x)
dx dx dx dx dx
d d d
[af(x) bg(x)] = a f(x) + b g(x)
dx dx dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Be careful !!!
If f(x) = x5sinx then f (x) is not (5x4)(cosx)
EXAMPLE 6
1
For f(x) = xlnx, f (x) = (x)΄lnx + x(lnx)΄ = 1lnx + x = lnx +1
x
For g(x) = x2ex, g΄(x) = 2xex+x2ex
f f g - f g
=
g g2
EXAMPLE 7
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
x 3 2x 1
For f(x) =
x
method A: The quotient rule gives
x 3 2x 1
f(x) = - + = x2-2+x-1 , so that
x x x
1
f (x) = 2x-x-2 =2x-
x2
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
EXAMPLE 9
Alternative notation:
d2y d2
f ΄΄(x) can also be written as or f(x)
dx 2 dx 2
d3y d3
f ΄΄΄(x) can also be written as 3
or f(x)
dx dx 3
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) f (x)
ax ax .lna
1
logax
xlna
1
Notice: for a=e we obtain the particular cases, (ex)΄=ex and (lnx)΄=
x
EXAMPLE 10
f(x) f (x)
1
tanx 2
sec2 x
cos x
secx secxtanx
cscx -cscxcotx
cotx -csc2x
f(x) f (x)
1
arcsinx
1- x 2
1
arccosx
1- x 2
1
arctanx
1 x2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
For example, the line passing through A(1,2) with gradient m=3
has equation
y- 2 = 3(x- 1)
Consider a function y=f(x) and some point x0. Then we also know
y0=f(x0)
y0
x0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
METHODOLOGY
Given y=f(x)
and some point x=x0
f (x)
1
mT=f ΄(x0) and so mN=
mT
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the function
f(x)=x2
Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line at x=3.
Solution
The point of contact is (3,9) (since f(3)=9)
1 1 1 1 19
Normal line: y-9= (x-3) y 9 - x y= x+
6 6 2 6 2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
EXAMPLE 2
Hence, we will have two parallel lines, at the points x=1 and x=-1,
with gradient m=13. The points of contact are (1,4) and (-1,-2)
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the function f(x) = x 2 - 4x + 5
Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line at x=2.
Solution
It is f (x) =2x-4
At x=2, y=1, thus the point of contact is (2,1)
mT = 0 (mN is not defined)
Tangent line: the horizontal line y=1
Normal line: the vertical line x=2 (look at the graph above!)
1 A vertical line has no gradient. If it passes through (x0,y0), it has equation x=x0.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
The line y mx - 3 is tangent to the curve f(x)=x4-x. Find m
Solution
Αt the point of contact x:
functions are equal: x4-x mx - 3
derivatives are equal: 4x3-1 m
Hence,
x4-x (4x 3 - 1)x - 3 x 4 - x 4x 4 - x - 3
3x 4 3
x 4 1 x 1
If x 1 then m=3
If x 1 then m=-5
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the function f(x)=x4-x. Find the tangent lines passing
through the point (0,-3) [notice that the point is not on the curve]
Method A:
A line passing through the point (0,-3) has the form
y 3 m(x - 0) i.e y mx - 3
This is in fact the example 4 above. We found two solutions:
If x 1 then m=3 and the tangent line is y 3x - 3
If x 1 then m=-5 and the tangent line is y -5x - 3
Method B:
We find the tangent line at any point (a,f(a), i.e. (a,a4-a).
f (x) =4x3-1, so mT = 4a3-1. Therefore,
y-(a4-a) = (4a3-1)(x-a)
y = (4a3-1)x -3a4
It passes through (0,-3): -3a4 = -3 a4 =1 a=±1.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) f (x)
sinx cosx
cosx -sinx
ex ex
1
lnx
x
1
x 2 x
x3 3x2
f(x) f (x)
sin u(x) cos u(x) . u(x)
cos u(x) -sin u(x) . u(x)
eu(x) eu(x) . u(x)
1 .
ln u(x) u(x)
u(x)
1 . u(x)
u(x)
2 u(x)
u(x)3 3u(x)2 . u(x)
EXAMPLE 1
f(x) = sin(2x2+3) [Here u=2x2+3]
f (x) = cos(2x2+3) (2x2+3)΄
= 4x cos(2x2+3)
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
f (x) = e5x+3 5
= 5e5x+3
EXAMPLE 3
f (x) = esinxcosx
EXAMPLE 4
EXAMPLE 5
EXAMPLE 6
-sinx
f (x) =
2 cosx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
NOTICE
EXAMPLE 8
Let us consider all the usual functions with u=3x+7.
f(x) f (x)
sin(3x+7) 3cos(3x+7)
cos(3x+7) -3sin(3x+7)
e3x+7 3e3x+7
3
ln(3x+7)
3x 7
3
3x 7 2 3x 7
(3x+7)5 15(3x+7)4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) f (x)
sin(5x) 5cos(5x)
cos(5x) -5sin(5x)
e5x 5e5x
5 1
ln(5x)
5x x
EXAMPLE 9
For f(x) = sin3x, f (x) = 3sin2x cosx
For f(x) = sin2x, f (x) = 2sinx cosx
For f(x) = cos5x, f (x) = -5cos4x sinx
1 cosx
For f(x) = (sinx)-1, f (x) = -(sinx)-2 cosx =
sinx sin 2 x
1 sinx
For f(x) = (cosx)-2, f (x) = -2(cosx)-3(-sinx) =
cos 2 x cos3 x
NOTICE
In fact, the chain rule is the rule of differentiation for the
composition of two functions
(f g)(x) = f(g(x))
It says that
f(g(x) f (g(x))g(x)
I admit that this definition is not so “elegant”! The best way to
learn the chain rule is to practice with a great deal of examples.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 10
= 15 sin4(x2+1)cos(x2+1)(2x) [v = x2+1]
= 30xsin 4 (x 2 1)cos(x 2 1)
= 3 e sin(3x) cos(3x)
sinxcosx cos2x
=
sin 2 x sin2x
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 11
Find the derivative of f(x) = e2xsin3x.
Solution
We have a product of two functions e2x and sin3x, but for each
function we must apply the chain rule
= 2e 2x sin3x + 3e 2x cos3x
EXAMPLE 12
2
Find the derivative of f(x) = e x sinx
.
Solution
x sinx
2
f (x) = e x sinx 2
2xsinx + x cosx
2
= ex sinx 2
EXAMPLE 13
Differentiate the following functions (of the first column):
dy
y = sinf(x) = cosf(x) f (x)
dx
dy
y = f(sinx) = f (sinx) cosx
dx
dy
y = f(x)5 = 5f(x) 4 f (x)
dx
dy
y = f(x 5 ) = f (x 5 ) 5x 4
dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
Look at again
y = (2x2+3)10
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= 10u9 (4x)
EXAMPLE 14
Let y= esinx.
Then y =eu were u=sinx.
dy dy du
= = eu cosx = esinx cosx
dx du dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dP
Let P = Q3 and Q=lnR. Find in terms of R
dR
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
y=f(x)
a c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 b
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
First, the end points are extreme values (see a and b above).
PROPOSITION:
If f(x) has a turning point (max or min) at some interior point c
and f ΄(c) exists, then
f ΄(c)=0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Here we only deal with stationary points (points where f (x) =0).
x c x c
f ΄(x) + - f ΄(x) - +
Conclusion for f Conclusion for f
max min
If the sign does not change, we have neither a max nor a min.
METHODOLOGY
Given y=f(x)
Step 1 we find f (x)
Step 2 we solve f (x) =0 (say that roots are a,b,c)
Step 3 we construct a table as follows to perform the
first derivative test
x a b c
f ΄(x) + - + +
Conclusion for f
max min nothing
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Consider
1 3
f(x)= x -2x2+3x+5
3
We find
f (x) =x2-4x+3
We solve
x2-4x+3=0
The solutions are x=1 and x=3
We construct the table
x 1 3
f ΄(x)=x2-4x+3 + - +
Conclusion for f
max min
Therefore,
we have a max at x=1 [and the max value of f is f(1)=6.33]
we have a min at x=3 [and the min value of f is f(3)=5]
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Consider
1 3
f(x)= x -2x2+3x+5
3
We found
f (x) =x2-4x+3
and the stationary points x=1 and x=3
We find
f (x) =2x-4
For x=1, f (1 ) =-1<0, so we have a max at x=1
For x=3, f (3 ) = 2>0, so we have a min at x=3
EXAMPLE 3
Consider
f(x)= (x-1)4
We find
f (x) =4(x-1)3
There is only one stationary point at x=1.
f (x) = 12(x-1)2
For x=1, f (1 ) = 0 (neither positive nor negative).
Thus, we cannot conclude if it is a max or a min.
The table of signs gives
x 1
f ΄(x)=4(x-1)3 - +
Conclusion for f(x)
min
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
CONCAVITY
Consider again the graph of the preceding section
y=f(x)
d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7
We observe that:
The function is concave down () in the interval (d1,d2)
The function is concave up () in the interval (d2,d3)
The function is concave down () in the interval (d3,d4)
The function is concave up () in the interval (d4,d5)
The function is concave down () in the interval (d5,d6)
The function is concave up () in the interval (d6,d7)
The concavity changes at the points x=d2, d3, d4, d5, d6, d7
These points are called points of inflexion or inflexion points
2
To be more formal, a function is concave up/down if the tangent line at each
point is under/above the curve.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
POINTS OF INFLEXION
How can we find the points of inflexion?
Since the concavity changes at such a point, the sign of f ( x )
changes from + to – or vice-versa. Therefore, the second derivative
at any point of inflexion must be 0.
PROPOSITION:
If f(x) has a point of inflexion at some point d and f ( d ) exists,
then
f ( d ) =0
Notice again that the equation f ( x ) =0 gives us the possible points
of inflexion. To verify if x=d is indeed a point of inflexion we must
check the sign of f ( x ) just before and after that point.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
METHODOLOGY
Given y=f(x)
Step 1 we find f ( x ) and f ( x )
Step 2 we solve f ( x ) =0 (say that roots are a,b,c)
Step 3 we construct a table as follows
x a b c
f (x ) + - + +
Conclusion for f
i.p. i.p. nothing
EXAMPLE 1
Consider again
1 3
f(x)= x -2x2+3x+5
3
We find
f ( x ) =x2-4x+3
f ( x ) =2x- 4
We solve
2x- 4=0
The solution is x=2
We construct the table
x 2
f ( x ) =2x-4 - +
Conclusion for f
i.p.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
x 0 1 2 3
f(x) 5 6.33 5.66 5
y
7
max
6 i.p.
5
min
4
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the function
f(x)= x e x
Find possible maximum, minimum values and points of inflexion.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Solution
We have
f ( x ) = x e x + e x
We use table:
x -1
f ( x ) - +
Conclusion for f
min
Furthermore,
f ( x ) = x e x + e x + e x = x e x +2 e x
We use table:
x -2
f (x ) - +
Conclusion for f
i.p.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
5.7 OPTIMIZATION
EXAMPLE 1
Among all the rectangles of perimeter 20, find the one of the
maximum area.
Discussion
A rectangle of perimeter 20 may have dimensions
1×9 2×8 3×7 4×6 etc
The corresponding areas are
9 16 21 24 etc
Which is the one of the maximum area?
Solution
Area: A = xy = x(10-x)=10x-x2
dA
We find 10 2x
dx
dA
Stationary points: = 0 10 2x = 0 x =5
dx
The 2nd derivative test is easier here: A΄΄ = -5.
At x=5 A΄΄ < 0, thus we have a maximum value there.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Let’s reverse the role of the perimeter and the area. Next we know
the area of the rectangle and we are looking for the minimum
perimeter.
EXAMPLE 2
Among all the rectangles of area 25, find the one of the minimum
perimeter.
Solution
Again, let x be one of the sides (this will be our main variable).
If the other side is y, then
25
Area = 25 xy=25 y =
x
The function of optimisation is
50
Perimeter: P = 2x+2y = 2x+
x
dP 50
We find = 2 2
dx x
dP 50
Stationary points: = 0 2 2 = 0 x 2 = 25 x = 5
dx x
100
The 2nd derivative test gives: P΄΄ = .
x3
For x=5, P΄΄ > 0 , thus we have a minimum value there.
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EXAMPLE 3
We want to construct a rectangle fence for an area of 24m2, but
the cost for the material of the front side is 10$ per meter while
the cost for the material of the other 3 sides is 5$ per meter. Find
the cheapest solution!
Solution
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the region enclosed by y 9 x 2 and x-axis.
Find the rectangle of largest area inscribed within that region.
y
10
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2a 3 4
Discussion
There are two extreme cases:
the height of the rectangle is 0, the width is 6. The area is 0.
the height of the rectangle is 9, the width is 0. The area is 0.
Somewhere in between there is a rectangle of maximum area.
Solution
Key point: Let a be the x-coordinate of the bottom right corner.
Then
Width = 2a
Height = y 9 a 2 [it is f(a) !]
dA
We find 18 6a 2
da
dA
Stationary points: = 0 18 6a 2 = 0 a = 3
dx
The 2nd derivative test gives: A΄΄ = -12a.
At a= 3 , A΄΄ < 0, thus we have a maximum value there.
Therefore, the rectangle of maximum area has dimensions 2 3 ×6
and the maximum area is Amax = 12 3 .
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
5km
3km
C 4km B
B
A swimmer is at point A inside the sea, 3km away from the beach.
She wants to go to point B at the beach, which is 5 km away.
When she swims she covers 1 km in 8 minutes
When she runs she covers 1km in 5 minutes. Find
(a) the time she spends when she swims directly to B;
(b) the time she spends when she swims to C and then runs to B;
(c) the minimum time she can achieve if she swims first to some
point D between B and C and then runs to B
Solution
(a) T=TAB= 58 = 40 min
(b) T= TAC + TCB = 38 + 45 = 44 min
(c) Let D be between C and B and CD=x km. Then DB = 4-x km
Also AD2 = AC2 + CD2 AD = 9 x2
Therefore, the function of optimization is the total time
dT 8x
We find 5
dx 9 x2
8x
Stationary points: 5 0 8x 5 9 x 2
2
9 x
15
64 x 2 25(9 x 2 ) 39x 2 225 x 2.4 km
39
We can easily verify that this is a minimum (2nd derivative test).
Thus, the point D is 2.4km from C.
The minimum time is Tmin=38.7 minutes.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
We say that x2+c is the indefinite integral of f(x)=2x and we use the
notation
2xdx = x2+c
Hence,
For example,
4
since (x5)΄=5x4 we obtain 5x dx = x5 + c
4 x5
We also deduce that x dx = 5
+ c (why?)
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) f(x)dx
1 x +c
x2
x +c
2
x3
x2 +c
3
x4
x3 +c
4
x 11
x10 +c
11
In general,
n x n 1
x dx = n 1
+ c (if n -1)
Notice also,
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
n x n 1
REMARK FOR x dx = n 1
+ c
-5 x-4 1
x dx = -4
+c =
- 4x 4
+c
1 1
What about x 2
dx ? We know that
x2
=x-2, so
1 x-1 1
x2
-2
dx = x dx =
-1
+c =
-x
+c
1
x dx = x
-1
Notice that this formula does not apply for dx .
1
Only for this particular power we have the formula x dx =lnx+c
Thus, for example
f(x) f(x)dx
1 x-1 1
x-2 +c c
x2 -1 x
1 x-2 1
x-3 +c c
x3 -2 2x 2
1 x-3 1
4
x-4 c c
x -3 3x 3
2 3 53 33 5
3
x2 x 3 x c x c
5 5
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
1
REMARK FOR x dx (only for HL)
1
In fact x dx = ln|x|+c .
1
Indeed: if x>0, then [ln|x|]΄ =[lnx]΄= ,
x
1 1
if x<0, then [ln|x|]΄ =[ [ln(-x)]΄= (-1)= .
-x x
1
That is why the antiderivative of is ln|x|+c.
x
Rule 2:
af(x)dx = a f(x)dx
For example,
4 4 x5
10x dx 10 x dx 10 c 2x 5 c
5
EXAMPLE 1
2
[3x 5e x 2cosx]dx = 3 x 2 dx +5 e x dx -2 cosxdx
x3
= 3( )+ 5ex -2sinx + c
3
= 3 x 3 + 5ex -2sinx + c
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
4 3 2 x5 x4 x3 x2
[2x 8x 5x 7x 2]dx = 2 5
+8
4
-5
3
-7
2
+2x + c
2 5 5 7
= x +2 x 4 - x3 - x2 + 2x + c
5 3 2
EXAMPLE 3
2 8 5
[ x 4 x 3 x 2 2]dx [2x 8x 5x 2]dx
-4 -3 -2
EXAMPLE 4
Let f ΄(x)=6x2- 4x+5. Find f(x) given that f(1)=8.
2 x3 x2
f(x)= [6x 4x 5]dx = 6 3
- 4
2
+5x+c = 2x3-2x2+5x+c
f(1)=8, so 2(1)3-2(1)2+5(1)+c=8
so 5+c=8
so c=3
Therefore,
f(x) = 2x3-2x2+5x+3
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
1 1 x
a 2
x 2
dx arctan c
a a
1 x
a x2 2
dx arcsin
a
c
1 x
Indeed, the derivative of f(x) = arctan is
a a
1 1 1 1 1 1
f (x) 2
2 2 2
a x a a a x a x2
2
1
a a2
x
Similarly, the derivative of f(x) = arcsin is
a
1 1 1 1 1
f (x)
x
2 a a a2 x 2 a2 x 2
1
a a2
EXAMPLE 5
1
1x 2
dx arctanx c
1 1 x
4x 2
dx
2
arctan c
2
5 5 x
13 x 2
dx
13
arctan
13
c
5 5 1 52 2x 5 2x
9 4x 2
dx
4 9 2
dx
43
arctan
3
c = arctan
6 3
c
x
4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Similarly
EXAMPLE 6
1
1 x2
dx arcsinx c
1 x
4x 2
dx arcsin
2
c
5 x
13 x 2
dx 5arcsin
13
c
5 5 1 5 2x
9 4x 2
dx
2 9 2
dx arcsin
2 3
c
x
4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
cos(3x)dx
cos(3x 5)dx
They look like cosxdx but instead of x we have u=3x and u=3x+5
respectively.
Hence,
sin(3x)
cos(3x)dx = 3
+c [u=3x]
sin(3x + 5)
cos(3x 5)dx = 3
+c [u=3x+5]
sin(3x) cos(3x)
the derivative of is ×3 = cos(3x)
3 3
sin(3x + 5)
the derivative of is cos(3x+5)
3
Notice that,
Indeed,
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
3x 2 e 3x 2
e dx =
3
+c
-5x 2 e-5x 2
e dx =
-5
+c
10x e 10x
e dx =
10
+c
x 8
e dx = ex+8 +c
cos(2x 1)
sin(2x 1)dx =
2
+c
cos2x
sin2xdx =
2
+c
sin(5 - x)
cos(5 - x)dx =
-1
+c = -sin(5-x) +c
1 ln 7x 3
7x 3 dx =
7
+c
1 ln 3- 7x
3- 7x dx =
-7
+c
1
x 3 dx = ln(x-3) +c
5 (3x 5) 6
(3x 5) dx = 3 6
+c
EXAMPLE 2
Find I cos2 xdx by using the double angle formula cos2x 2cos2 x 1
Solution
1 cos2x
If we solve for cos2x we get cos 2 x . Thus
2
1 1 sin2x x sin2x
I (1 cos2x)dx x c c
2 2 2 2 4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dy
f (x)
dx
dy
Although is a symbol and not a fraction, it behaves like a
dx
Δy
fraction. Besides, it comes from a fraction .
Δx
Thus we can solve for dy and write
dy f (x)dx
dy
=2x dy=2xdx
dx
dy
dx= .
2x
dy
=cosx dy=cosxdx
dx
dy
or dx=
cosx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Let u=3x+5
du du
Then 3 dx
dx 3
The integral becomes
du 1 1
I= cosu cosudu sinu c
3 3 3
1
Thus, I= sin(3x 5) c
3
METHODOLOGY:
We have to imagine an appropriate substitution u=g(x)
[criterion: g (x) must also exist in the integral as a factor]
Let u=g(x)
du du
Then = g (x) dx=
dx g (x)
Express the initial integral in terms of u and du
Calculate the new integral
Replace u= g(x) back in the result
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Consider
I= 3x 2 (x 3 5)7 dx
We let u=x3+5 [since the derivative 3x2 exists inside the integral]
Let u=x3+5
du du
Then =3x2 dx=
dx 3x 2
du
I= 3x 2 u7 2
= u7 du
3x
Hence,
u8
c I=
8
Finally, we replace back u=x3+5 to get
(x 3 5)8
I= c
8
Notice that
I= x 2 (x 3 5)7 dx
let u=x3+5
du du
then =3x2 dx=
dx 3x 2
The result is
du 1 7 1 u8 (x 3 5)8
I= x 2 u7
3x 2 3
= u du = c = c
3 8 24
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
Find I= x x 2 3dx by using the substitution u=x2+3.
Solution
du du
Let u=x2+3, then =2x dx=
dx 2x
Thus,
3
du 1 1 2 2 1 3 1 3
I= x u = udu = u +c= u 2 +c= (x 2 3) 2 +c
2x 2 2 3 3 3
EXAMPLE 4
2x cosx
Find I= dx .
x 2 sinx
Solution
Notice that the derivative of the denominator is the numerator.
du du
Let u= x 2 sinx , then =2x+cosx dx=
dx 2x cosx
Thus,
2x cosx du 1
I= = du =lnu+c=ln (x 2 sinx) c
u 2x cosx u
EXAMPLE 5
(lnx) 2 1 lnx
Find I 1= dx , I 2= dx , I 3= dx
x x(lnx) 2 x
Solution
For all three of them we let u=lnx [Why?].
du 1
Then dx = xdu
dx x
Thus
u2 u3 (lnx)3
I 1= xdu = u 2 du = c= c,
x 3 3
1 1 u-1 1 1
I 2= 2
xdu = 2 du = c =- c = c,
xu u -1 u lnx
u 2 2
I3 = xdu = udu = u3/2 c = (lnx)3/2 c
x 3 3
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
CALCULATION BY INSPECTION
If you get used to this simple case of substitution you may directly
write down the result as we are going to explain below. But unless
you feel confident enough follow the whole process of substitution!
integral result
ue dx
u
= eu + c
usinudx =-cosu + c
n un+1
u u dx =
n +1
+c
Indeed, the derivatives of the functions in the 2nd column are the
expressions in the 1st column (chain rule). That is why the
substitution method is also known as ANTI-CHAIN rule.
For example,
2x cosx u
x 2 sinx dx has the form u dx
Hence the result is
lnu + c = ln(x 2 + sinx) + c
Also
(lnx) 2 2
x dx has the form u u dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 6
cosx
Find sinxe dx ,
Solution
u
The integral is “almost” of the form ue dx , since u =-sinx .
Thus
cosx
sinxe dx -sinxecosx dx = ecosx + c
EXAMPLE 7
2
Find xcos(3x + 1)dx ,
Solution
The integral is “almost” of the form ucosudx , since u = 6x . Thus
2 1 1
xcos(3x + 1)dx 6xcos(3x 2 + 1)dx sin(3x 2 + 1) + c
6 6
EXAMPLE 8
5x 2
Find I= dx ,
x3 1
Solution
u
The integral is “almost” of the form u dx , since u = 3x 2 .
Thus
5x 2 5 3x 2 5
3
x 1
dx 3
3 x 1
dx = ln(x 3 + 1) + c
3
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
b
5.10 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL f(x)dx -AREA BETWEEN CURVES
a
If f(x)dx = F(x) + c ,
f(x)dx = F(x)
b b
then a
which means F(b)-F(a)
a
For example,
Indefinite: 2xdx x2 + c
3 3
Definite:
1
2xdx = x 2 = (32)-(12) = 8
1
EXAMPLE 1
1 1
-1
(8x 3 + 12x 2 - 6x + 3)dx = 2x 4 + 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x
-1
= (2 + 4- 3 + 3)- (2- 4- 3- 3)
=8- (-8) = 16
EXAMPLE 2
3 3
3 8 3 x-2 4 4 4 5
-3
2 x 3
dx =
2
8x dx = 8 = - 2 = (- )- (-1) =- + 1 =
-2 2 x 2 9 9 9
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION
12
The area under the line between 0 and 1 (blue triangle) is 1.
2
1 1
but also 0
2xdx = x 2 = (1)-(0) = 1.
0
36
The area under the line between 0 and 3 (big triangle) is 9.
2
3 3
but also 0
2xdx = x 2 = (9)-(0) = 9.
0
The area under the line between 1 and 3 (red region) is 9-1=8.
3 3
but also 1
2xdx = x 2 = (9)-(1) = 8.
1
b
f(x)dx
a
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
USE OF GDC
We can use the GDC to find the definite integral.
For Casio CFX we select
MENU
Run-Matrix
MATH [F4]
[F6] and then [F1]
b b b
[f(x) g(x)]dx = f(x)dx + g(x)dx
a a a
b b
af(x)dx =a f(x)dx
a a
Moreover,
b c c
f(x)dx + f(x)dx = f(x)dx
a b a
(use areas to explain why!)
f ΄(x)dx = f(x)
b b
a
(derivative and integral
a
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
5
Suppose that f(x)dx 10 . It is also given that f(0)=15, f(5)=3.
0
0
f(x)dx
5
= -10
0 1
5 2
f(x)dx = -5
0
5
(f(x) 4x)dx =
5
f(x)dx +
0
5
0
4xdx = 10 + 2x 2
5
0 = 10+50 = 60
5 5 5
2f(x)dx + 1dx = 20 + x 0 = 20+5 = 25
5
0
(2f(x) 1)dx =
0 0
2 5 5
0
f(x)dx
2
f(x)dx = f(x)dx 10
0
5 5
f(t)dt
0
= f(x)dx
0
= 10
Consider an integral
b
f(x)dx
a
that requires a substitution u=g(x).
After substitution dx becomes du, thus the limits a, b are not valid.
Let us explain.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
2 x
Find I= 2
dx ,
0 x 4
Solution
Therefore,
2
1 1 1 1 8 1
I= ln(x 2 4) = ln8 ln4 = ln = ln2
2 0 2 2 2 4 2
x u
0 4
2 8
EXAMPLE 5
5
Suppose that f(x)dx 10 .
0
2.5 1 5 dy dy
0
f(2x)dx =
2 0
f(y)dy 5 by using y=2x,
dx
= 2 dx =
2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
b b
f(x)dx
a
= (red area) f(x)dx
a
= - (red area)
Indeed, if you look at the curve y=-2x from x=1 to x=3 then
3 3
1
-2xdx = -x 2 = -9+1 = -8
1
But of course, we say that the area between the curve and x-axis
from x=1 to x=3 is equal to 8.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 6
Find the area of the region between the curve y=9-x2 and x-axis
Notice that the curve is symmetric about the y-axis so we can find
the area between x=0 and x=3 and multiply by 2.
3
3 x3
Area = 2 (9- x )dx = 2 9x-
2
=2(27-9) = 36
0
3 0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Suppose that f(x) has both positive and negative values, say
y=f(x)
A
C
a b B c d
Hence,
d
the integral
a
f(x)dx does not give
b c d
f(x)dx =A
a f(x)dx =-B
b
c
f(x)dx =C
and then
AREA = A+B+C
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the function
f(x) = x 3 - 6x 2 +8x
Find
2 4 4
(a)
0
f(x)dx (b)
2
f(x)dx (c)
0
f(x)dx
(d) the total area between the curve and the x-axis within [0,4]
Solution
2
2 x4
(a) 0
f(x)dx = - 2x 3 + 4x 2 = 4–0 = 4
4 0
4
4 x4
(b) 2
f(x)dx = - 2x 3 + 4x 2 = 0–4 = -4
4 2
4
4 x4
(c) 0
f(x)dx = - 2x 3 + 4x 2 = 0–0 = 0
4 0
[it is in fact the sum of the first two integrals above]
In practice, we find (a) and (b) and add the absolute values
A = 4+4= 8
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
Consider the function
f(x)=sinx, 0 x 2π
Find
π 2π 2π
(a) 0
f(x)dx (b)
π
f(x)dx (c) 0
f(x)dx
(d) the total area between the curve and the x-axis within [0,2π]
Solution
π
(a) sinxdx = cosx ]0π =-cosπ+cos0=1+1=2
0
2π
(b) sinxdx = cosx ]π2π =-cos2π+cosπ=-1-1=-2
π
2π
(c) sinxdx = cosx ]02π =-cos2π+cos0=-1+1=0
0
In practice, we find (a) and (b) and add the absolute values
A = 2+2= 4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
y=f(x)
y=g(x)
a b
The area between the two curves from x=a to x=b is given by
b
[f(x)- g(x)]dx
a
b
Indeed, f(x)dx gives the area between y=f(x) and x-axis
a
b
while g(x)dx gives the area between y=g(x) and x-axis
a
EXAMPLE 9
Find the shaded area below:
6 1 6 1
Area = [( x 4) - x]dx = (4 - x)dx
2 2 2 2
6
x2
= 4x = (24-9)-(8-1) = 15-7 = 8
4 2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
b
| f(x)- g(x) | dx
a
METHODOLOGY
Find the intersection points by solving the equation f(x)=g(x)
(in our example: x=a, x=b, x=c)
Split the integral appropriately: for each interval, determine
which curve is “above” and which curve is “below”
b c
(in the example:
a
[f(x)- g(x)]dx + [g(x)- f(x)]dx
b
)
EXAMPLE 10
Find the area enclosed by the graphs f(x)=x2 and g(x)=x+2
Intersection points:
f(x)=g(x) x2=x+2
x2-x-2=0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 11
Consider the curve
y x
9 9 9
B 3 x dx 3- x 1/2
2 2
dx 3x x 3/2 27 93/2 0 9
3 3
0 0 0
or
B ( Area of rectangle) A 27 - 18 9
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
O A
Then
ds
Velocity = rate of change of displacement: v=
dt
dv
Acceleration = rate of change of velocity: a=
dt
d2 s
Notice also that a is the second derivative of s. a=
dt 2
derivative
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Consider
s= t3-12t+15
representing the motion of a particle along a straight line, where
the displacement s is given in m (meters),
the time t is given in sec (seconds).
Then
ds dv
v==3t2-12 a= =6t
dt dt
Notice that v is measured in m/sec while a is measured in m/sec2.
For example,
at time t=1, s=4m
v=-9m/sec
a=6m/sec2
at time t=3, s=6m
v=15m/sec
a=18m/sec2
Notice also,
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
NOTICE
If s>0, the body is to the right of the fixed point O.
If s<0, the body is to the left of the fixed point 0.
If s=0, the body is at the fixed point 0.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
integral
EXAMPLE 2
Let v=12t2-2t. Find the acceleration and the displacement, given
that the initial displacement is 5m.
Solution
dv
a= =24t-2 ms-1
dt
s= vdt = (12t 2 - 2t)dt =4t3-t2+c
but s=5, when t=0, thus c=5. Hence, s=4t3-t2+5 m
EXAMPLE 3
Let a=12t. Find the displacement, given that the moving body
starts from rest; the initial displacement is 5m.
Solution
v= adt = 12tdt =6t2+c
but when t=0, v=0 (at rest!), thus c=0. Hence, v=6t2
s= vdt = 6t 2 dt =2t3 +c
but when t=0, s=5, thus c=5. Hence, s=2t3 +5 m
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Displacement from t1 to t2 S =
t1
vdt
t2
EXAMPLE 4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Explanation
0m 1m 10m 17m
starts from A
is moving forward in the first two seconds (to position B)
changes direction at B (v=0)
goes back to position C.
1 2 3
The distance travelled from t=0 to t=3 is given by the total area
from t=0 to t=3 between the curve and t-axis (shaded area above)
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
Let
v 4t t 2
Given that the initial displacement is 10m find the displacement
and the distance travelled
a) during the first after 3 sec
b) during the first after 6 sec.
Solution
Let us solve first the equation v=0
v 0 4t t 2 0 t 0 or t 4
So the body changes direction after 4 sec.
(a) During the first 3 seconds the displacement and the distance
travelled coincide.
3 3
t3
S = d (4t- t )dt = 2t 2 9
3
0 3 0
(b) During the first 6 seconds the body changes direction.
The displacement is
6 6
t3
S (4t- t )dt = 2t 2 0
3
0 3 0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
ONLY FOR
HL
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
CONTINUITY
In paragraph 5.1 we have seen that
sinx
for f(x) lim f(x) 1 , but f(0) is not defined.
x x 0
sinx
If we observe the graph of f(x)
x
y
x
-5 5
x2 4
f(x)
x2
x f(x)
1.9 3.9
1.99 3.99
1.999 3.999
2.001 4.001
2.002 4.002
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
y
6
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
x 2 4 (x 2)(x 2)
f(x) x 2, where x 2
x2 x2
That is why we obtain the graph of the straight line y=x+2 with
some “discontinuity” at x=2. Moreover,
x2 4
lim lim (x 2) 4
x 2 x2 x 2
For the continuity at any particular point we must check all three
presuppositions.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
If they are equal, say lim f(x) = lim f(x) = b, then we can say that
x a x a
limf(x) = b
xa
EXAMPLE 1
2x 1, if x 2
Let f(x)
7, if x 2
y
7
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
f(2) =7.
But lim f(x) f(2)
x 2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
x 2 , if x2 6
f(x)
5, if x2 5
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
We can see that f(2)=4 but lim f(x) does not exist.
x 2
[In fact, only side limits exist: lim f(x) 4 and lim f(x) 5 ]
x 2 x 2
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the function
y
7
x 2 , if x 2 6
f(x)
4, if x 2
5
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
B
f (x+h)
A
f (x)
x
x x+h
If we let h become very small, that is h0, the result will be the
rate of change at point A, that is the derivative f (x) .
(x h) 2 x 2
lim
h0 h
x 2 2xh h 2 x 2
lim
h0 h
h(2x h)
lim
h0 h
lim (2x h) 2x
h 0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Therefore,
f (x) 2x
EXAMPLE 4
Show from first principles (that is by using the formal definition),
that the derivative of the function
f(x) x 3 2x
is
f (x) 3x 2 2 .
Solution
f(x h)- f(x)
f (x) lim
h0 h
x 3 3x 2 h 3xh 2 h 3 2x 2h x 3 2x
lim
h0 h
3x 2 h 3xh 2 h 3 2h
lim
h0 h
h(3x 2 3xh h 2 2)
lim
h0 h
f (x) 3x 2 2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Notice
f differentiable at x f continuous at x
The opposite is not necessarily true: that is, the function may be
continuous at some point x but not differentiable at this point.
y
7
x 2 , if x 2 6
f(x)
4, if x 2
5
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
or otherwise,
Since f- (2) and f (2) differ, f (2) does not exist.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
while
f(2 h) - f(2) 4- 4
f (2) lim lim lim (0) 0
h 0 h h0 h h0
Since f- (2) and f (2) differ, f (2) does not exist.
EXAMPLE 5
x2, if x 2
f(x)
4x - 4, if x 2
We firstly show that f is continuous at x=2:
lim f(x) 2 2 4
x 2
lim f(x) 8 4 4
x 2
f(2)=4
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 5
x2, if x 2
f(x) a, if x 2
bx c, if x 2
Find a, b and c given that the function is (continuous and)
differentiable.
Solution
The function is continuous and differentiable for any x≠2.
We check continuity and differentiability at x=2.
Continuity:
lim f(x) 2 2 4
x 2
lim f(x) 2b c
x 2
f(2)=a
Differentiability:
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f(x)→0 f(x) x- 5 0
if then tends to 0 e.g lim 0
g(x)→5 g(x) x 5 x 5
5
lim +
f(x)→5 f(x) x 5 x- 5
if then tends to + or – e.g
g(x)→0 g(x) 5
lim –
x 5 x- 5
But again, what happens when both f(x) and g(x) tend to 0?
x3 x sinx 2sinx
lim 0, lim , lim 1, lim 2 etc
x 0 x x 0 x3 x 0 x x 0 x
0
That is why we say that is an indeterminate form.
0
Another indeterminate form is .
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) 0
CASES WHERE IS NOT OF THE FORM or
g(x) 0
2x 7 2x 7
lim lim [ and ]
x 3 x ex 3 0
2 2 2 -2
lim lim [ and ]
x 3 (x 3) 2 x 3 (x 3) 2 0
0
2 2 2 2
lim lim [ and ]
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 0
0
0
THE INDETERMINATE FORMS or
0
4x 7 4x 7 4x 2 7
: lim 2, lim 0, lim
x 2x 3 x 2x 2 3 x 2x 3
0 x 2 - 3x x(x - 3)
: lim lim lim x 3
0 x 3 x- 3 x 3 x- 3 x 3
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L’ Hôpital’s rule:
f (x)
provided that lim exists.
g (x)
EXAMPLE 1
4x 7 (4x 7) 4
lim lim lim 2
x 2x 3 x (2x 3) x 2
0
0
Remember to indicate the form above = : or .
EXAMPLE 2
2x 2 4x 7 4x 4 4 2
lim 2
lim lim
x 5x 3x 2 x 10x 3 x 10 5
EXAMPLE 3
0 0
ex x 1 0 ex 1 0 ex 1
lim lim lim
x 0 x2 x0 2x x 2 2
EXAMPLE 4
3e 2x 2
Find the horizontal asymptotes of f(x)
e 2x 1
when x
3e 2x 2 6e 2x 6
lim 2x lim 2x
lim 3 H.A. y=3
x e 1 x 2e x 2
when x - , the limit is not of the form since e 2x 0 .
3e 2x 2 2
lim 2 H.A. y=-2
x e 2x 1 1
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0 , , 1
1
lim x 2 lim x 0
x 0 x x 0
1 1
lim x 3 lim 2
x 0 x x 0 x
0
More complicated forms can be transformed to the form or
0
and thus answered by using L’Hôpital’s rule.
EXAMPLE 5
When x→0 then lnx→-∞. Thus lim (xlnx ) is of the form 0 .
x 0
But
1
lnx
lim (xlnx ) lim lim x lim (-x) 0
x 0 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0
2
x x
EXAMPLE 6
The limit lim
x
x 1 2x is of the form . But
lim x 1 2x lim
x 1 2x x 1 2x
x x x 1 2x
x 1- 2x 1- x
lim lim
x x 1 2x x x 1 2x
-1
lim
x 1 1
2 x 1 2x
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EXAMPLE 7
We will show that
x
1
lim 1 e .
x x
It has the indeterminate form 1 . But
x
x 1 1
xln 1
1 ln 1
1 e
x
e x
x
1
Let’s find the limit of the exponent xln 1 ; it has the form 0 :
x
1 1
1 0 1 x2
ln 1 0 1
1 x x 1
lim xln 1 lim lim lim 1
x x x 1 x 1 x 1
2 1
x x x
Hence
x 1
1 xln 1
lim 1 = lim e x =e1=e
x x x
NOTICE
x
a
In a similar way we can show that lim 1 e .
a
x x
sinx
As we said earlier we accept the limit lim 1 as known.
x 0 x
0
Although it is of the form and the rule would give
0
0
sinx 0 (sinx) cosx
lim lim lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 1
sinx
already uses the limit lim 1.
x 0 x
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-1 1
(i.e. the pairs (x,y) that satisfy this relation form that circle)
Obviously this is not the graph of a function (as a vertical line may
cross the graph at two points). However, if we solve for y we obtain
y2=1-x2 y= 1 x 2
that is, two different functions together:
y= 1 x 2 is the semicircle above the x-axis
y= 1 x 2 is the semicircle under the x-axis
The question is
dy
What is the derivative y΄= ?
dx
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2x x
Case 1: If y= 1 x 2 the derivative is y΄ = =-
2
2 1x 1 x2
2x x
Case 2: If y= 1 x 2 the derivative is y΄ = =
2 1 x2 1 x2
x
We can observe that in both cases the result is equal to y΄=-
y
x
2x+2yy΄= 0 2yy΄=-2x y΄=-
y
EXAMPLE 1
dy
Find y΄= if 2x 2 x 2 y3 y 2
dx
(notice that solving for y seems to be a nightmare!!!)
Solution
The implicit differentiation gives
4x+2xy3+x23y2y΄=2yy΄
Now we simply solve for y΄:
4x+2xy3=2y y΄-3x2y2y΄
4x+2xy3=(2y-3x2y2)y΄
4x 2xy3
y΄=
2y 3x 2 y 2
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Ok, you may complain that the result is not a clear expression of x
as usual but involves x and y as well!!! However this is not a
problem in general!
EXAMPLE 2
Consider again the equation of the circle
x2+y2=1
Find the tangent lines
1 3
a) at the point (x,y)= ( , )
2 2
(confirm that this point lies on the circle)
b) at the points of the circle with x=0
Solution
dy
First, we need the derivative y΄= :
dx
We have seen that
x
y΄=-
y
1 3 x 1/2 1 3
a) At (x,y)= ( , ) , it is m=y΄=- =- =- =-
2 2 y 3/2 3 3
Hence, the tangent line has the form
3
y =- x+c
3
But
3 1 3 3 3 4 3
- +c= c= + c=
3 2 2 2 6 3
So that the tangent line is
3 4 3
y =
x+
3 3
b) For x=0 we obtain two values for y:
x2+y2=1 y2=1 y= 1
At (x,y)=(0,1), the gradient is m=y΄=0 and the tangent line is
y= 0x+c, or finally y=1
At (x,y)=(0,-1), the gradient is m=y΄=0 and the tangent line is
y= 0x+c, or finally y=-1
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[Indeed, notice that A(0,1) and B(0,-1) are the highest and the
lowest points of the circle respectively
y
A y=1
x
-1 1
y=-1
B
EXAMPLE 3
Let
x2+y+xcosy=π.
Find the tangent and the normal lines at x=0.
Solution
Firstly, for x=0 we obtain y=π, so the given point is (0,π).
Implicit differentiation gives
2x y΄ cosy x( siny)y΄ 0
y΄ (xsiny)y΄ -2x cosy
- 2x cosy
y΄
1 xsiny
At (x,y)=(0,π), the gradient is
m=y΄=1.
The tangent line has the form y=x+c. By using the point (0,π) we
find c=π and finally
y=x+π
The normal line has the form y=-x+c. By using the point (0,π) we
find c=π and finally
y=-x+π
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
MORE ON KINEMATICS
integral
EXAMPLE 4
Let v=3s2
Then
dv
a= v = (3s2)(6s)=18s3
ds
dv ds
a= = (6s) = (6s) v=(6s) (3s2)=18s3
dt dt
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dA dB 1 dB
If A=2B+lnB then 2
dt dt B dt
dA dB
If A2=2B3 then 2A 6B 2
dt dt
3 dA 3 dB
If sinA= then cosA 2
B dt B dt
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
For example
dA dB dC
If A=2B3+4C2 then 6B 2 8C
dt dt dt
dA dB dC
If A=B2C3 then 2BC 3 3B 2 C 2
dt dt dt
dA dB
If A3+B2=5 then 3A2 + 2B 0
dt dt
dA dB dB dC
If cosA=B+5BC then -sinA 5C 5B
dt dt dt dt
Methodology
The problem usually refers to the rates of change of two quantities.
One rate is given, one rate is required (usually at some instant).
1. Determine the two quantities A and B
dA dB
(Say that is given and is required)
dt dt
2. Find the general relation between A and B (*)
dA dB
3. Find the relation between and (**)
dt dt
4. If the question mentions a specific instant (say for a
particular value of B)
We use (*) to find the value of A (if necessary).
dB
We substitute all known values in (**) to find
dt
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EXAMPLE 1
Consider a square object which is expanding. If the side of the
object increases in a constant rate of 2ms-1 find the rate of change
of its area, at the instant when the side is 10m.
Solution
dx
x= side, =2m/sec
dt
x
dA
A= area, =?
dt
The relation between A and x is: A=x2
Hence,
dA dx
= 2x
dt dt
Therefore, when x=10m
dA
=2×10×2=40m2/sec
dt
EXAMPLE 2
Consider an expanding sphere. If the volume increases in rate
5cm3/sec find the rate of change of its radius r,
(i) when r = 3 cm (ii) when the volume reaches 36π cm3
Solution
dV dr
=5cm3/sec, =?.
dt dt
4
The relation between V and r is given by V= πr 3 . Hence,
3
dV dr
=4πr2
dt dt
(i) when r = 3,
dr dr 5
5=4π32 = m/sec.
dt dt 36π
4
(ii) when V=36π, the original relation gives 36π= πr 3 r = 3cm.
3
Therefore, the answer is the same as above.
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O x A
dx
If A is moving to the right, x increases so 5m/sec
dt
dx
If A is moving to the left, x decreases so 5m/sec
dt
EXAMPLE 3
A
O x
y z
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
y
(b) Relation between x, y, θ : tanθ y xtanθ
x
dy dx dθ
Hence tanθ xsec 2 θ
dt dt dt
π π dθ
-70 60tan 100sec 2
4 4 dt
dθ
0.65 rad/h
dt
EXAMPLE 4
It is given that
1 2
r h 2r 3A
3
Find the rate of change of h when r=3 and h=6, under two
circumstances:
dA
a) h is always double of r and 30
dt
dA dh
b) 30 and 8
dt dt
Solution
2 3 8
a) Since h=2r, the original relation becomes A r 2r 3 r 3
3 3
Hence
dA dr
8r
dt dt
Therefore, when r=3
dr dr 5
30 24
dt dt 4
b) By implicit differentiation on the original relation we obtain
dA 2 dr 1 2 dh dr
rh r 6r 2
dt 3 dt 3 dt dt
Therefore, when r=3 and h=6,
dr dr dr dr 1
30 12 24 54 6 66
dt dt dt dt 11
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
For example,
f (x)
I= dx = ln(f(x) + c
f(x)
Indeed,
Let u = f(x)
du du
Then dx f (x) dx f (x)
and
f (x) du 1
I= du lnu c = ln(f(x) + c
u f (x) u
In this case we can omit the whole process and give directly the
result.
EXAMPLE 1
Find
cosx x
A= dx , B= dx
sinx 1 x 1
2
Solution
Since the derivative of u=sinx+1 is cosx
cosx
A= dx ln(sinx 1)
sinx 1
f (x)
We slightly modify the integral to obtain the form f(x) dx
x 1 2x 1
B= 2
dx 2 dx ln ( x 2 1) c
x 1 2 x 1 2
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Similarly,
e
f(x)
f (x)dx = ef(x) + c
n f(x)n 1
f(x) f (x) dx = n 1
c
etc.
EXAMPLE 2
cosx
sinx e dx = e cosx c
2 3 1 3 1 3
x ex 5
dx = 3x 2 e x 5 dx = e x 5 c
3 3
2 1 1
xsin(7x 3)dx = 14xsin(7x 2 3)dx = cos(7x 2 3) c
14 14
2 5 5 2 5 5 (x 2 3)6 5
5x(x 3) dx = 2x(x 3) dx = c= (x 2 3)6 c
2 2 6 12
1
2 3 32 2
3x x 3dx = 2x(x 2 3) 2 dx = (x 3)3/2 c = (x 2 3)3/2 c
2 23
Remark.
If you don’t feel confident to find directly the result, you may
always follow the detailed procedure of substitution.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Consider
I= x 3 x 2 3dx
Let’s use the substitution
u=x2+3
(despite the fact that x3 is not the derivative of u!)
Then
du du
=2x dx=
dx 2x
Thus,
du 1
I= x 3 u = x
2
udu
2x 2
u=x2+3x2=u-3
and thus
1
I=
2 (u 3) udu
Therefore,
1
2
I = (u u 3 u )du
1 3 1
= (u 2 3u 2 )du
2
1 2 52 2 3
= ( u 3 u 2 )+c
2 5 3
1 52 3
= u u 2 +c
5
1 5 3
= (x 2 3) 2 (x 2 3) 2 +c
5
polynomial polynomial
ax b
dx , (ax b) n
dx
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EXAMPLE 3
x2
Find I= dx
x2
Solution
Let u=x+2 (so that x=u-2)
du
Then = 1 dx=du
dx
Thus,
x2 (u- 2) 2 u 2 4u 4
I= du = du = du
u u u
4 u2
= (u 4 )du = 4u 4lnu c
u 2
(x 2) 2
= 4(x 2) 4ln(x 2) c
2
EXAMPLE 4
ex e2x
Find I 1= dx I 2= dx
e 2x 4 ex 4
Solution
For both integrals:
du du
let u= ex, then = ex dx= x
dx e
Then
u dx du 1 u 1 ex
I 1=
u2 4 ex u2 4 2
arctan c arctan c
2 2 2
while
u 2 dx u u 4- 4 4
I 2= du du 1 du
u4 e x
u4 u4 u4
u 4ln | u 4 | c e x 4ln | e x 4 | c
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EXAMPLE 5
dx x
For I= 2
, we use the substitution x=2tanu (so u= arctan )
x 4 2
dx
We have, = 2sec 2 u dx= 2sec 2 u du
du
Thus,
2sec 2 udu 1 sec 2 udu 1 sec 2 udu 1
I=
4tan 2 u 4 2 tan 2 u 1 2 sec 2 u
= du
2
1 1 x
= u c = arctan c
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 6
dx x
For I= , we use the substitution x=2sinu (so u arcsin )
4- x 2 2
dx
We have, =2cosu dx=2cosudu
du
Thus,
2cosudu 2 cosudu cosu
I =
2 1- sin 2 u cosu
= du
2
4 - 4sin u
x
= u c = arcsin c
2
1 1 x 1 x
a 2
x 2
dx arctan c
a a a2 x 2
dx arcsin
a
c
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
a2 x 2 x atanθ
2 2
a x x asinθ
EXAMPLE 7
Find I= 16 - x 2 dx , by using the substitution x=4sinθ
Solution.
We have,
dx
=4cosθ dx=4cosθdθ
du
Thus,
cos2θ 1
cos 2 θ
2
Thus
sin2θ
I 8 (cos2θ 1)dθ =8 θ +c =4sin2θ+8θ +c
2
But
x
θ = arcsin
4
and
x2 x
= 2x 1- sin 2 θ = 2x 1 - = 16- x 2
16 2
Therefore,
x x
I= 16- x 2 +8arcsin +c
2 4
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EXAMPLE 8
Consider
2 2 2
I1 2
dx I2 2
dx I3 2
dx
x 4x 3 x 4x 4 x 4x 5
Hints:
2 1 1
For I1 it is given that 2
. [easy to confirm!]
x 4x 3 x 3 x 1
Solution
1 1
I1 dx ln x 3 ln x 1 c
x 3 x 1
2 2
I2 2
dx 2(x - 2)- 2 dx c
(x - 2) x- 2
2
I3 dx 2arctan(x 2) c
(x - 2) 2 1
EXAMPLE 9
Use the vertex form of - x 2 4x 3 to find
2
I dx
2
- x 4x 3
Solution
The vertex form is –(x-2)2+1.
Thus
2
I dx 2arcsin(x 2) c
1- (x - 2) 2
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DISCUSSION
In this paragraph we study integrals of the form
I= (f g )dx
(f g) f g f g
which gives
f g (f g) f g
This formula does not give an answer for any product but in some
cases the integral in the RHS is much easier than the original and
thus we obtain a result.
THE METHOD
Consider
I= xe x dx
Since (ex)΄=ex this integral can be expressed as
I= (e x )xdx
The integration by parts formula gives
[you may easily confirm that the derivative of the result gives xex]
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
derivative
x x
xe dx = x ex - e dx
Notice
If we try to integrate the other factor, that is x , and then
differentiate e x , we obtain
x x2 x x2 x
xe dx 2
e
2
e dx
The result of course is not wrong, but it is not practical! The second
integral is worse than the original!
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EXAMPLE 1
2
(a) x e x dx = x 2 ex- 2xe x dx
= x 2 ex- 2 x e x dx [we repeat the rule]
= x 2 ex- 2[ xe x e x dx]
= x 2 ex- 2xe x +2 e x +c
2 1 3 1 1
(b) x lnxdx = x lnx - x 3 dx
3 3 x
1 3 1
= x lnx- x 2 dx
3 3
1 3 1 3
= x lnx- x +c
3 9
(e) I= lnxdx = ?
Well, we do not see any product here! But this can be written as
1 lnxdx
and 1=x0 is one of the factors mentioned in the priority list!
The integration by parts gives
1
I= 1 lnxdx =xlnx - x dx = xlnx- dx = xlnx-x+c
x
1
[ Verification: the derivative of y=xlnx-x+c is y΄=lnx+x -1=lnx ]
x
Notice that both factors lie in the first priority. You may choose
any factor you like (I bet you will choose ex). The result is quite
interesting!
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EXAMPLE 2
Find I = e x sinxdx
Solution
We choose ez for integration:
I = e x sinxdx =exsinx- e x cosxdx [we carry on; choose again ex]
= exsinx- e x cosx e x sinxdx
= exsinx-excosx- e x sinxdx
In the final expression we obtain again the original integral I, which
seems to lead to a dead-end. But in fact we have
I = exsinx+excosx- I
We solve for I and obtain
2I = exsinx+excosx
and finally
e x sinx e x cosx
I= +c
2
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS
EXAMPLE 3
1 2 3x 2
I = x 2 e3x dx x e xe3x dx
3 3
1 2 3x 2 1 3x 1 3x
x e xe e dx
3 3 3 3
1 2 3x 2 3x 2 3x
x e xe e c
3 9 27
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
General Form
Examples Theoretical Questions
nZ+, a,bR
In x n e x dx x Express In in terms of In-1
x e dx ,
3 x 2
n
I n,a x e dx ax x e 2 dx Hence find I 0 , I1 , I 2 ,…
In x n cosxdx
x
2
n
cosxdx Express In in terms of In- 2
In x sinxdx
In,a x n cos(ax)dx 2
n
In,a x sin(ax)dx
x cos3xdx
lnx
Ia x alnxdx x lnxdx , x 5
dx Find a general formula for Ia
Ia,b e ax sin(bx)dx
e
-x
sin2xdx Find a general formula for Ia,b
ax
Ia,b e cos(bx)dx
In cos n xdx 2 3
Express In in terms of In- 2
In sin xdx n cos xdx , cos xdx
Hence find I 2 , I 4 and I3 , I5
In x n arctanxdx
arctanxdx , xarctanxdx , x
2
arctanxdx
n
In x arcsinxdx
2
In x n arccosxdx arcsinxdx , x arcsinxdx
lnx
n
(lnx) (lnx)
2 3
In dx dx , dx
EXAMPLE 4
If In cos n xdx , express In in terms of In- 2
In cosxcos n-1 xdx sinxcos n 1 x (n 1) sin 2 xcos n- 2 xdx
sinxcos n 1 x (n 1) (1- cos 2 x)cos n- 2 xdx
sinxcos n 1 x (n 1) (cos n- 2 x - cos n x)dx
sinxcos n 1 x (n 1)In- 2 (n 1)In
In +(n-1) In sinxcos n 1 x (n 1)In- 2
n In sinxcos n 1 x (n 1)In- 2
1 n 1
Thus In sinxcos n 1 x In- 2
n n
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f ' gdx = f g a -
b b b
a a
f g' dx
EXAMPLE 5
Find
2
I= e x (2x 5)dx
0
Solution
Method A: we find the indefinite integral first
x
e (2x 5)dx =2xex+3ex+c [ example 1(b) above ]
Therefore,
I= 2xe x 3e x 2
0 =(4e2+3e2)-(0+3)=7e2-3
0
e x 2dx
= (9e2-5) - 2e x
2
0
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
3
3
2
y3
A (9- y )dy 9y (27 9) 0 18
0
3 0
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NOTICE
If y=f(x) x=f-1(y) the alternative formula
b b
-1
Area= xdy = f (y)dy
a a
can be written as
b
Area= f -1 (x)dx
a
EXAMPLE 1
Find the area among y=lnx, x-axis and the line x=e.
About x-axis:
About y-axis:
y=lnx x=ey
Thus
1
A (e- e y )dy ey e y
0
1
0
(e e) (0 1) 1
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VOLUME OF REVOLUTION
a b
b
V= π y 2 dx
a
the solid generated when the region between the two curves is
revolved 3600 about x-axis is given by
b 2 2
V= π (y1 - y2 )dy
a
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the segment of the straight line
1
y= x , where 0 x 4 .
4
Find the volume of the cone generated by a 3600 rotation of this
segment.
b 4 1 2
V = π y 2 dx = π ( x) dx
a 0 4
4
π 4
2 π x3
=
16 0
x dx =
16 3 0
π 4 3 4π
= =
16 3 3
[Notice that the known formula for the volume of the cone of
height h=4 and radius r=1 gives:
1 4π
V= π r 2 h =
3 3
as expected!
If the rotation takes place about the vertical axis (y-axis), then we
solve y=f(x) for x, (hence x=f-1(y)), and the formula now is
b
V= π x 2 dy
a
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the region between the curves y=2x2 and y=2x. The two
curves intersect at x=0 and x=1.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dy
8x 3 , with y=5 when x=1
dx
c=3
y 2x 4 3
dy
8x 3 differential equation
dx
y 2x 4 c general solution
y 2x 4 3 particular solution
Our task is to find the functions y=f(x) that satisfy this relation.
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
For example,
y ex x
Here we only deal with 1st order D.E. that is our equations involve
only
dy
x, y and
dx
We will investigate only 3 particular cases of 1st order D.E.
Euler’s method
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(y)dy g(x)x
EXAMPLE 1
dy
Solve the D.E. =4xy2, given that y(1)=2.
dx
Solution
We separate the variables:
dy dy
=4xy2 =4xdx
dx y2
dy
y 2
= 4xdx
1
= 2x 2 c
y
1
y = [general solution]
2x 2 c
dy
Even the simple example 8x 3 in the introduction can be seen
dx
as a D.E. of separable variables:
dy
8x 3 dy=8x3dx dy = 8x 3 dx y 2x 4 c
dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
dy
Solve the D.E. xy 2 x , given that y(0)=1.
dx
Solution
dy dy
xy 2 x x(y 2 1)
dx dx
dy
2
xdx
y 1
dy
y 2
1
xdx
x2
arctany c [general solution]
2
Since y(0)=1,
π
arctan1 c c
4
Therefore,
x2 π
arctany
2 4
x2 π
y tan [particular solution]
2 4
dP dP
kdt kdt lnP kt c P e kt c e kt e c
P P
By setting P0 e c (initial population) we obtain
P P0 e kt
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
HOMOGENEOUS D.E.
dy y
= F
dx x
y
[I.e. the RHS is a function of ]
x
For example,
2
dy x 2 xy y 2 dy y y
becomes 1
dx x2 dx x x
3
dy x 2 y y3 dy y y
becomes
dx x3 dx x x
2
x 2 y2 y
1
dy x 2 y2 dy x2 dy x
becomes
dx xy dx xy dx y
x2 x
3
x 3 2y 3 y
1 2
dy x 3 2y 3 dy x3 dy x
becomes
dx x 2 y - 3x 3 dx x 2 y - 3x 3 dx y
-3
x3 x
y
v y xv
x
dy dv
=v+x [by using product rule]
dx dx
dy y
and the D.E. = F takes the form
dx x
dv
v+x =F(v)
dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 3
Find the general solution of the D.E.
dy
x2 x 2 xy y 2 .
dx
Solution
2
2 dy 2 2 dy x 2 xy y 2 dy y y
x x xy y 1
dx dx x2 dx x x
y
Let v y vx
x
dy dv
Then =v+x
dx dx
Thus
dv dv
v+x =1-v+v2 x =1-2v+v2
dx dx
dv
x =(v-1)2
dx
dv dx
2
=
(v - 1) x
dv dx
(v - 1) 2
=
x
1
= ln x +c
v- 1
1
v- 1 =
ln x c
1
v =1
ln x c
y
Finally, since v ,
x
y 1 1
=1 y= x 1
x ln x c ln x c
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dy
P(x)y Q(x)
dx
Methodology:
It holds y Qdx
EXAMPLE 4
Find the general solution of the D.E.
dy 2
y 5x 2 .
dx x
Solution
2
P(x) and Q(x) 5x 2 .
x
2
x dx
e
P(x)dx
e e 2lnx x 2
Then
y Qdx x2y 5x 4 dx x 5 c
Therefore
c
y x3
x2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
Explanation:
dy
Differential equation: P(x)y Q(x)
dx
e
P(x)dx
Integrating factor:
d d P(x)dx P(x)dx
Notice that e e P(x) P(x)
dx dx
dy
P(x)y Q(x)
dx
But the LHS is the derivative of the product y [can you see why?]
Thus
d
(y) Q(x)
dx
y Q(x)dx
Provided that the last integral is easy to find we can solve for y
and obtain the result.
dy d
x2 2xy 5x 4 (x 2 y) 5x 4
dx dx
Thus
c
x 2 y 5x 4 dx x 5 c y x3
x2
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
xn+1 = xn + h
yn+1 = yn + hf(xn,yn)
EXAMPLE 5
dy
xy 2 x , with y(0)=1.
dx
Find an approximation of y(1) using step h=0.2
Solution
The relation xn+1 = xn + h = xn + 0.2 gives directly the column of xn
n xn yn
0 0 1
1 0.2 1
2 0.4
2 0.6
4 0.8
5 1
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
The relation
yn+1 = yn + hf(xn,yn) = yn + 0.2( x n yn2 x n )
gives
y1 = y0 + 0.2( x 0 y 02 x 0 ) =1
y2 = y1 + 0.2( x 1 y12 x 1 ) =1.08
y3 = y2 + 0.2( x 2 y22 x 2 ) =
etc
We finally obtain
n xn yn
0 0 1
1 0.2 1
2 0.4 1.08
2 0.6 1.25331
4 0.8 1.56181
5 1 2.11209
Hence
for x=1, y 2.11209
Notice
We can easily obtain the table above by using recursion in your
GDC.
For Casio FX we use
MENU
RECURSION
SET[F5]
Start=0,
End =100 (or more),
a0=0,
b 0= 1
EXIT
an+1 = an + 0.2
bn+1 = bn + 0.2( an bn2 an )
EXE
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
x2 π
The exact solution of the D.E. is y tan [see example 2]
2 4
actual value
approximation
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
1 x x 2 x3 …
We know that the series converges for -1<x<1 and the result is
1
S
1x
a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x 3 …
f (0) 2 f (0) 3
f(x) f(0) f (0)x x x …
2! 3!
This is known as Maclaurin series of the function.
1
For example, if f(x) then
1x
and thus
f(x) 1 x x 2 x 3 …
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
f(x) a 0 a1 x a 2 x 2 a3 x 3 a 4 x 4 …
Then
f (x) a1 2a 2 x 3a3 x 2 4a 4 x 3 …
f (x) 2a 2 3! a3 x (3)(4)a 4 x 2 …
f (x) 3! a3 4! a 4 x … etc
Therefore,
f(0) a 0 a 0 f(0)
f (0) a1 a1 f (0)
f (0)
f (0) 2a 2 a 2
2
f (0)
f (0) 3!a 2 a3 etc
3!
In general
f (n) (0)
an
n!
In fact, the partial sums of the Maclaurin series give good
approximations of f(x) near x=0:
a 0 a1 x is the tangent line of f(x) at x=0
a0 a1 x a2 x 2 is the “best” quadratic that approximates f(x)
2 3
a0 a1 x a2 x a3 x is the “best” cubic that approximates f(x)
1
For f(x) (black curve) look at the approximations below:
1x
y 1 x [tangent] y 1 x x2 y 1 x x 2 x3
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 1
Find the Maclaurin series of the function f(x)=sinx up to the term in x5
Solution
and thus
f (0) 2 f (0) 3
f(x) f(0) f (0)x x x …
2! 3!
gives
x3 x5
sinx x …
3! 5!
Notice: Use your GDC to compare the graph of sinx with the graphs
of the partial sums
x3 x3 x5
x , x , etc
3! 3! 5!
The result is amazing!
x2 x3
ex 1 x …
2! 3!
x2 x4
cosx 1 …
2! 4!
x 2 x3
ln(1 x) x …
2 3
x3 x5
arctanx x …
3 5
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 2
2
Find the Maclaurin series of the function f(x) e x
Solution
Since
x2 x3
ex 1 x …
2! 3!
we can substitute x by x2 and obtain
2 x 4 x6
ex 1 x 2 …
2! 3!
EXAMPLE 3
Find the Maclaurin series of the function f(x) e x sinx
Solution
x 2 x3 x3 x5
e x sinx 1 x … x …
2! 3! 3! 5!
We can find gradually the constant term, the terms in x, the terms
in x2 etc:
x3 x3 x4 x 4
e x sinx x x 2 …
3! 2! 3! 3!
x3
x x2 … [there is no x4]
3
Notice also
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 4
1
Find the Maclaurin series of the function f(x) 2
x 1
Solution
x3 x5
arctanx x …
3 5
1
Since (arctanx) 2
x 1
1 x3 x5
x … 1 x 2 x 4 …
x 2 1 3 5
EXAMPLE 5
Find the Maclaurin series of cosx by integrating the series of
x3 x5
sinx x …
3! 5!
Solution
x3 x5 x2 x4
sinxdx 3! 5!
x … dx - cosx
2! 4!
… c
For x=0 we obtain -1=c. Thus
x2 x4 x2 x4
- cosx … 1 cosx 1 …
2! 4! 2! 4!
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
dy
F(x, y) with boundary condition y(0)=y0
dx
f (0) 2 f (0) 3
f(x) f(0) f (0)x x x …
2! 3!
dy
f (0) = F(0, a) [by the D.E. itself]
dx x 0
y a
dy d2y
Implicit differentiation on gives and thus f (0) , and so on.
dx dx 2
EXAMPLE 6
Find the Maclaurin series up to x2 for the solution of the D.E.
dy
x 2 y2 with y=3 when x=0
dx
Solution
Clearly f(0)=3
dy
f (0) = 0 2 32 9
dx x 0
y 3
d2y dy d2y
2x 2y , thus f (0) = 2 0 2 3 9 54
dx 2 dx dx 2 x 0
y a
Therefore
54 2
x … 3 9x 27x 2 …
y 3 9x
2!
d2y
Notice. We can also express in terms of x and y only:
dx 2
d2y dy
2
2x 2y 2x 2y(x 2 y 2 ) , thus f (0) =54
dx dx
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
For example
1
(1 x) 1 1 x x 2 x 3 …
1 x
Similarly,
1
(1 x) 1 1 x x 2 x 3 …
1x
EXAMPLE 7
x
Find the Maclaurin series up to x4 for f(x)
(1 x)3
Solution
(-3)(-4) 2 (-3)(-4)(-5) 3
f(x) x(1 x)-3 x 1 3x x x ⋯
2 3!
and finally
f(x) x 3x 2 6x 3 10x 4 ⋯
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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis
EXAMPLE 8
Find the Maclaurin series up to x3 for f(x) 1 x by using the
extension of the binomial theorem.
Solution
The formula
n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3
(1 x) n = 1 + nx + x + x ⋯
2 3!
gives
1 1 1 1 3
1 (- ) (- )(- )
1
f(x) (1 x) 2
= 1 + x + 2 2 x2 + 2 2 2 x3 ⋯
2 2 6
and finally
1 1 1 3
f(x) 1 + x- x2 + x ⋯
2 8 16
EXAMPLE 9
Find the Maclaurin series up to x2 for f(x) 2x 3
2
by using the
extension of the binomial theorem.
Solution
2 2
2 2x 1 2x
f(x) 3 2x 3 1 1
3 9 3
The formula
n(n - 1) 2
(1 x) n = 1 + nx + x ⋯
2
gives
2
1 2x (-2)(-3) 2x
f(x) 12 ⋯
9 3 2 3
and finally
1 4 4 2
f(x) x x ⋯
9 27 27
141