2018

‫دليل كود الحماية من الحرايق‬

GUIDE TO THE SAUDI
FIRE CODE
Fire Prevention 801
GUIDE TO THE SAUDI FIRE CODE Project Manager: Ali Al-Zaid, Al-Zaid Engineering Consultants
Based on the 2018 Saudi Fire Code
Project Coordinator: Mark A. Johnson
(SBC 801)
Publications Manager: Anne F. Kerr
Series Editor: Rory Cleveland
Production Technician: Sue Brockman
Cover Design: Ricky Razo

COPYRIGHT © 2021
by SAUDI ARABIA MINISTRY OF MUNICIPAL RURAL AFFAIRS & HOUSING and
INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL, INC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
This publication is a copyrighted work owned by the Saudi Arabia Ministry of Munic-
ipal Rural Affairs & Housing (MOMRA) and the International Code Council, Inc.
(“ICC”). Without advance written permission from MOMRA and the ICC, no part of
this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including, without limitation, electronic, optical or mechanical means
(by way of example, and not limitation, photocopying or recording by or in an infor-
mation storage and retrieval system). For information on use rights and permissions,
please contact: ICC Publications, 4051 Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, Illinois
60478; phone: Washington D.C. 202-370-1800; Dubai +9714 5163035.
The information contained in this document is believed to be accurate; however, it
is being provided for informational purposes only and is intended for use only as a
guide. Publication of this document by MOMRA and the ICC should not be construed
as MOMRA or the ICC engaging in or rendering engineering, legal or other profes-
sional services. Use of the information contained in this guide should not be consid-
ered by the user as a substitute for the advice of a registered professional engineer,
attorney or other professional. If such advice is required, it should be sought through
the services of a registered professional engineer, licensed attorney or other profes-
sional.
Trademarks: “International Code Council,” the “International Code Council” logo,
“ICC,” the “ICC” logo, “International Fire Code,” “IFC” and other names and trade-
marks appearing in this guide are registered trademarks of the International Code
Council, Inc., and/or its licensors (as applicable), and may not be used without per-
mission.
Errata on various ICC publications may be available at www.iccsafe.org/errata.
First Publication: June 2021
 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Contents About the Saudi Fire Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

About Saudi Arabia Ministry of
Municipal Rural Affairs & Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
About the Saudi Building Code National Committee (SBCNC) xiii
About Al-Zaid Engineering Consultants (ZEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
About the Contributing Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
About the International Code Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Prerequisite Reading—Occupancy Classification . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

PART I: CODE ADMINISTRATION

AND ENFORCEMENT 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Building and Fire Codes 2
Construction Codes: Scope and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Saudi Building Code Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
SBC 201 and 801 Arrangement and Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 2: Legal Aspects, Permits and Inspections 13
SBC 801 Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fire Code Official Authority and Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Technical Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Alternative Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Authority at Fires and Other Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Operational and construction permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Construction documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Permit application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Testing and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Unsafe Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Stop work order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Board of Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 3: Definitions 29
Important Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

PART II: GENERAL SAFETY

REQUIREMENTS 43
Chapter 4: General Precautions against Fire 44
Combustible Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Combustible waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Ignition Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Open Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
iii
i v   C o n t e n t s

Fire Fighter Threats and Vacant Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Indoor Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Rooftop Gardens and Landscaped Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 5: Emergency Planning and Preparedness 53
Emergency Forces Notification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Public Gatherings and Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Crowd Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fire Safety, Evacuation and Lockdown Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Emergency Evacuation Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Lockdown Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Employee Training and Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Hazard Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

PART III: SITE AND BUILDING SERVICES 63

Chapter 6: Fire Service Features 64
Fire Apparatus Access Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Building Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Hazards to Fire Fighters During Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fire Protection Water Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Inspection and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Emergency Responder Radio Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chapter 7: Building Systems 77
Fuel-Fired Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Emergency and Standby Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Emergency Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Solar Photovoltaic Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Elevators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Stationary Storage Battery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Commercial Cooking Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Cooking oil storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Automatic fire-extinguishing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Chapter 8: Interior Finish and Decorative Materials 97
Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish and Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Foam Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Upholstered Furniture and Mattresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
 C o n t e n t s   v

PART IV: FIRE/LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS

AND FEATURES 107
Chapter 9: Requirements for All Fire Protection Systems 108
Where Are Fire Protection Systems Required? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Alternative designs or equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Construction Documents and Acceptance Testing . . . . . . . . . . 113
Inspection, Testing and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Fire Protection System Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Fire Protection System Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Chapter 10: Automatic Sprinkler Systems 123
Level of Exit Discharge and Fire Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Design and Installation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Hydraulic calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Automatic Fire Sprinkler System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Occupancies Requiring Automatic Fire Sprinkler Protection . 135
Group F-1, M and S-1 occupancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fire Sprinklers “Throughout” and Exempt Locations . . . . . . . 139
Fire Department Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chapter 11: Fire Alarm and Detection Systems 143
Design and Installation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fundamental Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Special Notification Requirements Based on Occupancy . . . . . 154
Occupancies Requiring Fire Alarm and Detection Systems . . . 154
Carbon Monoxide Alarms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Chapter 12: Alternative Fire Protection Systems 161
Design and Installation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Design and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
System Requirements by Extinguishing Agent Type . . . . . . . . 165
Wet chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Dry chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Halon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Clean-agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Water mist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Commercial cooking equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
v i   C o n t e n t s

Chapter 13: Means of Egress 181

Introduction to Means of Egress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Occupant Load Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Egress Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Exit Access and Exit Access Travel Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Intervening spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Exit Signs and Means of Egress Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Means of Egress Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

PART V: SPECIAL PROCESSES AND

BUILDING USES 201
Chapter 14: Fueling and Repair 202
Fuel-based Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Dispensing Operations and Devices—All Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Flammable and Combustible Liquid Fuel Dispensing . . . . . . . . 207
Tank openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Alcohol-blended fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Dispensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Compressed Natural Gas and Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Compressed natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Motor Vehicle Repair Garages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter 15: High-Piled Combustible Storage 223
What Is High-Piled Combustible Storage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Commodity Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
High-Piled Combustible Storage Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Storage Array Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Aisles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Chapter 16: Other Special Uses and Processes 241
Combustible Dust-producing Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fire Safety During Construction and Demolition . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Welding and Other Hot Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
 C o n t e n t s   v i i

PART VI: HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 251

Chapter 17: General Requirements for Hazardous Materials 252
SBC 801, Chapter 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Control areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Material Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Hazardous Materials Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Unauthorized releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Environment: Storage and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Maximum Allowable Quantity Per Control Area . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
MAQ increases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Control Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Hazard Identification Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Incompatible Material Separations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Chapter 18: Compressed Gases 277
Cylinders, Containers and Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Pressure Relief Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Valve Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Separation from Hazardous Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Exhausted Enclosures and Gas Cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Leaks, Damage or Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Chapter 19: Flammable and Combustible Liquids 293
Liquid Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Containers, Portable Tanks and Stationary Tanks . . . . . . . . . . 297
Storage Tank Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Storage Tank Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Chapter 20: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LP-gas) 309
Container Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
LP-gas Container Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Portable Container Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
LP-gas Cylinder Exchange Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
LP-gas Tank Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
v i i i   C o n t e n t s

Chapter 21: Final Exam 325

Quiz Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Final Exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Preface F
ire code enforcement is an important public safety function
because unwanted fires injure and kill hundreds annually.1
Unwanted fires also inflict a financial impact on businesses
and municipalities because fires damage or destroy production,
cause families to be displaced and disrupt daily routines. Likewise,
the accidental release of hazardous materials can cause fires, explo-
sions, injury or death due to the chemicals’ components. Saudi Civil
Defense must respond to all these incidents, placing fire fighters in
danger. Given the Kingdom’s broad scope of fire, explosion and toxic
hazards, the job of enforcing the fire code is challenging. Building
designers and fire inspectors must learn to use and
apply the fire safety codes and work together to
achieve public safety.
Guide to the Saudi Fire Code provides illustrated
text to explain the fire code basics. This Guide pro-
vides an understanding of the proper application of
the code to the most commonly encountered haz-
ards found in many districts and municipalities. The
text is presented and organized in a user-friendly
manner with an emphasis on technical accuracy and
clear language. The content is directed to Saudi Civil
Defense professionals, code officials, designers and
others in the building construction industry.

You Should Know

Saudi Arabia’s top five reported fire types occur in the following
areas:
Fire Type Annual Number
Residential 16,080
Garbage and waste 11,790
Transportation 9,671
Electrical accidents 3,749
Agriculture and animals 3,472

The Kingdom’s leading fire causes in the same period are:

Fire Cause Annual Number

Electric shock 9,688
Children playing 7,704
Transportation burning 4,466
Waste burning 2,560
Stove burning 2,168
l

1. According to Our World in Data, the Saudi Arabia fire death rate since 2013 has averaged 2.72 persons per million.
ix
x    P r e f a c e

Guide to the Saudi Fire Code is organized to correspond with the

arrangement of the Saudi Fire Code for the Kingdom (SBC 801). It opens
with a review of the legal aspects associated with the adoption and
enforcement of the fire code provisions, including permitting, right
of entry and inspector liability. It addresses the many fire code defini-
tions that are important to understand for consistent and accurate code
interpretation. Guide to the Saudi Fire Code progresses through common
hazards that can be found in any occupancy (site and building features
that must be addressed with any new construction, fire and life safety
systems and features, special processes and uses) and concludes with a
review of the most commonly encountered hazardous materials.
This format is useful to readers because it corresponds with infor-
mation from various SBC 801 sections. This enables users to compare
information side-by-side with code. This Guide is arranged to follow the
steps of new building construction or renovation, as well as fire safety
issues that arise after a project is operational. This format and arrange-
ment offer the reader an understanding why fire code enforcement is
an important public safety function and why it is so important to emer-
gency responders’ safety.
Guide to the Saudi Fire Code benefits anyone involved in the design,
construction or inspection of buildings or industrial processes and
hazards. Beginning and experienced fire inspectors, plans examiners,
contractors, engineers, architects, and environmental health and safety
professionals will gain a fundamental understanding and practical appli-
cation of SBC 801’s frequently used provisions. Students in fire science,
fire protection and building inspection technology curricula or related
studies will be better prepared to master their career skills.
Reasonable and consistent application of the code is enhanced by
a basic understanding of the scope, intent and correlation of the Saudi
codes, and how they are administered. This fundamental information is
provided in the opening chapters of this Guide. This Guide also explains
the fire code interaction with other Saudi codes. You will see words
in this Guide highlighted in italics. The italics identify words that are
defined in Chapter 2 of the Saudi codes.
Because the content is focused on the fire code, this Guide includes
prerequisite reading that is important to understand the Saudi Building
Code 201 occupancy classification system, how buildings are assigned
occupancy classifications and how these classifications are used in SBC
801 application.
This Guide does not cover all provisions of SBC 801 or all of the
accepted materials and methods for construction, fire protection sys-
tems, fire and life safety features, or the storage and handling of com-
bustible and hazardous materials. Focusing in some detail on the most
common hazards that are found in nearly every community provides an
opportunity to fully understand the basics without exploring every vari-
able and alternative. This is not to say that information not covered is
 P r e f a c e    x i

any less important or valid. This Guide is best used as a companion to

SBC 801 and appropriate National Fire Protection Association, American
Petroleum Institute, Compressed Gas Association and other organiza-
tional standards that are adopted by reference in SBC 801, Chapter 80.
Guide to the Saudi Fire Code features full-color illustrations and pho-
tographs to assist the reader in visualizing code applications. Practical
examples, simplified tables and highlights of particularly useful informa-
tion aid in understanding the provisions and determining code compli-
ance. References to the applicable SBC 801 sections are cited in square
brackets—for example [Ref. SBC 801 - 201.1]—to assist readers in
locating the corresponding code language and related topics in the code.
This Guide also includes an added benefit in the form of an annex
chapter that was developed to briefly address, where necessary, some
subjects that needed further elaboration or certain subjects that were
not covered in the body of the Guide. Where specific sections of the
related Saudi Building Code are included in the annex chapter, the code
section number has also been included for easy reference back to the
original code text.

ABOUT THE SAUDI FIRE CODE

The Saudi Fire Code for the Kingdom (SBC 801) provides minimum fire
safety requirements for new and existing buildings, facilities, storage
and processes. SBC 801 addresses fire prevention, fire protection, life
safety, and safe storage and use of hazardous materials in new and exist-
ing buildings, facilities and processes. SBC 801 provides a total approach
of controlling hazards in all buildings and sites, regardless of the hazard
being indoors or outdoors. Depending on the building’s occupancy and
uses, SBC 801 regulates the various hazards that may be housed within
the building, including refrigeration systems, application of flammable
finishes, fueling of motor vehicles, high-piled combustible storage, and
the storage and use of hazardous materials. SBC 801 sets forth minimum
requirements for these and other hazards and contains requirements for
maintaining the life safety of building occupants, protecting emergency
responders and limiting the damage to a building and its contents as the
result of a fire, explosion or unauthorized hazardous material discharge.
The 2015 International Fire Code® (IFC®), published by the
International Code Council® (ICC®), is the base code in the development
of SBC 801. The Saudi Building Code National Committee (SBCNC) has
made an agreement with the ICC to use its materials and modify them
as per the local construction needs and regulatory requirements of Saudi
Arabia. The ICC® is not responsible or liable in any way to the SBCNC or
to any other party or entity for any modifications or changes that the
SBCNC makes to such documents.
The writing process of SBC 801-18 followed the methodology
approved by the Saudi Building Code National Committee. Many chang-
es and modifications were made in its base code (IFC 2015) to meet
x i i    P r e f a c e

local weather, materials, construction and regulatory requirements.

The committees responsible for SBC 801 have taken all precautions to
avoid ambiguities, omissions and errors in the document. Despite these
efforts, the users of SBC 801 may find information or requirements that
may be subject to more than one interpretation or may be incomplete.
The SBCNC alone possesses the authority and responsibility for
updating, modifying and interpreting the Code.
The requirements related to administration and enforcement of this
Code are advisory only. The SBCNC and governmental organizations
in charge of enforcing this Code possess the authority to modify these
administrative requirements.

ABOUT SAUDI ARABIA MINISTRY OF

MUNICIPAL RURAL AFFAIRS & HOUSING
The Ministry of Municipal Rural Affairs and Housing was established in
1395 AH / 1975 AD by Royal Decree No. (A / 266) dated 8/10/1395 AH
and was assigned the responsibility of urban planning for the cities of
the Kingdom, and the implication of this in terms of providing roads and
basic equipment, improving and beautifying cities, developing municipal
and rural areas in addition to managing the services needed to maintain
the cleanliness and health of the environment in the Kingdom.
Our vision
Excellence in providing municipal services and achieving urban sustain-
ability in all regions of the Kingdom
Our message
Improving the quality of life and prosperity in Saudi cities to respond to
the aspirations and needs of current and future generations and achieve
the happiness of residents
+966114569999
https://www.momra.gov.sa/
 P r e f a c e    x i i i

ABOUT THE SAUDI BUILDING CODE

NATIONAL COMMITTEE (SBCNC)
The National Committee was formed as per the fifth Article of the Saudi
Building Code National Committee, which was issued by the Council
of Ministers #174 dated 15/06/1422 Hijri, amended by the Council of
Ministers #459 dated 02/11/1436 Hijri, and issued by the Cabinet deci-
sion #372 dated 12/07/1439 Hijri which added a representative from the
Ministry of Energy, Industry, and Mineral Resources to the membership
of the Saudi Building Code National Committee. The Committee ‘s stra-
tegic objectives were:
• Continuation in update of Saudi Building Code periodically for all
specialties.
• Continuation in implementing the general plan of the National
Committee of building code and preparing a plan to study assess-
ment and improvement of earthquake efficiency for existing build-
ings at the active earthquake sites.
• Suggesting the laws that commit public and private entities to ap-
ply the principles and standards of buildings and facilities resistant
to earthquakes in the kingdom.
The Committee has members from the following entities:
• A representative from the Ministry of Interior.
• A representative from the Ministry of Municipality and Rural Af-
fairs.
• A representative from the Ministry of Housing.
• A representative from the Ministry of Transport.
• A representative from the Ministry of Environment, Water and
Agriculture.
• A representative from the Ministry of Energy, Industry and Min-
eral Resources.
• A representative from King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technol-
ogy.
• A representative from the Saudi Standards, Metrology and Quality
Organization.
• A representative from the Royal Commission for Jubayl and Yanbu.
• A representative from the Saudi Council of Engineers.
• A representative from the Saudi Geological Survey.
• A representative from Saudi Aramco.
• Four specialists from Saudi universities.
• A member from the private sector who is elected by the Council of
Saudi Chambers.
x i v    P r e f a c e

ABOUT AL-ZAID ENGINEERING

CONSULTANTS (ZEC)
Al-Zaid Engineering Consultants (ZEC) is a Saudi consultancy group.
The company provides a wide range of services in the fields of water and
irrigation, engineering and energy, as well as planning and community
development and project management. In addition, the company has
completed demand forecasting and economic feasibility studies, as well
as funding options and implementation strategies for sites, neighbor-
hoods, cities and regions, especially in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf coun-
tries. In addition, the company has established an industrial engineering
group to provide engineering and business planning services to the
petroleum and petrochemicals industries, as well as professional design
and supervisory services covering all branches of electrical and environ-
mental engineering.
Prince Muhammed bin Abdulaziz St. (Tahlia) Building No.290
Second floor
P.O. Box 20179, Riyadh 11455, KSA
T +966 (0)11 4633330

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This guide has been developed based on content developed or input
by many talented individuals. Kevin Scott of KH Scott & Associates and
Scott Stookey, previously with the International Code Council and cur-
rently with the Austin, Texas Fire Department, have contributed a vast
amount of fire and life safety technical content and expertise that has
been used in developing this guide.
The author would like to dedicate this book to all building safety pro-
fessionals, architects and engineers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and
in the United States for their tireless efforts to design and construct safe
and usable buildings for the citizens of their respective countries.
 P r e f a c e    x v

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Scott W. Adams
West Coast Code Consultants, Inc.
Senior Fire and Life Safety Plans Examiner and Fire Group Manager

Mr. Adams has over 30 years of experience in fire and life safety
consulting in both municipal government and private practice. Mr.
Adams graduated from the University of Maryland with a bachelor of
science degree in fire protection engineering. Mr. Adams is certified as
an ICC Fire Code Inspector II and Building Plans Examiner. Mr. Adams
has also served as Chairman for the ICC Governing Council for the Fire
Service Membership Council and has also served as President for the
International Fire Marshals Association, and has served and chaired
various NFPA and ICC code development and technical committees.
Mr. Adams is employed with West Coast Code Consultants, Inc. and
provides third-party fire and life safety plan review services, and review
and inspection services for specialized fire protection and detection sys-
tems, smoke management systems and detailed water supply analysis.
Mr. Adams is retired from the Park City Fire Service District, where
he served as the Assistant Fire Chief / District Fire Marshal. Mr. Adams
served as Chairman for the 2002 Winter Olympics Fire Marshals Work
Group and was instrumental in developing the fire and life safety guide-
lines that were used in both permanent and temporary Olympic facili-
ties and the planning and implementation of fire prevention and exiting
programs for the games.
Mr. Adams is a respected instructor throughout the US and inter-
nationally.

Rob Neale, CFPS

Integra Code Consultants
Principal Consultant

Mr. Neale has more than 45 years of experience in fire code enforce-
ment and plans examination. He currently is the principal consul-
tant for Integra Code Consultants in Frederick, Maryland. He began
his career as a municipal Fire Marshal for the City of Bellingham,
Washington. He spent five years working a Fire Chief in Washington
state. In 2001, he began working at the US National Fire Academy in
Emmitsburg, Maryland, where he served as the Deputy Superintendent
for Curriculum and Instruction. He served on several National Fire
Protection Association technical subcommittees, including as a charter
member of NFPA 1037 Fire Marshal Professional Standard. Before start-
ing his own consultancy, he worked for three years as the International
Code Council Vice President for National Fire Service Activities and con-
tinues to teach for both the National Fire Academy and ICC. He received
his bachelor of arts degree from Western Washington University, and
his master’s degree in security studies from the Naval Postgraduate
School. He is a Certified Fire Protection Specialist and holds several ICC
certifications for fire inspection and plan review.
x v i    P r e f a c e

ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL CODE

COUNCIL
The International Code Council is a nonprofit association that provides
a wide range of building safety solutions including product evaluation,
accreditation, certification, codification and training. It develops model
codes and standards used worldwide to construct safe, sustainable, af-
fordable and resilient structures. ICC Evaluation Service (ICC-ES) is the
industry leader in performing technical evaluations for code compliance,
fostering safe and sustainable design and construction.
Washington DC Headquarters:
500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001
Regional Offices:
Eastern Regional Office (BIR)
Central Regional Office (CH)
Western Regional Office (LA)
Distribution Center (Lenexa, KS)
Washington D.C. 202-370-1800; Dubai +9714 5163035
www.iccsafe.org
Family of Solutions:
 P r e f a c e    x v i i

PREREQUISITE READING—OCCUPANCY
CLASSIFICATION
It is a common assumption that engineering knowledge is a prerequisite
in understanding code provisions and requirements; thus, the Code is
oriented toward individuals who possess the background knowledge to
evaluate the significance and limitations of its content and recommenda-
tions. They should be able to determine the applicability of all regulatory
limitations before applying the Code and must comply with all applicable
laws and regulations. Professional experience tempered with critical
thinking skills will help anyone using or enforcing codes make sound,
reasonable decisions.
Before using Guide to the Saudi Fire Code in depth, readers must real-
ize to be effective they must understand that buildings are categorized
into “occupancy” classifications that summarize each building’s use and
character. In new construction, the building code official is responsible
for using SBC 201 guidance for assigning the occupancy classification.
SBC 201 addresses not only fire and life safety but also includes
requirements for building size and height; construction type; fire resis-
tance; mobility-impaired persons’ accessibility; building sanitation such
as potable and wastewater systems; building ventilation such as fresh
air supply and heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems; build-
ing structural loads; and external loads including wind, rain and seismic
ground movements. A building’s occupancy classification influences
these and other building code provisions.
Each space in a proposed new building is evaluated for life safety
and fire risks and its character represents the functions and activities
that are expected to occur in the building. An accurate occupancy clas-
sification establishes the foundation for all the code requirements that
are intended for the occupants’ health, safety, and welfare. For example,
hotels generally are considered to have relatively low fire risks but may
have areas where there are specific hazards such as generator fuel tanks,
large gathering rooms, car parks, kitchens, laundries and other features
that may increase the fire hazard and threats to the occupants.
Every classification must be based on the premise that the uses
within each category have similar life safety problems and fire hazards
and that they share like characteristics. Occupancies are grouped so life
safety and fire protection requirements, height and area limitations, and
other safety features are rational and consistent for all building uses
within that group.
Similar uses are categorized into occupancy “groups” that are further
refined into “divisions” based on factors such as occupant load, hazard-
ous materials storage or use, tenant mobility, occupant cognitive ability,
general storage, or specific hazardous processes or equipment. It should
be intuitive that not all places of assembly, for example, share the same
fire threats. A small restaurant that seats fewer than 100 patrons has
x v i i i    P r e f a c e

less risk to human life than a grand theater that seats 2,000 persons. The
building code official assigns one or more occupancy classifications to a
structure based on the relative hazards. These groups and divisions are
reprinted in SBC 801, Chapter 2, “Definitions” for the fire code officials’
use.
Within any given occupancy group or subgroup, there should not be
a wide differentiation among the life threats and fire hazards of the most
hazardous and the least hazardous uses. If there is a significant differ-
ence, the building might qualify for a different group or subgroup.
The Assembly, Factory-Industrial, Hazardous, Institutional,
Residential and Storage occupancy groups are further subdivided to
address differences among hazards associated with the uses within
each group. A short-term-stay hotel is treated differently from a long-
term-stay apartment or dormitory in the Group R, Residential category
because tenants in the latter category are more familiar with their sur-
roundings and its emergency features and practices.
Similarly, fire load characteristics in Factory-Industrial and Storage
occupancies vary considerably depending upon the product or process
involved; thus, depending upon the potential fire severity, these uses are
further classified into divisions of low and moderate hazard. If a Factory-
Industrial or Storage occupancy is determined to be “high-hazard” it
must be reclassified into the Group H (Hazardous) category.
Table 1 summarizes the occupancy groups and divisions for specific
classifications.
 P r e f a c e    x i x

TABLE 1
SBC 201 OCCUPANCY GROUPS AND DIVISIONS
A A-1 Fixed seating for entertainment (theater or concert hall).
Assembly A-2 Food and beverage consumption (restaurant, cafeteria or
banquet hall and their associated kitchens).
A-3 General assembly (worship, recreation, amusement).
A-4 Indoor sports facility (arena, skating rink, tennis court).
A-5 Outdoor sports facility or amusement park structures
(grandstands, bleachers, stadiums).
B Office, professional or service-type transactions, including record
Business and account storage.
E Use by six or more persons at any one time for educational
Educational purposes through the 12th grade.
Day care facilities: Use by more than five children older than 2 1/2
years of age who receive educational, supervision or personal care
services for less than 24 hours per day.
Where there are five or fewer children, the care is classified as part
of the primary occupancy.
F
Factory and F-1 Moderate-hazard factory – manufacture or assembly of
Industrial combustible products.
F-2 Low-hazard factory – manufacture or assembly of
noncombustible products.

H H-1 Use or storage of hazardous materials with a detonation

Hazardous potential.
H-2 Use or storage of hazardous materials with a deflagration
potential.
H-3 Use or storage of hazardous materials that present a significant
physical hazard.
H-4 Use or storage of hazardous materials that present a significant
health hazard.
H-5 Semiconductor fabrication facilities or comparable research
labs.
I I-1 24-hour care where a supervised environment or custodial
Institutional care is provided.
I-2 24-hour medical care or hospital facility.
I-3 Detention facility or jail.
I-4 Day care: Use by more than five persons of any age who
receive custodial care for less than 24 hours by persons other
than parents or guardians, relatives by blood, marriage, or
adoption, and in a place other than the home of the person
cared for.
M Display and sale of merchandise and is accessible to the public.
Mercantile
R R-1 Hotel or motel – short-term stay.
Residential R-2 Apartment or dormitory – long-term stay.
R-3 General residential classification if other classifications do not
apply.
R-4 Social rehabilitation facilities or group home.
S S-1 Moderate-hazard storage – combustible products.
Storage S-2 Low-hazard storage – noncombustible products.
U Tanks, towers, agricultural buildings and fences more than 1800
Utility or mm high.
Miscellaneous
x x    P r e f a c e

As more and more buildings are being designed either for a special-
ized purpose or as a part of a larger type of building complex, the need
for more special code considerations has evolved. Some examples of
these special uses include automobile parking structures, domed stadi-
ums, high-rise buildings, covered mall and open mall buildings, airport
terminals, hospitals, assisted living facilities, prisons and jails, under-
ground buildings, and large industrial complexes such as steel mills and
assembly plants. For additional information or details of the various
occupancy classifications, refer to Saudi Building Code 201 Chapters 3
and 4. It is equally important to understand that SBC 201 and 801 may
not apply to every construction project within the Kingdom. For exam-
ple, petrochemical processing plants, container transshipment facilities
or utility infrastructure projects may be regulated by other government
or industry standards.
SBC 801 primarily is concerned with control of combustible materi-
als and ignition sources; proper design, construction and maintenance
of fire protection systems; emergency responder safety and effective-
ness; and mitigation of processes or uses that represent a fire hazard
or a high potential of injury or death—such as the release of hazardous
materials—through code-compliant design, construction, operation and
maintenance.
The fire code official participates in the occupancy classification
process in several ways. Saudi Civil Defense may have experts who can
provide the building code official information and experience in specific
hazardous materials or processes that affect occupancy classification.
Fire incident data, experience with new products and building materials,
fire fighting and rescue access, and water supply challenges are factors
that must be considered when making occupancy classifications. The
building code official may not have experience with any of these. Also,
SBC 801, Section 102.3 makes it very clear:
“Changes shall not be made in the use or occupancy of any struc-
ture that would place the structure in a different division of the same
group or occupancy or in a different group of occupancies, unless such
structure is made to comply with the requirements of this code and
the SBC 201. Subject to the approval of the fire code official, the use
or occupancy of an existing structure shall be allowed to be changed
and the structure is allowed to be occupied for purposes in other
groups without conforming to all of the requirements of this code
and the SBC 201 for those groups, provided the new or proposed use
is less hazardous, based on life and fire risk, than the existing use.”
PART
Code
I Administration
and Enforcement
Chapter 1: Introduction to Building
and Fire Codes
Chapter 2: Legal Aspects, Permits
and Inspections
Chapter 3: Definitions

1
 CHAPTER
Introduction to
1 Building and Fire
Codes

B
uilding codes are regulations adopted by governments to promote
safety in the built environment. People expect that when they
enter a building, they will be safe from inherent dangers caused
by natural or man-made disasters. We expect if a storm passes through our
area, the building will keep us dry and withstand the wind and heavy rain
forces created by the storm. When the earth shakes during an earthquake,
we expect the building to resist the forces and remain standing until we can
escape. When a fire occurs in a building, the occupants need a protected
and expedient way out. Building codes provide these safeguards by limit-
ing a building’s potential hazards and requiring certain features to provide
the occupants with a safe environment in which to live and work. The
18-volume Saudi Building Code (SBC) provides design guidelines to provide
occupant safety.

2
2
 C o n s t r u c t i o n C o d e s : S c o p e a n d L i m i t a t i o n s    3

CONSTRUCTION CODES: SCOPE AND

LIMITATIONS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 101.2]
All Saudi building codes begin with scope and intent statements
for each specific code. The scope outlines the code limits, explaining
the specific subject it covers. It also provides a foundation for the
code requirements in the specific volume. For example, one would
not expect structural seismic resistance rules in SBC 401 Electrical
Requirements because structural engineering is not within the scope
of the building’s electrical service and safety rules.
The code’s intent section outlines the code’s overall intent relat-
ed to buildings. It summarizes what the code is trying to achieve
through its regulations. The SBC 801 fire code intent, for example,
is to “establish the minimum requirements consistent with nation-
ally recognized good practice for providing a reasonable level of life
safety and property protection from the hazards of fire, explosion or
dangerous conditions in new and existing buildings, structures and
premises, and to provide a reasonable level of safety to fire fighters
and emergency responders during emergency operations.”
It is important to read and become familiar with the code scope
and intent as well as the specific technical requirements. The goal of
construction codes is to protect the health, safety and welfare of the
people who occupy and use buildings. Each code provides this protec-
tion in different ways, but they work together seamlessly. To provide
a full set of codes, the Saudi Building Code National Committee pub-
lishes several different volumes to address other aspects of building
construction (Figure 1-1).

FIGURE 1-1 The Saudi Building Code

4    C h a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o B u i l d i n g a n d F i r e C o d e s

SAUDI BUILDING CODE INTRODUCTION

Generally, all facilities and structures require building code compli-
ance that establishes safety, comfort and security through a build-
ing’s effective life span. These factors are significant in the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia due to its geography and regional climate differences.
The interior desert climate is hot and dry, while areas near the sea
have high humidity that deteriorates some building materials. Coast-
al soil contains high percentages of detrimental salts that corrode
many metals. Some coastal areas are susceptible to earthquakes that
threaten a building’s structural integrity.
These natural hazards combined with man-made or technological
threats such as fires, explosions or terrorist attacks emphasize the
importance of building construction and maintenance codes to pro-
tect Saudi citizens and visitors while maintaining the Saudi economy.
The Saudi Building Code started with the issuance of the Royal
Decree No. 7/B/3230 dated 11 June 2000 to form a national com-
mittee composed of representatives from Saudi universities, gov-
ernment and private sector. In September 2001, the Council of
Ministers approved the general plan of the National Committee to
prepare a unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia building code.
The SBC is a set of legal, administrative and technical require-
ments that regulate Kingdom-wide building construction using
scientific and engineering principles to set minimum public safety
and health requirements in the built environment. Other aims are to
improve building efficiency, strength and sustainability, and increase
building life span. The code set includes regulations for building con-
struction and many facilities’ subsystems, such as structural protec-
tion, electrical, plumbing and gas utilities, fire safety, sanitation and
energy conservation. Each topic is included in one or more of the 18
documents that constitute the entire SBC.
Rather than writing an entirely new set of rules and regulations,
the National Committee studied construction safety codes from a
variety of other sources. It reviewed historical Arab and interna-
tional disastrous events, building standards, regulations, and plans
of the various governmental departments and authorities. The
National Committee reviewed the results of national research and
other international codes, such as the regulations of the USA-based
International Code Council (ICC), European Code (EC), Arab Codes
and the Canadian National Building Code. It obtained opinions from
specialists at relevant Saudi universities, government and private
sectors through a questionnaire, symposium and specialized work-
shops. As a result, the ICC’s group of codes was chosen to provide
the SBC’s foundation. The National Committee also endorsed the use
of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) regarding
electrotechnical regulations and requirements, American Concrete
Institute (ACI) codes for concrete and masonry structures, American
 S a u d i B u i l d i n g C o d e I n t r o d u c t i o n    5

Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) codes for loading and forces, and
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) codes for steel struc-
tures.
The SBC code requirements have been developed with the per-
mission of the ICC, ACI, ASCE and IEC. These organizations are not
responsible for any changes that the SBC has made to accommodate
local conditions or Saudi law. The Saudi National Building Code
Committee is responsible for Kingdom-wide modifications.
The technical committees and subcommittees started their work
to adapt the documents to Saudi needs in April 2003. They elected to
prepare the general framework for the SBC that aligns the base docu-
ments with the social and cultural environment, natural and climatic
conditions, soil types, and construction material properties common
in the Kingdom. The framework was approved by the Council of
Ministers Decree No. 279 dated 19 December 2004. Following that
approval, the technical committees and the subcommittees started
preparing the technical requirements for each of the specific 18 SBC
volumes.
The first version of the SBC was issued in 2007 and employed a
framework of two basic categories. First is “terms,” which are repre-
sented by the letters (‫)ك ب س‬. These include the minimum limits of
engineering standards required in design, construction, operation
and maintenance. The second part of the framework is “require-
ments,” which are represented by the letters SBC and include details
of design and methods of construction.
The original 2007 SBC scope can be summarized as follows:
• Administrative and legal terms that prescribe codes’ scope and
intent while classifying buildings and facilities according to their
use and occupancy. The administrative section identifies respon-
sible parties concerned in building planning and code applica-
tion, including design professionals and code officials. Other
administrative features include code-related definitions, code
official duties and responsibilities, and how to resolve disputes.
• Architectural terms and requirements that relate to architec-
tural works, type and use of building construction methods and
materials. These include special detailed requirements based on
use and occupancy (such as high-rise or underground buildings),
maximum building areas and heights, egress systems to help oc-
cupants escape, interior wall and ceiling finishes, fire resistance
for interior and exterior walls and ceilings, requirements for
people with special needs, and design against rodents and other
environmental hazards.
• Structural terms and requirements pertaining to structural de-
sign for wind, seismic and load restrictions, testing and struc-
tural investigation for soils, foundations and supporting walls,
concrete facilities, building using bricks and blocks, and steel
facilities.
6    C h a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o B u i l d i n g a n d F i r e C o d e s

• Electrical terms and requirements for design, installation, com-

missioning, maintenance and safety of systems, devices and elec-
tric service to and within buildings and including electric service
delivery to a site, internal and external lighting, control panels,
grounding and bonding systems, fire alarm devices, lightning
protection systems, and standby and emergency power.
• Mechanical terms and requirements for design, construction,
installation, commissioning, maintenance and safety of systems
and equipment for ventilation and exhaust, cooling and heating,
water heaters and boilers, solar energy systems, lifts, ladders,
moving belts and cranes.
• Energy conservation terms and requirements that relate to de-
sign consideration regarding water and power rationing.
• Sanitary terms and requirements for design, construction, in-
stallation, commissioning, maintenance and safety of plumbing
and sanitary systems for potable water, sewage systems, rainwa-
ter collection systems, and sewage and wastewater disposal.
• Fire protection terms and requirements for design, construc-
tion, installation and maintenance of fire protection features
such as fire-resistant construction, fire protection and detection
systems, egress, and the storage and handling of materials that
might cause or contribute to fires and explosions or create acute
health hazards.
The second SBC version was issued in 2018 and is an improved,
revised and updated edition of SBC 2007. It has employed the same
framework of categories: terms and requirements. The 2018 SBC ver-
sion is summarized as follows.
• Saudi Building Code—General (SBC 201). This volume con-
tains general requirements on the following topics: the use and
classification of buildings and facilities; building maximum areas
and heights; construction methods; egress paths; interior and
exterior walls; ceiling and floor construction methods and ma-
terials; roofs and rooftop structures; building interior environ-
ment, including light, cooling and sanitation; construction ma-
terials, such as wood, steel, masonry, plaster, gypsum wallboard,
glass and plastic; infringements on public and private property;
protection during construction; signals and signs; and animal
and other vector controls.
• Saudi Loading Code (SBC 301). This volume addresses structural
loading and strength, joint forces, static forces, live or active forces,
FIGURE 1-2 The Saudi Building
Code (SBC 201) strong soil and water static and flood loads, strong winds, design
and building site rating steps in terms of seismic design, quality
control and associated work. SBC 302 through 306 include addi-
tional details pertaining to structural requirements. They are:
 S a u d i B u i l d i n g C o d e I n t r o d u c t i o n    7

FIGURE 1-3 The second version of the SBC

• Saudi Construction Code (SBC 302). This volume contains re-

quirements for tests and structural inspections of those features
designed to maintain structural integrity during disasters such
as windstorms, flooding, earthquakes, fires or explosion. Tests
and inspections are standardized to ensure critical elements are
evaluated by qualified persons.
• Saudi Soil and Foundation Code (SBC 303). This volume ad-
dresses site investigation and evaluation, excavation, soil settle-
ment, ability to extend foundations, bearing walls, retaining
walls, footing and foundations, seismic force designs, moisture
protection, and structural column, beam and pedestal construc-
tion.
• Saudi Concrete Structures Code (SBC 304). This volume pre-
scribes materials, construction systems and design loads, load
and resistance and service paths, sustainability and constructa-
bility, analytical considerations, tensile force requirements, de- FIGURE 1-4 The Saudi Loading
sign placement and pivot loads. Code (SBC 301)
8    C h a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o B u i l d i n g a n d F i r e C o d e s

• Saudi Masonry Code (SBC 305). This volume addresses con-

struction materials, construction, quality assurance and seismic
design.
• Saudi Steel Structures Code (SBC 306). This volume includes
design and material requirements, tensile members, columns
and other compression members, other members correspond-
ing to bending, bridges, beams and slabs, double twisting forc-
es, ligaments, joints, and concentrated forces, connectivity and
stresses.
• Saudi Electrical Code (SBC 401). This volume contains the fol-
lowing requirements: electrical wiring, internal and external
lighting, bonding and grounding methods, fire and security
alarms, lightning protection systems, solar photovoltaic sys-
tems, power and controls for elevators, escalators and moving
FIGURE 1-5 The Saudi Electrical belts, and standby and emergency energy power systems.
Code (SBC 401) • Saudi Mechanical Code (SBC 501). This volume addresses ex-
haust and ventilation, steam disposal methods, combustion air,
chimneys and ventilation, ducts and air-handling equipment,
boilers, heaters and pressure vessels, refrigeration, plumbing,
fuel oil pipelines and storage, solar systems, lifts and lift sys-
tems, and mechanical maintenance requirements.
• Saudi Energy Conservation Code for Buildings Except Low-
Rise Residential Buildings (SBC 601). This volume provides
nonresidential and commercial building energy conservation
design through analysis of building systems and renewal energy
sources.
• Saudi Energy Conservation Code—Low-Rise (Residential)
Buildings (SBC 602). This Code is like SBC 601 but focuses on
low-rise apartment buildings. Contents include energy conserva-
tion requirements for all aspects of energy used in residential con-
FIGURE 1-6 The Saudi struction, including heating and ventilation, lighting, water heat-
Mechanical Code (SBC 501)
ing, and power usage for appliances and building systems. It sets
forth minimum requirements for exterior envelope insulation,
window and door U-factors and SHGC ratings, duct insulation,
lighting and power efficiency, and water distribution insulation.
• Saudi Sanitary Code—Plumbing (SBC 701). This volume in-
cludes internal water and sewage distribution systems, faucet
and other fixture installation, drainage and ventilation systems
for sanitation, safe drinking water systems, water storage sys-
tems, special drainage gutters and other waste water, and sub-
surface irrigation systems.

FIGURE 1-7 The Saudi Energy

Conservation Code (SBC 601)
 S a u d i B u i l d i n g C o d e I n t r o d u c t i o n    9

• Saudi Sanitary Code—Private Sewage Disposal (SBC 702).

This Code provides minimum requirements for the installation
of new or the alteration of existing private sewage disposal sys-
tems. It addresses site evaluations, materials, various soil ab-
sorption systems, holding tanks, cesspools and on-site wastewa-
ter treatment systems.
• Saudi Fire Code (SBC 801). This volume aligns closely with SBC
201 and contains requirements for use and occupancy classifica-
tion, building construction and fire and life safety features, fire-
resistive construction maintenance, general precautions against
fire, planning and emergency equipment, fire services land-
marks, interior, decor and furnishing, fire protection systems,
means of escape, and hazardous operations and materials.
• Saudi Existing Building Code (SBC 901). This volume contains FIGURE 1-8 The Saudi Plumbing
information related to work in existing buildings such as repairs, Code (SBC 701)
alterations and additions. Other topics included are change
of use or occupancy, historic buildings and moved or portable
buildings. The 2015 International Existing Building Code (IEBC)
is the basis for this volume of the Saudi Building Code.
• Saudi Green Construction Code (SBC 1001). This volume is in-
tended to safeguard the environment, public health, safety and
welfare by establishing provisions to reduce the negative impact
and increase the positive impact of the built environment on the
natural environment and building occupants. This volume of the
building code is an overlay document to be used in conjunction
with the other Saudi Codes, and not as an independent construc-
tion code, as such permits are not to be issued under this code.
This code is not intended to abridge or supersede safety, health
or environmental requirements under other applicable codes or
ordinances. The 2015 International Green Construction Code
(IgCC) is the basis for this volume of the Saudi Building Code. FIGURE 1-9 The Saudi Fire Code
• Saudi Residential Building Code (SBC 1101). This volume of (SBC 801)
the Saudi Building Code addresses construction of single-family
villas and other similar buildings. This volume of the Saudi Build-
ing Code is currently under development.
• Saudi Fuel Gas Code (SBC 1201). This volume of the Saudi
Building Code establishes minimum requirements for fuel-gas
systems and gas-fired appliances using prescriptive and per-
formance-related provisions. This volume of the Saudi Building
Code is currently under development.
1 0    C h a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o B u i l d i n g a n d F i r e C o d e s

FIGURE 1-10 The 2018 Saudi Requirement Set

TABLE 1-1 Key List of the Saudi Codes: Designations and Brief Titles
Title Code Req.1 Code &Com.2 Arabic Prov.3
The General Building Code SBC 201-CR SBC 201-CC SBC 201-AR
Structural – Loading and Forces SBC 301-CR SBC 301-CC SBC 301-AR
Structural – Construction SBC 302-CR SBC 302-AR
Structural – Soil and Foundations SBC 303-CR SBC 303-CC SBC 303-AR
Structural – Concrete Structures SBC 304-CR SBC 304-CC SBC 304-AR
Structural – Masonry Structures SBC 305-CR SBC 305-CC SBC 305-AR
Structural – Steel Structures SBC 306-CR SBC 306_AR
Electrical Code SBC 401-CR SBC 401-AR
Mechanical Code SBC 501-CR SBC 501-CC SBC 501-AR
Energy Conservation-Nonresidential SBC 601-CR SBC 601-CC SBC 601-AR
Energy Conservation-Residential SBC 602-CR SBC 602-CC SBC 602-AR
Plumbing Code SBC 701-CR SBC 701-CC SBC 701-AR
Private Sewage Code SBC 702-CR SBC 702-AR
Fire Code SBC 801-CR SBC 801-CC SBC 801-AR
Existing Buildings Code SBC 901-CR SBC 901-CC SBC 901-AR
Green Construction Code SBC 1001-CR SBC 1001-CC SBC 1001-AR
Residential Building Code* SBC 1101-CR SBC 1101-CC SBC 1101-AR
Fuel Gas Code* SBC 1201-CR SBC 1201-CC SBC 1201-AR

1. CR: Code Requirements without Commentary; 2. CC: Code Requirements with Commentary; 3. AR: Arabic Code Provisions
* Under Development
 S B C 2 0 1 a n d 8 0 1 A r r a n g e m e n t a n d F o r m a t    11

SBC 201 AND 801 ARRANGEMENT AND

FORMAT
Before applying the SBC 201 or 801 requirements, it is beneficial to
understand their arrangement, format and correlation. SBC 201, like
other codes published by Saudi Building Code National Committee, is
arranged to follow sequential steps that generally occur during a plan
review or inspection. Table 1-2 illustrates how SBC 201 is arranged.
TABLE 1-2 SBC 801 Arrangement
Chapters Subjects
1–2 Administration and definitions
3–4 General requirements, emergency planning and preparedness
5–6 Fire service features and building services
7–10 Fire protection systems and means of egress
11 Existing buildings
12–19 Reserved
20–37 Special occupancies and operations
38–49 Reserved
50–55 Hazardous materials
56–59 Explosives, flammable and combustible liquids, gases and solids
60 Highly toxic materials
61 Liquefied petroleum
62–67 Other hazardous materials, unstable and water-reactive material
68–79 Reserved
80 and appendices Referenced standards and appendices A–M

The SBC 801 Fire Code contains regulations that correlate with
the SBC 201 Building Code requirements for hazardous materials,
fire-resistance-rated construction, interior finish, fire protection
systems, means of egress, emergency and standby power, and tem-
porary structures. Table 1-3 provides this correlation.

TABLE 1-3 SBC 201/801 Correlation

SBC 201 SBC 801

Subjects
Chapter/Section Chapter/Section
Chapter 2 Chapter 2 Definitions
Sections 307, 414, 415 Chapters 50–67 Hazardous materials and Group H requirements
Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Fire-resistance-rated construction
Chapter 8 Chapter 8 Interior wall, ceiling and floor finishes
Chapter 9 Chapter 9 Fire protection systems
Chapter 10 Chapter 10 Means of egress
Chapter 27 Section 604 Standby and emergency power
1 2    C h a p t e r 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o B u i l d i n g a n d F i r e C o d e s

SBC 201 and 801 requirements for smoke control systems and
smoke and fire dampers correlate to the requirements of the SBC 501
Mechanical Code. SBC 201 Chapter 28 is a reference to SBC 501 and
SBC 1201 for chimneys, fireplaces and barbecues, and all aspects of
mechanical systems. The following chapters/sections of SBC 201 are
correlated with SBC 501. Table 1-4 shows the comparisons.

TABLE 1-4 SBC 201/801/501 Correlations

SBC 201 SBC 801 SBC 501

Subject
Chapter/Section Chapter/Section Chapter/Section
Section 717 — Section 607 Smoke and fire dampers
Section 909 Section 909 Section 513 Smoke control
CHAPTER
Legal Aspects,
2 Permits and
Inspections

F
ire codes intend to protect the health and safety of the public and
emergency responders by establishing minimum requirements for
fire, explosions and hazardous material release prevention. To be
effective, a fire code and its referenced standards must be adopted by a
government jurisdiction and enforced by qualified officials appointed by
the governing authority.
Chapter 2 explains the process of adopting, amending and administering
the Saudi Fire Code (SBC 801) that is in effect throughout the Kingdom
and enforced by the Civil Defense fire services. This chapter describes
how the code is enforced through the review and approval of construction
plans and follow-up inspections to verify code compliance. The fire chief
and fire code officials’ authority and code administration responsibilities
are discussed.

13
1 4    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s
Code
Essentials
“The fire code official
is hereby authorized to
enforce the provisions of
this code and shall have
the authority to render
interpretations of this
code, and to adopt poli-
cies, procedures, rules and
regulations in order to
clarify the application of
its provisions.” Saudi Fire
Code, Section 104.1. l
Model codes are globally recognized regulations that address the
design, construction, operation and maintenance of buildings, uses
and hazards. These codes are maintained and updated on three-year
cycles to remain current with evolving threats and new technology,
design and construction practices. Model code changes often occur
in response to natural or technological disasters or significant events
that result in human injury, death or property destruction.
SBC 801 ADOPTION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 101]
Code adoption includes the purpose, the scope and its effective date.
The appendices are developed in the same manner as the body of
the model SBC 801. However, unless legally adopted, appendices
commonly are judged to be outside the enforcement scope and pur-
pose of the model code. Appendices offer supplemental information,
alternative methods or recommended procedures. The information
may serve as a guideline or a recommended practice example. In
instances where an appendix only provides information—such as
Appendix G, Cryogenic Fluids Weight and Volume Equivalents—the
government is not required to adopt the code text but can use the
advisory content for plan reviews and inspections.
If a jurisdiction wishes to adopt and enforce an appendix—for
example, Appendix B, Fire-flow Requirements for Buildings—the
appendix must be specifically identified in the adopting ordinance.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 101.2.1]
AUTHORITY
[Ref. SBC 801 - 103]
SBC 801 establishes a Department of Fire Prevention and designates
the fire code official as the individual in charge of code implementa-
tion, administration and enforcement. The jurisdictional authority
appoints the fire code official. The fire code official is authorized to
designate individuals as deputy fire code officials and other tech-
nical and administrative staff who may perform plan reviews and
inspections. The fire code officials’ duties demand skills, knowledge
and abilities not only to fulfill the duties but also to maintain and
elevate the Department of Fire Prevention and the Civil Defense fire
services’ public credibility. [Ref. SBC 801 - 103.1, 103.2]
1. National Fire Protection Association standards referenced in SBC 801 refer to
these as “annexes.”
 Te c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e     1 5

FIRE CODE OFFICIAL AUTHORITY AND Code

DUTIES Essentials
[Ref. SBC 801 - 104] Fire code official duties:
SBC 801 charges the fire code official with enforcing the fire code • Enforce SBC 801
and assigns broad authority and discretion to do so. With discre- • Review construction
tion comes the responsibility to make decisions in keeping with the documents and permit
intent of SBC 801. Conversely, the fire code official has no authority applications
to require more than the code requires. SBC 801 authorizes the fire • Issue permits, notices
code official to develop policies, procedures and regulations to clarify and orders
code interpretation and application. These policies, procedures and • Conduct inspections
regulations must be within the spirit and intent of the code and often • Maintain records
explain how the code official intends to enforce the code. [Ref. SBC • Investigate the cause
801 - 104.1] and origin of unwanted
To effectively perform the prescribed duties, the fire code official fires
must understand the code enforcement legal framework. While given • Control the scene of
broad authority for enforcement—including, but not limited to, emergencies
issuing a stop use order or arrange to disconnect building utilities— Fire code official
the fire code official must also recognize the administrative steps authority:
to achieve compliance. Securing safe buildings, facilities and uses • Make interpretations
for the community and its emergency responders is important to • Adopt policies,
the Civil Defense to build the public trust through communication, procedures and
respect and fairness so that the organization is viewed as a resource regulations
rather than an adversary. • Approve alternative
methods, materials and
modifications
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE • Investigate fires,
[Ref. SBC 801 - 104.7.2] explosions or other
hazardous conditions l
Occasionally, a permit applicant will submit design drawings and
specifications to the Civil Defense that involve a
building, process or fire protection system that is
complicated or technically challenging. This is com-
mon when dealing with buildings or processes that
store, handle or use hazardous materials, the design
of automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems for
high-rise buildings, or specialized automatic sprinkler
systems protecting high-piled combustible storage. To
ensure the commissioned design complies with SBC
801’s intent or requirements and its adopted stan-
dards, the fire code official may obtain technical assis-
tance from other qualified professionals (Figure 2-1).
The fire code official is authorized to use an indepen-
dent person, company, laboratory or similar entity FIGURE 2-1 The fire code official can utilize the
to review the design drawings and specifications to technical assistance provision to ensure that the design
and construction of difficult or complicated industrial
verify that the design complies with SBC 801. The processes, such as this chemical blending operation,
permit applicant is responsible to pay for the review meet the fire code requirements.
and any resulting reports. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.7.2]
1 6    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s
You Should
Know
A common alternative
methods and materi-
als application occurs in
densely built cities where
fire apparatus access to all
portions of the first-floor
exterior walls can’t be
achieved.
Since the goal of fire
apparatus access is to
be able to make a quick
attack on a fire, jurisdic-
tions have accepted alter-
native approaches, such
as exterior wall hydrants,
outdoor standpipe outlets
and increased fire sprinkler
coverage.
The jurisdictions believe
these alternatives will pro-
vide an equal or better
level of protection than
having road access to all
sides of a building.
The fire code official needs
to be involved in these
decisions on alternative life
safety and fire protection
approaches. l
The fire code official must approve the individual performing the
review and preparing the report and opinion. The jurisdiction may
require that a fire protection engineer or chemical engineer perform
the review and provide technical guidance to the fire code official,
but the fire code does not specify that a registered design profession-
al is required. It is critical that the technical assistance is provided by
someone who is qualified in the subject matter to be addressed in the
report. The qualified person should provide a report to the fire code
official. The fire code official is responsible for accepting, evaluating
and approving the final report. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.7.2]
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS AND METHODS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 104.9]
SBC 801 is not intended to exclude the use of any material or
method of construction not specifically prescribed by the code, sub-
ject to the approval of the fire code official. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.9]
Given the pace at which technology advances, new and innovative
materials and construction techniques are being constantly intro-
duced into the market. The fire code official may—as authorized by
the code—approve such alternatives when it is demonstrated by the
design professional or permit applicant that the proposed material
or construction method offers equivalent quality, strength, effec-
tiveness, fire resistance, durability and safety when compared with
SBC 801 requirements. If the fire code official rejects the proposal,
the fire code official is obligated to provide the applicant a written
explanation. In many instances, the alternative material or method
will exceed the requirements of the fire code and provide a greater
level of safety. When evaluating an alternative material or method,
it is important to ensure that the proposed method or material
meets the engineering and scientific intent of the applicable SBC
801 provisions.
One method available to assist code officials reviewing alter-
native materials and methods is the International Code Council’s
Evaluation Service® (ICC-ES®) reports (Figure 2-2). ICC-ES® reports
are a resource available to code officials to verify that the perfor-
mance of a system, construction method or component equals the
code requirements. In the absence of ICC-ES® reports or sufficient
data or documentation, SBC 801 authorizes the fire code official to
require a test of the system, component or construction method
to verify it meets the requirements of SBC 801 and its adopted
standards. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.9.2] Testing must be performed
by an approved agency and the test method requires the fire code
official’s approval. In instances where the fire code official does not
feel qualified to determine which test method(s) to use or to review
the findings of a test report, the code official can choose to request
technical assistance. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.7.2]
 Alternative Materials and Methods    17

FIGURE 2-2 ICC Evaluation Report

1 8    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s

AUTHORITY AT FIRES AND OTHER

EMERGENCIES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 104.11]
SBC 801 includes guidance on conditions affecting fire fighter
and emergency responder safety during emergency operations.
SBC 801 grants the fire code official, the fire chief
or the incident commander at the scene of a fire or
other emergency to control and direct the incident
scene for the protection of life and property or
take any other actions necessary in the reasonable
performance of duty (Figure 2-3). [Ref. SBC 801
- 104.11] This can include disconnecting building
utilities or limiting or prohibiting the movement of
people and vehicles that are not authorized at the
incident scene. These requirements allow those in
charge to deploy fire-fighting resources based on
the size and magnitude of the incident.
Consider a large commercial building fire. It
FIGURE 2-3 SBC 801 grants the officer in charge of may be necessary to lay water supply lines from
controlling an incident complete control over the scene,
including limiting access to vehicles and bystanders.
hydrants located one to two blocks from the fire
scene. SBC 801 requirements authorize fire depart-
ment officials the ability to block roads and streets and to limit the
areas to which the public has access. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.11]
A fire or medical emergency can emotionally affect family
members and friends. In some cases, people can become extremely
agitated, especially if the emergency concerns a close family mem-
ber, friend or family pet. People can lose focus on the fact that
the emergency responders are trained professionals and that the
methods for controlling fires or patient treatment may not be un-
derstood by those observing the emergency. To ensure the care of
patients is not compromised and to protect the safety of emergency
responders treating the individual or managing the emergency, SBC
801 allows the incident commander, fire chief or fire code official to
barricade the scene. SBC 801 also grants emergency personnel the
authority to have individuals detained who may be obstructing
operations if they disobey a lawful command from fire or police
personnel. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.11.1, 104.11.2]

PERMITS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 105]
A permit is a document issued by a code official that legally au-
thorizes an individual or business to conduct certain businesses,
services or construction in accordance with the requirements of the
jurisdiction’s adopted codes. SBC 801 requires the fire code official to
issue permits to perform certain hazardous operations or activities
 Permits    19

and for the construction or alteration of fire protection systems and

processes storing and handling hazardous highly flammable materi-
als. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.1] Under specified circumstances, SBC 801
exempts certain hazardous operations and activities and allows lim-
ited renovations to fire protection systems; however, any work that is
exempt from a permit still must comply with the applicable SBC 801
requirements. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.1.5]
If the construction, alteration or operation of the system or
process is not performed and maintained in conformance to SBC
801 requirements in effect when the permit was issued, the fire code
official can revoke the permit. Permit revocation essentially is a stop
use order and the activities must cease until violations are corrected
and compliance is demonstrated to the fire code official. [Ref. SBC
801 - 105.3.8]
Operational and construction permits Code
[Ref. SBC 801 - 105.6] Essentials
SBC 801 authorizes the fire code official to issue permits for cer- SBC 801 does not specify
tain hazardous operations, which are termed “operational permits,” the length of time a per-
and permits for the construction or alteration of fire protection sys- mit is valid. That is the fire
tems and equipment or systems designed for the storage and use of code official’s decision.
highly flammable or hazardous materials, identified as “construction Some permits may have a
permits.” SBC 801 requires an operational permit for 48 hazardous very short life span, such
processes or activities that are regulated by the code. Operational as for a special event or
permits are issued for a prescribed time period or until the permit is hot work.
renewed or revoked. The jurisdiction will need to establish a policy or Others may be issued for
procedure for the time duration permitted for operational permits. 30 days to a year.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 105.6] The fire code official is authorized to perform In some cases, where the
an inspection of any building, process or system to be used before an permitted hazard is not
operational permit is issued. This inspection can be used to establish likely to change, the per-
any operational constraints or limits as well as to determine if any mit may be issued “until
other operational permits are required. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.2.2] revoked by the fire code
SBC 801 requires 18 different construction permits. In addition official.” l
to the construction or alteration of fire protection systems, including
automatic sprinkler systems, standpipes and private fire protection
fire hydrants and water distribution piping, construction permits are
required for temporary membrane structures and tents, and for sys-
tems storing and using compressed and liquefied compressed gases,
cryogenic fluids, flammable and combustible liquids, and other haz-
ardous materials. Construction permits usually expire when the work
has been completed and approved by the code official. [Ref. SBC
801 - 105.7]
It is very common for a particular property or regulated use to
require multiple operational permits. For example, a factory manu-
facturing welded bicycle frames may need operational permits for the
welding operation (hot work permit), the spray painting of the com-
pleted frames (spraying or dipping permit), and bicycle storage in
2 0    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s

cardboard boxes stored on steel racks awaiting shipment (high-piled

combustible storage permit). When multiple permits are required
for one facility, the code allows the permits to be consolidated into
a single permit that covers all the permitted operations. [Ref. SBC
801 - 105.1.3]
There are many times when a permit is issued for construction,
and when the construction is completed another permit is issued for
the continued operation (Figure 2-4). For example, a typical motor
vehicle petroleum-dispensing station will store, handle and dispense
flammable and combustible liquids. The liquids will be stored in above-
ground or underground storage tanks that deliver them—via a pump
and piping network—to motor vehicle fuel dispensers. Company
personnel and the general public may have access to the dispensers.
In such a case, a construction permit is required for the installa-
tion of the tanks, piping, pumps and dispensers, and an operational
permit is required for the flammable and combustible liquid storage,
handling, use and dispensing.
A construction permit is not required for the maintenance of the
installed system.

FIGURE 2-4 This above-ground fuel dispensing operation

requires SBC 801 construction and operational permits approved
and issued by the fire code official.

Construction documents [Ref. SBC 801 - 105, 903]

Drawings and specifications must accompany any construction
permit application and include adequate detail and clarity to verify
code compliance. In some cases, the code will require a site plan show-
ing all new and existing structures with distances to buildings on the
same property, building openings and property lines. The extent of
construction documents varies with the complexity and scope of project.
Construction documents are defined by SBC 801 as the written,
graphic and pictorial documents prepared or assembled for describing
the design, location and physical characteristics of the elements of the
project necessary for obtaining a permit. Construction documents must
comply with the preparation and submittal requirements in SBC 801,
 Permits    21

Section 105.4. When required by the jurisdictional laws, the construc-

tion documents must be prepared by a registered design professional, You Should
such as a licensed architect or engineer. The fire code official can waive Know
this requirement when it is demonstrated that the nature of the work Construction documents
does not require the services of a registered design professional. [Ref. include written, graphic
SBC 801 - 105.2, 105.4.1] and pictorial documents
Fire protection system drawings and supporting calculations must with enough information
be prepared in accordance with the applicable National Fire Protec- that the fire code official
tion Association (NFPA) standards referenced in Chapter 80. Where can make informed deci-
SBC 801 is more restrictive than the design standards or has specific sions.
requirements, these plans must also comply the code. For example, Construction documents
quick-response sprinklers or residential sprinklers are required in may include:
certain institutional occupancies. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3.2] The fire • Architectural project ren-
code places the responsibility for the preparation of the construction derings including general
documents on the permit applicant and requires each permit applica- placement of systems and
tion to be complete. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.4.3] equipment
During large or extended construction projects, the registered de- • “Shop drawings” pre-
sign professional may want to use a phased design approach in which pared for special systems
construction documents are submitted based on various project mile- and equipment
stones. In many buildings, the use of these design-build construction • Product manufacturers’
methods has proved to provide major cost savings because the build- literature on the pro-
ing is designed as each of the major elements is being constructed. posed system or equip-
Phased approval of construction documents is allowed by SBC 801; ment
however, the designer and the contractor are required to assume any • Hydraulic calculations for
risks associated with improper or incomplete construction methods water-based fire protec-
or installations, and as the project concludes, the fire code official may tion systems
withhold any approvals until all of the code requirements are satisfied. • Water supply information
[Ref. SBC 801 - 105.4.4.1] including chemical com-
Permit application [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.3] position and the pres-
ence of microbiologi-
Before a permit can be issued, the owner or an authorized agent must
cally influenced corrosion
apply in such form and detail as required by the fire code official. When
(MIC) sources
required by SBC 801 or the fire code official, construction documents
• Structural and seismic
also must accompany the permit application. Because the degree and
analysis for the proposed
level of information can vary between operational and construction
system or equipment
permits, the jurisdiction should establish a clear procedure and policy
• Other reports and docu-
for the minimum information required for each permit that the fire ments the fire code offi-
code official issues. cial requires l
In many cases, a plans examiner may find that the application
and its supporting documentation are acceptable; however, certain
portions or features of the design may need to be modified to meet
the intent or letter of the fire code. In such cases, the fire code official
can issue an approval of the permit but stipulate certain conditions or
requirements that must be satisfied. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.3]
2 2    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s

INSPECTIONS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 106]
Inspections are an important part of confirming and verifying fire
code compliance. For new construction or tenant renovations, in-
spections are performed to confirm that fire protection
systems are installed in accordance with the approved
design presented in the construction documents and in
conformance to the adopted NFPA or other standards. In-
spections to verify compliance with the fire code are also
required by many building code officials before a certificate
of occupancy is issued.
In the case of SBC 801, an inspection is required
before an operational permit can be issued. Additionally,
construction permits require inspections throughout the
installation process. Equipment, processes and facilities
requiring an SBC 801 construction permit cannot be
used or occupied until the necessary inspections have
FIGURE 2-5 The fire code official can require an
inspection prior to issuing construction or operational been made and the code requirements have been met
permits. (Figure 2-5). [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.3.3, 106.2]
SBC 801 Section 106 establishes provisions that
authorize the fire department staff to conduct inspections. Because
fire inspections can be required for any property, vehicle or vessel,
permission to perform the inspection must be obtained from the
property owner, the tenant or an individual authorized to allow en-
try onto the property.
The following steps are recommended to obtain entry permission:
1. Identify yourself and the basis and reason for inspection. The
jurisdiction should issue an official method of identifying code
officials. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.4]
2. Obtain oral or written permission and consent from a respon-
sible individual with the business, building or site.
3. If the inspection is for the purpose of verifying compliance with
an SBC 801 construction or operational permit, inform the indi-
vidual that this is the basis for inspection.
4. The inspection should occur during reasonable times. If the
building is vacant, the fire code official will need to locate the
owner to schedule an inspection.
5. In certain cases, a business will request a copy of the legal basis
for an inspection. If asked, either cite or provide a copy of SBC
801, Sections 106 and 104.3.
6. Once consent is granted, the inspection can proceed. [Ref. SBC
801 - 104.3]
If access is denied, the inspector should document the circum-
stances, time and date of the incident, and contact the jurisdiction’s
 Liability    23

legal counsel for advice on how to proceed. The code allows the
inspector to obtain an inspection warrant or an administrative war-
rant. This type of warrant allows the inspection to occur in accor-
dance with the jurisdiction’s normal inspection process. [Ref. SBC
801 - 104.3.1]
Where the fire code official has obtained a proper inspection war-
rant or other remedy provided by law to secure entry, an owner, the
owner’s authorized agent, or an occupant or person having charge,
care or control of the building or premises must allow the fire code
official to enter to enforce the code.

LIABILITY
[Ref. SBC 801 - 103, 106]
Fire code officials conducting code enforcement inspections often are
anxious about their potential liability exposure if they make a mistake
or overlook a potential problem. News reports describing costly settle-
ments, the official’s unfamiliarity with the code enforcement process
and an inherent suspicion of the legal profession combine to raise the
apprehension level. “Can I get sued?” “Will I be held liable?” “Who will
protect me?” These are common questions for the inexperienced code
official as well as Civil Defense fire department personnel who may be
assigned to code enforcement.
There are protections built into the fire code to protect the fire
code official, who “while acting for the jurisdiction, in good faith and
without malice in the discharge of the duties required by this code
or other pertinent law or ordinance, shall not thereby be rendered
civilly or criminally liable personally, and is hereby relieved from all
personal liability for any damage accruing to persons or property as a
result of an act or by reason of an act or omission in the discharge of
official duties.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 103.4] Furthermore, the code obli-
gates the jurisdiction to provide the fire code official legal representa-
tion: “Any suit or criminal complaint instituted against any officer or
employee because of an act performed by that officer or employee in
the lawful discharge of duties and under the provisions of this code
shall be defended by the legal representatives of the jurisdiction until
the final termination of the proceedings.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 103.4.1]
Finally, in the event the fire code official or a deputy makes an in-
spection error that approves something that is not code compliant,
SBC 801 provides additional protections: “Approval as the result of
an inspection shall not be construed to be an approval of a violation
of the provisions of this code or of other ordinances of the jurisdic-
tion. Inspections presuming to give authority to violate or cancel
provisions of this code or of other ordinances of the jurisdiction shall
not be valid.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 106.4]
2 4    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s

You Should TESTING AND OPERATION

Know
There are important dif-
ferences among the terms
“inspection,” “testing” and
“maintenance.”
An “inspection” is a visual
check to verify the equip-
ment or system is in place
and appears to be opera-
tional.
“Testing” describes a full
functional equipment or
system operation to verify
it works as intended.
“Maintenance” is the pre-
ventive service required by
the equipment or system
manufacturer to keep it
operational. l
[Ref. SBC 801 - 107]
The fire codes place the responsibilities for the proper installation of
any required fire protection, life safety or hazardous materials storage
and use systems in the hands of the registered design professional or
the installing contractor. Once these systems are approved by the fire
code official, it is the owner’s or tenant’s responsibility to ensure that
they are maintained in accordance with the fire code requirements,
including its adopted standards. [Ref. SBC 801 - 107.1]
Many of the building or fire protection systems specified by SBC
201 and SBC 801 are required to be inspected or tested on a specified
schedule, usually annually.
These inspections are the owner’s or tenants’ responsibility.
Many of the inspections can be accomplished by the owner or the
owner’s representative; however, testing, repairs and maintenance
should be accomplished by either a contractor or a qualified indi-
vidual. It is the responsibility of the owner or tenant to maintain
these records so they can be reviewed by the fire code official. In some
jurisdictions, system testing and inspection reports are submitted to
the fire code official for review. [Ref. SBC 801 - 107.3]
During these system inspections and tests, the contractor or fire
code official may identify fire code violations that re-
quire correction (Figure 2-6). SBC 801 requires that
the necessary corrections be performed and that the
fire code official reinspect or witness retesting of the
corrected work.

UNSAFE BUILDINGS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 110]

If a fire code official finds that a building represents a

serious fire or life safety threat as a result of a natural
or technological emergency, the lack of maintenance,
FIGURE 2-6 The fire code official is authorized to or changing its occupancy or use, SBC 801 grants
perform as many inspections as necessary to verify that
systems are properly installed and maintained. broad authority to require the corrections to bring
it into code compliance. The scope of this authority
extends to building systems or any system regulated by the fire code.
Any actions necessary to satisfy the requirements of SBC 801 that in-
volve repair or upgrades to building structural components or build-
ing demolition require the approval of the building code official. When
beginning the process of correcting unsafe buildings or conditions,
the jurisdiction must provide a written notice to the owner, tenant
or responsible party. [Ref. SBC 801 - 110.1]
 Board of Appeals    25

If the fire code official finds that the violation

constitutes a hazardous condition that presents an
imminent danger to the building occupants, the
code official is authorized to require the partial or
complete evacuation of a building and can prohibit
reentry into the building (Figure 2-7). [Ref. SBC 801
- 110.2]
Stop work order [SBC 801 - 111]
In some instances, individuals or businesses will
perform work that is regulated by SBC 801 without
obtaining required operational or construction per- FIGURE 2-7 If a building is determined to be an imminent
mits. Under certain circumstances, the continued hazard, such as this earthquake-damaged structure, the
work or operation of equipment represents danger- fire code official can require its evacuation and prohibit
re-entry.
ous conditions. In these cases, the fire code official is
authorized to issue a stop work order (Figure 2-8). A
stop work order can also be issued when an inspector
arrives to conduct a project inspection and discovers
the equipment or systems to be inspected is already
covered by subsequent construction. The stop work
order will not allow further work to continue until
the work already completed has been uncovered and
properly inspected.
When a fire code official issues a stop work order,
it must be in writing, must explain the basis for stop-
ping the work and must state the conditions under
which the cited work may resume. Unless otherwise
stipulated by the fire code official, all stop work orders FIGURE 2-8 This underground fuel storage tank was
are “immediate compliance” orders—when issued, not adequately restrained and floated above ground after
an extended rain period saturated the soil. Due to the
the activity affected by the legal order must stop im- danger of leaking fuel, the fire code official issued orders
mediately. Failing to comply with the stop work order to stop dispensing and remove the tank.
is generally treated by some jurisdictions as a viola-
tion and may be subject to fines. [Ref. SBC 801 - 111]

BOARD OF APPEALS
SBC 801 - 108
SBC 801 administrative provisions create authority and duties for
the fire code official but intend that actions in enforcing the code be
reasonable. Under the provisions of SBC 801, a property or business
owner has the right to challenge the fire code official or inspectors’
code application or interpretations. [Ref. SBC 801 - 108.1]
Any person or organization that has a material interest in the fire
code official’s decision may apply for a hearing or review to the Board
of Appeals. The jurisdiction’s governing body appoints the board
2 6    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s

members, who should qualified by experience and training to hear

and rule on interpretations issued by the fire code official. SBC 801,
Appendix A provides a model organizational structure and proce-
dural guidance to create a Board of Appeals.
SBC 801 limits the basis for appeals to matters pertaining to
code requirements. The appellant must claim the fire code official has
erred in interpreting the code or has wrongly applied a code section.
Another common basis for an appeal is to request the Board of Ap-
peals to consider alternative methods and materials [Ref. SBC 801
- 104.9] as being equivalent to the code requirements. SBC 801 does
not grant the Board of Appeals the authority to waive code require-
ments. [Ref. SBC 801 - 108.1] The Saudi Building Code National
Committee retains the right to rule on all code appeals.
 Quiz    27

QUIZ
1. A “test” is a visual check to verify the equipment or system is in
place and appears to be operational.
a. True
b. False

2. If the fire code official rejects an alternative methods or materials

proposal, the fire code official is obligated to provide the appli-
cant a written explanation.
a. True
b. False

3. The SBC 801 appendices must be adopted by the jurisdiction to

be enforceable.
a. True
b. False

4. According to SBC 801, who is the designated official responsible

for enforcing the code?
a. the Board of Code Appeals
b. the building code official
c. a deputy fire code official
d. the fire code official

5. When required by the jurisdictional laws, the construction docu-

ments must be prepared by a ____________________, such as a
licensed architect or engineer.
a. highly qualified person
b. registered design professional
c. fire code official
d. building plans examiner
2 8    C h a p t e r 2 L e g a l A s p e c t s , P e r m i t s a n d I n s p e c t i o n s
CHAPTER
Definitions
3

E
ffective SBC 801 application is enhanced when the user recog-
nizes that some of the words found within the code may not have
the same meaning as those words in day-to-day use.
For example, many people go to the market to buy a “container” of a
soft drink. In that context, one might imagine a 1- or 2-L plastic bottle.
However, in SBC 801, a container is “a vessel of 225 L or less in capacity
used for transporting or storing hazardous materials.” [Ref. SBC 801 -
202] This definition is used to differentiate it from other vessels such as
portable tanks, primary tanks, protected above-ground tanks and others.
In fact, a tank is defined as “A vessel containing more than 225 L.” [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202]
SBC 801 provides an aid to users by italicizing terms that are defined
in Chapter 2, “Definitions.” For example, SBC 801, Section 1006.3.2
describes circumstances where a single exit is permitted from any build-
ing story or occupied roof:
29
3 0    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s

1006.3.2 Single exits. A single exit or access to a single exit shall

be permitted from any story or occupied roof where one of the
following conditions exists:
1. The occupant load, number of dwelling units and exit access
travel distance do not exceed the values in Table 1006.3.2(1)
or 1006.3.2(2).

The italicized words (exit, story, occupant load, dwelling units and
exit access) have specific definitions that can be found in Chapter 2
that are applicable to the code.
The opening paragraphs of SBC 801, Chapter 2 provide additional
guidance:
“201.1 Scope. Unless otherwise expressly stated, the following
words and terms shall, for the purposes of this code, have the mean-
ings shown in this chapter.” This statement establishes the rule that
words and terms (such as accessible means of egress) found in Chapter
2 are applicable in SBC 801.
“201.2 Interchangeability. Words used in the present tense
include the future; words stated in the masculine gender include the
feminine; the singular number includes the plural and the plural, the
singular.” This statement clarifies that verb tense, gender and plural-
ity are employed generically and don’t have to be modified each time
they are used.
“201.3 Terms defined in other codes. Where terms are not
defined in this code and are defined in the SBC 201, SBC 501 or SBC
701, such terms shall have the meanings ascribed to them as in those
codes.” This statement explains that if the definitions are not found
in SBC 801, the definitions from SBC 201, SBC 501 or SBC 701 can
be used. This is an important way the SBC codes are correlated for
consistency.
“201.4 Terms not defined. Where terms are not defined
through the methods authorized by this section, such terms shall
have ordinarily accepted meanings such as the context implies.
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition, shall be consid-
ered as providing ordinarily accepted meanings.” Occasionally, topics
will arise that have words not defined in SBC codes. In those cases,
this section refers users to an easily obtained and universally accepted
source: Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 2]
While SBC 801, Chapter 2, “Definitions” comprises more than 40
SBC 801 pages, there are some definitions that are particularly im-
portant for discussion in this Guide because they can affect accurate
interpretation and application of various code sections.
Here are just a few of the definitions that are important to know.
They are not arranged in alphabetical order: most are clustered by
 I m p o r t a n t D e f i n i t i o n s    3 1

topic to help the reader grasp their interconnections. For example,

under “Means of Egress,” the three egress components (exit access, You Should
exit and exit discharge) are listed together as well as several other Know
important terms related to emergency egress. As an example of the
Some of the definitions pertain specifically to the fire code official importance of code defini-
and are essential for effective enforcement. tions, there is a difference
APPROVED. “Acceptable to the fire code official.” The fire code between an air-inflated
official is the person who is assigned to enforce the code. The fire structure and an air-sup-
code official has the authority to render decisions on what will be ported structure.
approved to comply with the code. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.7] AIR-INFLATED
CHANGE OF OCCUPANCY. “A change in the use of a building STRUCTURE. “A structure
or a portion of a building. A change of occupancy shall include any that uses air-pressurized
change of occupancy classification, any change from one group to membrane beams, arches
another group within an occupancy classification or any change or other elements to
in use within a group for a specific occupancy classification.” enclose space. Occupants
When a building’s use or occupancy changes from one group or of such a structure do not
division to another (for example, from Group B to A-2) the build- occupy the pressurized
ing official and fire code official work together to ensure the new areas used to support the
occupancy complies with the requirements of the Saudi construc- structure.”
tion codes. [Ref. SBC 801 - 102.3] AIR-SUPPORTED
FIRE CHIEF. “The chief officer of the fire department (Civil STRUCTURE. “A structure
Defense) serving the jurisdiction, or a duly authorized represen- wherein the shape of the
tative.” The fire chief is responsible for Civil Defense overall com- structure is attained by air
mand and is the person who appoints the fire code official. [Ref. pressure, and occupants of
SBC 801 - 103.2] the structure are within the
FIRE CODE OFFICIAL. “The fire chief or other designated elevated pressure area. Air
authority charged with the administration and enforcement supported structures are of
of the code, or a duly authorized representative.” The fire code two basic types:
official has the authority to review and approve plans for new “Double skin. Similar to
construction and remodeling, conduct inspections and investi- a single skin, but with an
gations, issue permits, render code interpretations, and adopt attached liner that is sepa-
policies, procedures and regulations to support the intent and rated from the outer skin
purpose of the code. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.1] The fire code official and provides an airspace
also may assign deputies, technical officers, inspectors and other which serves for insulation,
employees to aid in code enforcement. [Ref. SBC 801 - 103.3] acoustic, aesthetic or simi-
LISTED. “Equipment, materials, products or services included lar purposes.
in a list published by an organization acceptable to the fire code “Single skin. Where there
official and concerned with evaluation of products or services that is only the single outer
maintains periodic inspection of production of listed equipment skin and the air pressure is
or materials or periodic evaluation of services and whose listing directly against that skin.” l
states either that the equipment, material, product or service
meets identified standards or has been tested and found suitable
for a specified purpose.” From time to time, the fire code official
may be asked to approve a new product or material. Unless the
fire code official is an expert in that item, he may have to rely
on others to evaluate its reliability before it can be approved
for use or installation. That evaluation may be conducted by
3 2    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s

an independent, third-party testing agency. Two well-known

organizations that will test and evaluate products, equipment
and other elements for fire safety are UL (formerly known as
Underwriters Laboratories), and CE (the European Union’s
Conformité Européenne). When either certifies that a product
meets its design and safety standards, the items are added to a
list where the building official and fire code official can review it
to decide if it should be approved. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
LABELED. “Equipment, materials or products to which have
been affixed a label, seal, symbol or other identifying mark of
a nationally recognized testing laboratory, approved agency
FIGURE 3-1  Sample third-party
certification label or other organization concerned with product evaluation that
maintains periodic inspection of the production of the labeled
items and whose labeling indicates either that the equipment,
material or product meets identified standards or has been tested
and found suitable for a specified purpose.” Many products are
labeled to show they meet the design and safety standards of
those testing agencies (Figure 3-1). [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
PERMIT. “An official document or certificate issued by the fire
code official that authorizes performance of a specified activity.”
A permit is a method the fire code official can use to regulate the
use, occupancy, storage, handling and transportation of a vari-
ety of hazards or activities. In some ways a permit is considered
approval to allow a hazardous condition to exist within the safety
rules, regulations and guidance included in SBC 801.

The fire code official is authorized to issue permits for construction,

including the installation of fire protection systems and equipment, as
well as ongoing operations such as the use of a building or space for
a place of public assembly, the storage and use of pyrotechnic articles,
and the storage and dispensing of liquid and gaseous fuels into motor
vehicles. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105]
While the building official is the person designated to establish a
building’s occupancy classification, there may be times when the fire
code official is asked to consult on the decision. Further, once a build-
ing has been authorized for use, the fire code official or his deputies
may conduct periodic fire safety inspections to confirm compliance
with SBC 801. In those instances, the fire safety inspector must be
aware of the varying uses and conditions that exist in buildings that
affect occupancy classification. Therefore, many of these definitions
are copied from the Saudi Building Code to ensure consistency in code
interpretation and application.
Here, for example, are a few definitions that apply to Group R
(Residential) occupancies. These occupancies apply to a broad range
of uses where people live, visit, sleep, eat or cook. There are four
categories of Group R occupancies, differentiated by how the build-
ings are used. The definitions that follow help the code official dif-
ferentiate among them. While some of the terms may seem to have
 I m p o r t a n t D e f i n i t i o n s    3 3

subtle differences (sleeping unit or dwelling unit), their accurate use

establishes life safety and fire protection requirements appropriate
to the buildings’ use and occupancy.
DWELLING UNIT. “A single unit providing complete, inde-
pendent living facilities for one or more persons, including
permanent provisions for living, sleeping, eating, cooking and
sanitation.” A dwelling unit most nearly represents an individual
or family home, apartment, flat, condominium or similar use. It
is intended to describe complete living facilities for long-term
occupants.
SLEEPING UNIT. “A room or space in which people sleep, which
can also include permanent provisions for living, eating, and
either sanitation or kitchen facilities but not both. Such rooms
and spaces that are also part of a dwelling unit are not sleeping
units.” Different from a dwelling unit, a sleeping unit has fewer fea-
tures. Notably, it can have either sanitation or kitchen facilities,
but not both. Hotel, motel and other transient facilities are most
nearly sleeping units (Figure 3-2).
TRANSIENT. “Occupancy of a dwelling unit or sleeping unit for
not more than 30 days.” Transient is defined to clarify the differ-
ence between long-term and short-term stays. The code assumes
that the longer a person stays in a Group R occupancy, the more
familiar he will be with its life safety and emergency features
and thus will be more capable of self-preservation (being able to
escape an emergency without hindrance).
DORMITORY. “A space in a building where group sleeping
accommodations are provided in one room, or in a series of
closely associated rooms, for persons not members of the same FIGURE 3-2 Hotel
family group, under joint occupancy and single management, as
in college dormitories.” Colleges and universities are good exam-
ples of dormitory living, but not the only ones. Youth hostels,
private primary, intermediate and secondary schools, and even
military barracks may occur in this category (Figure 3-3). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202]
The following definitions are among those that help the building of-
ficial and fire code official understand the variety of living and care
conditions that may exist in these occupancies.
INCAPABLE OF SELF-PRESERVATION. “Persons
who, because of age, physical limitations, mental limi-
tations, chemical dependency or medical treatment,
cannot respond as an individual to an emergency
situation.” Many Group I (Institutional) occupancies
are facilities where occupants cannot escape a fire or
other emergency on their own. Hospitals, nursing care,
rehabilitative facilities, prisons, psychiatric hospitals
and others have occupants who may be restrained, be
under intense medical care, be unable to walk without
assistance or have other limitations. In those cases, FIGURE 3-3 Dormitory
3 4    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s

life safety and fire protection strategies, including early

fire detection, protect the occupants where they are and
sometimes include special assistance to help them evacuate
or relocate within a building (Figure 3-4). [Ref. SBC 801 -
202]
HOSPITALS AND PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS. “Facilities
that provide care or treatment for the medical, psychiatric,
obstetrical, or surgical treatment of inpatient care recipi-
ents that are incapable of self-preservation” (Figure 3-4).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
FIGURE 3-4 Hospital
AMBULATORY CARE FACILITY. “Buildings or portions
thereof used to provide medical, surgical, psychiatric, nursing
or similar care on a less-than-24-hour basis to persons who are
rendered incapable of self-preservation by the services provided.”
Outpatient day surgery, sedation dentistry, physical rehabili-
tative centers, dialysis centers and similar uses may not keep
patients overnight, but the nature of their treatment limits their
ability to self-evacuate. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
CUSTODIAL CARE. “Assistance with day-to-day living tasks;
such as assistance with cooking, taking medication, bathing,
using toilet facilities and other tasks of daily living. Custodial care
includes persons receiving care who have the ability to respond
to emergency situations and evacuate at a slower rate and/or
who have mental and psychiatric complications.” [Ref. SBC 801
- 202]
CARE SUITE. “In Group I-2 occupancies [hospitals, nursing
homes and psychiatric hospitals], a group of treatment rooms,
care recipient sleeping rooms and the support rooms or spaces
and circulation space within the suite where staff are in atten-
dance for supervision of all care recipients within the suite,
and the suite is in compliance with the requirements of Section
407.4.4 of SBC 201.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
NURSING HOMES. “Facilities that provide care, including both
intermediate care facilities and skilled nursing facilities, where
any of the persons are incapable of self-preservation.” [Ref. SBC
801 - 202]
Several definitions affect how a building is constructed for use, fire-
resistive integrity, and how an inhabited building is provided with
automatic and manual fire protection.
INHABITED BUILDING. “A building regularly occupied in
whole or in part as a habitation for people, Mosques, school-
house, railroad station, store or other structure where people are
accustomed to assemble, except any building or structure occu-
pied in connection with the manufacture, transportation, storage
or use of explosive materials.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
STORY. “That portion of a building included between the upper
surface of a floor and the upper surface of the floor or roof next
 I m p o r t a n t D e f i n i t i o n s    3 5

above (see basement, building height, grade plane and mezzanine). A

story is measured as the vertical distance from top to top of two
successive tiers of beams or finished floor surfaces and, for the
topmost story, from the top of the floor finish to the top of the
ceiling joists or, where there is not a ceiling, to the top of the roof
rafters.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] As modern construction strives to
build higher and higher, the number of stories becomes increas-
ingly relevant to establishing requirements regarding life safety,
fire protection and emergency access. For other than Types I and
II construction, SBC 201 limits the height of buildings by the
number of stories, height in meters and occupancy.
STORY ABOVE GRADE PLANE. “Any story having its finished
floor surface entirely above grade plane, or in which the finished
surface of the floor next above is:
“1. More than 1800 mm above grade plane; or
“2. More than 3600 mm above the finished ground level at any
point.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
This definition guides the code official to be able to interpret
the difference between basements and stories. Grade plane is a
reference point from which story heights are measured. On flat
ground, the grade plane likely is the finished ground level, but
on hillsides or other slopes, the grade plane may be different.
This may be important to the fire chief or fire code official for
determining fire apparatus access, but it also affects other por-
tions of SBC 801 where basement storage of hazardous materials
may be prohibited [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.3.5.1] or have special
requirements such as automatic fire sprinklers. [Ref. SBC 801 -
903.2.11.1]
AREA, BUILDING. “The area included within surrounding
exterior walls (or exterior walls and fire walls) exclusive of vent
shafts and courts. Areas of the building not provided with sur-
rounding walls shall be included in the building area if such areas
are included within the horizontal projection of the roof or floor
above. (See also “Fire Area”)” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
A clear comprehension of building area has important consequences
(Figure 3-5). Not only must the building official verify that a project’s
area and height are within Saudi Building Code limits, but
the space under “horizontal projections” is important to the
fire code official when calculating a building’s size for fire flow
purposes. [Ref. SBC 801 - Appendix B102.1, B104.1]
Often, flammable or combustible materials are stored out-
doors under building eaves, canopies or other projections,
so these areas need to be included in the fire flow calculation
area to verify there is an adequate water supply to control
and suppress a fire. [Ref. SBC 801 - Appendix B102.1]

FIGURE 3-5  These balconies are examples of

projections.
3 6    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s

ATRIUM. “An opening connecting two or more sto-

ries other than enclosed stairways, elevators, hoist-
ways, escalators, plumbing, electrical, air conditioning or
other equipment, which is closed at the top and not
defined as a mall. Stories, as used in this definition,
do not include balconies within assembly groups or
mezzanines that comply with Section 505 of the SBC 201.”
Atriums are a popular design feature to enhance a building’s
interior visual impact, but their geometry influences fire
safety issues, smoke control and fire suppression (Figure
3-6). [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
FIGURE 3-6 Atrium FIRE AREA. “The aggregate floor area enclosed and
bounded by fire walls, fire barriers, exterior walls or hori-
zontal assemblies of a building. Areas of the building not provided
with surrounding walls shall be included in the fire area if such areas
are included within the horizontal projection of the roof or floor next
above.” This definition is significant for the application of SBC 801
fire sprinkler requirements. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
In Chapter 10, “Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems,” you will learn
that built-in fire protection is required for many occupancy types
regardless of their size (Groups H and R, for example), but in other
occupancies, sprinklers may be omitted if the building is separated
into smaller fire areas by fire-resistive construction. [Ref. SBC 801
- 903.2]
FIRE BARRIER. “A fire-resistance-rated wall assembly of mate-
rials designed to restrict the spread of fire in which continuity
is maintained.” Fire barriers are commonly used for separating
occupancy types, shaft construction, exit access stairways, haz-
ardous material control areas and fire areas. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
FIRE PARTITION. “A vertical assembly of materials designed to
restrict the spread of fire in which openings are protected.” Fire
partitions are used to separate tenant spaces in covered and open
mall buildings, to create elevator lobbies, and to protect exterior
exit balconies and corridors. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
FIRE WALL. “A fire-resistance-rated wall having protected open-
ings, which restricts the spread of fire and extends continuously
from the foundation to or through the roof, with sufficient struc-
tural stability under fire conditions to allow collapse of construc-
tion on either side without collapse of the wall.” Fire walls are
used to keep building footprints within the area allowed by SBC
201 and to separate different types of construction. [Ref. SBC
801 - 202]
Building and fire safety codes have always had an important life safety
strategy: when building occupants are endangered by fire, smoke, ex-
plosion, hazardous material releases, terrorist attacks, earthquakes
or other natural or technological threats, move them quickly away
from the hazard. Increasing the distance between people and these
 I m p o r t a n t D e f i n i t i o n s    3 7

dangers increases the likelihood they will survive. This is accom-

plished in building and fire safety codes by obvious, clearly marked
and well-protected means of egress. These exit systems consist of a
variety of elements, each having definitions to clarify their use.
MEANS OF EGRESS. “A continuous and unobstructed path of
vertical and horizontal egress travel from any occupied portion
of a building or structure to a public way. A means
of egress consists of three separate and distinct
parts: the exit access, the exit and the exit dis-
charge.” Note that the exit system – the means of
egress – consists of three separate, clearly identi-
fied and defined elements: the exit access, the exit
and the exit discharge. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
EXIT ACCESS. “That portion of a means of egress
system that leads from any occupied portion of a
building or structure to an exit.” The exit access
consists of many parts: aisles, corridors, stairs,
ramps and other features. The exit access includes
rooms that are normally occupied. Chapter 13
will cover all of these terms in more detail, but for FIGURE 3-7 The exit access is that part of the means of
now realize that where you are sitting as you read egress that leads to an exit.
this is part of the exit access (Figure 3-7). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202]
CORRIDOR. “An enclosed exit access component that defines
and provides a path of egress travel.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
EXIT PASSAGEWAY. “An exit component that is separated from
other interior spaces of a building or structure by fire-resistance-
rated construction and opening protectives and
provides for a protected path of egress travel in a
horizontal direction to the exit discharge.” [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202]
EXIT. “That portion of a means of egress system
between the exit access and the exit discharge or
public way. Exit components include exterior exit
doors at the level of exit discharge, interior exit
stairways and ramps, exit passageways, exterior
exit stairways and ramps and horizontal exits.”
Once an occupant enters an exit, travel distance
no longer is considered because of the protection
FIGURE 3-8 The exit is that portion of an egress system
level (1- or 2-hour, or smoke-protected) provided between the exit access and exit discharge.
by the exit’s construction (Figure 3-8). [Ref. SBC
801 - 202]
3 8    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s

EXIT DISCHARGE. “That portion of a means of egress

system between the termination of an exit and a public
way.” The exit discharge is located at grade or must pro-
vide a direct path of egress to grade. The exit discharge
Alley

may not reenter the building (Figure 3-9). [Ref. SBC

801 - 202, 1028.1]
EXIT DISCHARGE, LEVEL OF. “The story at the
point at which an exit terminates and an exit discharge
begins.” This definition has an impact on a number of
Street
fire safety requirements, including automatic sprinkler
Shaded area = Exit Discharge
protection, fire detection and alarm, emergency plan-
FIGURE 3-9 The exit discharge leads from an exit to ning and evacuation development and execution. [Ref.
a public way.
SBC 801 - 202]
PUBLIC WAY. “A street, alley or other parcel of land open to the
outside air leading to a street, that has been deeded, dedicated
or otherwise permanently appropriated to the public for pub-
lic use and which has a clear width and height of not less than
3000 mm.” The public way provides a location where evacuees
can get away from the building and products of combustion.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
A substantial portion of SBC 801 is dedicated to the control of haz-
ardous materials to prevent fires, explosions, human injury or death,
container failures, leaks and subsequent air, water or soil damage.
Chapter 17 of this Guide will introduce you to the complex rules and
regulations associated with hazardous materials.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS. “Those chemicals or substances
which are physical hazards or health hazards as defined and classi-
fied in this chapter, whether the materials are in usable or waste
condition.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
Note that SBC 801 (as well as SBC 201) classify hazardous materials
into two major categories:
PHYSICAL HAZARD. “A chemical for which there is evidence
that it is a combustible liquid, cryogenic fluid, explosive, flam-
mable (solid, liquid or gas), organic peroxide (solid or liquid),
oxidizer (solid or liquid), oxidizing gas, pyrophoric (solid, liq-
uid or gas), unstable (reactive) material (solid, liquid or gas)
or water-reactive material (solid or liquid).” [Ref. SBC 801
- 202]
HEALTH HAZARD. “A classification of a chemical for which
there is statistically significant evidence that acute or chronic
health effects are capable of occurring in exposed persons. The
term “health hazard” includes chemicals that are toxic, highly
toxic and corrosive.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
Both SBC 201 and SBC 801 recognize that business and industry
often need a certain amount of physical and health hazard materials
to operate on a day-to-day basis. As long as these quantities remain
small and in accordance with general safety practices, there may
be little threat to people or the environment. As commerce grows,
 I m p o r t a n t D e f i n i t i o n s    3 9

however, the demand for hazardous materials may increase to where

they now are considered a greater hazard to users and the public. To
address this growth without imposing unreasonable requirements
on commerce, SBC 201 and SBC 801 allow the construction of indoor
and outdoor facilities known as control areas.
CONTROL AREA. “Spaces within a building where quantities of
hazardous materials not exceeding the maximum allowable quan-
tities per control area are stored, dispensed, used or handled. See
also the definition of ‘Outdoor control area.’” Control areas must
be separated from other spaces by fire-resistive construction.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
SBC 201 and SBC 801 employ limits on the type and amount of haz-
ardous materials within each control area. These limits are known as
MAQs or maximum allowable quantity per control area.
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE QUANTITY PER CONTROL AREA.
“The maximum amount of a hazardous material allowed to be
stored or used within a control area inside a building or an out-
door control area. The maximum allowable quantity per control
area is based on the material state (solid, liquid or gas) and the
material storage or use conditions.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] You
will learn in Chapter 17 that once a property exceeds a certain
amount of materials and control areas, it will have to be reclassi-
fied as a Group H (Hazardous) occupancy. This designation has
significant impacts on building design and construction.
Within each control area, the environment in which hazardous
materials occur is an important factor in how they are regulated.
It is essential that the building official and fire code official under-
stand these terms because they affect MAQs and other safety
features.
CLOSED SYSTEM. “The use of a solid or liquid hazard-
ous material involving a closed vessel or system that
remains closed during normal operations where vapors
emitted by the product are not liberated outside of the
vessel or system and the product is not exposed to the
atmosphere during normal operations; and all uses of
compressed gases. Examples of closed systems for solids
and liquids include product conveyed through a piping
system into a closed vessel, system or piece of equip-
ment.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] FIGURE 3-10 Distribution networks at petroleum
refineries or similar facilities are examples of
OPEN SYSTEM. “The use of a solid or liquid hazard- closed systems.
ous material involving a vessel or system that is con-
tinuously open to the atmosphere during normal operations and
where vapors are liberated, or the product is exposed to the atmo-
sphere during normal operations. Examples of open systems for
solids and liquids include dispensing from or into open beakers
or containers, dip tank and plating tank operations.” [Ref. SBC
801 - 202]
4 0    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s
You Should
Know
SBC 801 has separate defi-
nitions for aircraft, auto-
motive and marine fueling
services:
AIRCRAFT MOTOR-
VEHICLE FUEL-
DISPENSING FACILITY.
“That portion of property
where flammable or com-
bustible liquids or gases
used as motor fuels are
stored and dispensed from
fixed automotive-type
equipment into the fuel
tanks of aircraft.”
AUTOMOTIVE MOTOR
FUEL-DISPENSING
FACILITY. “That portion of
property where flammable
or combustible liquids or
gases used as motor fuels
are stored and dispensed
from fixed equipment into
the fuel tanks of motor
vehicles. Also known as
a ‘petroleum vehicle sta-
tion’.”
MARINE MOTOR FUEL-
DISPENSING FACILITY.
“That portion of property
where flammable or com-
bustible liquids or gases
used as fuel for watercraft
are stored and dispensed
from fixed equipment on
shore, piers, wharves, floats
or barges into the fuel tanks
of watercraft and shall
include all other facilities
used in connection there-
with.” l
STORAGE, HAZARDOUS MATERIALS. “The keeping, reten-
tion or leaving of hazardous materials in closed containers,
tanks, cylinders, or similar vessels; or vessels supplying opera-
tions through closed connections to the vessel.” [Ref. SBC 801
- 202]
USE (MATERIAL). “Placing a material into action, including
solids, liquids and gases.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
DISPENSING. “The pouring or transferring of any material from
a container, tank or similar vessel, whereby vapors, dusts, fumes,
mists or gases are liberated to the atmosphere.” [Ref. SBC 801
- 202]
HANDLING. “The deliberate transport by any means to a point
of storage or use.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
An important preliminary step for accurate hazardous material
regulation is classifying the products or materials into one or more
hazard classifications. Once the materials are classified, the fire code
official can find the SBC 801 requirements that pertain. Some of the
more common products we will cover in this Guide are:
FLAMMABLE LIQUID. “A liquid having a closed cup flash point
below 38°C. Flammable liquids are further categorized into a
group known as Class I liquids. The Class I category is subdivided
as follows:
“Class IA. Liquids having a flash point below 23°C and having
a boiling point below 38°C.
“Class IB. Liquids having a flash point below 23°C and having
a boiling point at or above 38°C.
“Class IC. Liquids having a flash point at or above 23°C and
below 38°C.
“The category of flammable liquids does not include compressed
gases or cryogenic fluids.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID. “A liquid having a closed cup flash
point at or above 38°C.
Combustible liquids shall be subdivided as follows:
“Class II. Liquids having a closed cup flash point at or above
38°C and below 60°C.
“Class IIIA. Liquids having a closed cup flash point at or above
60°C and below 93°C.
“Class IIIB. Liquids having closed cup flash points at or above
93°C.
“The category of combustible liquids does not include com-
pressed gases or cryogenic fluids.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LP-gas). “A material which
is composed predominantly of the following hydrocarbons or
mixtures of them: propane, propylene, butane (normal butane or
isobutane) and butylenes.”
A growing development market sector occurs in storage and ware-
house occupancies. As goods move through the global economy, they
 I m p o r t a n t D e f i n i t i o n s    4 1

often must be staged at one or more locations before reaching their

destination. Storage facilities, whose floor are can reach thousands
of square meters and heights more than 30 m, provide a significant
fire challenge. To address these large-scale operations, SBC 801 has
requirements for:
HIGH-PILED COMBUSTIBLE STORAGE.
“Storage of combustible materials in closely packed
piles or combustible materials on pallets, in racks or
on shelves where the top of storage is greater than
3600 mm in height. Where required by the fire code
official, high-piled combustible storage also includes
certain high-hazard commodities, such as rubber
tires, Group A plastics, flammable liquids, idle pal-
lets and similar commodities, where the top of stor-
age is greater than 1800 mm in height.” [Ref. SBC
801 - 202] FIGURE 3-11 Rack storage is just one method for
Specific requirements for life safety and fire protection high-piled storage.
in these occupancies is based on several other defini-
tions, including:
HIGH-PILED STORAGE AREA. “An area within a building
which is designated, intended, proposed or actually used for high-
piled combustible storage.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
COMMODITY. “A combination of products, packing materials
and containers.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
ARRAY. “The configuration of storage. Characteristics consid-
ered in defining an array include the type of packaging, flue
spaces, height of storage and compactness of storage.” [Ref. SBC
801 - 202]
ARRAY, CLOSED. “A storage configuration having a 150 mm
or smaller width vertical flue space that restricts air movement
through the stored commodity.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
Finally, there are terms defined in SBC 801 pertaining specifically to
Civil Defense fire fighting needs:
FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS ROAD. “A road that provides fire
apparatus access from a fire station to a facility, building or por-
tion thereof. This is a general term inclusive of all other terms
such as fire lane, public street, private street, parking lot lane and
access roadway.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
CIVIL DEFENSE MASTER KEY. “A limited issue key of special
or controlled design to be carried by Civil Defense officials in
command which will open key boxes on specified properties. See
also Fire department (Civil Defense) master key.” [Ref. SBC 801 -
202]
During day-to-day operations and training, many questions will arise
about the nature and intent of SBC 801 and how it is to be applied.
Often, the answer can be found in the definitions, so you should be
comfortable referring to them as often as needed.
4 2    C h a p t e r 3 D e f i n i t i o n s

QUIZ

1. A liquid having a closed-cup flash point at or above 38°C and

below 60°C is classified as a ____________ liquid.
a. IA
b. IB
c. IC
d. IIA

2. “Placing a material into action, including solids, liquids and gases”

best describes hazardous material _________________.
a. handling
b. use
c. transportation
d. storage

3. Which of the following is not part of the means of egress system?

a. sheltered canopy
b. exit access
c. exit
d. exit discharge

4. Which of the following is the approving official for SBC 801?

a. manufacturer
b. installer
c. testing laboratory
d. fire code official

5. “A room or space in which people sleep, which can also include

permanent provisions for living, eating, and either sanitation or
kitchen facilities but not both” best defines a ______________.
a. place of assembly
b. sleeping unit
c. dwelling unit
d. dormitory
PART
General Safety
II Requirements

Chapter 4: General Precautions against

Fire
Chapter 5: Emergency Planning and
Preparedness

43
 CHAPTER
General Precautions
4 against Fire

S
BC 801 general safety requirements were developed to control a
wide variety of fire safety concerns that are common to nearly all
occupancies and may not need additional clarification or the level
of detail that might be found in other chapters that address specific haz-
ards. These include waste combustible material controls, basic measures
to prevent hot work, open flame devices and other intentional fires from
spreading, protections for equipment and vehicles that use gas or liquid
fuels, and several precautions for fire fighter safety.
Chapter 4 of this Guide addresses combustible waste materials (such
as wood, cotton, straw, hay, paper and plastics) and ignition sources.
Ignition sources include mechanical, chemical, electrical or optical ener-
gy that can generate enough sustained heat energy to ignite combustible
materials. Chapter 4 also covers fire safety issues that occur with fueled
equipment such as powered industrial trucks, waste burning operations
and smoking.

44
44
 C o m b u s t i b l e M a t e r i a l s    4 5

Buildings that have been abandoned or unattended—called

vacant premises—can be a major municipal fire hazard because if You Should
they are not adequately secured from unauthorized entry, they may Know
be used for criminal activity or as illegal and substandard housing. Powered industrial trucks
SBC 801 provides guidance on how to secure these buildings from include forklifts, tractors,
unlawful entry. platform lifts or motor-
“Fueled equipment” includes motorcycles, mopeds, landscape- ized trucks powered by an
electrical motor or internal
care equipment, floor-care apparatus and portable cooking appli-
combustion engine. Fuels
ances. Fueled equipment can be found in a variety of buildings and
can include LP-gas, diesel
work sites. The equipment represents a fire hazard because of their
and gasoline. l
volatile fuels and their common indoor use. Chapter 4 also contains
requirements addressing hazards to fire fighters and fire-fighting
operations to prevent falls and injuries.

COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 3]
Combustible materials are natural or synthetic materials that can
be ignited and support combustion. Materials regulated by SBC
801, Chapter 3 generally are organic materials such as sawn wood,
dimensional lumber, waste paper or cardboard and baled cotton,
straw, hay or paper. Synthetic materials may include plastics, fabrics
or composite materials. Combustible materials in the context of this
chapter and SBC 801, Chapter 3 are not combustible metals or flam-
mable solids—these are hazardous materials regulated by other fire
code provisions. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5901]
Combustible materials are solids and have varying sizes and den-
sities. Materials that are less dense (such as cork or balsa wood) are
described as “thermally thin” and are easily ignited. Denser materials
(oak and ebony) are “thermally thick” and are ignition-resistant to
all but the most energetic heat sources. The combustible materials’
orientation, the ignition sources’ intensity and duration, and other
variables can influence the combustible materials’ ignition.
SBC 801 recognizes that combustible materials are an important
part of business and industry for operations, production, packag-
ing and shipping. The combustible material requirements in SBC
801, Chapter 3 emphasize that the materials should be stored in an
orderly fashion, keeping combustibles away from ignition sources. If
the storage is indoors, combustibles must be kept away from means
of egress components and concealed spaces, where they could accel-
erate the rate at which an unwanted fire spreads. Outdoor storage
must be kept away from exposures and property lines to prevent fire
spread beyond its origin.
Indoor storage must be kept at least 600 mm from the ceiling in
buildings that do not have automatic sprinkler systems, and at least
450 mm beneath sprinkler deflectors. These dimensions exist to
4 6    C h a p t e r 4 G e n e r a l P r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t F i r e
FIGURE 4-1  The accumulation
of combustible materials beneath
stairs increases fire threats.
Code
Essentials
SBC 801 requirements
for combustible materi-
als depend on whether
the material is used as a
material or goods or if it is
waste material.
Combustible material must
be stored in an orderly
manner, away from ignition
sources and in locations
that do not disrupt the
means of egress.
Combustible waste must
be located in approved
waste receptacles. SBC 801
has specific requirements
for dumpsters located
indoors and ­o utdoors. l
enable fire fighters to project hose streams over the top of storage,
and for operating sprinklers to fully develop their spray pattern.
Orderly storage can slow fire spread, which benefits fire fighters in
the event that the materials are ignited (Figure 4-1). [Ref. SBC 801
- 315]
Fire code officials should understand that many combustible
materials are stored in piles, on pallets or on racks more than
3600 mm in height. Storage at this height creates the potential
for fires that will exhibit a much faster growth rate and spread
compared to the same materials stored at or near the floor level
and are outside the scope of SBC 801, Chapter 3. High-piled com-
bustible storage can be found in many warehouses and mercantile
occupancies and is required to comply with the requirements in
SBC 801, Chapter 32. Chapter 15 in this Guide introduces the
reader to the hazards of high-piled combustible storage.
Combustible waste [Ref. SBC 801 - 304]
When combustible materials no longer are in use and are discarded
as waste or rubbish SBC 801 takes a more restrictive approach: the
materials must be removed from the premises and disposed in a
controlled manner. For most combustible wastes, SBC 801 requires
that they be placed in noncombustible (metal) waste containers
or plastic containers formulated from chemicals that reduce the
amount of heat they release if ignited. [Ref. SBC 801 - 304.3.2]
When materials are placed in bulk trash receptacles more than
1.15 m3 (often called dumpsters), SBC 801 requires they be located
at least 1500 mm from combustible construction, wall openings and
combustible roof eaves (Figure 4-2). [Ref. SBC 801 - 304.3.3]
FIGURE 4-2  Waste containers more than 1.15 m3 must be kept at least 1500 mm
from combustible construction.
 I g n i t i o n S o u r c e s    4 7

In some circumstances it is common to place these bulk contain-

ers indoors. The room housing the bulk container is required to be
protected by an automatic sprinkler system. [Ref. SBC 801 - 304.3.3
Exception 1] Sprinkler protection is not required when the dump-
ster is located in a noncombustible, fire-resistive building, is at least
3000 mm from other buildings and is used exclusively for dumpster
or trash container storage. [Ref. SBC 801 - 304.3.3 Exception 2]
Indoor displays of goods, vehicles or exhibitions must be located
and arranged so they are not an obstruction of the means of egress.
SBC 801 prohibits the indoor display of fireworks, flammable and
combustible liquids, liquefied compressed flammable gases, oxidiz-
ers, agricultural goods and pyroxylin plastics in malls and exit access
corridors or within 1500 mm of any means of egress opening if the
fire code official believes a fire could prevent or otherwise obstruct
egress. [Ref. SBC 801 - 314.3]

IGNITION SOURCES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 305, 605, 3501]
SBC 801 has several chapters that address ignition controls, includ-
ing specific requirements for electrical equipment and hot work
involving grinding, brazing, oxygen-acetylene or heliarc cutting and
welding. [Ref. SBC 801 - 605, 3501]
SBC 801, Chapter 3 contains general requirements to address
separating combustible materials from equipment and open flames.
The provisions require adequate distances between open flames and
combustible materials, open-flame warning devices such as road
flares and negligent combustible vegetation and rubbish fires. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 305] Cooking, decoration, theatrical or construction
activities are regulated elsewhere in Chapter 3.
SBC 801, Section 305.5 provides an overall requirement for igni-
tion control and unwanted fires. This section states that when acts
or processes have repeatedly caused fires, the fire cause must be
modified to prevent future fires. For example, if the fire code offi-
cial determines that routine waste disposal fires result in repeated
unwanted fires the fire code official can order an alternative method
for rubbish and waste disposal. [Ref. SBC 801 - 305.5]
4 8    C h a p t e r 4 G e n e r a l P r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t F i r e

FIGURE 4-3 No Smoking signs
should be posted where fire safety
is a concern.
SMOKING
[Ref. SBC 801 - 310.3]
The careless disposal of smoking materials is a common fire cause.
When a conventional cigarette burns, the burning tip reaches a tem-
perature of about 900°C. Although electronic cigarettes do not share
traditional cigarettes’ operating temperatures, their lithium-ion bat-
teries are known to cause fire temperatures in excess of 538°C. These
temperatures are hot enough to ignite many thermally thin com-
bustible materials or volatile flammable liquids and gases. SBC 801,
Section 310.2 prohibits smoking where hazardous conditions exist.
The fire code official is authorized to post “No Smoking” signs
wherever smoking is prohibited (Figure 4-3).
The “No Smoking” signs must not be obscured, defaced, removed,
mutilated or otherwise damaged. [Ref. SBC 801 - 310.3]
Where smoking is permitted, ashtrays and match receivers are
to be placed on all tables and other locations where they can be used
easily.

OPEN FLAMES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 308]

SBC 801 allows open flames for theatrical performances, food prepa-
ration, religious ceremonies, decoration and paint removal. Open
flames are prohibited in sleeping units of Group R-2 dormitories and
for cooking on Group R-1 and R-2 combustible balconies unless the
balconies are protected by an automatic sprinkler system (Figure
4-4).
Under very limited conditions, open flames are permitted in
Group A occupancies. SBC 801 requires an operational permit for
using open flames in assembly areas. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.6.34]
When open flames are used for decorations, the fuel source cannot be
liquefied petroleum gas or a liquid with a flash point
temperature less than 60°C.
If the device contains more than 235 mL of fuel,
it must be designed to be self-extinguishing and have
a limited rate of fuel release if it is tipped over. The
decorative flame source must be adequately secured
and located so it is not an ignition source of interior
finishes such as shades or curtains. [Ref. SBC 801 -
308.3.1]
Open flames often are used in table-side food
and beverage preparation. These activities commonly
occur in assembly occupancies such as restaurants and
FIGURE 4-4 Open-flame devices are prohibited on
nightclubs. Using open flames in spaces with a large
Group R-1 and R-2 combustible balconies unless the occupant load requires close supervision and detailed
space is protected by sprinklers. regulations.
 F i r e F i g h t e r T h r e a t s a n d Va c a n t B u i l d i n g s    4 9

SBC 801 limits the volume of liquid that can be dispensed to 30

mL or less per serving and limits the container volume to 900 mL.
The activity must have a controlled flame height and is limited to the
immediate area where the food is prepared for consumers. Flaming
foods and beverages may not be carried through the restaurant or
nightclub. The person who prepares the flaming food or beverage
is required to have a wet cloth towel to extinguish the flame in the
event of an emergency (Figure 4-5). [Ref. SBC 801 - 308.1.8.5]

FIRE FIGHTER THREATS AND VACANT

BUILDINGS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 316]
Each year, many fire fighters are hurt or killed during fire-fighting
operations. To help to limit these tragedies, SBC 801 addresses some
potential hazards inside buildings and on their roofs. Doors provid- FIGURE 4-5 Open flames in
ing access to shaftways must be identified where there is no landing places of assembly require extra
on the opposite side of the door. Trapdoors to basements or scuttle care to protect patrons.
covers need to be closed when not in use. Rooftop
obstructions that could trip or entangle a fire fighter
need to be protected (Figure 4-6). [Ref. SBC 801
- 316]
Vacant buildings can present a significant fire
threat to a community. These temporarily unoccupied
or abandoned buildings can be used by unauthorized
persons for housing or illegal activities. The building
may be vandalized by theft of plumbing and electri-
cal components manufactured from copper, brass or
other valuable materials. Thieves may open floors,
walls and shafts to remove these building materials,
weakening its structural integrity, creating vertical
paths for fire spread and causing potential fire fighter FIGURE 4-6 Rooftop obstructions, such as wires
supporting antennas, create a dangerous tripping
pitfalls. To limit the risk of unwanted fires, SBC 801 hazard to fire fighters.
has requirements for fire safety in vacant buildings.
Buildings that are vacated must be secured from
unlawful entry by being boarded, locked, blocked or
otherwise protected to prevent entry. Rubbish and
other waste materials must be removed. If the build-
ing is to be reoccupied, it must comply with SBC 201
General Building Code, SBC 801 and perhaps SBC 901
Existing Buildings Code (Figure 4-7). [Ref. SBC 801 -
311.1.1]
Safeguarding a building requires that openings
into the structure, such as doors and windows, are
protected from unauthorized entry.
FIGURE 4-7 Vacant buildings must be secured to limit
access by unwanted persons.
5 0    C h a p t e r 4 G e n e r a l P r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t F i r e
FIGURE 4-8 Dangerous buildings should be
placarded to warn fire fighters.
Date of Placard Application _________
Time ________
Inspector ___________________
Known Hazard(s):
R/O
Inspection Date(s):
DO NOT REMOVE, ALTER, OR COVER THIS PLACARD
24″
FIGURE 4-9 "Do Not Enter" warning placard example
FIGURE 4-10 Vehicles displayed indoors must have
secure fuel fill openings and limited fuel supplies.
Whenever possible, fire protection systems should
be maintained in service; however, this can be diffi-
cult, especially in hot, humid environments that can
cause corrosion in electronic components installed in
fire alarm control units and smoke detectors. In these
cases, the fire code official can allow the system to
be disabled, provided that combustible materials and
hazardous materials are removed and the building
does not represent a fire hazard. In all cases, any fire-
resistance-rated construction and assemblies must be
maintained in vacant buildings to limit the spread of
fire. [Ref. SBC 801 - 311.2]
SBC 801 authorizes the fire code official to placard
unsafe buildings to warn fire fighters of interior haz-
ards (Figure 4-8).
The placard is used to indicate if a structure is safe
to enter during fire fighting or to warn about struc-
tural and life safety hazards. For example, the placard
2″ wide white
reflective strips
could indicate that the roof is open, fire escapes are
unsafe, holes exist in the flooring or stairways are
24″
unsafe. Placards are required on all sides of a building
Red background
and at entry doorways. SBC 801 dictates the minimum
size and symbols required on the placard (Figure 4-9).
2″ wide white
[Ref. SBC 801 - 311.5]
reflective border
INDOOR DISPLAYS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 314]
Indoor vehicle displays must be adequately safeguarded
to limit the amount of fuel and ignition sources (Fig-
ure 4-10). SBC 801 requires that internal combustion
vehicles contain no more than 19 L or one-quarter of
the tank volume, whichever is smaller. The fuel tank fill
opening must be sealed and the batteries disconnected.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 314.4]
 R o o f t o p G a r d e n s a n d L a n d s c a p e d R o o f s    5 1

ROOFTOP GARDENS AND LANDSCAPED

ROOFS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 317]

Planting vegetation on building rooftops is becoming com-

mon. The vegetation provides several functions: it provides
a pleasing area for recreational activities or meetings, and
serves as a significant thermal insulator (Figure 4-11). The
vegetation creates several concerns for the fire code official
and fire fighter. Dying or dead vegetation creates a fire haz-
ard. Rooftop fire-fighting ventilation no longer is a viable
option when the roof is covered with several feet of soil.
SBC 801 regulates rooftop gardens and landscaped roofs.
FIGURE 4-11 Vegetation on rooftop gardens
The landscaped portion of the roof is limited in size to a must be controlled to limit fire sizes.
maximum area of 1450 m2 with a maximum dimension of 39
m. The size limit provides a fire break and a location for roof-
top ventilation options. Additional landscaped areas can be
provided if they are separated by a distance of not less than
1.8 m and the roof surface has a Class A-rated roof system
(Figure 4-12). SBC 801, Section 905.3.8 requires that when a
standpipe is installed in the building, it must be usable and
available for the landscaped roof. [Ref. SBC 801 - 905.3.8]
The fire code official can require a landscape maintenance
plan that would include tree and shrub trimming, a watering
schedule and a list of vegetation species. The plan should
provide for the removal of dead and decaying material at
least semiannually. [Ref. SBC 801 - 317.4.3] FIGURE 4-12 Rooftop gardens are limited in
size to keep potential fires small.
5 2    C h a p t e r 4 G e n e r a l P r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t F i r e

QUIZ
1. The fuel source for an open-flame decorative device cannot be
liquefied petroleum gas or a liquid with a flash point temperature
less than _______°C.
a. 25
b. 40
c. 43.3
d. 60

2. Where rooftop landscaping is installed, garden areas must be

______________.
a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. metal

3. Doors providing access to shaftways must be identified where

there is no landing on the opposite side of the door.
a. True
b. False

4. Combustible materials in a building protected by an automatic

sprinkler system must be stored at least ________ mm from the
sprinkler deflectors.
a. 457
b. 469
c. 567
d. 600

5. Sprinkler protection is not required when a trash or rubbish

dumpster is in a noncombustible, fire-resistive building, is at least
1500 mm from other buildings, and is used exclusively for dump-
ster or trash container storage.
a. True
b. False
CHAPTER
Emergency Planning
5 and Preparedness

P
lanning for an emergency is an important component in the
building occupants’ fire and life safety. Planning and prepara-
tion includes prompt emergency services notification, providing
first responders the necessary information so they can safely and quickly
mitigate the emergency, clearly documenting a building’s or site’s fire
safety plans and training employees how to respond. Buildings or facili-
ties storing and handling hazardous materials must provide a means so
the individuals who work with these chemicals understand the material
characteristics and hazards of these materials. Chapter 5 presents the
SBC 801 provisions that address emergency planning and preparedness,
including emergency reporting, public assemblies and events, fire safety
plans, emergency evacuation drills and employee training.

53
5 4    C h a p t e r 5 E m e r g e n c y P l a n n i n g a n d P r e p a r e d n e s s
FIGURE 5-1  Immediate notification of a fire or hazardous of appropriate emergency plans and procedures by
material release will result in a response by the fire
department.
Code
Essentials
A public safety plan
should provide
1. Emergency vehicle
access
2. Fire protection
3. Emergency escape routes
4. Public assembly areas
5. Persons to direct attend-
ees and vehicles
6. Vendors and conces-
sions
7. The need for on-site law
enforcement
8. The need for on-site fire
watch or crowd manag-
ers
9. The need for on-site
emergency medical ser-
vices l
FIGURE 5-2  A large community gathering may
require the creation of a public safety plan to
protect participants.
EMERGENCY FORCES
NOTIFICATION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 401]
Prompt emergency responder notification (Civil
Defense, Department of Public Safety, emergency
medical services) is essential to controlling an inci-
dent involving a fire, accident or unauthorized haz-
ardous materials discharge (Figure 5-1). In the event
of an emergency, SBC 801 requires immediate emer-
gency responder notification and implementation
facility employees and occupants. SBC 801 prohibits
any delay in reporting a fire as well as reporting any
false alarm. Furthermore, it is unlawful for anyone to “interfere with,
attempt to interfere with, conspire to interfere with, obstruct or
restrict the mobility of or block the path of travel of a Civil Defense
emergency vehicle in any way, or to interfere with, attempt to inter-
fere with, conspire to interfere with, obstruct or hamper any Civil
Defense operation.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 401.3 through 401.8]
PUBLIC GATHERINGS AND EVENTS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12]
Public gatherings and events occur indoors or outdoors. Depending
on the nature of the event and the number of anticipated attendees,
the fire code official is to ensure that fire and life safety rules and
regulations are followed. One means of ensuring that safety is main-
tained is the use of fire watch personnel. Depending on the event,
fire watch personnel can be any approved individual or the fire code
official may require the use of fire service personnel. SBC 801 autho-
rizes the fire code official to require fire watch personnel based on
the anticipated number of persons or the nature of the performance,
exhibition or activity. Fire watch personnel are responsible to look
out for any unwanted fires and extinguish any incipient fire. They
are responsible to ensure egress paths and openings are maintained,
and assist in evacuating people from the event. [Ref. SBC 801
- 403.12.1]
Some events can have a major impact on a community,
such as dignitary visits or a religious ceremony. SBC 801 allows
the fire code official to require a public safety plan. These plans
are created by the event sponsor to address issues such as fire
apparatus access, emergency medical response, law enforce-
ment, and evacuation routes and similar issues. The fire code
official is authorized to review and approve the plans (Figure
5-2). [Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12.2]
 C r o w d M a n a g e r s    5 5

CROWD MANAGERS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12]
Another method of providing occupant safety in assembly occu-
pancies or outdoor events is the use of crowd managers. SBC 801
requires that crowd managers are provided when more than 1,000
people gather (Figure 5-3). The number of crowd managers is based
on the occupant load, with one crowd manager required for every
250 people. Table 5-1 provides the number of required crowd manag-
ers based on the number of attendees. [Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12.3]

TABLE 5-1 Crowd manager requirements

Event Attendees Crowd Managers
1,000 4
1,250 5
1,500 6
1,750 7
2,000 8 FIGURE 5-3  Large crowds may
need crowd managers to help in an
2,001 and above 1 additional for each 250 persons
emergency.

The difference between crowd managers and fire watch personnel is

that crowd managers normally are facility employees and respond
as crowd managers when an incident happens, whereas fire watch
personnel are providing only fire watch duties. For example, at a large
banquet hall, the wait staff could also be trained crowd managers.
During normal operations, the wait staff performs table preparation
and customer service. In the event of an emergency the wait staff
become crowd managers with assigned duties. In this example, the Code Essentials
wait staff could direct customers from their tables to the closest exit Crowd managers are
and outside to a designated meeting area. Crowd managers could trained to
help people with special needs or limited mobility. They could direct 1. Identify and correct any
occupants to alternate exits that may not be readily observed. The egress problems
crowd manager function is designed to provide occupant safety by 2. Identify and correct any
having the crowd managers take charge and lead or direct the cus- fire hazards
tomers to safety. [Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12.3.3] 3. Assist attendees during
SBC 801 requires that crowd managers be trained appropriately evacuation
and that the training is approved. This allows the fire code official full 4. Direct and lead occu-
interpretation and complete authority to determine what training pants to a safe exit
is needed and suitable. There are several established Saudi training 5. Assist emergency
providers available for crowd manager training. The trainers support response personnel
the event and entertainment industry in the Arab state. The first when needed l
program lasted three weeks and covered knowledge and information
about the management of crowded space, an essential skill set in the
events industry.
5 6    C h a p t e r 5 E m e r g e n c y P l a n n i n g a n d P r e p a r e d n e s s

FIRE SAFETY, EVACUATION AND

LOCKDOWN PLANS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 403]
Certain buildings require fire safety, security lockdown and evacua-
tion plans. SBC requirements are based on the building’s occupancy
classification, the occupant load or a particular building’s use. The
building owner must maintain and update the plan when staff
who perform fire safety functions change, the building occupancy
changes or a physical interior architecture change occurs. The plan
must be available to all employees and in a language or means they
comprehend. Table 5-2 summarizes requirements for fire safety and
evacuation plans. Fire safety plans are not required for Group S and
U occupancies.

TABLE 5-2 Fire safety, lockdown and evacuation plan requirements

[Ref. SBC 801 - 403.2 through 403.11.4]
Occupancy Details
Group A (Assembly) • All except those used exclusively for
purposes of religious worship that have an
occupant load less than 2,000.
Group B (Business) • Ambulatory care facilities.
Group B (Business) • Buildings having an occupant load of 500 or
Group F (Factory and Industrial) more persons or more than 100 persons above
Group M (Mercantile) or below the lowest level of exit discharge.
Group E (Educational) • All.
Group H (Hazardous)
Group I (Institutional)
Group R (Residential) • R-1: residential, transient.
• R-2: residential, nontransient (college and
university buildings).
• R-4: residential, custodial care.

High-rise • Buildings more than 23 m above the lowest

Covered mall buildings
Open mall buildings
Underground buildings
Buildings with atriums
All
level of fire apparatus access.
• 4650 m2 in aggregate floor area.
• Exceeding 4650 m2 in aggregate floor area in
aggregate area within the perimeter line.
• All.
• And containing an occupancy of Group A, E
or M.
• Buildings utilizing occupant evacuation
elevators.
 E m e r g e n c y E v a c u a t i o n D r i l l s    5 7

The evacuation plan documents whether the building will be

evacuated totally or partially, such as in a high-rise or institutional
occupancy where selective evacuation and relocation may be appro-
priate. The plan identifies key personnel who need to remain on
the premises to operate critical equipment (such as smoke control
or emergency power systems), procedures for determining that the
partial or complete evacuation has been completed and all persons
are accounted for, the primary and alternate procedures for notifying
the occupants of the evacuation, and the method for notifying emer-
gency responders. If the building is equipped with an emergency
voice/alarm communications system, the primary and any secondary
messages that will be announced must be documented and approved.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 404.2.1]

EMERGENCY EVACUATION DRILLS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 405]
Other than Group H, M, S and U occupancies, all SBC
801-regulated occupancies require one or more annual
emergency evacuation drills. An emergency evacuation
drill is an exercise performed to train staff and occupants
while evaluating their efficiency and effectiveness in exer-
cising emergency evacuation procedures. An emergency
evacuation drill is an activity to familiarize employees or
occupants with the building’s fire safety and evacuation
plan and is conducted to ensure that the plan is properly
implemented (Figure 5-4). Recent changes in the building FIGURE 5-4  An evacuation path of a multistory
Group B office building
and fire codes recognize occupant evacuation elevators
as a tool enabling faster high-rise building evacuation.
Historically, people have been taught to avoid elevators in times of
emergency because of how their automated controls worked and the
risk of smoke infiltration into the hoistway. However, new elevator
designs and safety components enable elevator use for people who
are unable to use the stairways. Specific employee training is needed
for these high-rise buildings so they are cognizant of the elevator
operations and how to guide people to them. Deficiencies or limita-
tions of the plan are commonly identified during these drills, and
these findings should be used to improve the fire safety and evacua-
tion plan. [Ref. SBC 801 - 405.1 through 405.9]
Emergency evacuation drills must be conducted frequently
to enhance occupant response and effectiveness. SBC 801, Table
405.2 lists both drill frequency and who is required to partici-
pate (Table 5-3). For example, SBC 801, Section 403.6 requires a
fire safety and evacuation plan for Group F occupancies with an
occupant load of 500 or more persons or more than 100 persons
located above or below the lowest level of exit discharge. Under the
provisions in Table 405.2, plant employees must participate in an
emergency evacuation drill annually.
5 8    C h a p t e r 5 E m e r g e n c y P l a n n i n g a n d P r e p a r e d n e s s

TABLE 5-3 Fire and evacuation drill frequency and participation [Ref. SBC 201 -
Table 405.2]
Group or Occupancy Frequency Participation
Group A Quarterly Employees
Group B b
Annually All occupants
Group B b,c
Annually Employees
(Ambulatory care facilities)
Group Bb Annually Employees
(clinic, outpatient)
Group E Monthlya All occupants
Group F Annually Employees
Group I-1 Semiannually on each shift All occupants
Group I-2 Quarterly on each shifta Employees
Group I-3 Quarterly on each shifta Employees
Group I-4 Monthly on each shifta All occupants
Group R-1 Quarterly on each shift Employees
Group R-2d Four annually All occupants
Group R-4 Semiannually on each shifta All occupants

a. In severe climates, the fire code official shall have the authority to modify the emergency
evacuation drill frequency.
b. Emergency evacuation drills are required in Group B buildings having an occupant load of 500
or more persons or more than 100 persons above or below the lowest level of exit discharge.
c. Emergency evacuation drills are required in ambulatory care facilities in accordance with Section
403.3.
d. Emergency evacuation drills in Group R-2 college and university buildings shall be in
accordance with Section 403.10.2.1. Other Group R-2 occupancies shall be in accordance with
Section 403.10.2.2.

When an evacuation drill is planned, the event should be sched-

uled to occur at different times and under varying conditions to
simulate unusual conditions that could occur. Records documenting
particular aspects of the drill, such as the person who supervised
the event, its date and time, the method of initiating the event, the
number of persons evacuated and the time to complete the evacua-
tion must be maintained for fire code official review. The fire code
official may require being notified before drill occurs to observe the
event. [Ref. SBC 801 - 405.4, 405.5, 405.6, 405.7]

LOCKDOWN DRILLS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 404]
Lockdown drills—intended to protect building occupants from outside
threats in a sheltered and secured place—are an unfortunate result
of modern social challenges. Terrorists, active shooters, and hostile
employees or visitors are just a few threats that could endanger build-
ing occupants. While building and fire codes historically were created
to help people get away from in-building threats (fire, smoke, hazard-
ous material release), the lockdown requires people be locked indoors
with limited escape opportunities. As a result of this different stra-
tegic approach to life safety, the fire code official must work closely
 E m p l o y e e T r a i n i n g a n d R e s p o n s e    5 9

with police to ensure occupants are protected from both internal and
external threats. For example, while police might recommend lock-
ing all exterior doors to keep threatening persons out of a building,
the fire code official needs to be confident occupants can escape in
the event of a fire, explosion, toxic gas release or other man-made or
natural calamity. Therefore, SBC 801, Section 404.2.3.1 gives the fire
code official the authority to approve all lockdown plans.
At the very least, lockdown plans should include these four ele-
ments:
1. Initiation. The plan shall include instructions for reporting an
emergency that requires a lockdown.
2. Accountability. The plan shall include accountability procedures
for staff to report the presence or absence of occupants.
3. Recall. The plan shall include a prearranged signal for returning
to normal activity.
4. Communication and coordination. The plan shall include an
approved means of two-way communication between a central
location and each secured area. [Ref. SBC 801 - 404.2.3.1]

EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND RESPONSE

[Ref. SBC 801 - 404, 406]
SBC 801 requires employees who work in buildings or occupancies
that require a fire safety and evacuation plan to be trained to prop-
erly respond when a fire occurs or an evacuation is required. The
training must occur as part of the new-hire orientation and then at
least annually thereafter. SBC 801-required employee training and
response procedures must address:
• Recognition of fire hazards and procedures to prevent fires,
• The procedures for reporting a fire or emergency,
• The life safety plan for notifying, relocating or evacuating em-
ployees and occupants,
• A site plan review identifying fire service access, fire hydrant
locations and assembly point(s) for evacuees,
• A floor plan review including primary and alternate egress
paths, areas of refuge, portable fire extinguishers, manual fire
alarm boxes and hose stations,
• A procedural review for emergency lockdown and defend-in-
place strategies, and
• A review of the major fire hazards associated with the normal
building use and occupancy. [Ref. SBC 801 - 406.1, 404.4]
In addition to training on implementing the fire safety and
evacuation plan, some businesses will require employees to be
trained in the proper use and operation of portable fire extinguish-
ers, or businesses may maintain their own structural fire brigade. If
personnel are trained to use portable fire extinguishers for incipient
fire fighting, SBC 801 requires they be properly trained and know
6 0    C h a p t e r 5 E m e r g e n c y P l a n n i n g a n d P r e p a r e d n e s s

the locations of fire-fighting equipment and

required personal protective clothing (Figure
5-5). [Ref. SBC 801 - 404.2.2, 406.3.3]

HAZARD COMMUNICATION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 407]
Where hazardous materials in excess of the
permit amount are used, stored, handled or
transported, the fire code official can require
a number of documents to help manage the
risks associated with the products or opera-
tions.
Those documents include:
• Safety Data Sheets (SDS) that explain
FIGURE 5-5  Plant employees training to correctly use a portable the products’ chemical, physical and hazardous
fire extinguisher to extinguish an incipient flammable liquid fire
(Courtesy of Tyco/Ansul Inc., Marinette, WI) characteristics, including recommendations
for spill or leak mitigation and personal protec-
tive equipment,
Code • Hazardous Material Inventory Statement (HMIS) that lists the
Essentials amount, location and physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of the
Persons responsible for various products [Ref. SBC 801 - 5001.5.2],
the operation of areas in • Hazardous Materials Management Plan (HMMP) (Figure 5-6) that
which hazardous materi- describes how the products will be safely used or stored [Ref. SBC
als are stored, dispensed, 801 - 5001.5.1], and
handled or used shall be • Facility closure plan to terminate hazardous material storage, dis-
familiar with the chemical pensing, handling or use. [Ref. SBC 801 - 407.1 through 407.7]
nature of the materials and
the appropriate mitigat-
ing actions necessary in
the event of a fire, leak or
spills. l

FIGURE 5-6  Hazardous materials management plans help ensure that

employees and first responders are prepared.
 Q u i z    6 1

QUIZ
1. Fire and evacuation drills in Group R-4 occupancies must occur
_____________.
a. weekly
b. monthly
c. quarterly
d. semiannually on each shift

2. Group B (Business) buildings having an occupant load of 500 or

more persons or more than 100 persons above or below the low-
est level of exit discharge are required to have a fire safety and
evacuation plan.
a. True
b. False

3. Crowd manages are required when an assembly occupancy or out-

door event has at least __________ attendees.
a. 250
b. 500
c. 1,000
d. 2,000

4. The fire code official can require a fire watch at any event.
a. True
b. False

5. Which of the following is not part of required employee fire safety

training?
a. procedures to order emergency supplies for rest and rehabili-
tation following a drill
b. procedures for reporting a fire or emergency
c. procedures for emergency lockdown and defend-in-place
strategies
d. reviewing the life safety plan for notifying, relocating or
evacuating employees and occupants
6 2    C h a p t e r 5 E m e r g e n c y P l a n n i n g a n d P r e p a r e d n e s s
PART
Site and Building
III Services

Chapter 6: Fire Service Features

Chapter 7: Building Systems
Chapter 8: Interior Finish and Decorative
Materials

63
 CHAPTER
Fire Service
6 Features

F
ire service features include roadways for fire department access,
a water supply for manual fire-fighting operations, a means of
identifying the building through its address or other markings,
and, in certain cases, a means of entering the building through the use of
a key or access device under the exclusive control of the fire department.
In buildings containing fire protection systems or a fire command center,
SBC 801 requires the location of these system controls to be identified to
emergency responders.

64
64
 F i r e A p p a r a t u s A c c e s s R o a d s    6 5

FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS ROADS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 503]
A fire apparatus access road provides vehicle access from a fire sta-
tion to a facility, building or location. It is a general term inclusive of
all other terms such as fire lane, public street, private street, access
roadway and the drive lanes in a parking lot. SBC 801 provisions
specify when fire apparatus access roads are required, their design
and construction, required markings and requirement for barricades
or gates that cross a fire apparatus access road. SBC 801 access
road requirements are normally applied to development on private
property—roads used by the public are constructed to specifica-
tions developed by the jurisdiction’s Transportation, Public Works
or Engineering department. Design criteria that can be adopted by a
jurisdiction are available in Appendix D.
An approved fire apparatus road is required for any facility, build-
ing or portion of a building constructed or moved into the jurisdic-
tion. The road must be arranged to reach within 45 m of all portions
of the facility and the exterior walls of the first story of the building
as measured by an approved route (Figure 6-1). The key term in
You Should
applying this requirement is the phrase “approved route.” An approved Know
route is determined after considering the site topography and build- The 45 m value is derived
ing geometry relative to the fire department access road. The mea- from typical pre-connected
surement is typically taken from the spot where the fire apparatus attack hose lines carried on
will park on arrival and is measured along a path that fire fighters a fire pumping apparatus.
can safely travel around the building. This includes navigating any The measurement stops
obstacles such as perimeter fences and gates. when the attack hose can
reach both sides of the
building and the hose lay
distance is 45 m or less.
The measurement is not
taken as a straight line
through the building.
The purpose is to enable
fire fighters to make a quick
attack on a fire and keep
the fire from spreading to
nearby buildings. l

FIGURE 6-1  Measurement of the approved attack hose travel distance from a
fire-apparatus access road to all portions of a building
6 6    C h a p t e r 6 F i r e S e r v i c e F e a t u r e s

SBC 801 allows the distance from a fire apparatus access road to
be increased when a building is protected with an approved auto-
matic sprinkler system that complies with NFPA 13, Standard for the
Installation of Sprinkler Systems, NFPA 13R, Standard for the Sprinkler
Systems in Low-rise Residential Occupancies or NFPA 13D, Standard for
the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family Dwellings
and Manufactured Homes. [Ref. SBC 801 - 503.1.1 Exception 1]
SBC 801 does not specify the distance can be increased; the decision
rests with the fire code official. The built-in fire protection provided
by the automatic fire sprinkler system gives fire fighters more time
to evaluate or “size up” the incident, decide on strategy and tactics,
and initiate actions to achieve rescue and suppression.
In instances where fire apparatus access roads cannot be con-
structed because of topography (e.g., steep upward or downward
slopes, wadis and bluffs), waterways or nonnegotiable grades, the
fire code official can permit alternative fire protection means and
methods in lieu of required access roads. Code officials often accept
the installation of a fire sprinkler system or some othe fire protec-
tion feature as alternative protection in these cases. The objective is
to control the fire in its early stages to lessen life safety risks while
enabling the Civil Defense authorities to make an effective fire
attack. The access road distance limitations are not applied to roads
serving no more than two Group R-3 or U occupancies. [Ref. SBC
801 - 503.1.1 Exception 2]
Fire apparatus access roads must be constructed to the jurisdic-
tion’s requirements. The code requires that fire apparatus access roads
be at least 6 m wide with an unobstructed vertical clearance of not less
than 4 m to accommodate tall fire apparatus. Road surfaces must be
designed to support the weight of fully loaded fire apparatus, includ-
ing water, equipment and fire fighters. Roads must be constructed of
materials that are resistant to any weather conditions, so it is impor-
tant for the fire code official to coordinate with the local transporta-
tion planners to determine what constitutes “all weather” road surface
materials and construction; they may differ in dif-
ferent parts of the Kingdom (Figure 6-2).
The maximum permitted grade of the roadway
as well as the inside and outside turning radii must
be based on Saudi Civil Defense apparatus. This
information can be obtained from the fire appara-
tus manufacturer.
Fire apparatus access roads more than 45 m in
length must be provided with an approved turn-
around so emergency equipment does not have
to back up for long distances. Turnarounds may
be provided at the end or intermediate locations
FIGURE 6-2  Turnarounds are required where dead-end
along the access road based on the site design and
roads exceed 45 m. as approved by the fire code official. [Ref. SBC
801 - 503.2]
 F i r e A p p a r a t u s A c c e s s R o a d s    6 7

Code Essentials
Many of the access road requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 5 specify that the access meet the
requirements of the fire code official rather than provide specific dimensions.
SBC 801, Appendix D can be adopted by the jurisdiction to provide specific design criteria.
For example, SBC 801, Section 503.2.7 states that the maximum grade of the access road shall
be within the limits established by the fire code official. In Appendix D, Section D103.2 speci-
fies that the grade of an access road shall not exceed 10 percent.
Appendix D is designed to provide the specific design criteria for each jurisdiction. Table 6-1
compares the requirements in Chapter 5 and Appendix D. l

TABLE 6-1 Access requirements in Chapter 5 and Appendix D

Requirement Chapter 5 Appendix D

6 m, and 7.8 m for aerial apparatus
Minimum road width 6m access
Maximum grade As required by the fire code official 10 percent
Minimum turning radius As required by the fire code official As required by the fire code official
Turn-around design Must be approved Specific design criteria
Angle of approach/ As required by the fire code official As required by the fire code official
departure
Asphalt, concrete or other approved
Road surface All weather surface
Designed for vehicles with a weight of
Road design Support the load of fire apparatus 34 050 kg
Required for buildings over 9 m in
Aerial apparatus access Not specified height
Minimum size, reflective background,
Fire lane signs Must be approved specific design
Multiple access routes When required by the code official More than 30 units unless sprinklered
into subdivisions

The Civil Defense authorities should have complete specifica-

tions on their fire apparatus to apply these requirements. They
should know apparatus gross vehicle weight, width (especially with
extended stabilizers or outriggers on aerial apparatus), turning
radii (inside and outside) and maximum road grades the vehicles
can negotiate. This information may be available from the appara-
tus' manufacturers.
The fire code prohibits interrupting the road with vehicles or
stationary objects such as bulk garbage containers, landscaping,
pedestal signs or other obstructions. Fire apparatus access roads
require markings using approved signs that demarcate their pur-
pose and prohibit any obstructions (Figure 6-3). The design and
placement of signs are generally governed by local traffic codes to
provide consistency. Jurisdictionally approved designs and signs
also are admissible in court if the jurisdiction issues citations for FIGURE 6-3  A fire lane must be
identified to demarcate that its primary
traffic and parking violations. [Ref. SBC 801 - 503.3, 503.4] function is for fire apparatus access.
6 8    C h a p t e r 6 F i r e S e r v i c e F e a t u r e s

Security gates across fire department

access roadways can slow the emergen-
cy response. An approved gate installation
requires an alternate means to ensure its
operation during an emergency, such as a
source of standby power or a manual releasing
mechanism. Gates across access roads require
the approval of the fire code official (Figure
6-4). [Ref. SBC 801 - 503.5]
SBC 801 requires that all gates comply
with the requirements of ASTM International
FIGURE 6-4  Security gates and barriers must be approved by
the fire code official. (formerly the American Society of Testing
and Materials) Standard F 2200-13, Standard
Specification for Automated Vehicular Gate
Construction. ASTM F 2200 establishes general requirements for all
automated vehicle gates and construction requirements for five basic
designs: horizontal slide, horizontal swing, vertical lift, vertical pivot
and overhead pivot. The ASTM standard also divides gates into dif-
ferent applications based on the functions of the building the gate is
serving:
• Class I—One- and two-family dwellings, up to four dwellings
• Class II—Commercial uses where general public access is desired;
an example is an apartment community or a subdivision of one-
and two- family dwellings.
• Class III—Industrial uses not intended to serve the public; an ex-
ample is a manufacturing plant where public access is limited.
• Class IV—High-security locations, including those with guard ser-
vice or security surveillance.
The class of gate installed across a fire department access road
is not specified by SBC 801. The gate classification is specified by
the installing contractor and is selected to ensure that its design,
construction and installation comply with the
requirements in ASTM F 2200 and SBC 801
(Figure 6-5).
ASTM F 2200 was developed to ensure
that persons near an automatic gate are not
exposed to a potential entrapment or entan-
glement hazard. This includes the location of
the automatic gate in relation to a fixed object
such as a pipe bollard or building; in such situ-
ations, the operation of a gate could create a
potential crush injury to a person between
the gate and the fixed object. Pedestrian gates
are outside of the scope of ASTM F 2200, and
automated vehicular gates should not be used
FIGURE 6-5  This controller for a security gate installed across a as pedestrian gates for the same entrapment
fire department access road is provided with the ability to utilize a
proprietary key to operate the gate. reasons. [Ref. SBC 801 - 503.6]
 B u i l d i n g A c c e s s    6 9

BUILDING ACCESS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 504]
An important—but often overlooked—feature
in emergency response is having clearly marked
address numbers provided on the side of the build-
ing where first responders can see them (Figure
6-6). While commonly used in the US and other
parts of the world, address numbers may be a sig-
nificant cultural change in some countries where
properties have long been identified by names. Fire
code officials should work with local governments FIGURE 6-6  Clearly marked address numbers—such as
to develop addressing schemes that work for first the 100 on the face of this building—help first responders
responders and citizens. find properties promptly.

Once emergency responders arrive, they should

have prompt access to buildings, facilities and emer-
gency equipment. SBC 801 requires that exterior doors or openings
required by SBC 201 be maintained accessible for use by emergency
responders. [Ref. SBC 801 - 504.1] This enables rapid access for
rescue or fire fighting.
In contrast, building owners or occupants may have safety and
security concerns about building occupants or contents that they
think may be vulnerable. The desired security level can conflict with
emergency responders’ needs to get into the structure.
One tool that is generally regarded as a reasonable means
of ensuring that the building’s security is maintained
while allowing for rapid fire fighter access is to provide
a fire department key box (Figure 6-7). One or more key
boxes may be required on a building depending upon
its size, configuration and interior features such as fire
protection systems and equipment. For example, a large
warehouse with several entrances and a separate fire
pump/fire sprinkler riser room may need key boxes adja-
cent to each of these doors.
The key box can be opened only by a master key that
is carried by the Civil Defense officer or an electronic FIGURE 6-7  The key box contains keys for the fire
department to gain access into the building.
signal from the Civil Defense communication center.
Many key box manufacturers have their equipment evalu-
ated by an independent third-party testing laboratory
to demonstrate that it is damage- or burglar-resistant. The key box
manufacturer, the key box location(s) and the required number and
type of keys must be approved by the fire code official. [Ref. SBC
801 - 506.1] To ensure the key box is secure and easy for the Civil
Defense to use, it must be made to comply with UL 1037, Anti-theft
Alarms and Devices.
SBC 201 requires that when the building height is four or more
stories above the grade plane, one of the building stairways has
access to the roof unless the roof has a slope is greater than 4 units
vertical in 12 units horizontal (18.3 degrees).
7 0    C h a p t e r 6 F i r e S e r v i c e F e a t u r e s

Roof access is provided so the roof can be used as a

location to deploy fire streams to protect the structure
from an exposure building fire or attack a fire in an adja-
cent building. Where access is provided, it can be through
a penthouse or through a roof hatch. The stairway must be
marked to indicate that it has roof access (Figure 6-8 and
Figure 6-9). Figure 6-9 represents a typical stairway iden-
tification sign. It identifies which stairway (West Stair),
whether that stair provides roof access, the floor level (9)
and the range of stories that stair enclosure serves (G, 1-9),
FIGURE 6-8  The doorway is identified to indicate and where the level of exit discharge is (Down to G). Detailed
it serves a stairway with roof access. Note that sign design and placement requirements can be found in
the exterior doorway is accessible by using the
fire department key box. SBC 801, Section 1023.9. [Ref. SBC 801 - 504.3, 1023.9]
Certain building equipment and devices need to be
WEST STAIR identified for operation during fire fighting. Rooms containing the
fire sprinkler system riser and control valves, fire alarm control panel

9
ROOF ACCESS and smoke control system panel must be identified for ready access
in the event of an emergency (Figure 6-10). Typical fire department
operations may consist of disabling the electric and fuel sources in
a building involved in fire. The fire code official can require that
electric meters, gas shutoff valves and solar photovoltaic switches be
LEVEL 9 identified so these items can be located and turned off. [Ref. SBC
801 - 509.1, 509.1.1, 605.11]
LEVELS G, 1-9
EXIT DOWN HAZARDS TO FIRE FIGHTERS DURING
TO LEVEL G ACCESS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 316]
FIGURE 6-9  Stairway identification
signs must be provided in buildings While manual fire fighting is inherently a hazardous activity, its
four or more stories in height. safety is enhanced by required certifications and training, assess-
ment and implementation of fireground risk management, personal
protective equipment and the incident command system used to
manage the emergency.
Even with these controls and procedures, certain building fea-
tures such as open elevator shafts, pits and other dangers may be
present. In some cases where security concerns are significant, a
building may be equipped with a device intended to incapacitate or
injure a burglar. However, in the event of a fire, such a device could
accidentally cause the fire fighter injury or death. SBC 801 has spe-
cific requirements for protecting fire fighters from certain hazards
that may be found in buildings. [Ref. SBC 801 - 316.3]
Building shafts or hoistways are provided for elevators, material-
handling equipment, or utilities such as electrical conductors or air
ducts. Shaftways present a fall hazard to fire fighters because they
FIGURE 6-10  This fire sprinkler generally are constructed to provide access to every floor of a build-
riser room is identified and also ing. Past design practices often had one side of the shaft open to
contains the controls for the smoke the building exterior in such a manner that it was indistinguishable
evacuation system.
from adjacent openings. To prevent the potential of an accidental
 F i r e P r o t e c t i o n W a t e r S u p p l i e s    7 1

fall into a shaftway, SBC 801 requires warning signs to identify shaft
openings. If the shaft is accessible from the building exterior, a sign
is required at a location that indicates the shaft’s location (Figure
6-11). [Ref. SBC 801 - 316.2.1]

FIRE PROTECTION WATER SUPPLIES

[Ref. SBC 801 - 507]
Any facility or building constructed in a jurisdiction that has
adopted SBC 801 requires a fire protection water supply capable of
delivering the required volume and pressure for manual fire-fighting
operations: this is called “fire flow.” The water supply source can be
a public or private water distribution system, a fire pump supplied
from an underground well, an underground or elevated water storage
tank, a reservoir, or private fire service mains connected to a public FIGURE 6-11  A shaftway that
is accessible from the exterior is
water system. [Ref. SBC 801 - 507.1] required to be marked to indicate
When a municipal or private water supply system is the fire-flow its location to fire fighters.
source, a flow test should be performed to demonstrate that the sys-
tem can supply the needed water demand. A flow test uses a separate
test fire hydrant and a separate flow fire hydrant to measure the
static pressure and residual pressure of the water supply system as
well as the available flow rate, expressed in liters per minute (Lpm)
(Figure 6-12).
Static pressure is the available pressure of the water supply sys-
tem with the water at rest. The static pressure can be developed by
water pumps or the pressure of water in elevated tanks. Residual
pressure is the available pressure when water is discharged from the
flowing fire hydrant. The residual pressure is measured at the same
time water is flowing from the flow hydrant. These three values are
FIGURE 6-12  Fire hydrants are
used to calculate the available fire flow. SBC 801 requires that fire tested to determine the fire flow
flow be calculated at a residual pressure of 138 kPa, which is the provided at that fire hydrant.
lowest residual pressure allowed by many
health departments and water regulatory
authorities (Figure 6-13). Pressures below
this value increase the possibility of a
water main collapse or worse: backflow of
untreated sewage or wastewater into the
potable water supply.

You Should
Know
To learn more about fire
hydrant and fire flow test-
ing, use your web browser
to find numerous articles FIGURE 6-13  Plotting the flow test results on a water supply curve
and informative videos. l can determine the available water supply at 138 kPa.
7 2    C h a p t e r 6 F i r e S e r v i c e F e a t u r e s

Appendix B
Code There is no single, universal standard for determining fire-flow
Essentials requirements for buildings or facilities. The fire code official deter-
The static and residual mines the acceptable method used to establish the required fire flow
pressures (measured in kPa) within the jurisdiction. Many agencies chose to adopt SBC Appendix
and flow rate (measured in B because it specifies the required fire flow based on the building’s
Lpm) are required to deter- floor area and construction type. In rural jurisdictions where a con-
mine fire flow. Fire flow is ventional water supply system is unavailable, Appendix B allows
computed at a minimum the fire code official to use the water supply requirements specified
138 kPag. l in the International Wildland-Urban Interface Code or NFPA 1142,
Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting. These
two documents provide alternative fire flow requirements based on
the use of natural or man-made water sources or the use of mobile
water tenders for water delivery to the site. The specific method of
determining the required water supply should be established in the
adopting ordinance or in a written policy to be consistent. [Ref. SBC
801 - 507.3, B103.3]
SBC 801 requires the construction of private fire protection water
mains to be in accordance with NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation
of Private Fire Service Water Mains and Their Appurtenances. All por-
tions of a building must be located within 120 m of a fire hydrant
on a fire apparatus access road. The distance is measured along an
approved route using the same method prescribed by the fire code for
locating buildings in relation to fire appara-
tus access roads. The distance is measured
using a path along which fire apparatus
122 m.
122 m.
or less will unload water supply hoses on the road-
or less Group M
way instead of a straight-line measurement
from the fire hydrant to the building (Figure
6-14). When a building is protected by an
automatic fire sprinkler system installed in
accordance with NFPA 13 or NFPA 13R, the
FIGURE 6-14  The water supply or fire hydrants must be within
120 m of all portions of the exterior wall of the first floor of the fire code official can increase the distance
building. requirement to 180 m. For Group R-3 and
U occupancies, the travel distance also is
180 m. [Ref. SBC 801 - 507.5.1]
Inspection and maintenance
[Ref. SBC 801 - 507]
Fire protection water supplies are commonly supplied
from private hydrants and private fire service mains con-
structed on private property. Consequently, these private
systems may not be subject to the same inspection and test-
ing schedule the municipality uses. A fire protection water
FIGURE 6-15  Flushing of a private fire hydrant is
supply system requires annual maintenance to increase
intended to remove and discharge any sediment the likelihood the system will deliver the required fire flow
or debris in the private fire-protection water main. (Figure 6-15). SBC 801 refers to the procedures in NFPA
25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing and Maintenance of
 E m e r g e n c y R e s p o n d e r R a d i o C o v e r a g e    7 3

Water-Based Fire Protection Systems for inspection and test-

ing of the fire protection water supply. Critical components
of the fire protection water supply must be inspected and
tested, and records maintained for fire code official review,
as follows:
• Private fire hydrants: inspected annually and after each
use; flow test annually
• Private fire protection water mains: inspect exposed
piping annually; flow test every 5 years
• Strainers (Figure 6-16) installed in private fire protec-
tion water mains: inspection and maintenance after
each use but at least annually. [Ref. SBC 801 - 507.5.3] FIGURE 6-16  This strainer is installed in a
fireline to collect unwanted sediment and debris.
To ensure that fire hydrants are always accessible,
SBC 801 prohibits obstructions and requires a minimum
900 mm clearance around their circumference (Figure 6-17). When
a fire hydrant is in an area subject to motor vehicle impact, vehicle
impact protection complying with SBC 801 is required (Figure 6-18).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 507.5.5, 507.5.6]

FIGURE 6-18  The guard posts around the fire hydrant

FIGURE 6-17 This fire hydrant would be difficult to operate provide vehicle impact protection.
with the wall obstructing access to the valves.

EMERGENCY RESPONDER RADIO

COVERAGE
[Ref. SBC 801 - 510]
Public safety radio systems in numerous areas have been con-
verted from or are in the process of being converted from analog
signaling systems to digital signaling systems. Because they are digi-
tal systems, the portable radios used by fire fighters and emergency
responders require less power for transmitting audio or electronic
signals compared with that required for the former analog systems
(Figure 6-19).
These systems also offer greater functionality because each radio
is assigned its own digital address within the public safety radio
system based on the user’s roles and responsibilities at emergencies.
FIGURE 6-19  A fire fighter using a
These systems provide for interoperability among anyone assigned portable radio inside a building
to a particular incident.
7 4    C h a p t e r 6 F i r e S e r v i c e F e a t u r e s
Code
Essentials
SBC 801, Section 510.4.1.1
requires that a minimum
signal strength of -95 dBm
be received by radios
inside the building and a
minimum signal strength of
95 dBm be transmitted to
outside the building. The
radio coverage is consid-
ered acceptable if these
signal strengths can be
maintained in 95 percent
of all areas on each floor
of a building. Essentially,
the concept is to provide
a level of communication
close to the level of com-
munication outside of the
building at the street.
Engineering and consult-
ing firms, including ERRCS
manufacturers, can conduct
preconstruction analyses to
determine if an ERRCS will
be required. [Ref. SBC 801 -
510.1, 510.4] l
Because digital systems use less power, radio signals may be
lost between users inside and outside buildings. Building construc-
tion features and materials can absorb or block the radio frequency
energy used to carry the signals inside or outside of the building.
Blockage or absorption of the radio frequency signal can prevent a
critical message sent by an emergency responder from being received
and acknowledged. Emergency Responder Radio Coverage Systems
(ERRCS) are installed to overcome these deficiencies with better
antennas or by boosting radio signal power.
SBC 801 ERRCS provisions are concerned with the reliability and
usability of portable radios when used inside buildings.
SBC 801, Section 510 addresses requirements for in-building
ERRCS. The requirements in this section apply to both analog and
digital radio systems and are applicable to all buildings, including
existing structures. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1103.2]
SBC 801, Section 510.1 does not require all buildings to have
ERRCS equipment such as distributed antenna systems (DAS) or
bi-directional antennas (BDA), but all buildings must have approved
radio signal coverage for emergency responders to transmit a signal
to the outside of the building. If engineering analysis proves that
radio communications will not be impaired, an ERRCS is not required.
Exception 1 to Section 510.1 allows the code official to accept the
installation of a wired communication system in lieu of the radio cov-
erage. When this exception is applied, the concurrent approval of the
fire and building code officials is required. The wired communication
system does not provide communication throughout 95 percent of
the building but provides communication in specified locations. It is
designed to operate between a specified location, such as a fire com-
mand center, and elevators, elevator lobbies, emergency and standby
power rooms, fire pump rooms, areas of refuge and at each floor level
within enclosed exit stairways. [Ref. SBC 801 - 510.1]
Exception 2 to Section 510.1 allows the fire code official to waive
the requirement when it is determined that emergency responder
radio coverage is not needed. Exception 2 does not give any criteria
as to when these requirements are applicable or which buildings can
be exempted.
SBC 801 also specifies the requirements for emergency responder
radio coverage in existing buildings. As previously noted, when radio
coverage is not adequate, Section 510.1 Exception 1 permits the
installation of a wired communication system. However, if a building
contains an existing wired communication system, and the system
cannot be repaired or is undergoing replacement, Section 1103.2
allows the code official to require the installation of a system to pro-
vide emergency responder radio coverage. If an existing building is
known to have inadequate radio coverage, Section 1103.2 allows the
code official to establish a time frame for compliance with Section
510.1. This could be either a wired communication system or a build-
 E m e r g e n c y R e s p o n d e r R a d i o C o v e r a g e    7 5

ing radio amplification system. Prior to construction, there are times

when it will be difficult to ensure that radio coverage will not be You Should
affected by the building itself. This is the reason this requirement is Know
also applicable to existing facilities. [Ref. SBC 801 - 510.2] Discussions with public
Emergency responder radio coverage systems can create radio safety radio professionals
frequency interruption during the normal, or standby, mode. In found that based on cur-
buildings where the constant operation of the radio equipment could rent radio technologies,
have a negative impact on the normal operations of that facility, the some method to provide
fire code official can allow the system to be in a normally “OFF” mode emergency responder
and designed to activate automatically. The code does not specify the radio coverage is typically
method of automatic activation; it could be as a result of a water flow necessary in any building
alarm in a fire sprinkler system, or smoke detector in a fire alarm with one or more base-
system, or some other approved method. The method of activation ments or below-grade
would be subject to the approval of the fire code official. [Ref. SBC levels, any underground
801 - 510.1] building or any building
ERRCS equipment must be installed in accordance with SBC more than five stories in
401 and two National Fire Protection Association standards: NFPA height.
1221, Standard for the Installation, Maintenance and Use of Emergency In most wood frame or
Services Communications Systems, and NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm mixed construction Group
and Signaling Code. R-1 and R-2 occupancies,
A critical requirement calls for protecting from fire some of the single-family dwellings,
cables connecting the indoor antennas and the main ERRCS controls. townhouses and buildings
Cables that run vertically through the building (called “riser” or with an area less than
“backbone”) must be protected by not less than 2-hour fire-resistive 4650 m 2 without base-
construction. Horizontally running cables (“feeders” or “distribu- ments, there is little con-
tion”) don't require that level of protection, but the connections cern for loss of radio signal
between the riser/feeder cables must also be in a 2-hour-rated enclo- strength inside the building
sure. or inability to transmit to an
outdoor receiver. l
7 6    C h a p t e r 6 F i r e S e r v i c e F e a t u r e s

QUIZ
1. SBC 801 requires fire apparatus access roads for buildings that are
remodeled or renovated.
a. True
b. False

2. Fire flow for manual fire fighting normally is measured at a mini-

mum of ______ kPag.
a. 20
b. 138
c. 150
d. 225

3. Emergency Responder Radio Coverage Systems are required in all

new and existing buildings.
a. True
b. False

4. Private fire hydrants must inspected annually and after each use.
a. True
b. False

5. The maximum grade of fire apparatus access roads is _________.

a. 5%
b. 8%
c. 10%
d. 14%
e. as determined by the Civil Defense authorities
CHAPTER
Building Systems
7

B
uilding systems include fuel-fired appliances, standby and
emergency power, and emergency responder elevator controls.
SBC 801, Chapter 6 sets the requirements for these build-
ing systems. Some building systems use hazardous materials, such as
mechanical refrigeration, energy storage systems and commercial cook-
ing. The presence of these requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 6 means
the hazards are regulated by its specific requirements rather than gen-
eral hazardous materials requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 50 (see Part
VI of this Guide). Furthermore, there are many references to SBC 201
Building Code and SBC 501 Mechanical Code because many of these build-
ing features are interconnected with systems and equipment those codes
regulate.

77
7 8    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s
Code
Essentials
Liquefied petroleum gas
(LP-gas) and methane
(natural gas) are two forms
of fuel gases. All fuel
gases—other than hydro-
gen—must be odorized so
humans can easily detect
leaks. Kerosene and No. 2
diesel fuel are examples
of fuel oils commonly
used in building services
and equipment. SBC 501
Mechanical Code defines
fuel oil as kerosene or a
hydrocarbon with a flash
point of at least 38°C. [Ref.
SBC 501 - 202] l
FIGURE 7-1  Fuel-fired equipment must be installed
with adequate access to facilitate maintenance.
FUEL-FIRED APPLIANCES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 603]
Except for motor vehicle internal combustion engines and por-
table appliances such as lawn mowers and weed-burning torches,
SBC 801 regulates the installation and operation of fixed fuel gas
appliances. Appliances are equipment or devices using fuel gas or
fuel oil to produce light, heat, power, refrigeration or air condition-
ing. SBC 801 requires that all appliances be installed in accordance
with the requirements of SBC 1201 Fuel Gas Code as well as SBC 501
Mechanical Code. [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.1, 603.1.2]
Natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LP-gas) are two fuel
gases commonly used to power this equipment. Natural gas is a
mixture of flammable gases whose primary constituent is methane.
LP-gas is a mixture of ethane, methane, propane and butane. Before
they are prepared for market, natural gas and LP-gas are colorless and
odorless flammable gases. Natural gas’s vapor density is lighter than
air so it tends to rise when it is released. LP-gas vapors are heavier
than air so they tend to sink and collect in low-lying areas. Safety
regulations require both gases to be odorized when they are shipped
using a pipeline, tank car, container or other vessel. An odorant like
methyl mercaptan is added so any leak is detectable to humans by a
distinctive “rotten egg or cabbage” odor.
Fuel oil is a hydrocarbon distillate with a flash-point temperature
of more than 38°C, which classifies the material as a combustible
liquid based on the classification criteria in SBC 801, Chapter 57.
(See Chapter 19 of this Guide for an explanation of flammable and
combustible liquid classification.) Fuel oils include kerosene and die-
sel fuel.
All fuel-fired equipment is required to be installed
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, and
any equipment modification must comply with the orig-
inal equipment manufacturer’s requirements. Adequate
clearances must be maintained around hot surfaces,
burners, motors, controls, air filters, chimney connects,
draft regulators and other working parts so equipment
can be serviced (Figure 7-1). SBC 801 and SBC 501 both
contain extensive requirements for equipment access.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 603.1.2, 603.1.5]
Fuel oil is used as a heat source and to operate
engine-driven fire pumps or generators. Petroleum
products used in fuel-fired equipment must meet the
original equipment manufacturer’s specifications, and
SBC 801 prohibits the use of a petroleum product that is
contaminated with gasoline because it may lower the combined prod-
uct’s flash point to dangerous levels. In Group F, M and S occupancies
only, businesses may choose to use heaters that consume waste oil.
Waste oil heaters and boilers commonly are found in motor vehicle
 F u e l - F i r e d A p p l i a n c e s    7 9

repair garages and manufacturing plants using petroleum-formu-

lated cutting fluids (Figure 7-2). Extreme caution must be taken to
ensure the low-flash-point heavy distillates are not contaminated
with products such as gasoline or benzene that can create explosive
mixtures.
SBC 801 requires waste oil fuel-fired appliances to be listed as
heat recovery devices. These heaters are limited to the use of used
crankcase oil up to Society of Automotive Engineers 50 weight, used
transmission and hydraulic fluids, and Nos. 2, 3 and 4 fuel oils. If
waste oil heaters are installed in a repair garage, they also must
comply with SBC 801, Chapter 23 and NFPA 30A, Code for Motor
Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages requirements. [Ref. SBC
801 - 603.1.4] The amount of fuel oil allowed inside a building
depends on the type of storage tank and the level of fire protection.
When stored above ground, SBC 801 allows storage tanks outside or
inside a building. Fuel oil storage outdoors is limited to 2498 L. If FIGURE 7-2  Waste-oil burners
more than 2498 L of fuel oil is required, the storage tank and fuel oil (Courtesy of Clean Burn Energy
delivery system design must comply with the requirements of NFPA Systems, Leola, PA)
31, Standard for the Installation of Oil-Burning Equipment. NFPA 31
refers to the requirements of NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible
Liquids Code for tanks storing more than 2500 L of fuel oil. [Ref. SBC
801 - 603.3.1]
Indoor fuel oil storage requirements are based on
the storage amount. Storage of 2500 L or less of fuel oil
is allowed if the aggregate quantity does not exceed this
amount.
If the indoor quantity exceeds 2500 L, the fuel oil
must be stored underground or a protected above-
ground storage tank (PAST). Up to 11 350 L is permit-
ted above ground and inside a building when the fuel
oil is stored inside PAST. One or more PASTs may be
used to achieve this total. The tank or tanks must be
installed in a room or area protected by an automatic
fire sprinkler system designed in accordance with SBC
801, Section 903.1.1 (NFPA 13) (Figure 7-3). [Ref. SBC FIGURE 7-3  PASTs for fuel oil located in sprinklered
buildings can have a capacity up to 11 350 L.
801 - 603.3.1]

You Should Know

A PAST is a shop-fabricated above-ground storage tank that has been subjected to a two-hour flammable
liquid pool fire test. PASTs are constructed with integral secondary containment and are evaluated for vehi-
cle impact and bullet resistance.
All PAST openings are located at the top of the storage tank, which reduces the potential for liquid leaks.
SBC 801 prohibits openings below the liquid level.
These tank assemblies are listed to meet the requirements of UL 2085, Standard for Protected Aboveground
Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids. [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.3.2.1] l
8 0    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s
Code
Essentials
The amount of fuel oil
allowed inside a build-
ing is limited by SBC 801,
based on the type of stor-
age tank. Above ground
and inside of buildings, a
maximum of 11 350 L of
fuel oil can be stored in a
PAST. l
You Should
Know
Carbon monoxide (CO)
molecules have a higher
affinity than oxygen to
attach to red blood cells
that normally carry oxygen
to human tissues. Carbon
monoxide is an odorless,
tasteless and colorless gas
that humans cannot detect.
If an atmosphere contains
enough carbon monox-
ide, CO can displace the
oxygen, preventing it from
being carried into the
body. This condition is
known as carboxyhemo-
globin. Acute exposure
to high carbon monox-
ide levels can result in
injury or death. (See SBC
801, Section 915 for car-
bon monoxide detection
requirements.) l
The PAST may be used only to supply fuel oil to fuel-fired appli-
ances—it cannot be used for any other purpose. The PAST may not be
located more than two stories below the building’s grade plane. Fuel
oil piping must be liquid-tight and comply with the requirements of
SBC 501 (Figure 7-4). [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.3.2.1, 603.3.2.4]
Normal vent at least 1.5 m from
the building and terminating at
least 3.6 m above grade
Emergency vent
Fuel oil
Tank ll return
Ground connection
level
Fuel oil supply
Liquid level
transmitter
Fuel oil
transfer pump
Check
valve 3785 L protected
above-ground storage tank
FIGURE 7-4  This 3785 L protected above-ground
Overfill storage tank is located inside a
prevention device
building and supplies an engine-driven generator.
Fuel-fired appliances are designed to operate as either vented or
unvented appliances. They are commonly used for heating. Vented
appliances use air from the room in which they are located as their
source of combustion air. Vented appliances use chimneys or vents to
release carbon monoxide and other exhaust gases directly outdoors.
Unvented heaters also use indoor air as their source of combus-
tion air; however, these heaters release the combustion byproducts
into the room. Most portable unvented heaters use kerosene or
LP-gas fuels (Figure 7-5). When these heaters are properly operated
and maintained, combustion can be up to 98 percent efficient. Even
with this high efficiency,
the constant use of unvent-
ed heaters inside a build-
ing can produce high carbon
monoxide levels if adequate
fresh makeup air is not
provided. Like other appli-
ances, they should never
use fuels not approved for
them. Substituting gaso-
line or benzene can create
explosive mixtures. FIGURE 7-5  This portable LP-gas heater is an
unvented fuel-fired appliance.
 F u e l - F i r e d A p p l i a n c e s    8 1

Because of the concerns over CO poisoning, as well as issues of

fire safety since these heaters emit radiant and convective energy,
SBC 801 has specific provisions concerning portable unvented heat-
ers. Unvented heaters are prohibited in Assembly, Educational,
Institutional and Residential occupancies, except that listed and
approved heaters are allowed in one- and two-family dwellings. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 603.4]
Although listed devices are allowed in one- and two-family dwell-
ings, their operation and location still are regulated. Portable unvent-
ed heaters are not permitted to be used in or obtain combustion air
from sleeping rooms, bathrooms, toilet rooms or closets. [Ref. SBC
801 - 603.4.1]
Portable outdoor gas-fired appliances are another type of unvent-
ed heaters. These heaters are especially popular at restaurant outdoor
seating areas and similar gathering places. As unvented appliances,
they are not designed or listed for indoor use. SBC 801 prohibits the
use of portable outdoor gas-fired heating appliances inside buildings,
tents, canopies and membrane structures (Figure 7-6). The heaters
also are prohibited on exterior balconies of apartment buildings
and similar multifamily residential areas as specified in NFPA 58,
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code. NFPA 58 prohibits the use or storage
of liquefied petroleum-gas (LP-gas) containers on exterior balconies
when the LP-gas container volume is greater than 0.5 kg. [Ref. SBC
801 - 603.4.2.1.1]

FIGURE 7-6  Portable outdoor gas-fired heating appliances are allowed when in
compliance with Section 603.4.2.1.1.

Portable outdoor gas-fired heating appliances are required to be

listed and approved by the fire code official (Figure 7-7). For patio FIGURE 7-7  Portable outdoor
heaters, the applicable standard is American National Standards gas heater (Courtesy of
Institute (ANSI) Z83.26, Standard for Gas-Fired Outdoor Infrared Patio Infrared Dynamics, Yorba
Linda, CA)
Heaters. One safety feature required by the ANSI standard is that the
8 2    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s
You Should
Know
Emergency power systems
are designed to operate
within 10 seconds of nor-
mal power loss and last
90 minutes.
Standby power systems
are designed to operate
with 60 seconds of normal
power loss and last as long
as the connected systems
and equipment require.
For example, hospitals
may require the secondary
power to operate for
7 days while an elevator
secondary power supply
may only have to operate
for several hours. l
connection between the LP-gas cylinder and the hose supplying the
appliance’s burner be equipped with a Compressed Gas Association
(CGA) 790 fitting. A CGA 790 fitting provides three separate safety
features: the fitting has a thermal link that stops the flow of LP-gas
93° to 121°C, the fitting requires a positive connection to the cylinder
before LP-gas can flow into the appliance and the fitting is equipped
with an internal excess flow control valve. The excess flow control
valve is designed to stop the flow of a gas or liquid in the event of
hose or pipe rupture. [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.4.2.2.1]
When portable gas-fired heating appliances are utilized, specific
safeguards are included to minimize ignition of nearby materials
and maintain a safe occupant evacuation route. The portable gas-
fired appliance must be equipped with a tip-over switch that will
automatically shut off the appliance when it is tilted more than
15 degrees from vertical. This prevents the appliance from spreading
fire if it were to be accidentally knocked down. The maximum gas
container size is 9 kg. A minimum separation of 1500 mm is required
between the appliance and buildings, combustible awnings or over-
hangs, decorations, and exits and exit discharges. Refill containers
for gas-fired appliances may not be stored inside the building unless
each container is no larger than 1.13 kg water capacity and the total
LP-gas capacity does not exceed 91 kg. [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.4.2.1,
603.4.2.2, 603.4.2.3, 6109.9]
EMERGENCY AND STANDBY POWER
SYSTEMS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 604]
Emergency and standby power systems are required by SBC 801
and SBC 201 to provide a reliable, back-up electric power source to
buildings, equipment or facilities. These systems are required in
buildings that represent a significant life safety challenge, present
complications to emergency responders, or contain certain classes
and quantities of hazardous materials. SBC 801 provisions for these
systems specify when they are required; system installation and per-
formance requirements based on the building’s use; and the inspec-
tion, testing and maintenance of the power source and its transfer
switch. The requirements for design and installation of emergency
and standby power systems are specified in SBC 401, NFPA 110,
Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems and NFPA 111,
Standard on Stored Electrical Energy Emergency and Standby Power
Systems. NFPA 110 addresses back-up power systems that connect
to an alternative energy grid or to engine-driven generator sets and
NFPA 111 addresses stored energy sources such as stationary storage
batteries. [Ref. SBC 801 - 604.1]
Emergency power and standby power are defined terms in SBC 401
that explain the purpose and functions of these systems.
 E m e r g e n c y a n d S t a n d b y P o w e r S y s t e m s    8 3

SBC 401 contains design and installa-

tion requirements for emergency and standby
power systems but does not specify the occu-
pancies or uses where these auxiliary power
systems are required. SBC 201 Saudi Building
Code designates the occupancy or use and
type of auxiliary power systems that are
required. In cases where the code does not
specifically indicate if standby or emergency
power is required, the design professional
and fire code official make the determination.
Table 7-1 summarizes the occupancies, build-
ings and uses that require emergency power,
standby power or both (Figure 7-8). [Ref. FIGURE 7-8  Auxiliary power systems to provide emergency or
SBC 801 - 604.2] standby power are required in a variety of occupancy categories.

TABLE 7-1 Occupancies, buildings and uses requiring emergency and standby power
SBC 801 section
Where required Type of required system number
Elevators and platform lifts Standby 604.2.1
Emergency alarms Emergency 604.2.2
Emergency responder radio coverage systems Standby 604.2.3
Emergency voice/alarm communication systems Emergency 604.2.4
Exit signs Emergency 604.2.5
Essential systems in Group I-2 Emergency 604.2.6
Power operated locks and doors in Group I-3 Emergency 604.2.7
Emergency or Standby or both, depending
Hazardous materials 604.2.8, #1
on the specific material and quantity
Highly toxic and toxic materials Emergency 604.2.8, #2
Organic peroxides Standby 604.2.8, #3
Emergency or Standby, depending on the
High-rise buildings 604.2.9
electrical load’s function
Horizontal sliding doors Standby 604.2.10
Hydrogen fuel gas rooms Standby 604.2.11
Means of egress illumination Emergency 604.2.12
Membrane structures—inflation systems in Standby 604.2.13
permanent membrane structures
Semiconductor fabrication facilities Emergency 604.2.14
Smoke control systems Standby 604.2.15
Emergency or Standby, depending on the
Underground buildings 604.2.16
electrical load’s function
8 4    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s

Emergency power systems are specified when the interruption

of normal electrical current would produce very serious life safety or
health hazards. Exit sign lighting and exit illumination, electric fire
pumps, toxic gas controls and high-rise elevator car illumination are
electrical loads that must be connected to emergency power circuits.
The wiring generally must be kept independent from other building
wiring. SBC 401 prohibits the connection of nonemergency power
loads to the emergency power circuits.
The electrical circuits for standby and emergency power need
to be reliable and dependable, especially during a fire. The expecta-
tion is that the wiring in these circuits will survive for a minimum
of 2 hours. Electrical power feeder-circuit equipment and wiring for
emergency power systems require protection using a passive form
of fire resistance. SBC 401 states that one of the following methods
must be used to protect the electrical system as the conductors tra-
verse the building:
1. Encasement in concrete not less than 50 mm
2. Protection by a 2-hour fire-resistance-rated assembly
3. Wiring must comply with UL 2196, Tests for Fire Resistive
Cables (Figure 7-9)
Standby power system
requirements are not so rig-
orous as those for emergen-
cy power. SBC 801 requires
standby power systems when
the interruption of normal
Seamless copper sheath
electrical service could cre-
ate hazards or interrupt fire
fighting or rescue operations
Magnesium oxide (MgO) insulation
(Figure 7-10). Electrical loads
required to be connected to
Solid Copper Conductors standby power branch circuits
include smoke control systems,
FIGURE 7-9  Pyrotenax MI cable—2-hour fire-rated cable elevators, platform lifts used
(Courtesy of Pentair Thermal Management, Houston, TX)
as components of an accessible
means of egress, and refrig-
eration equipment to control
the storage temperatures of
certain organic peroxides. SBC
401 does not require the cir-
cuits serving standby power
systems to be protected for
2 hours.

FIGURE 7-10 Platform lifts for persons with limited mobility must be on standby
power.
 E m e r g e n c y a n d S t a n d b y P o w e r S y s t e m s    8 5

Emergency and standby power systems con-

sist of wiring, equipment controls and an energy
source that provides safe and reliable electric power
(Figure 7-11). The energy source can use stored
power (batteries) or it may be an indoor or out-
door generator set. The other critical component
in an emergency or standby power system is the
automatic transfer switch (ATS). In the event that
normal electric power is disconnected, the ATS
transfers power from the auxiliary energy source
to the emergency or standby power circuits (Figure
7-12). An ATS must be listed for either emergency
or standby power service and designed to safely
carry the entire electrical load of all the circuits to FIGURE 7-11  The generator assembly is used to provide
which it is connected. An ATS also must have man- standby power for a refrigerated warehouse.
ual controls in case the automatic function of Normal Utility Service
the switch fails to operate. SBC 401 requires
an ATS used for emergency power service
to operate within 10 seconds after power is
disconnected and within 60 seconds when Engine-Generator
the switch is serving a standby power source. G
This satisfies SBC 801 requirements for ATS Main CB
devices in high-rise and underground build-
ings. [Ref. SBC 801 - 604.1.3]
Main Electrical Bus Bar
The power source—such as an engine-
driven generator or a battery group—must
CB Non-Emergency CB Emergency CB Generator
be tested under load in accordance with
NFPA 110 or NFPA 111. Load testing is ben-
eficial to engine-driven generators because
during the first 12 to 24 months, full or To Non-Emergency Loads
Automatic Transfer Switch
partial engine loading helps set piston rings,
which is important to the overall perfor-
CB Circuit Breaker
mance of the generator. If the engine piston
rings, are not completely set and the gen- To Emergency Loads
erator is subjected to a full design load, the
engine performance can decay, causing loss
of power to one or more critical loads. The
tests prescribed in SBC 801 require tests of FIGURE 7-12  One-line diagram of an engine-driven generator
and automatic transfer switch used as an emergency power
the primary auxiliary power source and its source
ATS. As an option, the standby or emergency
power system can be used for “load shaving.”
Load shaving is a practice where utility power is disconnected from
all or part of a building and a generator is used to supply electricity
during nonemergency operations. Load shaving is considered equal
to load testing and can be used to demonstrate compliance with the
maintenance plan. [Ref. SBC 801 - 604.5 Exception]
8 6    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s
FIGURE 7-13 Regularly scheduled testing and maintenance are
essential to keep emergency and standby power systems operating.
FIGURE 7-14  Emergency egress
lighting units must be tested for
30 seconds each month and
90 minutes once annually.
Emergency and standby power sys-
tem failures generally result from a lack
of testing and exercising of the ATS or
of the energy source, such as scheduled
load testing of an engine-driven genera-
tor. SBC 801 requires that an approved
maintenance and testing schedule be pre-
pared and implemented to ensure that
these systems are available for service
in the event utility power is lost (Figure
7-13). The schedule must comply with the
inspection and testing requirements in
the NFPA 110 and NFPA 111. Inspection
and test results must be documented and
be maintained available for review by the
fire code official. [Ref. SBC 801 - 604.4,
604.5]
EMERGENCY LIGHTING
[Ref. SBC 801 - 604, 1008, 1013]
Exit signs and emergency lighting are commonly provided with
batteries as the secondary power supply (for further discussion on
required exit signs and egress path illumination, see Chapter 13 in
this Guide). The batteries are typically contained within the lighting
unit itself. When the main power supply is lost, the battery provides
the emergency power. Battery life can deteriorate over the equip-
ment’s life, so egress lighting maintenance is critical to provide a
safe evacuation path from the building. SBC 801 requires that exit
lighting is inspected and tested on a routine basis. The devices with
battery backup have a test button that disconnects the normal power
and switches to battery power. Each emergency lighting fixture must
be tested monthly for a 30-second period and annually must be
tested for the full 90-minute duration. Recordkeeping of the monthly
and annual tests is required (Figure 7-14). [Ref. SBC 801 - 604.6,
1008.3, 1013.6.3]
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 605]
Solar photovoltaic (PV) power systems are becoming more com-
monplace. The ability to convert light energy into electricity offers
a cost savings to the consumer, takes advantage of a renewable
resource and reduces the strain on utility power systems. These sys-
tems generate electricity, which is a potential ignition source, and
when installed on buildings these systems can also cause difficulty
for fire-fighting operations.
 S o l a r P h o t o v o l t a i c P o w e r S y s t e m s    8 7

PV panels generate electricity when

exposed to sunlight and the only ener-
gy disconnect device is arranged inline
after the electric current is generated.
For this reason, conduits and raceways
must be marked and located near the
roof ridges or valleys or beneath struc-
tural roof members. Locating beneath
the roof structural members reduces the
potential for a fire-fighting roof ventila-
tion operation unintentionally cutting
through the energized conductors inside
conduit (Figure 7-15). [Ref. SBC 801 -
605.11.1, 605.11.2]
SBC 401 requires that the disconnect
means be installed in a readily acces- FIGURE 7-15  Solar PV arrays are constantly generating electricity
when exposed to sunlight.
sible location. SBC 401, Section 690.31
requires the disconnect means to be
identified. If the disconnect is not at the
building’s main electrical disconnect, it
must be visible from the point where
the main service disconnect is installed
(Figures 7-16 and 7-17). [Ref. SBC 801
- 605.11]
SBC 801 contains requirements for
solar photovoltaic systems on commer-
cial, residential and industrial build-
ings and ground-mounted systems.
Rooftop solar panel arrays are limited to
2025 m2 with a maximum dimension
of 45 m. Additionally, the solar panels
must be spaced to provide fire-fighter FIGURE 7-16  Activation of the rapid shutdown switch deenergizes the
system beyond 305 mm of the array boundary.
walkways at least 900 mm wide for resi-
dential buildings and 1800 mm wide for
commercial buildings. Spacing from roof
ridges is required to provide areas for
openings in the roof to be cut for fire-
fighting operations.

FIGURE 7-17  Electrical service disconnects for solar PV services

8 8    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s
Code
Essentials
In Phase I service, a smoke
detector is installed in
each elevator lobby and its
actuation causes the eleva-
tor car to be captured and
recalled to the designated
floor; usually the build-
ing’s main or ground floor.
Upon arrival, the car door
opens and the elevator is
no longer operable by the
occupants.
Phase II service allows
fire fighters to control the
elevator and travel to any
floor the elevator services.
The operating controls are
located inside the eleva-
tor car. When placed into
the fire service mode, the
elevator can be operated
only by personnel in the
elevator car. To return the
elevator to normal service,
the elevator must be reset
using the Phase I switch.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 607.1] l
FIGURE 7-19  A pictorial sign
is required at each elevator
lobby instructing occupants to
use the exit enclosure stairs
during a building fire.
ELEVATORS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 607]
Elevators are required in buildings four or more stories in height
to provide an accessible means of egress for mobility-impaired per-
sons. When a building is more than 36 m above the lowest level of
fire department access, SBC 201 requires a fire service access eleva-
tor. In all other buildings, elevators are provided to facilitate the
movement of the building occupants, and, as such, they must be
installed in accordance with the applicable SBC 201 and 801 require-
ments. [Ref. SBC 801 - 607.1, 1009.2.1]
Elevator design, construction and testing requirements are con-
tained in ASME/ANSI A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators.
SBC 801, Section 607.1 and ASME A17.1 require all new elevators to
be equipped with Phase I and Phase II fire fighter service features.
In existing buildings equipped with
an elevator having a travel distance of
7500 mm or more, SBC 801 requires it
be equipped with Phase I fire-fighter
service. In the event a smoke detector
fails or if emergency responders wish to
use the elevator for the equipment or
patient transport, a key switch is provid-
ed in the elevator lobby (Figure 7-18).
The key switch overrides the automatic
function of the elevator and captures
FIGURE 7-18  A Phase I
emergency in-car operation the elevator and recalls it to the floor
feature level where the switch was activated.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 607.1]
Elevators generally are not permitted by SBC 201 to be used
as a means of egress component. To ensure that occupants do not
attempt to use an elevator as a means of egress, a standard pictorial
sign is required in each elevator lobby that instructs the occupants
to use exit stairs when a building is being evacuated (Figure 7-19).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 607.2]
 S t a t i o n a r y S t o r a g e B a t t e r y S y s t e m s    8 9

When elevators are provided in a building, at least one

elevator car must be available to all floor levels and sized
to accommodate an ambulance gurney. This elevator car
must be identified for emergency use with the interna-
tional symbol for emergency services—the Star of Life—
on the hoistway frame or door (Figure 7-20).

STATIONARY STORAGE BATTERY

SYSTEMS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 608]
Many businesses rely on computer power to run day-
to-day operations, and their dependence on the electri- FIGURE 7-20  The Star of Life symbol on an
elevator hoistway indicates that the elevator is
cal power supply to those computers can be critical. To large enough to accommodate a gurney.
maintain their computer networks in full-time operation,
back-up power systems may be provided. These can take
the form of generators or stationary storage systems.
Many businesses find the need to provide a battery
room with fixed equipment to provide adequate power for
their computers and equipment. These stationary battery
systems are regulated by SBC 801 (Figure 7-21).
SBC 801 contains requirements for spill control,
ventilation, smoke detection systems, spill neutraliza-
tion, signs and markings, seismic restraint and thermal
runaway management. The requirements vary based on
the specific type of battery utilized. For example, some
contain liquid sulfuric acid that will require spill control FIGURE 7-21  A wet-cell battery storage rooom
is used for back-up power to a computer server
and a method to neutralize a spill. Lithium-ion batteries building.
do not pose the same hazard and therefore do not require
the same mitigation. Types of batteries regulated are
• Vented lead-acid batteries
• Vented nickel-cadmium batteries
• Valve regulated lead-acid batteries
It should be noted that many batteries will contain hazardous
materials. Since Section 608 is specific to stationary storage battery
systems, these systems will be regulated under these requirements
rather than the general hazardous materials requirements. This con-
dition applies even though some of the Section 608 provisions are
less restrictive than the provisions applicable to hazardous materials
in general. Keep in mind that the requirements for stationary storage
battery systems are designed to mitigate the specific hazards pre-
sented in these systems and the general hazardous materials require-
ments must apply to a much broader scale of hazards.
9 0    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s

Stationary battery systems can be located either in the same

Code room with the actual equipment they power, or in a separate room
Essentials specifically designed for the energy storage system. SBC 201 treats
In occupancies with a
the battery storage room as an “incidental” use in a building. [Ref.
potentially high life threat
SBC 201 - Table 509] Battery rooms must be separated from the
(Groups A, E, I and R) a
remainder of the building by fire-resistance-rated construction. This
2-hour fire-resistance-rated
construction is required in case the battery system experience ther-
separation is required for
mal runaway and starts a fire.
a battery room with more
Electrical power storage technology is a rapidly changing field.
than 190 L of electrolyte
At least five different technologies currently are under research and
or 450 kg of lithium-ion or
development:
lithium metal polymers.
1. Lithium-tungsten, in which tungsten and carbon multilayered
In other occupancies, the
nanotubes bond to the copper anode substrate and build a weblike
separation is only required
nanostructure.
to be 1-hour fire-resis-
2. Zinc-manganese oxide batteries that create chemical conver-
tance-rated.
sion reactions. If the process can be controlled, it can increase energy
A smoke detection system
density in conventional batteries without increasing cost.
is required in all rooms
3. Organosilicon electrolyte batteries that lessen the fire threats
containing a stationary bat-
from lithium-ion batteries by adding a proprietary silicon-based sol-
tery storage system. [Ref.
vent to stabilize the lithium-ion reaction.
SBC 201 - Table 509 and
4. Gold nanowire gel electrolyte batteries using coated gold
SBC 801 - 608.4.1, 608.9]
nanowires with manganese dioxide, then covering them with elec-
l
trolyte gel.
5. Multiple-tank string cell, in which a collection of small inde-
pendent self-organizing cells are connected. Each string cell consists
of a plastic enclosure covered with a conductive material that allows
it to quickly and easily form contacts with others.
Code officials should expect significant SBC 201, 401 and 801
changes over the upcoming decades. [Ref. SBC 801 - 608]

COMMERCIAL COOKING OPERATIONS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 609]
Based on their global loss history, commercial cooking operations
present a fire- and life-safety threat that requires close supervision.
Three main areas of concern are:
• Cooking and exhaust controls,
• Cooking oil storage, and
• Automatic fire-extinguishing systems.
Commercial cooking appliances require a local exhaust ventila-
tion system to remove heat, vapors, steam, smoke or odors produced
during food preparation, cooking or cleaning activities. The require-
ments for exhaust systems are set forth in SBC 501 Mechanical Code
that designates two types of exhaust systems: Type I for heavy-duty
commercial cooking and Type II for residential cooking and odor
removal. A Type I hood is designed for the removal of grease-laden
vapors and smoke (Figure 7-22). [Ref. SBC 801 - 609.2]
 C o m m e r c i a l C o o k i n g O p e r a t i o n s    9 1

Type I hoods and their

exhaust ducts collect the vapors,
oils and fats produced during
the cooking processes. The
amount of grease and smoke
that is generated is dependent
on the method of cooking, the
type of protein being cooked
and the intensity and fre-
quency of cooking operations.
Consequently, SBC 801 estab-
lishes prescriptive inspection
frequencies in Table 609.3.3.1.
Depending on the nature of
the commercial cooking activi-
ties, a single kitchen could have
different inspection frequen-
cies. For example, a restaurant
that serves smoked meats must
FIGURE 7-22  A commercial cooking operation with a Type I exhaust hood
inspect the smoking appliances
monthly, whereas other equip-
ment would require inspection
every three or six months depending on the volume of cooking being
performed. The most restrictive inspection frequency is for cooking
operations using solid fuels, such as barbecue pits and meat smokers.
When appliances use a solid fuel such as wood or charcoal, a regular
monthly inspection frequency is required. Cooking operations using
charbroiling or woks require a minimum three-month inspection fre-
quency, as do high-volume cooking operations found in restaurants
that are open around the clock. The inspection frequency is reduced
to 12 months for cooking activities involving seasonal businesses,
places of worship and facilities that provide care for the elderly. All
other cooking operations are subject to a six-month inspection fre-
quency (Table 7-2). [Ref. SBC 801 - 609.3.3.1]

TABLE 7-2  Commercial cooking system inspection frequency (SBC 801, Table 609.3.3.1)
Type of cooking operation Frequency of inspection

High-volume cooking operations such as 24- 3 months

hour cooking, charbroiling or wok cooking
Low-volume cooking operations such
as places of religious worship, seasonal 12 months
businesses and senior centers
Cooking operations utilizing solid- 1 month
fuel-burning cooking appliances
All other cooking operations 6 months
9 2    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s

If the inspection reveals an accumulation of grease, the hood,

grease removal devices, exhaust fans and ducts are required to be
cleaned (Figure 7-23). The required inspection determines whether
cleaning is necessary or not. A tag must be affixed to the exhaust
hood after the inspection is completed to indicate the date of the
most recent inspection. When the system is cleaned a tag will also be
affixed to the hood with the date of the cleaning (Figure 7-24). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 609.3.3.2]

FIGURE 7-23 Cleaning of Type

I hoods that serve commercial
cooking operations is a required
activity to limit the amount of
available fuel that could spread fire.
FIGURE 7-24  An inspection and service tag is to be provided
to document that the commercial kitchen exhaust hood was
inspected or cleaned. (Courtesy of Flue Steam Inc., Culver City,
CA)

Cooking oil storage [Ref. SBC 801 - 610]

Cooking oils used in deep-fat fryers have flash points higher
than the temperatures at which they are used. This does not mean
that they will not ignite and burn, just that the temperature needed
to reach flash point is higher. Consequently, SBC 801 states that
cooking oils are treated as Class IIIB liquids unless actual flash point
testing proves otherwise. Both fresh oil and waste oil are classified as
Class IIIB combustible liquids. [Ref. SBC 801 - 610.1]
Cooking oil storage methods must meet the requirements in SBC
801, Section 610 and NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Code for storage container and location. Requirements include the
type of container, proximity to ignition sources, storage height of
storage, etc. The most common form of storage in restaurants is
referred to as a jug-in-a-box, which is a 17 L container in a cardboard
box. When cooking oil supplies are contained in a tank exceeding
225 L, the storage tank must be designed for the storage of combus-
tible liquids or cooking oils.
Tanks storage of cooking oil is becoming quite common. The
tanks eliminate the need for kitchen employees to transport each
jug-in-a-box through the facility, dispense the contents into the fryer
and properly discard the empty containers. With tank storage, supply
tube is installed between the fryers and the tanks, enabling fresh oil
to be pumped to the fryers and waste oil to return to the waste oil
tank. Additional connections are installed outside the building for
fresh oil delivery and waste oil collection (Figure 7-25).
 C o m m e r c i a l C o o k i n g O p e r a t i o n s    9 3

FIGURE 7-25  Delivery and recovery of cooking oil utilizing oil storage
tanks (Courtesy of Restaurant Technologies, Inc.)

Cooking oil storage tanks may be constructed of metal-

lic or nonmetallic materials and must be listed. Metallic
cooking oil storage tanks must be listed to UL 142, Steel
Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids or
UL 80, Steel Tanks for Oil-Burner Fuels and Other Combustible
Liquids. Nonmetallic cooking oil storage tanks must be listed
for the storage of cooking oil and evaluated to handle cook-
ing oil at the anticipated temperatures. Nonmetallic cook-
ing oil storage tanks are limited to a capacity of 750 L each.
When storage tanks are utilized, it is quite common for two
tanks to be installed, one tank for fresh cooking oil and one
tank for waste cooking oil (Figure 7-26). [Ref. SBC 801 -
610.2, 610.3]
Venting is required on flammable or combustible liquid
storage tanks, and cooking oil storage tanks are no different.
Since the flash point of cooking oils is so high, the normal
vent may discharge into the room where the tank is located.
Emergency vents are required to prevent rupture during a
fire exposure. Metallic storage tanks must be equipped with FIGURE 7-26 Nonmetallic cooking oil storage
tanks listed to UL 2152 (Courtesy of Restaurant
an emergency vent. Nonmetallic tanks can be provided with Technologies, Inc.)
an emergency vent device or the tank construction itself can
be designed to fulfill the emergency venting requirement.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 610.5]
Automatic fire-extinguishing systems
[Ref. SBC 801 - 609]
The fire hazard is greatest in cooking operations where
grease-laden vapors are produced. The grease travels up
through the exhaust hood and duct, and as it cools it accu-
mulates along the interior lining of the hood and duct. With
9 4    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s

continued use, this grease layer thickens and the heat exhausted
through the hood and duct keeps this layer of grease at an elevated
temperature. When a fire occurs at the cooking surface and flames
extend up into the hood, the heated grease is easily ignited and fire
can quickly extend throughout the entire duct.
SBC 501 Mechanical Code and SBC 801 require a Type I hood
over cooking operations producing grease-laden vapors because of
this increased fire hazard. [Ref. SBC 801 - 609.2] A Type I exhaust
hood and duct system is constructed to be able to handle the grease-
laden vapors and provide more substantial construction than Type
II hoods. Type I systems are constructed of 0.0625 mm steel, joints
must have a continuous liquid-tight weld, and all connections must
be designed so they don’t trap grease. Prior to being placed in service,
the grease duct must pass a light test to determine if any voids—
called “holidays”—are found in the continuous welds (Figures 7-27
and 7-28). Portions of the ductwork that penetrate concealed areas
in the building, such as attic spaces and wall cavities, must be pro-
tected by an enclosure that provides a fire-resistance rating of at least
1 hour in buildings up to three stories and 2 hours in taller buildings.

FIGURE 7-27  A Type I grease exhaust duct during installation. Note the accessible
cleanout.
 C o m m e r c i a l C o o k i n g O p e r a t i o n s    9 5

FIGURE 7-28  Close-up of a liquid-tight weld on the outside of a Type I grease

exhaust duct

In addition to the component design for fire resistance, com-

mercial cooking activities under a Type I hood are required to be
protected by an automatic fire-extinguishing system (Figure 7-29).
These fire-extinguishing systems are typically designed to activate
both automatically and manually, and they will discharge the extin-
guishing media onto the cooking surface, in the plenum behind the
filters and into the ductwork. (Commercial cooking fire suppression
systems is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 12 of this Guide.)
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.2.2, 904.12]

FIGURE 7-29  Type I exhaust hoods are required to be equipped with an

automatic fire-extinguishing system. (Courtesy of CaptiveAire)
9 6    C h a p t e r 7 B u i l d i n g S y s t e m s

QUIZ
1. SBC 501 Mechanical Code defines fuel oil as kerosene or a hydro-
carbon with a flash point of at least _______°C.
a. 38
b. 40
c. 45
d. 47

2. Above ground and inside of buildings, a maximum of 11 350 L of

fuel oil can be stored in a protected above-ground steel tank.
a. True
b. False

3. Cooking operations using charbroiling or woks require a mini-

mum ___________ inspection frequency, as do high-volume
cooking operations found in restaurants that are open around
the clock.
a. daily
b. weekly
c. three-month
d. six-month

4. In existing buildings equipped with an elevator having a travel

distance of ______ mm or more, SBC 801 requires that it be
equipped with Phase I fire-fighter service.
a. 6096
b. 7500
c. 9304
d. 10 422

5. In all occupancies, a 2-hour fire-resistance-rated separation is

required for a battery room with more than 190 L of electrolyte
or 450 kg of lithium-ion or lithium metal polymers.
a. True
b. False
CHAPTER
Interior Finish and
8 Decorative Materials

S
BC 801 and SBC 201, Chapter 8 address the selection and instal-
lation of materials, fabrics, surface treatments and furnishings
installed or placed inside of buildings.
Interior finishes are the surface coverings of interior walls, ceilings
and floors and may include fixed or moveable wall partitions and interior
wainscoting, paneling or other finish that is used to decorate, insulate or
reduce sound levels inside a building. Decorative materials can be natural
or man-made materials that are applied over the building’s interior finish
for decorative or acoustical effects. Interior finish, decorative materials
and furnishings become fuel sources in a building fire. SBC 801 and SBC
201, Chapter 8 requirements were developed after structure fires result-
ing in hundreds of lives lost because of exposure to smoke or because the
room or area experienced a flashover.

97
9 8    C h a p t e r 8 I n t e r i o r F i n i s h a n d D e c o r a t i v e M a t e r i a l s
You Should
Know
“Flashover” is one of the
four stages of fire behavior.
• Phase 1 is the “incipient”
or “growing” stage, where
a fire begins and has
enough fuel and oxygen
to grow.
• Phase 2 is the “steady
state” stage, where the
fire’s heat release rate is
relatively constant over
time.
• Phase 3 is “flashover,”
where all combustible
materials in the enclosure
emit enough flammable
vapors that they ignite
almost simultaneously.
Flashover occurs at about
600°C.
• Phase 4 is the “decay”
phase, where oxygen or
fuel have been consumed
and the fire begins to
die. l
SBC 201 and SBC 801 requirements for interior finishes and
furnishings were developed after a number of fires in assembly
occupancies in which highly combustible materials were applied to
the interior ceiling or walls of the building or extremely combustible
decorative materials were used that contributed to rapid smoke pro-
duction and fire growth. A number of major fires throughout the
world have resulted in hundreds of fatalities. Table 8-1 summarizes
five of these incidents in Saudi Arabia alone.
TABLE 8-1  Summary of large life loss fires in Saudi Arabia
Location Date Fatalities Injuries
Najran Dwelling July 13, 2017 10 6
Riyadh Hospital December 24, 2016 31 100+
Worker
Khobar August 30, 2015 11 200+
Compound
Medina Hotel February 8, 2014 15 130
Mecca Girls' School March 11, 2002 15 50
In all of the indicated buildings, the interior finish or decorative
materials were a contributing factor; however, other factors includ-
ing inadequate means of egress width, travel distances, and improper
or obstructed exit door openings also may have contributed to the
high number of lives lost.
SBC 801, Chapter 8 requirements limit the likelihood that inte-
rior finish or decorative materials will contribute to flashover. In
Group I and R-2 university dormitories, SBC 801 also prescribes fur-
nishing fire safety requirements for upholstered furniture and mat-
tresses. The requirements limit the amount of heat released when
compared to other combustible materials of equal mass and density.
FLASHOVER
[Ref. SBC 801 - 803]
Flashover is an event during fire growth where the hot smoke
layer inside a compartment releases the greatest amount of heat
energy. During the incipient phase of fire growth, flammable and
toxic carbon monoxide and other volatile gases and smoke particu-
late are produced. With adequate fuel and oxygen fire will continue
to grow and accumulate combustion products at the highest point.
This upward convective heat transfer is called a “thermal plume.”
Unburned particles and gases form a hot smoke layer that reradiates
heat into the enclosure. Heat that travels along a ceiling is called a
“ceiling jet.”
As the fire continues to grow through the preflashover phase,
heated combustibles—including furnishings, decorative material
and stored goods—emit more hot gases and smoke. In the incipi-
 F l a s h o v e r    9 9

ent and preflashover periods

of fire growth, the dominant Hot gas and smoke layer
energy is radiant heat transfer
between the burning materi-
als and the interior surfaces
of the room or compartment Radiant
(Figure 8-1). and
Additional hot gases and convective
smoke are produced as the energy
size of the fire increases. This
causes the smoke layer to Cooler air
thicken and the layer's opaque
surface increases temperature FIGURE 8-1  Preflashover conditions in a room or compartment fire
and moves closer to the com-
bustible fuels. At this point,
radiant energy becomes the dominant energy. When the temperature
of the smoke layer reaches approximately 600°C, the level of radiant
energy absorbed by the combustible materials causes them to exceed
their ignition temperature and flashover occurs. Another criterion of
flashover is the radiant energy level at the floor reaches 15–20 kW/m2.
These criteria at which flashover is estimated to occur will vary slightly
due to different mechanisms that result from varying fuel properties,
fuel orientation, geometry of the room or enclosure, and conditions
in the hot smoke layer. The likelihood of surviving flashover is almost
nil unless the individual is wearing protective
structural fire-fighting clothing and respira-
tory protection.
As more combustible finishes and deco-
rations are added to a room, the time lapse
from fire ignition to flashover shortens. For
this reason, it is important to regulate the
amount and type of combustible materials
allowed in buildings.
SBC 801 and SBC 201 regulations limit
the likelihood that interior finish and decora-
tive materials contribute to flashover by pre-
scribing the use of flame-resistant materials
with a minimum density to slow the rate of
both fire spread and heat release (Figure 8-2).
The orientation and installation of inte-
rior finish materials and decorative materials FIGURE 8-2  Synthetic foam plastic decorations suspended from a
building’s ceiling are in violation of SBC 801, Chapter 8.
on room walls and ceilings also are regulated,
as these factors have a profound effect on the
time from ignition to flashover.
1 0 0    C h a p t e r 8 I n t e r i o r F i n i s h a n d D e c o r a t i v e M a t e r i a l s

INTERIOR WALL AND CEILING FINISH AND

TRIM
[Ref. SBC 801 - 803]
Prescribed laboratory tests are used to evaluate whether surface fin-
ish materials will not cause a flashover or will have a limited ability
to contribute fuel.
SBC 801 requirements for interior finish materials installed on
walls and ceilings are based on their flame spread rate and smoke
production, or their ability to contribute to flashover. Different fire
test methods are permitted by SBC 801, and each test has its own
criteria for assessing the relative fire risks of materials being evalu-
ated. [Ref. SBC 801 - 803.1]
ASTM E84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics
of Building Materials, is a fire test that has been used for more than
850 years. ASTM E84 is also known as the Steiner Tunnel Test, named
after Edward Steiner, an engineer at Underwriters Laboratories
who developed the test apparatus. The test
involves comparing the performance of the
material being evaluated to two other mate-
rials that have predictable and reproducible
results: untreated red oak and asbestos
cement board. Test results are reported as
a material’s flame spread index (FSI) and
smoke-developed index (SDI). FSI and SDI
are a comparative measure, expressed as a
dimensionless number, derived from visual
measurements of the spread of flame or
smoke obscuration over time for a material
tested in accordance with ASTM E84 or its
equivalent UL Standard 723, Test for Surface
FIGURE 8-3  The Steiner Tunnel Test referred to in ASTM E84 Burning Characteristics of Building Materials
measures a material's flame spread and smoke-developed (Figure 8-3). [Ref. SBC 801 - 802.1]
indexes. (Courtesy of Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, IL) Flame spread is assessed visually by the
progression of the flame front, while mea-
surements of optical smoke density at the tunnel outlet determine
the smoke obscuration. This information is used to plot time-based
graphs of flame-spread distance and optical density. FSI and SDI are
then calculated based on the ratio between the duration for the mate-
rial being tested and those for asbestos cement board (assigned FSI
and SDI values of 0) and for red oak flooring (assigned FSI and SDI
values of 100). Based on the FSI and SDI values, ASTM E84 assigns
a class rating for interior finish materials as shown in Table 8-2. The
class ratings are used to assign minimum interior finish require-
ments inside buildings. [Ref. SBC 801 - 803.1.1]
 I n t e r i o r W a l l a n d C e i l i n g F i n i s h a n d T r i m    1 0 1

TABLE 8-2 Interior finish material classifications in accordance with ASTM E84
Material class Flame spread index Smoke-developed index Code
Class A 0–25 0–450
Essentials
ASTM E84 and UL 723
Class B 26–75 0–450
require the tested speci-
Class C 76–200 0–450
men to be mounted or
attached to the material
Although the ASTM E84 test provides a reasonable basis for com-
that will be its substrate
paring surface flame-spread characteristics of traditional building
in the field. For example,
materials, such as wood, gypsum wallboard and other finishes, the
if testing 76.2 mm wood
results of this test may not predict actual fire behavior for many con-
strips intended to be glued
temporary materials, particularly textiles and plastics. Melting and
to a 190.5-mm-thick gyp-
dripping of these materials during the test and the use of a ceiling-
sum wallboard, the assem-
mounted sample configuration can skew test results for contempo-
bly tested in the furnace
rary materials, discrediting the ASTM E84 test results.
must include the strips
Because of these recognized limitations with the ASTM E84 test
glued to the wallboard as it
on certain finishes, SBC 801 references another test method, known
will eventually be installed.
as a “room-corner test,” prescribed by NFPA 286, Standard Methods of
Different substrates or
Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish
attachment methods may
to Room Fire Growth. SBC 801 recognizes tests conducted in accor-
affect test results. l
dance with this standard as alternatives to the ASTM because room
corner tests more realistically simulate actual fire conditions.
In a room corner test, materials are mounted to the walls
and/or ceiling of a test room, and the fire exposure is gener-
ated by a gas burner that simulates a trash can fire extending
to a chair in the corner of the room (Figure 8-4). [Ref. SBC
801 - 803.1.2]
The NFPA 286 test burner flame reaches the ceiling
surface near the end of the test, providing a substantial fire
exposure to ceiling-mounted materials. Because the burner
flame exposes both the wall and the ceiling in the NFPA
286 test, this test can be used for both wall and ceiling fin-
ish evaluations. To successfully pass the room corner test, FIGURE 8-4  A room-corner fire-test apparatus
the material being tested must withstand fire exposure and
depending on if the material will be installed on walls, ceil-
ings or both, the flames must not extend beyond either the walls
or boundary of the test compartment (Figure 8-5). The acceptance
criteria are:
• During the 40 kilowatt (kW) exposure, flames do not spread to
the ceiling,
• The flames do not spread to the outer extremity of the sample on
any wall or ceiling,
• Flashover, as defined in NFPA 286, does not occur,
• The peak heat release rate throughout the test shall not exceed
800 kW and
• The total smoke released throughout the duration of the fire test
FIGURE 8-5  A room-corner fire test
does not exceed 1000 m2. [Ref. SBC 801 - 803.1.2.1] of wall and ceiling finish material
1 0 2    C h a p t e r 8 I n t e r i o r F i n i s h a n d D e c o r a t i v e M a t e r i a l s

Requirements for interior finish materials are established in SBC

803.11 in SBC 201, Table 803.3 (Table 8-3). Requirements are based
on the occupancy classification and where the interior finish material
will be installed within the means of egress system.

TABLE 8-3  Interior wall and ceiling finish requirements by occupancyk (SBC 801, Table 803.3)
Sprinkleredl Nonsprinklered
Corridors and Corridors and
Interior exit Interior exit
enclosure for Rooms enclosure for Rooms
Group stairways and stairways and
exit access and exit access and
interior exit interior exit
stairways and enclosed stairways and enclosed
ramps and exit ramps and exit
exit access spacesc exit access spacesc
passagewaysa, b passagewaysa, b
ramps ramps
A-1, A-2 B B C A Ad Be
A-3f, A-4, A-5 B B C A Ad C
B, E, M, R-1, R-4 B C C A B C
F C C C B C C
H B B Cg A A B
I-1 B C C A B B
I-2 B B B h,i
A A B
I-3 A A j
C A A B
I-4 B B B h,i A A B
R-2 C C C B B C
R-3 C C C C C C
S C C C B B C
U No restrictions No restrictions

a. Class C interior finish materials shall be allowed for wainscoting or paneling of not more than 93 m2 of applied surface area in the grade lobby
where applied directly to a noncombustible base or over furring strips applied to a noncombustible base and fireblocked as required by Section
803.11 of the Saudi Building Code.
b. In exit enclosures of buildings less than three stories in height of other than Group I-3, Class B interior finish for nonsprinklered buildings and
Class C for sprinklered buildings shall be permitted.
c. Requirements for rooms and enclosed spaces shall be based on spaces enclosed by partitions. Where a fire-resistance rating is required for
structural elements, the enclosing partitions shall extend from the floor to the ceiling. Partitions that do not comply with this shall be considered
as enclosing spaces and the rooms or spaces on both sides shall be considered as one. In determining the applicable requirements for rooms
and enclosed spaces, the specific occupancy thereof shall be the governing factor regardless of the group classification of the building or
structure.
d. Lobby areas in Group A-1, A-2 and A-3 occupancies shall be not less than Class B materials.
e. Class C interior finish materials shall be allowed in Group A occupancies with an occupant load of 300 persons or less.
f. Not applicable.
g. Class B material is required where the building exceeds two stories.
h. Class C interior finish materials shall be allowed in administrative spaces.
i. Class C interior finish materials shall be allowed in rooms with a capacity of four persons or less.
j. Class B materials shall be allowed as wainscoting extending not more than 1200 mm above the finished floor in corridors.
k. Finish materials as provided for in other sections of this code.
l. Applies where the vertical exits, exit passageways, corridors or rooms and spaces are protected by an approved automatic sprinkler system
installed in accordance with Section 903.3.1.1 or 903.3.1.2.
 U p h o l s t e r e d F u r n i t u r e a n d M a t t r e s s e s    1 0 3

FOAM PLASTICS Code

[Ref. SBC 801 - 804.2]
Many interior trim and architectural components are readily avail-
Essentials
able manufactured of foam plastic materials. These products can be Consider a Group A-2
manufactured at low cost in a variety of designs to simulate wood occupancy: if the build-
trim, plaster, stone and metallic architectural details. As is common ing is not protected by
with some plastics, these materials need to be regulated to limit in- an automatic fire sprinkler
door fuel load. Foam plastics typically burn with a greater intensity system, Class A interior fin-
than solid plastics because the foam plastic is less dense, has a larger ish materials are required
surface area compared to the same weight of solid plastic, and can in all exit enclosures, exit
include air pockets that allow air to mix more easily with the fuel. passageways and corridors
SBC 801 has specific limitations for foam plastic materials used while all rooms or enclosed
as interior trim. The foam plastic pieces must have a minimum den- spaces would require the
sity of 320 kg per m3. The heavier the density, the less air is entrained use of interior finish materi-
into the product. The cross-sectional dimensions cannot exceed als with a Class B rating.
13 mm by 200 mm. The product can have a flame spread index of If the building is protected
up to 75 and an unlimited smoke developed rating. Each component throughout by an automatic
must meet these criteria, and the aggregate surface area covered by fire sprinkler system, the
foam plastic cannot exceed 10 percent of each wall. [Ref. SBC 801 interior finish materials with
- 804.2] a higher flame spread index
are permitted. l

UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE AND

MATTRESSES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 805]
SBC 801 includes limits on the furnishings and bedding ignitability
and heat release rates in board and care facilities (Group I-1 Condi-
tion 1), nursing homes and hospitals (Group I-2), detention and cor-
rectional facilities (Group I-3), and college and university dormitories
(Group R-2). The requirements are concerned with ignition-resistant
furniture and bedding used in areas where individuals sleep, are un-
dergoing patient care or may be incapable of self-rescue.
The requirements for determining the ignition resistance of
upholstered furniture and mattresses in each occupancy class are
based on tests that replicate ignition using a lit cigarette. At the end
of the test, the length of the char is measured. If the char length is
less than the SBC 801 prescribed limits (51 mm for mattresses and
38 mm for upholstered furniture) the furnishing or bedding can
be used in sleeping areas. [Ref. SBC 801 - 805.1.1.1, 805.1.2.1,
805.2.1.1, 805.2.2.1, 805.3.1.1, 805.3.2.1, 805.4.1.1, 805.4.2.1]
The heat release rate of furnishings in these occupancies is also
regulated by SBC 801 provisions. Furniture inside the indicated occu-
pancies is limited to a maximum peak heat release rate of 80 kW when
1 0 4    C h a p t e r 8 I n t e r i o r F i n i s h a n d D e c o r a t i v e M a t e r i a l s

tested in accordance with ASTM E1537, Standard Test

Method for Fire Testing of Upholstered Furniture or using
an alternate test method known as California Technical
Bulletin 133. Mattresses are limited to a maximum heat
release rate of 100 kW. Test samples are also limited to a
total energy release of 25 megajoules or less during the
first 10 minutes of the test. [Ref. SBC 801 - 805.1.1.2,
805.2.1.2, 805.2.2.2, 805.3.1.2, 805.4.1.2]
To assist in verifying compliance with SBC 801,
upholstered furniture and mattresses require a label
issued by an approved agency to indicate conformance to
the SBC 801 cigarette-ignition resistance and maximum
FIGURE 8-6 Upholstered furniture and mattresses heat-release-rate requirements (Figure 8-6). [Ref. SBC
require a tag or label indicating conformance to the
SBC 801 requirements for ignition resistance and 801 - 805.1.1.3, 805.1.2.3, 805.2.1.3, 805.2.2.3,
maximum heat release rate. 805.3.1.3, 805.3.2.3, 805.4.1.3, 805.4.2.3]
Section 805 requirements are omitted when the
room or area is protected by an automatic fire sprinkler
system designed and installed in accordance with SBC 801, Section
903.3.1.1 (NFPA 13). In Group I-2 nursing homes and hospitals, the
upholstered furniture requirements are exempted when the patient’s
room is equipped with a smoke detector or smoke alarm.
SBC 801 also regulates combustible decorative materials that
are located within certain occupancies. The amount of combustible
curtains, draperies, fabric hangings and other similar combustible
decorative materials is limited as shown in Table 8-4.

TABLE 8-4 Combustible curtains, draperies and fabric hangings attached to walls and
ceilings

Maximum surface area covereda

Occupancy
Sprinklered Nonsprinklered
Group A 75% b
10%
Groups B, M 10% c
10% c
Groups I-1, I-2, I-4 10% 10%
Group I-3 NA NA
Group R-2 dormitories 50% d
10%
Groups E, R-1 10% 10%
All others Not Limited Not Limited

NA = not allowed
a. Refer to SBC 801, Section 202 for the definition of and exclusions from “decorative materials.”
b. Percentage only allowed in auditoriums of Group A.
c. The amount of ceiling area covered is not limited if the material meets the fire test criteria for
NFPA 289 or 701.
d. Percentage only allowed in dormitories of Group R-2. [Ref. SBC 801 - 807.2, 807.3]
 Q u i z    1 0 5

QUIZ
1. In which of the following occupancies does SBC 801 regulate mat-
tress or upholstery ignition and flammability?
a. Group I-1, Condition 2
b. Group I-2, nursing homes and hospitals
c. Group I-3, detention and correction facilities
d. Group R-2, college and university dormitories
e. All of the above

2. The minimum density of foam plastics used for interior trim shall
be ________________.
a. 320 kg/m3
b. 640 kg/m3
c. 900 kg/m3
d. 1280 kg/m3

3. Interior combustible trim shall not exceed _____ percent of the

wall or ceiling surface to which it is attached.
a. 5
b. 6.33
c. 9.42
d. 10

4. Which of the following surfaces is the Steiner Tunnel Test

designed to evaluate?
a. floors
b. walls
c. doors
d. carpets

5. A corridor in a nonfire-sprinklered factory and industrial occu-

pancy must have a minimum flame-spread rating of Class
_________.
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. None of the above
1 0 6    C h a p t e r 8 I n t e r i o r F i n i s h a n d D e c o r a t i v e M a t e r i a l s
PART
Fire/Life Safety
IV Systems
and Features
Chapter 9: Requirements for All Fire
Protection Systems
Chapter 10: Automatic Sprinkler Systems
Chapter 11: Fire Alarm and Detection
Systems
Chapter 12: Alternative Fire Protection
Systems
Chapter 13: Means of Egress

107
 CHAPTER
Requirements for
9 All Fire Protection
Systems

S
BC 801, Chapter 9 establishes requirements for “active” fire pro-
tection systems. A fire protection system is defined as approved
devices, equipment and systems or combinations of systems used
to detect a fire, activate an alarm, extinguish or control a fire, control or
manage smoke and products of a fire, or any combination thereof.
Given this definition, a fire protection system can include an auto-
matic sprinkler system, an alternative automatic fire-extinguishing sys-
tem, a fire pump or smoke alarms in one- and two-family dwellings. A
fire protection system prescribed by SBC 801 must perform one or more
functions:
• Detect a fire,
• Activate an alarm,
• Extinguish or control a fire, or
• Control or manage smoke or other combustion byproducts of a fire.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 902.1]

108
108
 W h e r e A r e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s R e q u i r e d ?    1 0 9

This chapter introduces the general provisions in SBC 801,

Section 901. These provisions are applicable to all fire protection sys- You Should
tems required by SBC 801 and optional systems that may be specified Know
by an owner or design professional. “Active” fire protection sys-
tems are those devices
WHERE ARE FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS and features that oper-
ate in response to an
REQUIRED? incipient fire, and include
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 9] systems used to detect
A frequently asked question is whether a fire protection is required a fire, activate an alarm,
or not. SBC 801, Section 901.4.1 helps guide the code official: “A fire extinguish or control a
protection system for which a design option, exception or reduction fire, control or manage
to the provisions of this code or the SBC 201 has been granted shall smoke and combustion
be considered to be a required system.” products.
A good example relates to the construction and protection of cor- “Passive” fire protection
ridors found in SBC 801, Section 1020.1 and Table 1020.1. In occu- features are those build-
pancy Groups A, B, E, F, M, S and U, corridors are required to have ing elements designed to
a minimum 1-hour fire-resistance rating. Doors opening onto the withstand heat and flame
corridors must have a rating of not less than 20 minutes and resist impingement to resist fire
smoke migration. However, when a fire sprinkler system is installed, spread or structural col-
the requirements for both corridor rating and opening protectives lapse, and include fire
are eliminated. This makes the fire sprinkler system a required sys- walls, fire barriers, fire
tem in accordance with SBC 801, Section 901.4.1. partitions, smoke barriers
Another example might occur when a fire sprinkler system is and partitions and hori-
used to satisfy an alternative materials or methods request. [Ref. zontal assemblies. l
SBC 801 - 104.9] Fire protection systems that are not required may
be installed, provided they are installed in accordance with all of the
requirements in SBC 801 and SBC 201 (Figure 9-1). [Ref. SBC 801
- 901.4.2]
The provisions to determine whether a fire protection system
is required vary between SBC 801 and SBC 201. Unlike SBC 201,
SBC 801 requires water supplies and fire hydrants to ensure that
the required fire flow is available in the event of a structure fire (see
Chapter 6 of this Guide). This is a significant construction and safety
feature in which the Civil Defense should be actively involved in
the design, installation and testing. Without a fire protection water
supply, expensive buildings, facilities and other properties may be
vulnerable to fires.

Code Essentials
“A fire protection system for which a design option, exception or FIGURE 9-1  This optional clean
agent system was installed by an
reduction to the provisions of this code or the SBC 201 has been owner to protect valuable computer
granted shall be considered to be a required system.” [Ref. SBC 801 - equipment, but was not a code
901.4.1] l requirement.
11 0    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
Code
Essentials
Not all hazards exist in
buildings.
To address those fire,
explosion and toxic haz-
ards that may occur out-
side of buildings, SBC
801, Section 202 includes
requirements for facili-
ties that are defined as “a
building or use in a fixed
location including exte-
rior storage area for flam-
mable and combustible
substances and hazardous
materials, piers, wharves,
tank farms and similar uses.
The term includes recre-
ational vehicles, mobile
home and manufactured
housing parks, sales and
storage lots.” l
FIGURE 9-3  A moderate-hazard factory does not
require sprinklers until its fire area reaches 1115 m2.
SBC 201 and SBC 801 require building or facility fire protection
systems based on the:
• building occupancy and use. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2]
• fire area sizes. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2]
• occupant load and ability to self-evacuate. [Ref. SBC 801 -
903.2]
• building height or area. [Ref. SBC 201 - Table 504.4, Table
506.2]
• environment and quantity of hazardous materials. [Ref. SBC
801 - Table 5003.1.1]
• fire loss history of a given hazard or property type.
Certain occupancy classifications require the installation of one
or more fire protection systems based on these six characteristics.
In residential occupancies (Group R), an automatic sprinkler system
is required throughout the building when a Group R fire area is cre-
ated. For example, if part of a building that is commercial (Group
M) is converted to residential living space (Group R), the occupancy
change would require the installation of a sprinkler system through-
out the entire building (Figure 9-2). [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.8]
FIGURE 9-2  If the first-floor levels of this office building were converted to a Group
R occupancy, the entire structure would have to be sprinklered.
Conversely, the construction of a moderate-hazard
factory occupancy (Group F-1) would not require auto-
matic sprinkler protection unless its fire area exceeds
1115 m2 (Figure 9-3). [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.4]
Many SBC 801 fire protection system require-
ments are based on the building occupancy, occupant
load or fire area. The occupant load of a building will
dictate the installation of certain fire protection sys-
tems. In an assembly occupancy—such as a venue
where food or beverages are served (Group A-2)—an
automatic sprinkler system is required if the occupant
load is 100 or more. Because of this large occupant
 W h e r e A r e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s R e q u i r e d ?    111

load, SBC 801 prescribes the installation of

occupant notification devices as part of a fire
alarm system that would notify occupants in
the event that the automatic sprinkler sys-
tem operates (Figure 9-4). [Ref. SBC 801 -
903.2.1.3, 907.2.1]
A building’s height or area can dictate the
installation of a fire protection system. SBC
201 limits building height and area based on
its occupancy classification and construction
type (Figure 9-5). SBC 201 construction types
are fire-resistive, noncombustible, combus- FIGURE 9-4  A Group A-2 restaurant occupancy with an
tible or a combination of these materials. In occupant load of 100 or more would require automatic sprinkler
protection throughout the fire area.
many occupancies, SBC 201 permits the build-
ing’s height and area to be increased when the
building is protected by an automatic sprinkler
system. The number and type of increases
granted depends on if the automatic sprinkler
system is designed for property and life safety
protection or if it is only designed for life safety
applications. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3.1.1]
A fire protection system may be required
inside a building when the quantity of materi-
als stored or their hazards exceed certain lim-
its. SBC 801, Chapter 32 regulates high-piled
combustible storage, which is a very common FIGURE 9-5  The occupancy and building’s construction type
method of storing large volumes of materials establish the allowable height and area. Allowable height and
in Group M and S occupancies (Figure 9-6). area can be increased by certain designs of automatic sprinkler
protection.
Automatic sprinkler protection in these build-
ings is required based on the fire hazard of the
stored goods, the storage height and area, and the building’s occu-
pancy classification. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.7.1, 903.2.9, 3206.2]
Certain classes of hazardous materials are so easily ignited or
can cause such a large amount of damage if ignited that SBC 801,
Chapter 50 requires the installation of an automatic sprinkler system
throughout buildings when these classes of hazardous materials are
stored indoors. These materials include blasting agents, explosives,
pyrophorics, some organic peroxides and unstable (reactive) prod-
ucts. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.7.1, Table 5003.1.1(1) Footnote g]

You Should Know

There are some conditions where sprinklers are not required nor desir-
able: especially with water-reactive chemicals that create hazardous FIGURE 9-6  Fire protection system
construction documents must be
conditions. Calcium carbide with water releases highly flammable acet- submitted to the fire code official
ylene gas, so sprinklers are not required in those storage areas. to verify that the design will protect
See SBC 801, Section 903.1.1.1 for a list of areas where sprinkler pro- the identified hazards and will meet
the requirements of the applicable
tection may be omitted. l technical standards.
11 2    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

A fire protection system is “required” if it is installed to satisfy

one of these requirements, or is used as for code design option,
exception or reduction. For example, SBC 801, Section 1020.1
requires 1-hour fire-resistance-rated corridors in Groups A, B, E, F,
M, S and U occupancies serving occupant loads greater than 30. By
installing a fire sprinkler system, a designer can eliminate the cor-
ridor fire-resistance rating. Therefore, the fire sprinkler system is a
“required” system. [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.4.1]
Alternative designs or equipment
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904]
Certain hazards inside of buildings represent a relatively high
threat to the occupants, the building and its contents if an unwanted
fire occurs. To control the fire risks,
SBC 801 requires the installation of
fire protection systems for specific
hazards or uses. One example is com-
mercial cooking systems that can gen-
erate smoke and grease-laden vapors.
Because the smoke and vapors act as
fuel inside of the commercial cooking
exhaust system, SBC 801 requires the
installation of a fire-extinguishing sys-
tem specifically designed for the hazard
(Figure 9-7). The system is designed in
accordance with the applicable NFPA
standards and SBC 801 installation
requirements. Any modification to an
FIGURE 9-7  SBC 801 requires certain fire hazards that represent a existing commercial cooking system
relatively high threat to building occupants, contents and the structure requires the fire protection system to
itself to be protected by a fire protection system. (Courtesy of Ansul/Tyco
Inc., Marinette, WI) be upgraded to protect the hazard.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12, 904.12.6.1]
A jurisdiction may be asked to approve the design of a building,
structure or process where the hazards are unique or challenging to
emergency responders. In some cases, the size or arrangement of the
hazard may impair or limit the ability of fire apparatus to approach
the site. In such instances, the fire code official can require additional
fire protection safeguards. These can be in the form of any fire pro-
tection system addressed in Chapter 9 of SBC 801 or an alternative
method allowed by SBC 801, Section 104.9.
Consistency in code enforcement is important. Once the fire code
official decides additional protection is required, it should also be
required for any similar hazards. Additional fire protection systems
or safeguards may not be so obvious or rely entirely on fire suppres-
sion and detection systems (Figure 9-8). Realize that certain process
safety controls specified by the design professional—such as install-
ing certain flow control valves, automatic shut-down components
or other less-known but equally reliable systems—may effectively
 C o n s t r u c t i o n D o c u m e n t s a n d A c c e p t a n c e Te s t i n g    11 3

reduce and manage a hazard while pro-

viding greater reliability than a fire
suppression or detection system.
In instances when the fire code offi-
cial is considering additional fire pro-
tection systems, it’s reasonable and
prudent to request that the design be
reviewed by a fire protection engineer
or other competent design professional
who has experience and understand-
ing of the hazards of the building,
the occupancy, the stored materials or
the process. The fire code official can
request a technical report and opinion.
Like alternative methods and materi-
FIGURE 9-8  This additional fire protection system can be required by
als requests, requirements for addi- the fire code official. The manual master stream nozzles are used for fire
tional fire protection should be based exposure protection of large above-ground storage tanks storing aviation
on sound scientific and engineering jet fuel.
principles. [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.7.2]

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS AND

ACCEPTANCE TESTING
[Ref. SBC 801 - 901]
SBC 801, Section 105.7 requires a construction permit for the
installation or modification of a fire protection system. Fire pro-
tection system design includes compliance with the adopted NFPA
standards for the specific systems in addition to any design criteria
in SBC 801. Table 9-1 lists the fire protection systems and standards
adopted by SBC 801. [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.6.1]
11 4    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
FIGURE 9-9  The life safety and fire
hazards associated with high-rise
buildings demand a high level of
protection.
TABLE 9-1  Fire protection systems and standards
Fire protection system or component NFPA standard
Low-, Medium-, and High-expansion Foam 11
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems 12
Halon 1301 Fire Extinguishing Systems 12A
Sprinkler Systems 13
Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family Dwellings and
Manufactured Homes 13D
Sprinkler Systems in Low-Rise Residential Occupancies 13R
Standpipe and Hose Systems 14
Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection 15
Foam-Water Sprinkler and Foam-Water Spray Systems 16
Dry-Chemical Extinguishing Systems 17
Wet-Chemical Extinguishing Systems 17A
Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection 20
Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection 22
Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances 24
Fire Alarm Systems 72
Smoke Control Systems 92
Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial
Cooking Operations 96
Smoke and Heat Vents 204
Water Mist Fire Protection Systems 750
Water Supply for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting 1142
Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems 2001
Fixed Aerosol Fire-Extinguishing Systems 2010
SBC 801 often requires more than one fire protection system in
buildings. A building with an occupied floor more than 23 m above
the lowest level of fire department access is defined as a high-rise
building by SBC 201 or SBC 801 and requires not only an automatic
sprinkler system, but also a standpipe system, a fire alarm and detec-
tion system equipped with an emergency voice/alarm communica-
tion system, a generator to provide standby and emergency power,
and perhaps a fire pump. All of these systems must comply with SBC
801 and NFPA requirements (Figure 9-9). [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.4.1]
 C o n s t r u c t i o n D o c u m e n t s a n d A c c e p t a n c e Te s t i n g    11 5

SBC 801 requires the permit applicant to

submit fire protection system construction
documents to the fire code official for review
and approval to verify that the installation or
modification is suitably designed for the haz-
ards it is protecting (Figure 9-10). The submittal
scope and detail often are specified in the NFPA
standard applicable to the system design or
modification. In many cases, the submittal will
include manufacturer’s equipment data—called
“cut sheets”—and various formats of engineer-
ing calculations used as the design basis (Figure
9-11). [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.2, 901.2, 907.1.1,
909.2] FIGURE 9-10  Fire protection system construction documents
must be submitted to the fire code official to verify that the
design will protect the identified hazards and will meet the
requirements of the applicable technical standards.

Code
Essentials
Fire protection system
installation or modification
requires:
FIGURE 9-11  A high-pressure water mist installation application should include • Permit application
plans, manufacturer's product literature and engineering calculations to confirm the suitable to the code
quantity and rate of water application are suitable for the hazard.
official.
Prior to requesting fire protection system installation or modifi- • Construction documents,
cation final approval, the fire code official can require the installing including manufacturer’s
contractor to submit a statement of compliance. The compliance product literature and
statement memorializes that the fire protection system was installed suitable engineering
in accordance with the applicable NFPA standard, the construction calculations.
specifications prepared by the design professional and the manufac- • A “compliance
turer’s instructions for particular components. Any deviations from statement” when
the installing standard are documented in the statement of compli- required by the code
ance. This statement may also be used to document that the fire official that the system
protection system has been tested by the installing contractor—this or equipment installation
is an important consideration, especially on larger or complicated is in accordance with
systems. If the fire protection system is not tested and exercised the appropriate NFPA or
prior to a final inspection, it may fail to be approved. [Ref. SBC 801 other standards. l
- 901.2.1]
11 6    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

The NFPA standards that govern the design of automatic sprin-

kler systems, wet-chemical alternative fire-extinguishing systems,
private underground fire protection water mains, and fire alarm and
detection systems each contain an example statement of compli-
ance (Figure 9-12). In instances where an example document is not
available, the jurisdiction can develop its own, require the installing
contractor to provide such a statement, waive the requirement when
allowed by the fire code official or use example forms available in
ICC®’s Fire Plan Review and Inspection Guidelines. [Ref. SBC 801 -
903.2.8, 903.2.4]

FIGURE 9-12  Stationary fire pump statement of compliance

 I n s p e c t i o n , Te s t i n g a n d M a i n t e n a n c e    11 7

INSPECTION, TESTING AND

MAINTENANCE
[Ref. SBC 801 - 901]
Fire protection systems must be maintained so they are avail- You Should
able when ignition occurs. Defective components that have failed
or that are inoperable must be repaired or replaced. Fire protection
Know
systems employ mechanical and electrical components to operate Water supply conditions
and perform their intended functions. Water-based fire protection may change over time.As
systems must be connected to a reliable water source and alternative additional development
automatic fire-extinguishing systems require a sufficient volume of occurs near existing build-
wet, dry or gaseous agent to extinguish a fire. ings and facilities, water
Fire protection systems that discharge water or alternative agents pressure and volume to the
are constructed with listed sprinklers or nozzles that must not be projects may lessen from
obstructed, blocked, painted or improperly installed. Nonrequired the original design pres-
fire protection systems also must be inspected, tested and main- sures and flows. The added
tained or removed from service. [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.6] demand from nearby
Required and nonrequired fire protection systems must be properties may result in
inspected, tested and maintained in accordance with the applicable original fire sprinkler or
fire protection system standards (Table 9-2). Some professionals standpipe designs becom-
refer to inspection, testing and maintenance using the acronym ITM. ing unreliable. Inspection
For water-based fire protection systems, including private water stor- and testing reports should
age tanks, fire hydrants supplied from private fire protection water be studied over time to
mains, automatic sprinkler systems, standpipes, water mist and see if detrimental changes
water spray systems, and fire pumps, SBC 801 references NFPA 25, occur that might need
Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based to be addressed by the
Fire Protection Systems. Most water-based fire protection systems water purveyor or property
require an annual inspection and one or more tests. SBC 801 pre- owner. l
scribes increased inspection intervals for alternative automatic fire-
extinguishing systems. NFPA standards for inspection, testing and

TABLE 9-2  Fire protection system inspection, testing and maintenance

A periodic visual check to ensure the system or equipment is
Inspection in place, is not impaired and appears ready for operation.
A functional or performance test by a qualified person to
Testing verify that the system or equipment will operate as intended.
Periodic service performed by a qualified person in
accordance with the system or equipment manufacturer’s
Maintenance recommendations to extend operational life and to enhance
reliability.
11 8    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

TABLE 9-3  Fire protection system maintenance standards (SBC 801, Table 901.6.1)
System Standard
Portable fire extinguishers NFPA 10
Carbon dioxide fire-extinguishing systems NFPA 12
Halon 1301 fire-extinguishing systems NFPA 12A
Dry-chemical extinguishing systems NFPA 17
Wet-chemical extinguishing systems NFPA 17A
Water-based fire protection systems NFPA 25
Fire alarm systems NFPA 72
Smoke and heat vents NFPA 204
Water-mist systems NFPA 750
Clean-agent extinguishing systems NFPA 2001

maintenance are set forth in Table 901.6.1

FIGURE 9-13  Periodic performance tests and maintenance are
required to keep fire protection systems operational. Records of
these tests must be maintained and—if requested—provided to
the fire code official.
(Table 9-3). [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.6.1]
Inspection, testing and maintenance
records must be maintained on the premises
as long as the jurisdictions’ laws or rules
require (Figure 9-13). Upon request, these
records must be copied to the fire code official.
In addition, the initial installation records for
the fire protection system must be main-
tained at the site. The records must include
the name of the installing contractor, equip-
ment data sheets, and the manufacturer’s
installation and instruction manuals. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 901.6.2]

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

FIGURE 9-14  This wet-pipe automatic
sprinkler system has a closed water
supply valve. Note the lack of pressure
on the gauges.
IMPAIRMENTS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 901]
Fire protection system impairments can be categorized into
two broad categories: planned or unplanned. A planned impair-
ment includes testing, maintenance or modifications to a fire
protection system. For example, if a tenant improvement is con-
structed in a covered mall building where several lease spaces are
consolidated into a single retail space, automatic sprinkler system
modification is an anticipated event. An unplanned impairment
is one that was not planned and may render the system dam-
aged or inoperable. Unscheduled impairment includes the loss of
primary power to an electric fire pump or the failure of a water
main supplying an automatic sprinkler system. An unplanned
 F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m I m p a i r m e n t s    11 9

impairment could be an individual turning off a water supply valve to

a sprinkler system and forgetting to restore it (Figure 9-14).
Regardless of the impairment’s cause, either the building owner
or a designated employee assumes the role of impairment coordina-
tor. An impairment coordinator is responsible for the maintenance
of the fire protection system. [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.7.1] For planned
shutdowns or modifications, the impairment coordinator must per-
form several actions before authorization can be granted to remove
the system from service, including:
• Identifying the extent and duration of the impairment.
• Inspecting building areas that will be affected by the impairment
to identify any processes or hazards that need to be discontin-
ued. In some cases, this may prescribe the use of less hazardous
operations, such as using hand tools rather than machinery.
• Notifying the fire department and the approved fire alarm sys-
tem monitoring station, as well as the required notifications
within the organization’s hierarchy, such as the loss control de-
partment, the safety coordinator and the insur-
ance underwriter.
• Assembling the necessary tools and materials to
perform the modification or repair.
• Implementing the impairment tag program.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 901.7.4]
When a fire protection system is impaired, the
fire department and fire code official must be noti-
fied. When a system is out of service, the fire code
official can either require the evacuation of the
building or permit the continued use of the build-
ing under fire watch supervision. Civil Defense fire
fighting authorities should be notified as well so
they can make contingent emergency plans. Once
the fire protection system is returned to service, the
fire watch may be discontinued. [Ref. SBC 801 -
901.7]
When an impairment occurs, a tag is required
at specified locations to indicate the fire protec-
tion system is out of service (Figure 9-15). These
locations include the fire department connection,
system control valves, fire alarm control unit, fire
alarm annunciator and, if one exists, the fire com-
mand center. The impairment tag is a reminder that
FIGURE 9-15  This impairment tag attached to the closed
the system is out of service and actions must be auxillary dry pipe valve indicates that the system is down
taken to correct the situation (Figure 9-16). [Ref. for service or repair.
SBC 801 - 901.7, 901.7.2]
1 2 0    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

FIGURE 9-16  Example of an impairment tag

Once the system has been returned to service, the impairment

tag is removed. [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.7.2, 901.7.3]
 F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m M o n i t o r i n g    1 2 1

After the impairment is resolved, the impairment coordinator

must notify the organizations and individuals specified previously You Should
and inspect and test the fire protection system to verify it is opera- Know
tional and available for service. [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.7.6] SBC 801 includes the fol-
lowing fire protection sys-

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM MONITORING tem requirements:

• They must be designed
[Ref. SBC 801 - 903, 907]
and installed in
In most occupancies, SBC 801 requires off-site reporting—called accordance with
monitoring—of automatic sprinkler and fire alarm system func- applicable NFPA
tions. Monitoring includes detecting and reporting alarm conditions standards.
and potential impairments, such as closed water supply valves or • They are designed to
electrical faults, and is required to ensure a timely response by the protect people, hazards
qualified personnel and the Civil Defense. Monitoring is not required and the building in
for one- and two-family dwellings and townhouses with automatic which they are installed.
sprinkler systems. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.4, 907.6.6] • Alarm and supervisory
Automatic sprinkler system monitoring includes water flow signals must be
alarms or pressure switches that operate when a sprinkler is acti- transmitted to a
vated and electric supervision of valves that control the water supply supervising service
to a system (Figure 9-17). Upon activation, these devices transmit a where they are
signal to a fire alarm control unit. The fire alarm control unit in turn retransmitted to the Civil
transmits a signal by way of telephony, via the internet or through a Defense.
wireless signal to a supervising station, where operators receive the • They must be inspected,
signals and take appropriate action. If it is a fire signal, the operators tested and maintained in
notify Civil Defense. For trouble or tamper signals, the operators accordance with SBC
likely notify the protected property manager, supervisor or main- 801, NFPA standards and
tenance personnel. A “central” supervising station is a third-party manufacturers’
service that receives signals from fire and security systems, processes requirements. l
the signals and notifies the Civil Defense and building owner of any
alarms. A proprietary supervisory station is one owned by the prop-
erty being protected, such as a an oil production security or private
fire service. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.4.1]
Other than smoke alarms in one- and two-family dwellings and
correctional and detention facilities (Group I-3 occupancies), all SBC
801-required fire alarm and detection systems must be electrically
supervised. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.6.5]
At the time of initial installation and approval, the monitor-
ing service should be evaluated and tested. Throughout the life of
a building or facility, the monitoring service could be provided by
several different vendors. The building owner can switch to a differ-
ent vendor at any time, or the owner can simply cancel the contract
with the monitoring agency. When a business owner cancels the
service provided by the supervising station, SBC 801 requires the
monitoring service provider to notify the fire code official in writing.
This provides the fire code official notice that this system is no lon-
FIGURE 9-17  This indicating floor
ger supervised and allows follow up with the facility to ensure that control valve and water-flow switch
monitoring service is continued with another provider. [Ref. SBC is electrically supervised and
monitored.
801 - 901.9]
1 2 2    C h a p t e r 9 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r A l l F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

QUIZ
1. Which of the following is not considered an active fire protection
system?
a. fire sprinkler system
b. fire wall
c. stationary fire pump assembly
d. standpipe system

2. Indoor pyrophoric product storage and use is one hazard where

SBC 801 always requires automatic sprinkler protection.
a. True
b. False

3. A fire protection system disabled by a sudden windstorm is an

example of a(n) ________ impairment.
a. planned
b. unplanned

4. SBC 201 requires the installation of private fire protection water

mains supplies and fire hydrants to ensure that the required fire
flow is available in the event of a structure fire.
a. True
b. False

5. When a fire protection system is impaired, which of the following

persons should be notified?
a. fire code official
b. fire chief
c. building owner or manager
d. property insurance carriers
e. All of the above
CHAPTER
Automatic
10 Sprinkler Systems

H
istorically, automatic fire sprinkler systems have proved to be
the most reliable and effective fire protection system. They
are designed to detect, report and control a fire until the fire
department arrives to extinguish it. Recent fire sprinkler advances have
resulted in designs and equipment that will suppress a fire in its earliest
stages.
Automatic fire sprinkler systems provide fire detection because fire
sprinklers are constructed with a heat-sensitive element that operates
within a specific temperature range. When heated above this preset
temperature during the early stage of fire growth, the fire sprinkler
operating element—a fusible link or frangible bulb—operates to release
water directly onto the fire. Fire sprinkler system activation will trans-
mit an electric signal to a supervising station that notifies the Civil
Defense authorities that the fire sprinkler system is in operation. The
discharged water controls a fire by absorbing heat and cools the air in
the compartment. Consequently, the amount of heat released is reduced
and unburned fuel is wetted in the area to prevent ignition.
123
1 2 4    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

SBC 201 and 801 offer many credits for buildings protected by
automatic fire sprinklers. Under SBC 201 height and area provi-
sions for certain occupancies, a building’s height can be increased
by one story and the allowable area increased up to 300 percent
when it is protected by an automatic fire sprinkler system. SBC 801
permits fire-flow reductions by 75 percent when buildings are fire
sprinklered. These are just a few of the many fire protection modi-
fications allowed by the Saudi building codes when fire sprinklers
are installed.
Because many of these modifications affect the Civil Defense’s
ability for fire control if the automatic fire sprinkler system does
not perform as intended, it is important that automatic fire sprin-
kler system design and installation comply with the applicable SBC,
NFPA and manufacturers’ requirements.

LEVEL OF EXIT DISCHARGE AND FIRE

AREA
[Ref. SBC 801 - 1002]
To apply SBC 201 and SBC 801 automatic fire sprinkler system
requirements, two terms must be understood: level of exit discharge
and fire area. Understanding these terms—along with building oc-
cupancy classifications—is essential to determine when and where
automatic fire sprinkler systems are required.
The level of exit discharge is the story at the point at which an
exit terminates and an exit discharge begins. A building can have
more than one level of exit discharge (Figure 10-1). All travel that is
outside the building is considered as part of the exit discharge until
the person reaches the public way. At this point, exiting is complete
and the person is deemed safe under the means of egress provisions
in SBC 801. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1002.1]

FIGURE 10-1  This building has two levels of exit discharge. The 2nd floor is the
highest level of exit discharge, while the 1st floor is the lowest level of exit dis-
charge.
 L e v e l o f E x i t D i s c h a r g e a n d F i r e A r e a    1 2 5

A building’s fire area is the aggregate floor area enclosed and

bounded by fire walls, fire barriers, exterior walls or horizontal assem- Code
blies. Where there are areas around the building not enclosed by Essentials
walls, they are included in the fire area calculations if any part of the SBC 201 and 801 require
structure extends over them because combustible materials could be fire sprinkler systems based
used or stored there (Figures 10-2, 10-3 and 10-4). Creating a fire area on:
by using passive fire protection features with hourly fire-resistance • Occupancy classification
ratings is a means to limit fire spread. When evaluating buildings • Fire area or building area
and occupancies for fire sprinkler systems, each fire area can be con- • Occupancy location
sidered a separate risk during a fire. A building of combustible or relative to the level of exit
noncombustible construction can be divided into multiple fire areas. discharge
If each subdivided area is less than the square meters specified in • Use and operations within
Table 10-1, fire sprinklers may be omitted. [Ref. SBC 801 - 902.1] a fire area
TABLE 10-1  Fire area limits based on occupancy • Amount of combustible or
hazardous materials l
Occupancy Classification Fire Area (m2)
A-1, A-3, A-4, E, F-1, M, S-1, S-2 1115
A-2 465

Note: Fire area sizes are not the only factor for requiring fire sprin-
kler systems. Always refer to SBC 201 or SBC 801 for guidance.

FIGURE 10-2  Each building is at least one fire area surrounded by exterior walls, floor and roof.

FIGURE 10-3  This 1-story building has three fire areas—two

separated by a fire barrier and two separated by a fire wall.

FIGURE 10-4  This 3-story building has three fire areas sepa-
rated by fire-resistance-rated floor/ceiling assemblies.
1 2 6    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s
Given: 1672 m2 building with one tenant:
1021 m2 fire area
650 m2 fire area
Occupancy classification is Group S-1
No high-piled combustible storage
Determine: Separation requirements for creating
two fire areas to eliminate automatic
sprinkler system requirement
Solution: With a 3-hour fire barrier, each fire
area ≤ 1115 m2
You Should
Know
When fire areas are created
to mitigate fire sprinkler
installations, the separa-
tions must meet the SBC
201, Chapter 7 fire resis-
tance requirements for
fire walls, fire barriers or
horizontal assemblies. Fire
partitions, smoke barri-
ers and smoke partitions
do not meet the minimum
requirements to create fire
areas. l
Walls or floor/ceiling assemblies separating fire areas must be
fire-resistance-rated fire walls, fire barriers or horizontal assemblies
having a fire-resistance rating at least 1 hour. If the building is
designed as a separated mixed occupancy, SBC 201, Table 508.4
requirements for separating mixed occupancies range from 1 to
4 hours.
Often, a building owner or designer chooses to create fire areas
within a single occupancy to eliminate the need to install an auto-
matic fire sprinkler system. When this design approach is used, SBC
801 refers to SBC 201, Table 707.3.10 for the required fire-resistance
rating of the separations (Figure 10-5). [Ref. SBC 801 - 901.4.3]
Minimum 3-hour fire barrier
in accordance with
SBC 201 Table 707.3.10
Group S-1 Group S-1
Fire Area 1 Fire Area 2
1021 m2 650 m2
FIGURE 10-5  Application of the fire area concept
When a fire wall or fire barrier is used to compartmentalize or
separate a structure, only the fire area that exceeds the SBC 801 area
limits (Table 10-1) for the occupancy requires automatic fire sprin-
kler protection. Other fire protection system requirements, such as
fire alarm and detection systems, are not stipulated using the fire
area method.
DESIGN AND INSTALLATION STANDARDS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 903]
SBC 201 and SBC 801 adopt three National Fire Protection Asso-
ciation (NFPA) standards that address the design and installation of
automatic sprinkler systems:
• NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
• NFPA 13R, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in
Low-Rise Residential Occupancies
• NFPA 13D, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in
One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes
Not all fire sprinkler systems are designed with the same per-
formance requirements. Fire sprinkler systems may be installed to
protect property (buildings and contents), human lives (by prevent-
ing flashover in the compartment where the fire starts) or both.
While the fundamental components (a reliable automatic water
supply, pipe, valves, fittings and sprinklers) are the same among all
 D e s i g n a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n S t a n d a r d s    1 2 7

fire sprinkler systems, it is the design goal that differs among the
standards.
Automatic fire sprinkler systems for life safety and property pro-
tection are designed in accordance with the requirements of NFPA
13. With some exceptions, fire sprinklers are installed in every space
to provide early detection and control. NFPA 13 designs rely on “haz-
ard classes” to determine water supply and coverage. These hazard
classes are an attempt to quantify potential fire severity based on the
amount of contents and their rate of heat release. Table 10-2 extracts
a few examples from NFPA 13.

TABLE 10-2  NFPA 13 hazard class examples

Hazard Class Examples

Light • Mosques
• Schools
• Museum
Ordinary, Group 1 • Automobile showrooms
• Bakeries
• Mechanical rooms
Ordinary, Group 2 • Barns and stables
• Chemical plants
• Machine shops
Extra, Group 1 • Aircraft hangars
• Textile manufacturing
• Upholstering
Extra, Group 2 • Plastic manufacturing
• Open oil quenching
• Car stacks and lift systems

Note: This is not the entire list from NFPA 13, Annex A.

It is essential that the fire sprinkler designer and code official

understand that the NFPA 13 list is representative of historical exam-
ples and may not accurately represent the hazards in
any single project. The fire sprinkler designer and
code official must critically evaluate a project’s actual
use and contents to ensure the appropriate design is
selected.
Depending on the occupancy, automatic fire sprin-
kler systems where the primary objective is life safety
are designed to either NFPA 13R or NFPA 13D. NFPA
13R systems are designed to protect Group R-1 and
R-2 occupancies up to four stories in height, while
NFPA 13D is used to design these systems in Group
R-3, Group R-4 and townhouses. In one- and two-
family dwellings and townhouses (Figure 10-6), NFPA
13D can be used as an alternative to the requirements FIGURE 10-6  A townhouse is a single-family dwelling
unit constructed in a group or three of more attached
in Section P2904 of the Saudi Residential Building Code units.
1 2 8    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

(SBC 1101) for dwelling fire sprinkler systems. With these design
standards, sprinklers may be omitted from those spaces where data
analysis has determined the likelihood of a fatal fire is very small,
including small bathrooms, unused attics, garages and small clothing
closets. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3.1.1, 903.3.1.2, 903.3.1.3]
The three NFPA standards have their own specific design require-
ments for the sprinkler types sprinklers, water supplies and cover-
age. Table 10-3 summarizes these major considerations for each of
the three standards and SBC 1101, Section P2904.
TABLE 10-3  Automatic sprinkler system design considerations
Sprinkler standard
Design
consideration SBC 1101 Section P2904
NFPA 13 NFPA 13R or NFPA 13D
Extent of pro- Throughout the building Occupied spaces Occupied spaces
tection (Section 903.3.1.1) (Section 903.3.1.2) (Section 903.3.1.3)
Design intent Life safety and property Life safety Life safety
protection
Applicability All occupancies Group R occupancies One- and two-family dwellings
up to 4 stories and townhouses

Design methods Pipe schedule 4 sprinklers in the hy- SBC 1101 Section P2904 - Pre-
Control mode – density/ draulic remote com- scriptive design;
design area partment NFPA 13D - 2 sprinklers in the
Control mode – specific hydraulic remote compartment
application or design option identical to
Suppression modes SBC 1101 Section P2904
Sprinklers All listed and approved Listed residential Listed residential sprinklers
sprinklers sprinklers
Minimum water 30 to 120 minutes de- 30 minutes SBC 1101 Section P2904 - Be-
supply duration pending on the hazard tween
and design 7 and 10 minutes depending on
dwelling area and the number
of stories;
NFPA 13D - 10 minutes

Nearly all fire sprinkler systems installed today are designed

You Should
Know
Pipe schedule systems do
not require hydraulic calcu-
lation; however, they only
are allowed for existing
light- and ordinary-hazard
pipe schedule fire sprin-
kler designs. Extra-hazard
sprinkler designs cannot be
prepared using the pipe
schedule method. l
using a method called “hydraulic design.” Sophisticated mathemati-
cal computations are used to show that the water supply can provide
adequate volume and pressure to protect the building and contents.
Except for the prescriptive design methods in SBC 1101, Section
P2904, NFPA 13D, Section 10.4.9 and the pipe schedule design meth-
ods, all other design methods are prepared using hydraulic calcula-
tions.
Hydraulic calculations [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3.8.5]
Hydraulic calculations that verify the water supply can provide the
required pressure and volume must be a part of the plan review
package submitted to the code official. Standards for the calcula-
tions’ preparation and format are established in NFPA 13 to enhance
consistency among designers and help plan reviewers understand
what they are approving. Calculations are based on the water supply’s
 D e s i g n a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n S t a n d a r d s    1 2 9

available pressure and flow, changes in elevation between the water

supply and the sprinklers, the selected sprinklers, the NFPA 13 haz- Code
ard classification for the building and the loss of pressure that results Essentials
from the friction of water moving inside the pipe. Friction loss is Residential fire sprinkler
influenced by the flow rate, the type of piping material, the pipe di- systems are designed to
ameter and length, and the number and type of connected fittings. limit fire and prevent flash-
If the water supply is a pond or underground tank, hydraulic calcula- over in the compartment
tions are based on a fire pump’s flow and pressure characteristics. where the fire starts. Their
Automatic fire sprinkler systems are designed to either control or prompt response encour-
suppress a fire. ages human survival by
Fire sprinkler systems using the control-mode approach are suc- keeping room temperatures
cessful when an adequate water volume is discharged to control the and carbon monoxide lev-
fire and “prewet” nearby combustible materials. Prewetting slows fire els within tolerable limits
spread, lowers fire gas temperatures and gives the Civil Defense time while occupants escape.
to respond to suppress it manually (Figure 10-7). Nonresidential fire sprin-
Suppression-mode sprinklers are designed to provide complete kler systems—often called
extinguishment of the fire without additional hose streams from fire “commercial” sprinkler
fighters. The design objective is to reduce a fire’s heat release rate to systems—are designed to
zero. Suppression-mode designs commonly involve the use of Early control or suppress a fire
Suppression-Fast Response (ESFR) sprinklers. ESFR sprinklers are and prevent flashover. l
intended for very specific uses and have very restrictive installation
rules. They are used primarily to protect storage and warehouse
applications for high-piled or rack storage arrays (see Chapter 15 of
this Guide). Compared to control-mode sprinklers, ESFR sprinklers
will deliver three to five times more water at higher discharge pres-
sures: ESFR sprinklers require a minimum operating pressure of
5170 kPa compared to the minimum 4825 kPa required for control-
mode sprinklers. These installation rules must be respected over
the life of the building. ESFR sprinkler
performance can be seriously affected by
discharge obstructions such as light fix-
tures, air-handling fans or banners hang- FIGURE 10-7 Control-mode
ing from the structure. Fire code officials sprinkler (Courtesy of TYCO Fire
Suppression and Building Prod-
should be cautious of building owners ucts, Lansdale, PA)
or design professionals who believe that
ESFR sprinklers will protect all buildings
from all hazards and remember they are
useful in very specific circumstances.
The effectiveness of suppression-
mode sprinklers depends on the combi-
nation of fast response and the quality
and efficiency of the sprinkler discharge
(Figure 10-8). FIGURE 10-8  An Early
Suppression-Fast Response
(ESFR) sprinkler in a ware-
house application (Courtesy of
TYCO Fire Suppression and
Building Products, Lansdale,
PA)
1 3 0    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s
FIGURE 10-9  A simple wet-pipe
sprinkler riser with a single control
valve, a main drain and a waterflow
alarm
FIGURE 10-10  Wet-pipe automatic sprinkler system (Courtesy of MFP Fire Protection Design,
Gilbert, AZ)
AUTOMATIC FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEM
TYPES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 903, 904]
Automatic fire sprinkler systems are designed to discharge a mea-
sured volume of water over the area being protected. Their compo-
nents and designs can vary due to the hazards of materials being
stored, the threat of frozen pipes or the potential risk of property
damage resulting from accidental sprinkler operation.
NFPA 13 establishes design and installation requirements for
four different types of automatic fire sprinkler systems:
• Wet-pipe automatic sprinkler system
• Dry-pipe automatic sprinkler system
• Pre-action automatic sprinkler system
• Deluge automatic sprinkler system
Wet-pipe automatic fire sprinkler systems are the most reliable
design because they require the fewest components (Figure 10-9).
The fire sprinkler pipe is charged with water at all times so upon
sprinkler activation, water is immediately discharged onto a fire.
These systems are permitted in any building where the temperature
is maintained at 4.4°C or more (Figure 10-10).
Branch Line
Upright Sprinkler
Cross Main
Feed Main
Water Motor Gong
102 mm Alarm Check
Piped from Alarm
Valve with 51 mm
Valve Trim
Main Drain
Trim to Include
Water Motor Gong
Control Valve w/Tamper Switch
Fire Dept Conn
Main Drain Discharge
From City Supply
 A u t o m a t i c F i r e S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m Ty p e s    1 3 1

Dry-pipe automatic fire sprinkler systems are used in any envi-

ronment where the temperature is less than 4.4°C, including loading
docks, attics and refrigerated storage warehouses (Figure 10-11).
The pipe above the dry-pipe valve contains compressed air or nitro-
gen. The air or nitrogen pressure holds the dry pipe valve closed so
water cannot enter and freeze the pipe. When a sprinkler operates,
air or nitrogen is discharged through the sprinkler orifice. When the
pressure inside the pipe drops to a specific level, the incoming water
pressure will push the dry pipe valve open and water flows toward
the open sprinkler(s). Depending on the occupancy being protected,
NFPA 13 requires the discharge of water from the open sprinkler
within 15 to 60 seconds of operation. On many dry-pipe fire sprin-
kler systems, a device called a quick-opening device (e.g., an accelera-
tor or exhauster) is installed to either accelerate the opening of the
dry pipe valve or exhaust the air/nitrogen through the main drain
outlet. Since there is an inherent time delay while the air or nitrogen
is expelled, special design considerations are included in the hydrau-
lic calculations for dry pipe systems.

Branch Line

Upright Sprinkler

Cross Main

Feed Main
Electric Bell Wired
102 mm Dry Pipe Valve to Alarm Panel
with 51 mm Main Drain
Trim to Include Low
Air Pressure Switch Main Drain Discharge

Control Valve w/Tamper Switch

Fire Dept Conn

From City Supply
Air Compressor.
Connect Air Lines to
Dry Pipe Valve Trim

FIGURE 10-11  Dry-pipe automatic sprinkler system (Courtesy of MFP Fire Protection Design, Gil-
bert, AZ)
1 3 2    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

A preaction automatic fire sprinkler system utilizes an auxil-

iary fire detection system located in the same area as the sprinklers
(Figure 10-12). The fire detection system may be smoke or heat
detection, ultraviolet or infrared detection, video detection, or any
other listed and proven technology.

6
6

5
5

13

12
11
8
10

7 9

3 4

1 - Model DV-5 Deluge Valve
2 - Main Control Valve (N.O.)
3 - Diaphragm Chamber Supply
Control Valve (N.O.)
4 - Local Manual Control Station
5 - Open Nozzles or Sprinkles
6 - Wet Pilot Line Sprinklers
(Fire Detection)
7 - Water Supply Pressure Gauge
8 - Diaphragm Chamber Pressure
Gauge
9 - System Drain Valve (N.C.)
10 - Main Drain Valve (N.C.)
(Shown at Rear of Valve)
11 - Diaphragm Chamber Automatic
Shut-Off Valve
12 - Waterflow Pressure Alarm Switch
(Shown at Rear of Valve)
13 - Water Motor Alarm (Optional)
Note:
N.C. = normally closed
N.O. = normally open

FIGURE 10-12  Preaction automatic sprinkler system (Courtesy of TYCO Fire Suppression and Building Products,
Lansdale, PA)
 A u t o m a t i c F i r e S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m Ty p e s    1 3 3

The design advantage to a preaction fire sprinkler system is it

requires some other action (e.g., heat, smoke, flame, etc.) to oper- You Should
ate before the preaction fire sprinkler system releases water. This Know
lessens the likelihood of water damage from inadvertent leaks or Figure 10-12 represents an
damage. Preaction fire sprinkler systems are common in computer older technology called a
server rooms, electronic equipment facilities and fashion fur storage “pilot line” that employed
vaults. wet or dry pipe sprinklers
Preaction fire sprinkler piping is charged with low-pressure operating at lower tem-
compressed air to monitor the pipe’s integrity. A fire detection sys- peratures than the main
tem activates an alarm and opens the deluge valve, allowing the fire sprinkler installed for the
sprinkler piping to be filled with water. When the compartment ceil- preaction fire sprinkler
ing temperature reaches the sprinklers’ operating temperature, the system. The pilot line
sprinklers will open. detection was designed
Deluge automatic fire sprinkler systems are like preaction sprin- to operate first and release
klers in that they are also activated by a fire detection system located the main preaction system
in the same area as the sprinklers (Figure 10-13). Deluge fire sprin- valve—actually a deluge-
kler systems include a manual release feature that enables a person type valve—to allow water
to operate it before the fire detection system activates. to fill the overhead
pipes. l

You Should Know

There are two kinds of preaction fire sprinkler systems:
• Single-interlock preaction fire sprinkler systems allow water to fill the
fire sprinkler piping shortly after the fire detection system senses a
fire.
• Dual or double-interlock fire sprinkler systems require two actions to
take place before water is allowed to enter the fire sprinkler piping.
These two actions include the operation of the detection systems
and the operation of the sprinkler. This second approach reduces the
risk of accidental water damage even further because a fire must be
present to open the sprinklers.
NFPA 13 does not allow more than 1,000 sprinklers to be controlled
by one single-interlock alarm valve. Single- and double-interlock pre-
action fire sprinkler systems must discharge water within 60 seconds
of the sprinkler’s operation. l
1 3 4    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

5
5

6 13
17

20 A
18

16
9
8 B 15

11

7
14

1
4

19

1 - Model DV-5 Deluge Valve
2 - Main Control Valve (N.O.)
3 - Diaphragm Chamber Supply
Control Valve (N.O.)
4 - Local Manual Control Station
5 - Automatic Sprinklers
6 - Heat Detectors, Smoke Detectors,
etc. (Fire Detection)
7 - Water Supply Pressure Gauge
8 - Diaphragm Chamber Pressure
Gauge
9 - System Drain Valve (N.C.)
10 - Main Drain Valve (N.C.)
(Shown at Rear of Valve)
11 - Diaphragm Chamber Automatic
Shut-Off Valve
12 - Waterflow Pressure Alarm Switch
(Shown at Rear of Valve)
13 - Water Motor Alarm (Optional)
14 - Solenoid Valve
15 - Cross-Zone Deluge Valve
Releasing Panel
16 -Riser Check Valve
17 -System Shut-Off Valve (N.O.)
18 -Air Pressure Gauge
19 -Automatic Air/Nitrogen Supply
20 -Low Pressure Alarm Switch
A - Fire Detection Initiating Circuit
(Zone 1)
B - Low Pressure Alarm Initiating Circuit
(Zone 2)
Note:
N.C. = normally closed
N.O. = normally open

FIGURE 10-13  Deluge automatic sprinkler system (Courtesy of Tyco Fire Suppression and Building Products, Lansdale,
PA)
 O c c u p a n c i e s R e q u i r i n g A u t o m a t i c F i r e S p r i n k l e r P r o t e c t i o n    1 3 5

The sprinklers in this deluge fire protection system are open: the
frangible bulb or fusible element and the water seal are removed.
When a deluge fire sprinkler system operates, water flows simulta-
neously from all the sprinklers. Since all the sprinklers flow upon
activation, the deluge fire sprinkler system design is limited to the
available water supply. Deluge automatic fire sprinkler systems are
generally employed to protect very challenging goods or materials,
such as acetylene gas cylinder transfilling plants or flammable liquids
in plastic package storage.

OCCUPANCIES REQUIRING AUTOMATIC

FIRE SPRINKLER PROTECTION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 903]
SBC 201 and 801 requirements for automatic fire sprinklers can be
found among the various occupancy classes. Buildings housing a
Group H-5, I or R fire area require the installation of automatic fire
sprinkler protection throughout the building due to the life safety
and fire protection risks. Code
For Group R occupancies, the concern is the occupant ability to
awaken and evacuate in a timely fashion. Buildings housing Group
Essentials
H-5 occupancies (semiconductor fabrication facilities) require auto- There are two exceptions
matic fire sprinkler protection throughout because of the amount from fire sprinklers for
and variety of hazardous materials. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.5.2, Group I-4 day care facili-
903.2.6, 903.2.8] In Group I occupancies (hospitals, nursing homes ties:
and penitentiaries), the occupants are not capable of self-rescue and 1. G roup I-4 day care
must be protected in place. located on the level of
Once it is established that a fire sprinkler system is required, the exit discharge if each
code and design standards do not always require the entire building care room has an exit
to be equipped with fire sprinklers. Depending on the occupancy door directly to the
classification, the code requires fire sprinklers to be installed in the exterior, or,
fire area, the occupancy, the entire building or just the floor hous- 2. G roup I-4 day care
ing a specific occupancy class. When the code requires that—due to located on a story other
occupancy—a single floor must be protected with fire sprinklers, than the level of exit
all floor levels between that floor and the levels of exit discharge discharge, an automatic
must also be protected with fire sprinklers. Table 10-4 identifies the fire sprinkler system
requirements for the automatic fire sprinkler system coverage based must be installed on
on occupancy classification. that floor and all floors
below, rather than
throughout the entire
building. l
1 3 6    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

TABLE 10-4  Portion of building required to be equipped with fire sprinklers

Throughout the entire
Occupancy Throughout the Throughout the Throughout the
floor and all floors to
classification fire area occupancy entire building
levels of exit discharge
A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4 X
Group A on a rooftop Xa
A-5 b

B Ambulatory Care Facility Xc

E X
F-1 Woodworking Facility X
F-1, all other uses X
H-1 X
H-2, H-3, H-4 X d

H-5, I, M, R, S X
S-2 Enclosed Parking X
Garage

a. Fire sprinklers are not required on the rooftop unless a ceiling is present.
b. Fire sprinklers are required in concession stands, retail areas, press boxes and other accessory use areas > 92.9 m2
c. In addition to fire sprinklers between the floor and the level of exit discharge, sprinklers are required on all floors below the ambulatory care facility.
d. Group H occupancies with >45.3 kg of pyroxylin plastics must sprinkler the entire building. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 903.2]

In assembly occupancies, the require-

FIGURE 10-14  Each Group A fire area is below the threshold
for sprinklers, but they share common exit and exit access
paths. Therefore, the aggregate occupancy is evaluated to de-
termine automatic sprinkler system requirements.
FIGURE 10-15  Automatic sprinkler system requirements for a
mixed occupancy Group A-1/B/M occupancy
ments for automatic fire sprinkler protection
are based on the occupancy’s fire area or occu-
pant load. (See Table 10-1 for fire area thresh-
olds.) In Group A-1, A-3 and A-4 occupancies,
automatic fire sprinkler protection is required
when the fire area is more than 1115 m2 or the
occupant load is 300 or more persons (Figure
10-14). In Group A-2 occupancies, the require-
ment for an automatic fire sprinkler system
is more restrictive when compared to other
Group A occupancies. The fire area threshold
is reduced to 465 m2 and the occupant load
threshold is reduced from 300 to 100.
In all these occupancies, fire sprinkler pro-
tection is required throughout the entire floor
housing the Group A occupancy fire area. If
the occupancy is located on a floor that is not
the level of exit discharge, fire sprinkler protec-
tion must be included in each floor between
the Group A occupancy and all levels of exit
discharge (Figure 10-15).
A recent entertainment trend is to use a
building’s roof as an assembly area. Rooftops
can offer an outdoor setting with a nice view
 O c c u p a n c i e s R e q u i r i n g A u t o m a t i c F i r e S p r i n k l e r P r o t e c t i o n    1 3 7

and these locations are being used for receptions, lounge

areas and other entertainment. If this assembly use
were inside the building, the code would require an auto-
matic fire sprinkler system to be installed on the floor
and all floors down to the levels of exit discharge. Since
this Group A occupancy is located on the roof, providing
fire sprinklers on the roof is not practical but the instal-
lation of an automatic fire sprinkler system on all floors
down to the levels of exit discharge still is required.
[Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 903.2.1.1, 903.2.1.2,
903.2.1.3, 903.2.1.4, 903.2.1.6]
In Group B occupancies, automatic fire sprinkler
protection is required only in buildings housing ambula-
tory care facilities or in a building that has an occupant FIGURE 10-16  This Group B occupancy requires
load of 30 or more that is located more than 17 m above automatic sprinkler protection because it has an oc-
cupant load of more than 30 on a floor more than
the lowest level of fire department vehicle access (Figure 17 m above the lowest level of fire department ve-
10-16). hicle access.
When a building with an ambulatory care facility
has a floor level more than 17 m in height, the entire Code
building must be protected with an automatic fire sprinkler system. Essentials
However, when an automatic fire sprinkler system is installed as An ambulatory care facility
required for an ambulatory care facility, the floor level where the is a “building or portions
ambulatory care facility is located and all floors between that floor thereof used to provide
and the nearest level of exit discharge must be protected. [Ref. SBC medical, surgical, psy-
201 and SBC 801 - 903.2.2, 903.2.11.3] chiatric, nursing or similar
SBC 201 and 801 exempt open parking garages from these care on a less-than-24-hour
requirements, but enclosed Group S-2 parking garages more than basis to persons who are
1115 m2 and commercial vehicle parking garages more than 465 m2 rendered incapable of self-
must be protected with an automatic fire sprinkler system. preservation by the ser-
Group F-1, M and S-1 occupancies vices provided.” [Ref. SBC
201 and SBC 801 - 202] l
While each occupancy classification has its own specific require-
ments based on specific hazards that may be located within it, Group
F-1, M and S-1 occupancies require automatic fire sprinkler protec-
tion when any of the following occur: You Should
1. The fire area of any one of these occupancies exceeds 1115 m2;
2. Any of these occupancies is located more than three stories
Know
above grade plane; A commercial motor
3. The combined area of any one of these occupancies on floors of vehicle is used to transport
a building, including mezzanines, exceeds 2230 m2; passengers or property and
4. The fire area exceeds 230 m2 and houses upholstered furniture has a gross vehicle weight
or mattress manufacturing or storage in Group F-1 or S-1; or rating of 4500 kg or more,
5. The fire area exceeds 465 m2 and houses upholstered furniture or is designed to carry
or mattress storage or display in Group M (Figure 10-17). [Ref. 16 or more passengers,
SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 903.2.4, 903.2.7, 903.2.9] including the driver. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202] l
1 3 8    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s
FIGURE 10-18  Group M occupan-
cies with combustible storage over
3600 mm in height require an au-
tomatic sprinkler system when the
storage area exceeds 1115 m2.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.2]
FIGURE 10-17  In some cases, Group M or S occupancies with combustible stor-
age more than 3600 mm above the floor require fire sprinklers for storage areas as
small as 465 m2.
Group M and S occupancies often have products that are stored
or displayed in a high-piled storage arrays. With some exceptions,
where combustible products exceed 3600 mm in height, they are
treated as high-piled combustible storage (Figure 10-18). High-piled
combustible storage requires a specific fire sprinkler design other
than those discussed above. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.7.1] (Additional
information about high-piled combustible storage can be found in
Chapter 15 of this Guide.)
Buildings are assigned a Group H occupancy classification when-
ever they store or use hazardous materials in excess of the limits
allowed in SBC 201, Chapter 3 and SBC 801, Chapters 50 through 67.
Quantity limits, termed “maximum allowable quantity per control
area” (MAQ), are established in SBC 201, Chapter 3 and SBC 801,
Chapter 50. (Additional information about MAQs and how they are
applied can be found in Chapter 17 of this Guide.)
SBC 201 and SBC 801 Group H occupancy requirements are not
based on occupant load or fire area but on the hazardous materi-
als’ classification and
the amount stored or
used inside a build-
ing. When a building is
constructed in accor-
dance with the SBC
201 Group H-1, H-2,
H-3 or H-4 occupancy
requirements, auto-
matic fire sprinkler
protection is required
throughout the occu-
pancy (Figure 10-19). FIGURE 10-19  A Group H-3 compressed gas pack-
aging plant
 F i r e S p r i n k l e r s “ T h r o u g h o u t ” a n d E x e m p t L o c a t i o n s    1 3 9

For Group H-1, the occupancy is the entire building since this
occupancy is not allowed to be in a mixed-occupancy building. The You Should
Group H-1 extreme hazards (e.g., explosives, unstable (reactive) Know
materials and detonable pyrophoric) mandate that these occupan- A product that is deto-
cies be detached with no other uses. Buildings classified as Group nable is one subject to
H-5 also require fire sprinkler protection throughout the building. detonation: an exothermic
In addition to NFPA 13, the design of the automatic fire sprinkler (heat-releasing) reaction
system must comply with the requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 50, characterized by the pres-
and for many hazardous materials its design will require special fire ence of a shock wave
protection considerations. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.5] through the material faster
than the speed of sound

FIRE SPRINKLERS “THROUGHOUT” AND (343 m/sec). A detonation

has an explosive effect.
EXEMPT LOCATIONS A deflagration is also an
[Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3] exothermic reaction—such
SBC 201 and 801 contain several phrases expressing the need to as the extremely rapid oxi-
install automatic fire sprinkler systems “throughout” the building. dation of a flammable dust
In some cases, the code will state “an automatic sprinkler system or vapor in air—in which
installed throughout the building,” “the building shall be equipped the reaction travels through
throughout with an automatic sprinkler system,” “an automatic the unburned materials at a
sprinkler system shall be provided throughout” or “automatic sprin- rate less than the speed of
kler system shall be installed throughout the entire building.” The sound. A deflagration may
code official must understand that the term “throughout” has a spe- have an explosive effect.
cific meaning: sprinklers must be installed throughout the building Due to the reaction speed
in all of the locations required by the referenced NFPA standard. of both events, special
Each NFPA standard specifies where fire sprinklers are to be detectors and fire sprinkler
located within the building and allow certain building areas to omit systems are required. l
sprinklers. For example, NFPA 13D does not require sprinklers to be
installed in some dwelling attic spaces, small bathrooms and closets,
exterior balconies, or attached garages. Likewise, NFPA 13R does not
require sprinklers to be installed in some attic spaces, small bath-
rooms and closets, or some exterior balconies and decks. NFPA 13
does not require sprinklers in soffits, eaves and over-
hangs less than 1200 mm wide, concealed spaces with
limited access and no storage, some pipe chases and
concealed spaces having clearances less than 150 mm
or entirely noncombustible. Consequently, a multi-
family building equipped with an NFPA 13R sprinkler
design is treated as being sprinklered “throughout.”
None of the standards mandate that fire sprin-
klers be installed in all locations of the building.
There are locations within a building that can be left
unprotected and the building will comply with the
standard and therefore SBC 201 and 801. When fire
sprinklers are installed in all the locations that the FIGURE 10-20  Although this hotel porte-cochere ex-
standard requires, the building is considered to be ceeds 1200 mm, no sprinklers are required if vehicles
or other combustibles are not stored beneath it.
1 4 0    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

“sprinklered throughout” (Figure 10-20). [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC

801 - 903.3.1.1, 903.3.1.2, 903.3.1.3]
SBC 201 and SBC 801 also denote areas within a building that are
exempt from sprinkler protection. Section 903.3.1.1.1 lists locations
where sprinklers may be omitted if the room is equipped with an
automatic fire detection system:
• Rooms where sprinklers can create a life or fire hazard if they
were to operate
• Spaces where the construction is noncombustible and the con-
tents are noncombustible
• Rooms containing elevator machinery or elevator controls
• Power generator and electrical transformer rooms if they are sep-
arated by fire-resistance-rated construction of at least 2 hours
The sprinkler design standards may not address omitting sprin-
klers from these specific spaces. Remember, code requirements super-
sede standard requirements even if the code is less restrictive. Where
fire sprinklers are omitted from rooms or areas as Section 903.3.1.1.1
allows, the building is still considered sprinklered “throughout” as
long as all other areas of the building are protected as required by the
appropriate standard. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 903.3.1.1.1]

FIRE DEPARTMENT CONNECTION

[Ref. SBC 801 - 912]
A fire department connection (FDC) is required for most NFPA
13 and 13R automatic fire sprinkler systems and standpipe sys-
tems; however, one is not required in one- and two-family dwellings
and townhouse sprinkler systems.
Pumping apparatus can connect
hoses to the FDC to supplement
fire sprinkler or standpipe system
water volume and pressure. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 903.3.7, 912]
FDC locations and fire hose
threads must be approved by the
fire chief. FDC placement must not
obstruct access for other respond-
ing apparatus to the protected
building. The connection should be
located fronting a street and it must
be easily recognized from the fire
department vehicle access roadway
(Figure 10-21). [Ref. SBC 801 -
912.2]
FIGURE 10-21  Fire department connections are to be located on the street
side of buildings, visible from the street and provided with ready access. This
one is mounted to the right of the backflow prevention assembly.
 F i r e D e p a r t m e n t C o n n e c t i o n    1 4 1

For existing buildings, SBC 801 authorizes the fire code official to
require the installation of additional signs to help identify the FDC
location (Figure 10-22). In some cases, SBC 201 or SBC 801 requires
automatic fire sprinkler protection only for the fire area or a portion
of the building, such as a basement or other specific hazard. In those
cases, a sign is required at the FDC to indicate the portion of the
building served. Similarly, in Group R-2 apartment multiple-building
complexes, a single FDC may supply all the buildings because it is
more economical. In these cases, the buildings served by the FDC
should be identified. [Ref. SBC 801 - 912.2.2, 912.4]

FIGURE 10-22  A direction sign can

be required at existing buildings
where the FDC is not readily visible
from the street.

FIGURE 10-23 Each building side is designated by letter to help first re-
sponders communicate their location in an emergency.

You Should
Know
If you look closely at Figure 10-22, you’ll notice the sign says “FDC Side C.” This means the fire department
connection (FDC) can be found on Side C of the building.
Emergency responders in the US operate under the National Incident Management System (NIMS) to orga-
nize their operational plans and enhance first responder safety and on-scene accountability.
During emergency operations, each side of the building is designated by letter so personnel can identify
and communicate their location.
The building side fronting the main access road is designated as Side A (sometimes called the address
side, because that is where a building’s address number should be located). This may be where the inci-
dent commander establishes the command post.
The lettering sequence follows a clockwise pattern: the first side to the left is Side B, the next Side C and
so on. In a simple rectangular-shaped building (Figure 10-23), Side C would represent the side of the
building opposite the front.
For more NIMS information, visit https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/nims. l
1 4 2    C h a p t e r 1 0 A u t o m a t i c S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s

QUIZ

1. A
utomatic fire sprinklers are required in a Group M occupancy
when the fire area exceeds __________ m2.
a. 465
b. 1000
c. 1005
d. 1115

2. A
preaction fire sprinkler system includes a manual releasing
device.
a. True
b. False

3. W
hen SBC 201 or SBC 801 requires automatic fire sprinklers
throughout a building, compliance with the appropriate NFPA
13 design and installation series is considered evidence of code
compliance.
a. True
b. False

4. A
fire area is the aggregate floor area enclosed by fire walls, fire
barriers, fire partitions, exterior walls or horizontal assemblies
of a building.
a. True
b. False

5. A
ll buildings with Group H, ____ or R fire areas must be fire
sprinklered.
a. E
b. I
c. M
d. S
CHAPTER
Fire Alarm and
11 Detection Systems

S
moke alarms for occupant notification in one- and two-family
dwellings and townhouses, in-building fire alarm and detection
systems that notify occupants, and automatic fire sprinkler sys-
tems connected to a supervising station are a few examples of fire alarm
and detection systems that SBC 801 regulates.
Fire alarm and detection systems provide early warning by detecting
products of combustion such as smoke, heat or a visible flame. Preaction
and deluge fire sprinkler systems and most alternative-agent fire-extin-
guishing systems are activated by an automatic fire detection system
connected to a fire alarm control unit. (See Chapters 10 and 12.) SBC
801 specifies these systems in occupancies that present high life-safety
risks or buildings where a large population requires a reliable means of
early notification and communication.

143
1 4 4    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
Code
Essentials
A fire alarm control unit—
sometimes called a fire
alarm control panel—is a
“system component that
receives inputs from auto-
matic and manual fire alarm
devices and may be capa-
ble of supplying power
to detection devices and
transponder(s) or off-prem-
ises transmitter(s). The con-
trol unit may be capable
of providing a transfer of
power to the notification
appliances and transfer
of condition to relays or
devices. [Ref. SBC 801 -
202] l
FIGURE 11-2  This audible alarm
device is typical of those found in
hotel sleeping rooms.
DESIGN AND INSTALLATION STANDARDS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907]
Fire alarm and detection system design, construction and mainte-
nance requirements are established in NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm
and Signaling Code. Since these systems utilize electricity, their wiring
also must comply with SBC 401.
NFPA 72 describes the requirements for devices to initiate a fire
alarm signal, transmit a signal to and from the fire alarm control
unit, and notify occupants both visually and audibly. These signals all
are processed by the fire alarm control unit. NFPA 72 also contains
requirements for fire alarm and detection system performance, reli-
ability and survivability (Figure 11-1).
FIGURE 11-1  The fire alarm control unit is the control center for the fire alarm system.
Signals are received from initiating devices, and signals are sent out to operate
notification appliances.
A fire alarm and detection system is designed to perform one or
more of these functions:
• In-building fire notification
• Alarm, supervisory and trouble signal monitoring and notifica-
tion
• Occupant alerting
• Summoning aid from public or private sources
• Controlling fire safety functions such as closing fire doors to stop
the spread of heat and smoke, and shutting down ventilation
and air conditioning systems to prevent smoke migration [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202]
According to NFPA 72, “notification” is an audible, visual or text
signal, message or display. Notification appliances are required based
on the building occupancy classification and occupant load. Audible
alarm notification appliances for evacuation must emit a distinctive
signal that cannot be used for any purpose other than that of a fire
alarm (Figure 11-2). This signal is called the “standard fire signal”
 D e s i g n a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n S t a n d a r d s    1 4 5

and consists of a three-pulse temporal pattern. In any fire alarm and

detection system, occupant notification takes precedence over other Code
signals. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.5.2.1] Essentials
“Supervisory” signals indi- The “standard fire signal” is
cate the need for action in connec- a pattern where:
tion with fire protection systems. 1. The alarm sounds every
Supervisory signals include notifica- 0.5 second followed by
tion that a main water supply control silence of 0.5 second.
valve to a water-based system has 2. The sounding pattern is
been closed, there is low air pres- repeated three times.
sure on a dry-pipe automatic fire 3. After three pulses there is
sprinkler system, or any other con- a 1.5 second period of
dition that may disable a fire protec- silence.
tion system. A supervisory signal 4. The entire cycle lasts
must be distinct from other signals 4 seconds.
that are received and must be visu- 5. The cycle repeats itself.
ally and audibly annunciated at a fire The three-pulse cycle must
alarm control unit. A supervisory be repeated for as long
signal warrants implementation of FIGURE 11-3 Electronic
supervision of this post indicating
as it takes to evacuate the
building, but in no case
the building’s fire protection impair- valve should report its "shut" status less than 180 seconds
ment program (Figure 11-3). [Ref. to the fire alarm control unit. (3 minutes). l
SBC 801 - 902.1]
“Trouble” signals indicate there is an electrical problem in the fire
alarm system: an initiating or notification appliance may have been
removed from a circuit, a power loss or ground fault has occurred, or
there is a short circuit in the wiring. Trouble signals also need to be
reported audibly and visually at the fire alarm control unit (Figure
11-4). When a trouble signal occurs, a competent service technician
should be called right away to diagnose and repair the problem.
Meanwhile, the facility’s fire protection system impairment program
should be implemented.
Fire alarm and detection systems also can perform fire safety
functions. A fire safety function is any feature that improves occu-
pant life safety or controls fire and smoke spread. Fire safety func-
tions include activation
of motorized controls
to close fire and smoke FIGURE 11-4  The yellow
dampers (or release mag- illuminated light-emitting diode
(LED) on this conventional fire
netic devices that hold alarm control unit indicates there is
fire door assemblies open an electrical problem somewhere on
in fire walls or barriers the system.
(Figure 11-5). Upon acti-
vation of the fire alarm
and detection system, the
magnet is de-energized
and the fire door closer FIGURE 11-5  Smoke detection is used to close
the motorized smoke damper in this heating,
ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.
1 4 6    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
FIGURE 11-6  Magnetic door hold-open devices serve a fire
safety function and operate upon a signal from the fire alarm
control unit.
You Should
Know
Air-handling systems may
distribute conditioned air
through buildings several
ways.
• Local or room units will
heat or cool individual
spaces.
• Ducted systems distribute
air from furnaces, air
conditioners or chiller units
through rigid metal or
flexible plastic duct
systems.
• Plenum systems use the
noncombustible space
between a ceiling and the
floor or roof above to
broadly distribute air
throughout a building.
Always check with SBC 201
Building Code and SBC 501
Mechanical Code for air-
handling rules and regula-
tions. l
will shut the door to protect the wall opening
(Figure 11-6).
Duct smoke detectors perform fire safety
functions (Figure 11-7). These specialized smoke
detectors are required by Section 606.2 of SBC
501 when the airflow rate in a return airflow
duct or plenum system is more than 56.6 m3 per
minute. Duct smoke detectors constantly monitor
the air for the presence of smoke in the return air
duct or plenum.
FIGURE 11-7  Duct smoke detector
(Courtesy of Air Products and Controls, Pontiac, MI)
The return air ductwork carries air from the occupied spaces to
the heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) units. The duct
smoke detector is listed for use in mechanical ventilation systems
based on the duct diameter or width, the airflow velocity, and the air
temperature and humidity range of the air-handling system. When
a fire occurs, the return air system will capture the smoke and—if
the air handling equipment is turned off—will return the smoke and
toxic gases into the building through the supply air. A duct smoke
detector generally shuts down the air-handling system unless it
serves a building smoke management system for an atrium, pres-
surized shaft or similar use. In this case, the building’s mechanical
system is switched to a smoke control mode rather than being shut
down. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.3.1]
Occupancies may have fire safety function features for building
ventilation systems but may not otherwise be required to have a
complete fire alarm system. Where ventilation systems fire safety
function devices are installed in buildings where fire alarm and detec-
tion systems are required, they must transmit a distinct audible and
visual supervisory signal to a constantly attended location or activate
the occupant notification devices. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.3]
 D e s i g n a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n S t a n d a r d s    1 4 7

All SBC 801-required fire alarm systems must be monitored by an

approved supervising station (Figure 11-8). A supervising station is
a facility that receives fire alarm and supervisory signals and trans-
mits them to the Civil Defense. The supervising station is staffed at
all times to receive and process alarm signals.

You Should Know

Once the fire alarm signal leaves the premises en
route to the receiving station, there is no specific time
limit in NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm and Signaling
Code, for the service to notify Civil Defense. Many
people have assumed over the years that emergency
services must be called within 90 seconds of the
monitoring service receiving the alarm.
NFPA 72, Section 26.2.1.2 says, “all fire alarm signals
received by a supervising station shall be immediately
retransmitted to the [emergency services] communica-
FIGURE 11-8  This digital alarm communications tions center.”
transmitter sends fire alarm, supervisory and trouble The explanatory information in NFPA 72 that accom-
signals to the supervising station. (Courtesy of panies this section says, “The term immediately in this
Honeywell Security and Communications)
context is intended to mean ‘without unreasonable
NFPA 72 requires that the design, instal- delay.’ Routine handling should take a maximum of
lation and maintenance of the monitoring 90 seconds from receipt of an alarm signal” [emphasis
circuits and fire alarm and detection systems added].
be performed by certified and competent fire The “without unreasonable delay” phrase is provided
protection system designers and installers. to address those circumstances where the receiv-
SBC 801 requires that the system be tested ing station is overwhelmed by simultaneous alarm
in accordance with NFPA 72 and manufactur- activations and cannot meet a specific time limit. For
ers’ equipment standards upon completion example, a passing thunderstorm may cause hundreds
of the installation. These test results should of fire alarms to be transmitted in just a few minutes.
be documented on a record of completion The receiving station likely could not process all those
that is provided to the fire code official. [Ref. alarms within 90 seconds. l
SBC 801 - 907.8, 907.8.5]
During the occupancy’s lifetime, the
owner is responsible for the fire alarm and detection system inspec-
tion, testing and maintenance (ITM). NFPA 72 prescribes inspection
Code
and testing frequencies for the various types of detectors, the fire Essentials
alarm control unit, audible and visual signal strength and cover- Monitoring is not required
age, and devices performing fire safety. System maintenance must for single- or multiple-
be conducted in accordance with the manufacturers’ equipment station (interconnected)
requirements. Within the first year of installation and every alter- smoke alarms or fire sprin-
nating year thereafter, all smoke detectors must be subjected to a kler systems in one- and
sensitivity test. This test is performed to ensure smoke detectors two-family dwellings, nor
are operating within their sensitivity range and listing (Figure 11-9). for smoke detectors in
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907.8.3] Group I-3 occupancies.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907.6.6] l
1 4 8    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
You Should
Know
There is a difference
between smoke alarms and
smoke detectors.
A smoke alarm is a
single- or multiple-station
alarm responsive to smoke.
A single-station smoke
alarm is an assembly incor-
porating the detector,
control equipment and the
sounding device in one
unit. A multiple-station
smoke alarm includes two
or more single-station
devices that are intercon-
nected.
A smoke detector is a
listed device that senses
visible or invisible particles
of combustion and most
often connected to a fire
alarm control unit. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202] l
FIGURE 11-9  Functional test of a duct smoke detector (Courtesy of Air Products
and Controls, Pontiac, MI)
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907.1.3]
All fire alarm and detection systems required by SBC 801 have four
fundamental components:
• Fire alarm control unit
• Initiating devices
• Occupant notification devices
• Primary and secondary electrical power supply
The fundamental components are required for what NFPA 72
calls “protected premises”: the physical location protected by the
fire alarm system. These components are not found in single- or
multiple-station smoke alarms required in Group R or certain Group
I occupancies.
All components of a fire alarm and detection system must be
compatible1 with the fire alarm control unit, approved by the fire
code official and listed by a nationally recognized testing laboratory.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907.1.3] A fire alarm control unit is the compo-
nent that receives input from automatic and manual alarm-initiating
devices. The control unit may be capable of supplying electrical power
1. Product “compatibility” refers to requirement that different devices and manufacturer’s
products are proven to work together when part of a fire alarm and detection system.
 F u n d a m e n t a l C o m p o n e n t s    1 4 9

to detection devices, notifica-

tion appliances and transpon-
ders that transmit signals to
a supervising station (Figure
11-10).
A fire alarm control unit
can serve an entire building or
protect special hazards. For pre-
action and deluge fire sprinkler
systems, smoke dampers, fire
doors, fire shutters and many
alternative fire-extinguishing
systems, the control unit must
be listed as a “releasing service”
fire alarm control unit, because
it “releases” that equipment
to perform its fire protection FIGURE 11-10  Wiring and listing information can be found inside the fire alarm
control unit cabinet. (Courtesy of Honeywell International, Charlotte, NC)
functions (Figure 11-11).
A fire alarm control unit
must actuate notification devices and fire
safety functions and reporting the initiating
devices’ location within 10 seconds after its
activation. The fire alarm control unit can
be used by fire fighters to identify the device
that initiated the fire alarm signal and assist
in locating the fire in large complexes. Unless
the fire alarm control unit is located in a con-
tinuously occupied area, SBC 801 requires
that all fire alarm control units be protected
by an approved automatic fire or smoke
detector. This requirement is intended to
provide early warning of a fire threat to a fire
alarm control unit and should not be inter- FIGURE 11-11  This fire alarm control unit is listed for releasing
preted as requiring a fire alarm or detection service of an alternative automatic fire-extinguishing system.
system throughout the entire occupancy or
building. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202, 907.4.1]
NFPA 72 requires fire alarm control units to have primary and
secondary power supplies. The primary power supply is commonly
the electric utility serving the normal building power and is on a
dedicated fire alarm branch electrical circuit. The branch circuit must
be protected from mechanical impact and identified at the circuit
breaker so that power is not inadvertently turned off.
The secondary power supply can be any source allowed by NFPA
72, and it is commonly accomplished using storage batteries. The
secondary power supply must be capable of supplying power for at
1 5 0    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
FIGURE 11-12 Two batteries
installed at the bottom of this fire
alarm control unit cabinet provide
secondary power for the fire alarm
system.
FIGURE 11-13  A sprinkler water-
flow switch and valve-tamper
switch are examples of initiating
devices. The control valve tamper
switch is a supervisory device.
least 24 hours and, in the event of system activation, be able to oper-
ate all notification appliances for at least 5 minutes at the end of the
24-hour period. If the fire alarm control unit is serving an emergency
voice/alarm communication system, NFPA 72 requires that the
secondary power source be capable of operating for a minimum of
15 minutes (Figure 11-12). [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.6.2]
Initiating devices are connected to the fire alarm control unit
to detect or report a fire. Initiating devices include photoelectric or
ionization smoke detectors, fixed-temperature and rate-of-rise heat
detectors, a manual fire alarm box, ultraviolet or infrared spectrum
(UV/IR) detectors, flammable gas detectors, fire sprinkler water
flow or pressure switches, and high- or low-pressure or temperature
alarms (Figure 11-13).
Initiating devices are available that can identify their specific
location and function at the fire alarm control unit. These types
of devices are referred to as “addressable” devices: each device is
assigned a specific alpha-numeric address code in the fire alarm lay-
out. When activated, the fire alarm control unit can determine which
specific device has operated. Addressable systems are required for
new fire alarm installations unless
• the building is only one story less than 2100 m2, or
• initiating devices are for manual or water flow only and the sys-
tem is so small that it has no more than 10 additional initiating
devices (Figure 11-14). [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.6.3]
FIGURE 11-14 The inside of a manual fire alarm box that is capable of having a
unique address by the position dual in-line package (DIP) switches are arranged.
The address code can be documented on the internal tag.
 F u n d a m e n t a l C o m p o n e n t s    1 5 1

NFPA 72 requires initiating devices to be located

so they are accessible for maintenance and testing
and in all areas and locations prescribed by SBC 801.
If they can be subject to mechanical damage, NFPA
72 requires the initiating device to be protected
with a mechanical guard (Figure 11-15). [Ref. SBC
801 - 907.4]
One initiating device often accessible to all build-
ing occupants is a manual fire alarm box (Figure
11-16). A manual fire alarm box is a device used by
the public to initiate a fire alarm signal. They also
are called “pull stations.” SBC 801 normally requires
manual fire alarm boxes in any occupancy where a
fire alarm and detection system is required. If the
building is protected by an automatic fire sprinkler FIGURE 11-15 A flame detecting initiating device with a
system, manual fire alarm boxes throughout the mechanical cover to protect its sensitive lens
building are not required, provided that the occupant
notification devices activate when the automatic sprinkler
system operates and at least one manual fire alarm box is
provided in a location approved by the fire code official. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 907.2]
Manual fire alarm boxes must be located within 1500
mm of each exit on each floor. In buildings that are not
equipped with an automatic fire sprinkler system, addition-
al manual fire alarm
boxes are required so
that the travel dis-
tance from any loca-
tion in the building to
the fire alarm box is
not more than 60 m.
Pull stations must be
installed 1000 to 1200
mm above the finished
floor and must be red. FIGURE 11-16  Manual fire alarm box within
If the fire alarm sys- 1500 mm of exit
tem is not monitored
by a supervising sta-
tion, a sign is required
above each box stating
that the fire depart-
ment must be noti-
fied when the fire
alarm box is activated
(Figure 11-17). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 907.4.2] FIGURE 11-17 A legacy manual fire
alarm box with instructions to call the fire
department after activating the alarm
1 5 2    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

Where manual fire alarm boxes are located where they can be
struck or hit during normal operations or use of the building, the
fire code official can require protective covers to be placed over them
to prevent damage or accidental use. The covers must be listed and
transparent so occupants can see the manual fire alarm box (Figure
11-18).

FIGURE 11-18 Protective cover over a manual fire alarm

box
Occupant notification appliances are required for many of the
fire alarm and detection systems prescribed by SBC 801. Notification
appliances are designed to deliver audible, visual, tactile or a combi-
nation of these signals (Figure 11-19). Notification appliances may
be grouped into notification zones, which are areas of a building
where all the notification appliances operate simultaneously when an
alarm signal is received and processed by the fire alarm control unit.
This enables the designer and fire code official to develop coordinat-
ed notification and evacuation plans where simultaneous occupant
evacuation may not be desirable, such as a high-rise office or hotel
with thousands of occupants. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]

FIGURE 11-19 Audible and visual occupant notification appliance

 F u n d a m e n t a l C o m p o n e n t s    1 5 3

Occupant notification appliances activate when an initiating

device operates. The audible alarm evacuation signal must be distinct
and cannot be used for any other purpose (see “standard fire signal”
defined previously). Audible notification appliances must be dis-
tributed so they can be heard above the normal or ambient building
sound level. NFPA 72 offers this list (Table 11-1) of average ambient
sound levels based on location.
TABLE 11-1 NFPA 72 list of average ambient sound levels based on location
Average Ambient
Location/Occupancy Sound Level (dBA)

Business 55

Educational 45
Industrial 80
Institutional 50
Mercantile 40
Mechanical rooms 85
Piers and water-surrounded structures 40

Places of assembly 55

Residential 35
Storage 30
Underground structures and windowless buildings 40

Source: NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, Annex A

It is important for the designer and fire code official to remem-

ber that these data are based on averages and may not represent the
sound levels that will occur once a building or occupancy is in use.
The fire alarm notification appliances must be arranged on the basis
of the actual sound level. For example, the sound level in a school
gymnasium (Educational) may vary dramatically from this table
based on the activities that occur there.
The minimum sound level for the notification appliances must
be at least 15 decibels (dBA) above the maximum (not average)
sound level in the building during normal operation. In unusually
noisy environments, such as factories, the notification appliances
must be capable of sounding at least 5 dBA above the loudest noise
that lasts for more than one minute. Individual notification devices
cannot exceed 110 dBA, so when the ambient level exceeds 95 dBA,
visible alarm notification appliances must be provided. [Ref. SBC
801 - 907.5.2]
1 5 4    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

SPECIAL NOTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

BASED ON OCCUPANCY
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907.5]
Group A-1 occupancies with an occupant load of 1,000 or more,
Group E with an occupant load of 100 or more, special amusement
buildings, malls more than 4650 m2 and high-rise buildings
require an emergency voice/alarm communication system.
This occupant notification feature operates in the
same manner as audible and visual occupant notification
appliances; however, this system requires a voice-enabled
speaker network that delivers recorded or live messages to
the building occupants. The system will have prerecorded
messages with different messages applicable to different
situations based on the initiating device activated.
The system must also be capable of delivering live voice
messages. This enables fire fighters one-way communica-
tion to direct occupants to perform either a complete,
partial or staged evacuation or occupant relocation. In
high-rise buildings, the emergency voice/alarm communi-
cation system must transmit signals to the floor where the
initiating device operated and the floors above and below
that level. Individual paging zones are required for each
floor, for exit stairways, at elevator groups and at areas of
FIGURE 11-20  The microphone (lower left) in refuge. The system must be designed so it can be manually
this fire alarm control unit allows emergency controlled by emergency responders and be connected to
responders to give instructions to building an emergency power source (Figure 11-20). [Ref. SBC 801
occupants. The telephone-style receiver is for
communicating with fire fighters. - 907.5.2.2]

OCCUPANCIES REQUIRING FIRE ALARM

You Should
Know
In NFPA 72, National
Fire Alarm Signaling Code,
relocation is defined as
“the movement of occu-
pants from a fire zone to a
safe zone within the same
building” and evacuation is
the “withdrawal of occu-
pants from a building.” l
AND DETECTION SYSTEMS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2]
SBC 801 establishes fire alarm and detection system require-
ments for new and existing buildings. Automatic fire detection is
required in occupancies where incipient fire detection and warning
are critical for occupant life safety. In certain existing buildings, SBC
801 requires retroactive installation if they are not currently pro-
tected by a fire alarm and detection system.
Requirements for occupant notification depend on the occupancy
classification and occupant load of the building. SBC 801 has specific
requirements for these systems in certain buildings, such as covered
malls, underground buildings, stadiums and high-rise buildings.
They are not required in Group S and U occupancies unless they are
used for fire sprinkler or special hazard supervision. [Ref. SBC 801
- 907.2]
 O c c u p a n c i e s R e q u i r i n g F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s    1 5 5

Assembly occupancies require a manual fire alarm

notification system when the occupant load is 300 or
more (Figure 11-21). If the building has an occupant
load of 1,000 or more, an emergency voice/alarm
communication system is required. [Ref. SBC 801 -
907.2.1]
Group B occupancies—except ambulatory care facili-
ties—require a manual fire alarm system when the com-
bined occupant load on all floors is 500 or more or if the
occupant load is more than 100 persons above or below
the level of exit discharge. Group B ambulatory care
facilities require a smoke detection system throughout
the occupancy and in all common areas leading to the FIGURE 11-21  This Group A-4 occupancy with an
occupant load of 1,000 or more requires a manual
exits. If the ambulatory care facility is protected with fire alarm system with an emergency voice/alarm
an automatic fire sprinkler system, the smoke detectors communication system.
can be eliminated, but the fire sprinkler system must
activate the occupant notification appliances. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 907.2.2, 907.2.2.1]
All educational occupancies (Group E) with an occupant load
of more than 50 require a manual fire alarm notification system.
When these buildings are not protected by an automatic fire sprin-
kler system, manual fire alarm boxes can be eliminated when the
interior corridors are protected by smoke detectors. Auditoriums,
cafeterias, gymnasiums, shops and laboratories must be protected
by an approved means of fire detection and the occupant notification
system can be activated at a central point. When the occupant load
exceeds 100, the fire alarm system must be an emergency voice/alarm
communication system (Figure 11-22). [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.3]

FIGURE 11-22  This Group E occupancy with an occupant load of more than
100 requires a manual fire alarm system with an emergency voice/alarm
communication system.
1 5 6    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

Group I occupancies represent a high life safety risk because

patients may not be capable of self-preservation. In correctional and
detention facilities, public safety demands the housed individuals
are closely supervised and cannot be released from where they are
confined. Accordingly, SBC 801 requires the installation of automatic
smoke detection that activates the occupant notification system
or perhaps only facility employees. Activation of any other SBC
801-prescribed fire protection systems also must activate the noti-
fication appliances in these occupancies. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.6]
In certain critical health care spaces, it may
be desirable to reduce or eliminate audible noti-
fication appliances. In intensive care or surgery
suites, audible notification appliances can com-
promise patient care. In these cases, the design
professional can use “private mode” signaling
when approved by the fire code official and in
conjunction with staff evacuation responsibili-
ties in the fire safety and evacuation plan. In pri-
vate mode signaling, the sound pressure level is
reduced or may be eliminated. NFPA 72 requires
the installation of visual notification appliances
FIGURE 11-23  Visible notification device used as an
element of private mode signaling (Courtesy of Cooper when private mode signaling is used (Figure
Notification Inc.) 11-23). [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.6 Exception 2]

Code Essentials
NFPA 72 includes two signaling “modes”: private and public.
“Private” operating mode is where audible or visible signals (or both)
are transmitted to “only those persons directly concerned with the
implementation and direction of emergency action initiation and
procedure in the area protected by the fire alarm system.” This may
include hospital suites, dwelling units or sleeping rooms. It also could
include security facilities, guard stations or other areas where compe-
tent persons can respond to the alarm.
“Public” operating mode is where audible or visible signals (or both)
are transmitted to “occupants or inhabitants of the area protected by
the fire alarm system.” Public operating mode includes general notifica-
tion and evacuation alarms. l

SBC 201 classifies assisted living and board and care facilities
with more than 16 residents as Group I-1 occupancies (Figure 11-24).
In a Group I-1, Condition 1 occupancy protected with an NFPA 13
automatic fire sprinkler system, smoke detection is not required
in habitable spaces, which are rooms for living, sleeping, eating or
cooking. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.6.1 Exception 1] Bathrooms, toilet
rooms, closets, and storage or utility spaces are not treated as habit-
able spaces.
 O c c u p a n c i e s R e q u i r i n g F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s    1 5 7

Code
Essentials
Group I-1, Condition 1
occupancies are where all
persons receiving custodial
care can respond to an
emergency situation and
complete building evacu-
ation.
Group I-1, Condition 2
occupancies are where
FIGURE 11-24  Group I-1 assisted living facility any of the persons receiv-
ing custodial care require
An automatic smoke detection system is required in corridors limited verbal or physical
and waiting areas open to corridors. Single- and multiple-station assistance to respond to
smoke alarms are required in patient sleeping areas, unless the area an emergency situation and
is served by an automatic smoke detection system. [Ref. SBC 801 - complete building evacu-
907.2.6.1] ation. l
Hospitals, intermediate care facilities, skilled nursing homes,
detoxification facilities and other Group I-2 occupancies require
automatic smoke detection systems. Smoke detection devices are
required in corridors and spaces that are permitted by SBC 201 to be
open to corridors, such as patient visiting areas and nurse stations.
In Group I-2 occupancies, automatic smoke detection is not required
in smoke compartment corridors protecting patient sleeping rooms
when each sleeping room is protected by a smoke detector. Activation
of the sleeping room smoke detector must trigger a visual display in
the corridor located outside of the patient’s room. The smoke detec-
tor’s activation must initiate an audible and visual alarm at the nurse
station that attends to patient care (Figures 11-25 and 11-26). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 907.2.6.2 Exception 1]
FIGURE 11-25  Patient sleeping
room visual display (Courtesy of
West Com Nursing Call Systems,
Fairfield, CA)

FIGURE 11-26  Hospital nurses station

1 5 8    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

A second option in Group I-2 occupancies is integrating

the smoke detector into the patient sleeping room door
closer (Figure 11-27). Smoke detector activation releases
the door closer, causing the patient’s room door to close,
and activates the occupant notification system. [Ref. SBC
801 - 907.2.6.2 Exception 2]
Like Group B, Group M occupancies require a manual
fire alarm system when the combined occupant load on all
floors is 500 or more or if the occupant load is more than
100 persons above or below the level of exit discharge.
FIGURE 11-27  Patient sleeping room doors with
However, occupant notification in Group M can be handled
integrated releasing devices differently. The code allows the initial notification to be
sent to a constantly attended location during times when
the building is occupied. From the constantly attended loca-
tion, an emergency voice/alarm communication system can
be activated and utilized with live messages.
This is an example of “private mode” opera-
tion. [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.7]
Group R-2 occupancies require a manual
fire alarm system when they contain more
than 16 dwelling units or are more than two
stories (Figure 11-28). SBC 801 requires an
automatic fire sprinkler system that com-
plies with either NFPA 13 or NFPA 13R in
these occupancies with occupant notification
devices that activate upon sprinkler water
flow. In Group R-2 college or university build-
ings, smoke detection is required in common
areas, interior corridors, laundry rooms and
FIGURE 11-28  Group R-2 apartment buildings storage rooms. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801
- 907.2.9]
In Group R-1 and R-4 occupancies, a manual fire alarm system is
required unless the building is not more than two stories and each
sleeping unit has a direct exit to the exterior. Since the occupan-
cies are also required to be protected by an automatic fire sprinkler
system, only one manual fire alarm box is required at an approved
location. In Group R-1 occupancies, an automatic smoke detection
system that activates the occupant notification system is required
throughout all interior corridors that serve sleeping units. [Ref. SBC
801 - 907.2.8, 907.2.10]
 C a r b o n M o n o x i d e A l a r m s    1 5 9

CARBON MONOXIDE ALARMS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 915]
Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless, toxic and
flammable gas that can be deadly after short, high-concen-
tration exposures. Carbon monoxide is produced when the
use of a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel does not result in com-
plete combustion. Some examples where carbon monoxide
can be produced are a gas or wood fireplace, a gas stove,
heating/ventilation/air-conditioning equipment powered
by fuel oil or gas, or a vehicle in the garage (Figure 11-29).
In one US study, 64.3 percent of the exposures occurred FIGURE 11-29  Without adequate ventilation,
motor vehicles running indoors can produce
in the home. To prevent similar fatalities and illness, SBC deadly carbon monoxide.
801 requires carbon monoxide detection to be installed in
Group I-1, I-2, I-4 and R occupancies, and in Group E classrooms
containing fuel-burning appliances or with an attached garage.
Carbon monoxide (CO) alarms have a similar design and You Should
performance requirements to smoke alarms. The alarms need Know
to be connected to the building electrical system and must have
Gas detection systems—
a battery backup. The carbon monoxide alarms must be listed
including carbon monoxide
in accordance with UL 2034, Standard for Single and Multiple
sensors—must activate
Station Carbon Monoxide Alarms, or UL 2075, Standard for Gas
when the gas concentration
and Vapor Detectors and Sensors, and they could be a combina-
reaches
tion carbon monoxide/ smoke alarm. In dwelling and sleeping
units the typical installation consists of single-station carbon • 25 percent of the lower
monoxide alarms; however, a carbon monoxide detection system flammable limit (LFL) or
designed and installed in accordance with NFPA 720, Standard • 50 percent of the value that
for the Installation of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detection and Warning is immediately dangerous
Equipment, could be used. [Ref. SBC 801 - 915] to life and health (IDLH). l
1 6 0    C h a p t e r 11 F i r e A l a r m a n d D e t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

QUIZ
1. Group I-1, Condition ___ occupancies are where all persons
receiving custodial care can respond to an emergency situation
and complete building evacuation.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4

2. Group B occupancies—except ambulatory care facilities—only

require a manual fire alarm system when the combined occupant
load on all floors is ____ or more.
a. 100
b. 250
c. 300
d. 500

3. “Public” operating mode is where audible or visible signals (or

both) are transmitted to “occupants or inhabitants of the area
protected by the fire alarm system.”
a. True
b. False

4. Assembly occupancies require a ________ fire alarm notification

system that activates the occupant notification system when the
occupant load is 300 or more.
a. smoke activated
b. manually activated
c. smoke and manually activated
d. None of the above

5. When Group E occupancies are not protected by an automatic

sprinkler system, manual fire alarm boxes can be eliminated
when the interior corridors are protected by smoke detectors.
a. True
b. False
CHAPTER
Alternative Fire
12 Protection Systems

T
here may be circumstances where automatic fire sprinkler sys-
tems are not suitable when the hazards that are being protected
are evaluated. In Chapter 10, we learned SBC 801 specifies areas
within a building that are exempt from fire sprinkler installation.
SBC 801 lists locations that may remain unprotected if the room is
equipped with an automatic fire detection system:
• Rooms where fire sprinklers can create a life or fire hazard if they were
to operate. This may include the storage and use of hazardous materi-
als such as calcium carbide (that creates highly flammable acetylene
gas when wet) or combustible metals such as magnesium or titanium.
• Rooms where the construction and the contents are noncombustible.
• Rooms and spaces containing fire service access and occupant evacu-
ation elevator machinery or elevator controls.
• Generator and transformer rooms if they are separated by fire-resis-
tance-rated construction of at least 2 hours.
161
1 6 2    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
FIGURE 12-1  Alternative automatic
fire-extinguishing systems often are
used to protect specific hazards,
such as this area around a motor
vehicle fuel dispenser.
FIGURE 12-2  This wet-chemical fire
suppression system is attached to a
commercial cooking operation.
The elimination of fire sprinklers in these conditions is not
recognized in the installation standards. As discussed in Chapter 1,
code requirements supersede the standard requirements even when
less restrictive. Where fire sprinklers are left out of rooms or areas as
allowed in this section, the building is still considered fire sprinklered
throughout as long as all other areas of the building are protected as
required by the appropriate standard. [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.1.1]
Furthermore, despite their superlative history in protecting
lives and property, fire sprinklers may not operate quickly enough
to control some hazards, such as environments where explosions or
fires must be controlled or suppressed within seconds or even mil-
liseconds of ignition.
Alternative automatic fire-extinguishing systems often are used
to protect specific hazards, such as flammable or combustible liquids,
flammable finish spray and dipping operations, commercial cooking,
clean rooms and computer server stations, offshore platforms, print-
ing presses, automobile petroleum fueling canopies, dip tanks, and
exhaust ducts that carry hazardous or explosive vapors and products
(Figure 12-1).
Alternative automatic fire-extinguishing systems employ a vari-
ety of fire suppression media: dry chemical, clean agent, carbon
dioxide, foam and foam-water solutions, high-, medium- and low-
pressure water mist, and so-called “wet” chemicals often found in
commercial cooking operations (Figure 12-2).
Often, these systems must be custom designed for the special
hazard they are protecting. Fire protection and product engineers
will conduct a careful preinstallation analysis to ensure the system
and extinguishing media are suitable for the protected hazard. In
other cases, alternative systems may be “pre-engineered”: if the pro-
tected hazard is common (such as a cooking hood or spray booth),
the suppression system manufacturer may already have a design that
can be installed without special considerations. Like fire sprinkler
systems, alternative hazard protection systems must have compo-
nents that are listed by a third party to verify they meet national
standards. In the case of pre-engineered systems, the pre-engineered
designs also must be evaluated and listed by an independent source.
DESIGN AND INSTALLATION STANDARDS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 903.1.1]
Design, component, installation, inspecting, testing and main-
tenance criteria for alternative fire extinguishing systems are found
among NFPA and other industry standards. The mandatory stan-
dards referenced in SBC 201 and 801 are found in Table 12-1 (Figure
12-3).
 D e s i g n a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n S t a n d a r d s    1 6 3

TABLE 12-1  NFPA alternative fire extinguishing system standards used in SBC 201 and
SBC 801 Code
Carbon-dioxide fire extinguishing systems NFPA 12 Essentials
Halon 1301 fire extinguishing systems NFPA 12A There is one important limit
Dry-chemical extinguishing systems NFPA 17 on the use of alternative
automatic fire extinguish-
Wet-chemical extinguishing systems NFPA 17A
ing systems: they may not
Water-mist extinguishing systems NFPA 750
be considered alternatives
Clean-agent extinguishing systems NFPA 2001 to fire sprinklers for the
purpose of exceptions or
reductions allowed for
automatic fire sprinkler
systems. [Ref. SBC 801 -
904.2.1]
For example, in SBC 801,
Sections 1017.2 and
1020.1, exit access travel
distance may be increased
and corridor fire-resistance
ratings decreased when
automatic fire sprinklers are
installed. An alternative
fire extinguishing system
may not be used as an
option in those cases.
There are numerous loca-
FIGURE 12-3  Foam-water fire protection systems are one means to protect open dip tions in the code where fire
tanks containing flammable liquids. sprinklers enable exceptions
or reductions, yet alternative
In addition to design and installation requirements, these stan-
fire extinguishing systems
dards prescribe frequent inspection, testing and maintenance to
may not be used to satisfy
increase system reliability. There are other alternative fire protection
the code. One key reason
system standards that a fire code official may encounter as part of a
is that when they operate,
proposed alternative method or material proposal and are adopted
most alternative systems
as mandatory standards in SBC 801, Chapter 80. The code official
have only one opportunity
should at least have some familiarity with these systems and docu-
to control or suppress a fire
ments described in Table 12-2.
compared to a working fire
TABLE 12-2  Additional NFPA alternative fire extinguishing system standard sprinkler system that will
continue to discharge water
Low-, medium- and high-expansion foam NFPA 11
until it is turned off. l
Water-spray fixed extinguishing systems NFPA 15
Ultra-high-speed water-spray extinguishing systems NFPA 15
Foam-water sprinkler and foam-water spray NFPA 16
1 6 4    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
Code
Essentials
Introduced in Chapter 2
of this Guide, the refer-
enced standards found
in SBC 801, Chapter 80
are part of the fire code’s
requirements. [Ref. SBC 801
- 102.7]
Chapter 80 lists the stan-
dards that are referenced
in various parts of SBC 801.
The standards are listed
therein by the promulgating
agency of the standard, the
standard identification [ref-
erence number], the effec-
tive date and title, and the
SBC 801 section or sections
that reference the standard.
l manual intervention can occur.
FIGURE 12-5  Manual reset
equipment that re-establishes
electrical power to cooking
equipment after a fire suppression
system has operated
DESIGN AND OPERATION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904]
Alternative fire extinguishing sys-
tems must be designed so they actu-
ate automatically when they detect a
fire, smoke, explosion or other threat
they are designed to protect. The
selected automatic actuation method
(such as a frangible bulb, ultraviolet/
infrared detection, heat or smoke
detector, or fusible link) is selected as
part of the design analysis. They also
must have a means of manual opera-
tion (a pull station or releasing con-
trols) to activate the system (Figure
12-4). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.3.2]
FIGURE 12-4  Manual release This feature is provided so that some-
assembly for a commercial kitchen one nearby can operate the system
hood and duct suppression system before the detection devices sense a
fire or, if the detectors fail to operate,
Occasionally, multiple hazards may exist near one another—for
example, a series of flammable or combustible dip tanks along a con-
veyor operation. In those circumstances where more than one hazard
could ignite simultaneously, all hazards must be protected by a single
system designed to protect anything that could be involved. SBC 801
permits an exception to this requirement if multiple adjacent haz-
ards are protected by multiple alternative fire extinguishing systems
that operate simultaneously. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 904.3.2] Where the fire
protection strategy or NFPA design
standard requires the system to be
connected to other building features
such as fuel shutoff, door closers,
window shutter, conveyor openings,
or smoke and heat vents, all systems
must be interlocked (Figure 12-5).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.3.3]
In those cases where predischarge
or toxicity alarms are required, they
must have audible and visible signals
and signs to warn of the agent dis-
charge (Figure 12-6).
Carbon dioxide is a common FIGURE 12-6  Visible predischarge
alarm for a halon fire suppression
suppression agent that is a simple system
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 6 5

asphyxiant: it controls a fire by displacing oxygen from the enclosure.

This displacement is dangerous or even fatal to persons in the enclo-
sure, so they must be warned to evacuate before the gas is released. You Should
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.3.4] When the building in which the alterna- Know
tive fire extinguishing system is installed has a fire alarm system, Once an alternative fire
the alternative fire extinguishing system must be monitored by it in extinguishing system
accordance with NFPA 72. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.3.5] is installed, it must be
Nearly all of these alternative fire extinguishing systems can be inspected and tested prior
used in “total flooding,” “local” or “spot” applications. Total flood- to final acceptance.
ing describes systems designed to fill some three-dimensional space As a minimum, these items
such as a room, spray booth, container, fuel cell or other structure must be checked:
with enough suppressant that the space is “flooded” while the agent 1. Is the system suitable
extinguishes the fire. Local or spot application refers to systems for the hazard it is pro-
installed near a special hazard (e.g., dip tank, printing press, electri- tecting?
cal transformer, workstation) that needs protection within a larger 2. Are all automatic-
space or outdoors. and manual-initiating
devices in accordance
with the manufacturer
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS BY and in place?
EXTINGUISHING AGENT TYPE 3. Are nozzles or dis-
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904] charge orifices in
The alternative automatic fire extinguishing systems use differ- accordance with the
ent designs or chemical agents to control or suppress fires, so they manufacturer and in
are organized in the code by extinguishing media. place?
4. Are audible and visible
Wet chemical [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.5] alarms identified and
“Wet” chemical is a term used to describe fire extinguishing operational?
agents that use organic or inorganic salts mixed with water to cre- 5. Are all devices prop-
ate an alkaline solution that is discharged by gas pressure through a erly designated?
pipe network to the hazards they cover. Wet-chemical systems must 6. Has a set of operating
be designed and installed in accordance with NFPA 17A, Standard for instructions been left
Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems, and their listings, especially for with the owner? [Ref.
pre-engineered systems (Figure 12-7). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.5] SBC 801 - 904.4.1] l

FIGURE 12-7  A pair of wall-mounted wet-chemical cylinders

1 6 6    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
FIGURE 12-8  Wet-chemical fire suppression agent discharging
onto a cooking surface
FIGURE 12-9  Cooking equipment
that wet-chemical systems must
protect
Wet-chemical systems are used nearly exclusively in commercial
cooking operations that emit grease-laden vapors (see Commercial
Cooking Systems—SBC 801, Section 904.12—below). They are
incompatible with any reactive metals, electrically energized equip-
ment, lime dust, chlorine trifluoride (used as a cleaner in the semi-
conductor fabrication industry) and other water-reactive materials.
When discharged, the chemicals used in
these systems have a physical reaction with
cooking oils and greases. This reaction results
in the creation of a soap-like surface on the
cooking equipment. This reaction is known
as saponification and controls fires through
smothering and cooling. The foamy, soap-
like blanket smothers flammable vapors that
are emitted from the cooking products and
the discharging liquid cools surfaces to pre-
vent reignition. To prevent dangerous phys-
ical reactions from the agent application,
wet-chemical systems are tested specially to
confirm they will not splash burning or hot
grease beyond the cooking surface (Figure
12-8).
Wet-chemical systems comprise pre-engineered designs: their
proprietary extinguishing agents and system designs are submitted
for third-party evaluation based on predetermined design param-
eters for various combinations of commercial cooking hood and duct
exhaust systems. The most referenced third-party standards with
which they must comply are UL 300, Fire Testing of Fire Extinguishing
Systems for Protection of Commercial Cooking Equipment, and UL 300A,
Outline of Investigation for Extinguishing System Units for Residential
Range Top Cooking Surfaces.
Part of the listing process requires that wet-chemical systems are
capable of controlling fires in deep-fat fryers, griddles, range tops,
gas and electric char-broilers, lava, pumice and synthetic rock, natu-
ral charcoal, mesquite, upright and chain broilers, and woks (Figure
12-9).
In the current edition of SBC 801, systems designed to satisfy
UL 300A can be used only in Group I-2, Condition 1 occupancies
where cooking facilities are installed with SBC 201, Section 407.2.6
for domestic-type cooking hoods. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.13] Systems
meeting UL 300A must be capable of manual and automatic opera-
tion.
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 6 7

Wet-chemical systems typically are released

with high temperature (177°C–260°C) fusible
links or heat detector installed in the commercial
cooking exhaust air flow (Figure 12-10).
They also must be outfitted with a manual
release device. Wet-chemical applications and
installation requirements are explained further
in the Commercial Cooking Systems section.
Periodic inspection and testing requirements
are very similar to dry-chemical systems: equip-
ment must be inspected at six-month intervals,
pressure cartridges used to expel the suppression
agent must meet manufacturer’s specifications,
and fusible links or fixed-temperature releasing FIGURE 12-10  A high-temperature fusible link assembly to
release wet-chemical fire suppression agent
devices must be maintained to ensure proper
operation. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.5.2]
Dry chemical [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.6]
Dry-chemical fire extinguishing systems use
very small powder particles, usually sodium or
potassium bicarbonate or ammonium phosphate
constituents with added particulates treated to
enhance flow and prevent packing due to powder
settlement or moisture in the storage cylinders.
Dry-chemical systems must be designed and
installed in accordance with NFPA 17, Standard
for Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems (Figure
12-11). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.6]
Dry-chemical suppressants provide four
methods of fire control: a chain-breaking reac-
tion, smothering, radiation shielding and cooling. FIGURE 12-11  Dry-chemical system installed above a motor
• Dry-chemical systems’ most important char- vehicle fuel dispensing island
acteristic is a result of the expelled powder
interrupting a fire’s chemical chain reaction. The powder dis-
charge into flames prevents reactive particles from coming to-
gether and sustaining combustion.
• The expelled powder, as it adheres to heated surfaces, also has
a smothering effect that prevents additional flammable vapors
from being emitted into the atmosphere, where they can ignite.
• Likewise, the powder creates radio shielding that separates the
fuel from the heat being released by the flames.
Finally, although small, there is a cooling effect as the powder
accumulates on hot surfaces and absorbs energy (Figure 12-12).
Once very popular for commercial cooking operations, dry-chem-
ical systems are now used primarily to control flammable and com-
FIGURE 12-12 Unless properly
bustible liquid fires. Dry chemical for cooking protection fell out of maintained, dry-chemical systems
favor when two significant changes occurred in the restaurant indus- can clog discharge nozzles, making
them ineffective.
1 6 8    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

try: customer demand drove a change from animal fat to vegetable-

based cooking oils, and there were significant improvements in deep
fryer equipment insulation. Dry chemical was unable to control fires
in the higher-flash-point vegetable oils, and the improved deep fryer
insulation kept the oils closer to their flash points. The cooling effect
of wet-chemical suppression systems provided significant improve-
ment over dry chemical. Also, dry chemicals are electrically noncon-
ductive, so they can be used on energized electrical equipment such
as oil-cooled electrical transformers. They have been shown to be
effective on surface fires that occur in ordinary combustibles such as
wood, paper and fabric. Because they leave a sticky residue, they are
not recommended for sensitive or valuable electronic components
such as computers, 3-D printers, avionics, or sound or video equip-
ment.
Dry-chemical systems typically store their agent in a welded steel
container capable of sustaining high pressures. In some instances,
the dry chemical and expellant gas are stored together. In others,
the dry chemical is stored at normal atmospheric pressure and an
attached high-pressure carbon dioxide, nitrogen or compressed air
cylinder pushes the dry chemical out of its container when the sys-
tem operates automatically or with manual equipment.
An important characteristic of dry-chemical system design is that
distribution pipe and nozzles must be “balanced” so the dry chemi-
cal and expellant gas arrive simultaneously at the protect hazard. As
dry chemical travels through pipes that change direction, centrifugal
force may cause the chemical to separate from the expellant gas.
When that occurs in the design, an opposite directional change must
be included in the design to ensure a complete mixing of gas and
chemical. This design feature often gives dry-chemical distribution
systems a confusing pipe arrangement that suggests poor workman-
ship or excessive material use. Despite this appearance, balancing the
discharge is essential in both custom and pre-engineered systems.
Periodic inspection and testing requirements are very similar to
wet-chemical systems: equipment must be inspected at six-month
intervals, pressure cartridges used to expel the dry chemical must
meet manufacturer’s specifications, and fusible links or fixed tem-
perature releasing devices must be maintained to ensure proper
operation. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.6.2]
Foam [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.7]
Depending upon the hazard they are protecting, foam fire protec-
tion systems combine one or more different foam types with water
to achieve fire control through smothering and cooling. Foam fire
protection systems must be designed and installed in accordance
with NFPA 11, Standard for Low-, Medium- and High-Expansion Foam,
and NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 6 9

and Foam-Water Spray Systems. Foam fire suppres-

sion systems are used most often for protecting pro-
cesses and storage associated with flammable and
combustible liquids, such as bulk tanks, hazardous
materials storage rooms, aircraft hangars, rooftop
heliports and fueling operations (Figure 12-13).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.7]
[Ref. SBC 201 - 412.6 and SBC 801 - 2007.6]
High-expansion foam is used by some fire depart-
ments to suppress hard-to-access basement fires.
Foam is electrically conductive, so it is not suitable
for fighting fires in charged electrical equipment
(Figure 12-14).
Foam is an effective fire suppressant when used FIGURE 12-13  Foam-water solution being applied to a
bulk combustible liquid tank
at correct application rates and with little distur-
bance. A foam blanket on top of burning liquids
will prevent flammable vapors from interacting with them to create
a combustible mixture and the moisture in the foam solution will
absorb heat.
When conducting a fire hazard analysis, one of the most impor-
tant selections is the choice of foam that will be employed in the
system. Table 12-3 summarizes some of the foam choices and their
characteristics.
TABLE 12-3  Fire-fighting foams

Foam Type Characteristics

Aqueous-Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
Fluoroprotein (FP)
Film-Forming Fluoroprotein (FFFP)
Protein (P)
Alcohol-Resistant (AR)
Medium- and High-Expansion
Low-Temperature
Synthetic materials that create a water-
solution film on the surface of burning
hydrocarbons.
Contain fluorinated surface-active agents
to shed fuel; desirable for subsurface
injection systems. FIGURE 12-14  A fire fighter
Combine protein and surface-active emerges from a basement through a
wall of high-expansion foam.
agents to shed fuel and create a water-
solution film on the surface of burning
hydrocarbons.
Employ high-molecular-weight protein
polymers to enhance foam elasticity,
strength and water retention.
Used primarily on water-miscible, water-
soluble or “polar solvent” products
(e.g., industrial alcohol, methyl ethyl
ketone, enamel or lacquer thinners),
these include additives to allow the foam
blanket to float on the product surface.
With air induction, can expand from 20
to 100 times their original volume.
Capable of long-term, low-temperature
storage (-29°C) for harsh environments.
1 7 0    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

Foam can be generated in several ways: either with manual hose-

You Should streams or fixed-in-place systems. In all cases, the foam concentrate
Know (the foam fire suppression product) must be mixed with water to cre-
Four factors combine to
ate a “foam solution.” This foam solution is then mixed with air (aspi-
create a sustained fire:
rated) to create the foam blanket that is applied to burning products
fuel, heat, oxygen and an
or volatile materials for vapor control.
uninhibited chain reaction.
In alternative fire extinguishing systems, foam in suitable quan-
The combination of these
tity generally is stored in an above-ground tank or pressure vessel.
factors is referred to as the
The tank is connected to a water supply and a piping network that
“fire tetrahedron.”
transports the foam solution to the hazard.
• Fuel is present in the form
Foam distribution can be accomplished through foam-generating
of common combustible
equipment such as foam-water monitors, foam-water sprinklers, or
materials, flammable and
air-foam chambers for surface application or subsurface injection,
combustible liquids, sol-
where the foam solution is injected at the bottom of a fuel tank and
ids and gases.
permitted to float to the surface, where it creates a foam blanket.
• Heat can be introduced
Foam fire protection systems must be inspected and tested
by sparks, arcs, friction,
(including tests of the foam concentrate conditions) at inter-
solar energy or pressure.
vals required by NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing and
• Oxygen is commonly
Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems. [Ref. SBC 801
available from the atmo-
- 904.7]
sphere or may be added Carbon dioxide [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.8]
by oxidizing chemicals.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguishing systems have existed for
• The uninhibited chain
more than 100 years. System designs must be in accordance with
reaction is the physical
NFPA 12, Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems, refer-
and chemical interaction
enced in SBC 801, Chapter 80. Carbon dioxide systems most often
among fuel, heat and oxy-
are found protecting areas where flammable or combustible liquids
gen to sustain a glowing,
are stored or used, gas fires, fires involving energized electrical
incipient or free-burning
equipment, and occasionally common combustible materials (Figure
fire.
The “fire tetrahedron” is a
12-15). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.8]
simple way to remember
the elements needed to
create fire. Equally impor-
tant is to understand that
if one element is removed,
the fire will be extin-
guished. Fire protection
system design strives to
remove one of more ele-
ments of the fire tetrahe-
dron. l

FIGURE 12-15  Total flooding carbon dioxide system protecting a

printing press
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 7 1

CO2 is transported, stored and handled in liquid form, either at

ambient temperature (in cylinders or noninsulated storage tanks at
a pressure of 4500 to 6500 kPa) or refrigerated (in insulated tankers
and storage tanks) at temperatures between -35°C and -15°C and
pressures of 1200 to 2500 kPa.
Carbon dioxide’s effect as a fire suppressant is achieved through
smothering and, to a lesser degree, cooling. When a CO2 system is
discharged from its container—usually through fixed distribution
pipes with specially designed discharge nozzles close to the protected
hazard—it dilutes or displaces atmospheric oxygen from the surface
of the burning material, breaking one leg of the fire tetrahedron
(Figure 12-16).
The temperature of liquid CO2 during discharge is about -79°C,
but its cooling effects are not long-lasting. As the liquid changes to
its gas phase, the cooling effect seems to be most effective when CO2
is applied during “local” application.
Carbon dioxide systems can be used for “total flooding” or “local” FIGURE 12-16  Close-up of a carbon
application for fire control. “Total flooding” involves the discharge dioxide system’s distinctively shaped
of fire extinguishing agent into an enclosed space where walls, nozzles
floors and ceilings can confine the gas while it suppresses a fire. The
enclosed space “integrity” is very important for carbon dioxide—and
other gaseous systems—fire control. You Should
Since CO2 is a simple asphyxiant gas that displaces oxygen, total Know
flooding systems must be designed and equipped with predischarge Enclosure “integrity” refers
alarms set to notify occupants of the importance of prompt evacua- to the space’s ability to
tion before the gas is discharged into the space. These alarms may be contain the gaseous fire
audible, visible or both. suppression agent.
SBC 801 requires carbon dioxide systems and auxiliary equip- Walls, floors and ceilings
ment to be inspected and tested annually in accordance with NFPA must be airtight to hold
12 and their listings. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.8.1] High-pressure cylin- the gas inside the room.
ders must be weighed and their hydrostatic test dates verified every In some applications, this
6 months. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.8.2] The liquid level of low-pressure means doors, windows and
containers must be checked weekly. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.8.3] ventilation systems must
Halon [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.9] be limited or automatically
controlled to close or shut
While the production of halon fire extinguishing agents (chlo-
down so the suppression
rinated fluorocarbons) has been banned globally since 1989, the
agent is confined to the
fire code official may occasionally see these systems still in use in
space where it is trying to
computer rooms, airport towers and other areas where high-value
achieve “total flooding.”
specialized electronic equipment is used. Halon systems must be
Unwanted leaks must be
designed, installed, tested and maintained in accordance with NFPA
discovered during sys-
12A, Standard on Halon 1301 Extinguishing Systems, their listings and
tem testing and sealed to
manufacturer’s requirements. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.9] ensure the gaseous agent
stays in place long enough
to be effective. l
1 7 2    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

Halon was a desirable fire suppression agent

because of its broad applications in protecting a
variety of combustibles, and the fact that it leaves
no residue after discharge (Figure 12-17).
This makes it especially suitable for high-
value hazards. Furthermore, as a gas it was able
to extinguish fires even in the presence of physi-
cal barriers or obstructions. It could be used in
both total flooding and spot applications. In total
flooding, enclosure integrity is particularly impor-
tant to prevent the gas from escaping before it
controls a fire.
Halon systems must be inspected and tested
FIGURE 12-17  Old wall-mounted halon storage tanks and for proper operation at least annually. [Ref. SBC
nozzles. Some of this aged equipment still may be operable if
properly maintained.
801 - 904.9.1] Halon storage containers must
be checked semiannually. If the container shows
more than 5 percent loss from its original weight,
the vessel must be refilled or replaced. [Ref. SBC
801 - 904.9.2]
Clean-agent [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.10]
Clean-agent systems that also employ gas suppression agents
have been developed as an alternative to halogenated agents. Clean-
agent systems must be designed and installed in accordance with
NFPA 2001, Standard on Fire Clean Agent Extinguishing Systems. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 904.10]
Like other gaseous agents, clean-agent sys-
tems are desirable for computer data centers, elec-
trical equipment cabinets and transformers, flam-
mable liquid storage rooms, gas and oil processing
facilities, printing presses, turbine generators,
and valuable paper record storage vaults. As a gas,
they leave no residue and do not affect items that
might be damaged by water (Figure 12-18).
Clean-agent compounds are categorized into
two chemical groups: halocarbon and inert. A few
of the currently marketed clean agents recognized
in NFPA 2001 are listed in Table 12-4.

FIGURE 12-18  Clean-agent system installed under a

computer room floor to protect network cables
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 7 3

TABLE 12-4  Clean agent products listed in NFPA 2001 (sample)

Chemical Chemical
Clean Agent Chemical Name
Formula Group
FC-3-1-10 Perfluorobutane C4F10 Halocarbon
HCFC-124 Cholortetrafluoroethane CHClFCF3 Halocarbon
HFC-23 Trifluormethane CHF3 Halocarbon
FIC-13I1 Trifluoriodide CF3I Halocarbon
IG-01 Argon Ar Inert
Nitrogen (52%) N2
IG-541 Argon (40%) Ar Inert
Carbon dioxide (8%) CO2

Clean agents are stored under pressure in heavy

metal cylinders and are discharged through piping
networks to provide total flooding or local (spot) cov-
erage (Figure 12-19).
Clean-agent systems rely on automatic detection
(heat, smoke, flame, ultraviolet/infrared) and may
include manual release devices. Like other gaseous
agents, enclosure integrity for total flooding solutions
is essential, so these systems will include interconnec-
tions with ventilation shutdowns, door closers and
other features to confine the extinguishing agent.
Systems may be pre-engineered in accordance with
their listings or custom designed to match specific FIGURE 12-19  Clean agent cylinders that supply a total
hazards. flooding system
Clean-agent systems must be inspected and tested
for proper operation at least annually. [Ref. SBC 801 -
904.10.1] Agent storage containers must be checked
semiannually. If the container shows more than 5 per-
cent loss from its original weight, the vessel must be
refilled or replaced. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.10.2]
Water mist [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.11]
Water mist describes a fire suppression technol-
ogy that employs very small (30 to 200 microns) water
droplets to cool burning material, displace oxygen near
the burning materials’ surface, block radiant heat and
dilute vapor-air mixtures. Water mist systems may
comprise low-, intermediate- or high-pressure dis-
charge designs. Water mist systems must be designed
and installed in accordance with NFPA 750, Standard
on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems, and their listings
(Figure 12-20). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.11] FIGURE 12-20  High-pressure water mist discharge
during a live fire demonstration
1 7 4    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
FIGURE 12-21  A high-pressure water mist system with an
atmospheric-pressure water storage tank
You Should
Know
Many people assume
extremely high pressures
are needed to create water
mist with such fine drop-
lets. However, NFPA 750
recognizes three system
types based on their oper-
ating pressures:
• Low-pressure systems
where the distribution
piping is subject to
1210 kPa or less.
• Intermediate-pressure sys-
tems where water is trans-
ported between 1210 kPa
and 3450 kPa.
• High-pressure systems
that expose system piping
to more than 3450 kPa.
Each design has its specific
advantages for the owner
and installer to consider.
In general, high-pressure
systems increase spray
velocity, which translates to
greater nozzle spacing and
lower overall flow rates. l
Originally designed for machinery spaces, tur-
bine enclosures and offshore oil production plat-
forms, water mist is gaining global interest for more
general use protecting hotels, heritage buildings
and art galleries. One major worldwide hotel chain
is experimenting with water mist protection in its
remote resorts where water supplies may not be
adequate to support traditional fire sprinkler sys-
tems. In North America and Europe, active research
is being conducted on the use of water mist systems
in highway and train tunnels. As more fire testing
occurs and jurisdictions become familiar with the
technology, the use of water mist systems likely
will grow. In the state of Maryland, it already has
been accepted to protect fire stations, places of wor-
ship and the historically significant capitol dome in
Annapolis (Figure 12-21).
Water mist systems can be used in local application, total flood-
ing systems, or “zoned” application where the system is designed to
protect specific, smaller areas within a larger space where the system
water demand may exceed the supply. For example, a system may
be zoned to protect a portion of a tunnel rather than discharging
throughout its entire length.
Water mist systems can be identified by their unique nozzles and
small distribution piping (Figure 12-22).
The nozzles may
employ an “impingement”
design where pressurized
water strikes a deflector
and is broken into small
particles, or a “pressure jet”
design where the water is
pushed at extremely high
velocities. Although water
mist design is more expen-
sive than fire sprinklers,
the systems disperse only
FIGURE 12-22  High-pressure water mist nozzles 30 percent to 40 percent of
the water that a fire sprin-
kler system would deliver
to control the same fire. Because the mist nozzle openings are so
fine, it is essential that the water’s purity level is pristine and stays
that way over time. All piping must be entirely corrosion resistant.
Piping options are limited to copper tube (K, L, or M) or stainless
steel pipe—galvanized steel is not allowed.
Water mist systems should be designed by highly qualified per-
sonnel who understand their unique characteristics. System com-
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 7 5

ponents may include pressurized or nonpressurized water storage

tanks; pressure-sustain pumps; high-pressure gas cylinders (usually
nitrogen); detection, alarm and control equipment; and electrically
or manually actuated sectional control valves.
SBC 801, Section 904.11.2 requires water mist systems to be
monitored and have alarms and floor control valves like traditional
fire sprinkler systems. In those cases where a fire sprinkler system
requires a secondary water supply (such as in a high-rise or seismi-
cally vulnerable building), a water mist system also must have a sec-
ondary water supply. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.11.1.4]
Water mist systems must be tested and maintained in accordance
with NFPA 750. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.11.3]
Commercial cooking equipment
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12]
The prevalence of commercial cooking is so widespread—and a
common fire hazard—that it merits its own section under alterna-
tive automatic fire extinguishing systems. [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12]
The smoke and grease-laden vapors emitted during some cooking
operations are yet-unburned fuel that can be ignited and result in
a significant, high-temperature (about 1093°C) fire that can spread
well beyond the cooking area if it is not contained or suppressed
Code
(Figure 12-23). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12]
Essentials
SBC 801, Section 904.12
allows an exception to the
installation of automatic fire
suppression systems.
Factory-built commer-
cial cooking recirculating
systems—often found in
convenience stores and
similar occupancies—that
are tested in accordance
with UL 710B, Recirculating
Systems, and are listed,
labeled and installed in
FIGURE 12-23  Although this flare-up is part of a cooking
demonstration, it could cause a more serious fire. accordance with the Saudi
Mechanical Code do not
SBC 801, Section 904.12 requires that cooking system protection need separate fire sup-
be “of a type recognized” for protecting the hood, duct and cook- pression systems.
ing surfaces. Pre-engineered dry- and wet-chemical systems must These devices include a
be tested in accordance with UL 300 and be listed and labeled for built-in fire suppression
the application. Often, the commercial cooking hood and duct sys- system and include auto-
tems are the only fire suppression systems in a business. SBC 801 matic dampers to confine
recognizes five methods for protecting commercial cooking opera- fire spread. [Ref. SBC 801
tions: carbon dioxide systems, automatic fire sprinklers, foam-water - 904.12 Exception] l
sprinklers or spray systems, dry-chemical systems and wet-chemical
systems.
1 7 6    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

In retail cooking operations, pre-engi-

neered wet-chemical systems are the most
prevalent and are required to be designed and
installed in accordance with NFPA 17A. Two
significant changes in cooking operations led
to the development and transition to wet-
chemical systems. First, many restaurants
converted from frying with animal fats to veg-
etable oils. The vegetable products (corn oil,
safflower oil, peanut oil, etc.) have an ignition
temperature about 28°C lower than animal
products. Second, improved energy-efficient
FIGURE 12-24  Improvements in deep fryer design and construction cooking equipment—especially deep fat fry-
have increased their fire hazard. ers—is designed to retain heat longer than
older models (Figure 12-24).
The combination of lower ignition tem-
perature and retained heat resulted in tradi-
tional dry-chemical suppression agents being
unable to control fires in these kitchens. The
transition to wet-chemical systems has added
the cooling and smothering effects of the
chemical solution to help interrupt the fire
tetrahedron.
Commercial cooking systems must be
designed to protect hazardous conditions in
four locations: the cooking surface, the hood
and filters, the concealed space behind the
FIGURE 12-25  Wet-chemical discharge nozzles installed in a filters (called the plenum) and the exhaust
plenum
ducts. To accomplish this, special nozzles are
installed in each space, directed so they pro-
vide complete coverage (Figure 12-25).
From a fire code official’s perspective, the most challenging to
regulate may be the surface or appliance nozzles. The nozzles may
be specially designed to protect one appliance configuration (e.g.,
one grill, two deep fryers and one char-broiler), but when a new chef
arrives, the chef or kitchen staff may want to alter the appliances or
how they are installed (e.g., two grills, one deep fryer and no char-
broiler). Without closely checking the nozzle types and installation,
the new arrangement may render the fire suppression system inef-
fective (Figure 12-26).

FIGURE 12-26 Wet-chemical
surface discharge nozzle with
protective cap to prevent grease
clogging
 S y s t e m R e q u i r e m e n t s b y E x t i n g u i s h i n g A g e n t Ty p e    1 7 7

You Should
Know
A good inspection prac-
tice is to photograph and
date-stamp the original
approved installation of the
cooking equipment and
fire protection system. The
first photograph can be
compared on subsequent
inspections to confirm no
changes have been made.
FIGURE 12-27  Inspection tip: Capture an image of a new cooking If changes have occurred,
array to compare for future inspections.
the code official can order
the fire protection system
Commercial cooking systems include additional safety features to be altered to protect the
beyond automatic operation. A manual actuation device must be new arrangement (Figure
located at or near a means of egress from the cooking area. This 12-27). l
usually is a device connected to the release cable in the fire suppres-
sion system. It must not be within 3000 mm of and not more than
6000 mm from the cooking equipment. This is to provide workers an
opportunity to operate the system as they exit without putting them
in danger of being to close to a fire.
The manual actuation device must
be installed between 1000 mm and
1200 mm above the floor. The force
required to operate this manual release
must not exceed 178 N, and the cable trav-
el distance from the releasing mechanism
must not exceed 350 mm (Figure 12-28).
The fire suppression system must be
interconnected with fuel or electrical ser-
vice to appliances beneath the hood so
when the system operates the fuel or
electricity is disconnected. These shutoffs
must be arranged for manual reset (Figure FIGURE 12-28  Typical post-
12-29). [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12.2] testing manual release device for a
commercial kitchen hood and duct
suppression system

FIGURE 12-29 Mechanical

gas shutoff to under-hood
appliances (cover removed for
display)
1 7 8    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s

The cooking area also must have portable fire extinguishers

to control incipient fires or—for equipment using solid fuels (e.g.,
wood or coal), animal or vegetable oils—to use after the fire sup-
pression system has operated. Portable fire extinguishers must be
located within 9144 mm of the cooking equipment. [Ref. SBC 801
- 904.12.5]
Class K portable fire extinguishers are used to supplement wet-
chemical suppression systems: if the system-discharged chemical
does not create a vapor- or liquidtight seal over the burning materi-
als, the K extinguisher can be used to repair the foam blanket. Class
K portable extinguishers must be provided in accordance with Table
12-5 (Figure 12-30).

TABLE 12-5  Class K portable fire extinguisher requirements

Condition Class K Extinguishers Required

FIGURE 12-30  Class K portable fire Solid fuel appliances with fire
extinguisher One 9L or two 6L
boxes 0.14 m3 or smaller
Up to four deep fryers each having
One 6L
up to 36.3 kg of oil
For each additional group of four
deep fryers each having up to One additional 6L
36.3 kg of oil
For individual fryers exceeding Follow extinguisher manufacturer’s
0.55 m2 surface area recommendations

Commercial cooking fire suppression systems must be inspected,

tested and maintained by qualified persons at six-month intervals.
Fusible links used to release the system must be replaced annually.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12.6.3]
 Q u i z    1 7 9

QUIZ
1. Which of the following NFPA standards applies to the design,
installation, inspection, testing and maintenance of water mist
systems?
a. NFPA 11
b. NFPA 13
c. NFPA 750
d. NFPA 2001

2. Once an alternative fire extinguishing system is installed, it must

be inspected and tested prior to final acceptance.
a. True
b. False

3. SBC 801 requires carbon dioxide systems and auxiliary equip-

ment to be inspected and tested __________ in accordance with
NFPA 12 and their listings.
a. daily
b. weekly
c. every 15 days
d. annually

4. Dry-chemical suppressants provide four methods of fire control:

___________, smothering, radiation shielding and cooling.
a. a chain-breaking reaction
b. fluidization
c. decompression
d. free-radical decomposition

5. Commercial cooking recirculating systems tested in accordance

with ______ and listed, labeled and installed in accordance with
the Saudi Mechanical Code do not need separate fire suppression
systems.
a. UL 299
b. NFPA 17A
c. ASME 14a
d. UL 710B
1 8 0    C h a p t e r 1 2 A l t e r n a t i v e F i r e P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m s
CHAPTER
Means of Egress
13

W
hile construction codes address topics related to public health
and welfare, their main objective is life safety: protecting
those who live, work and play in and around buildings from
catastrophic events.
In risk management terms, occupancy safety is achieved through
three factors: time, distance and shielding. Time describes the duration
it takes someone to escape from imminent threats such as smoke, fire
or other toxic materials. Distance refers to both how far one is sepa-
rated from the hazard and how far one must travel to reach a safe place.
Shielding represents the level of protection provided by passive and active
fire protection features.

181
1 8 2    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s
Code
Essentials
An existing building or
facility is one already in
existence, constructed or
officially authorized before
the adoption of SBC 801.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
The Chapter 11 means of
egress requirements are
based on the occupancy
classification and adopted
building code at the time
the building was erected.
In some jurisdictions, this
may be an earlier edition
of a model building code
or the community’s own
building code if it had one.
Existing buildings that were
not required to comply
with a building code at the
time of construction must
meet the minimum egress
requirements of SBC 801,
Table 1103.1.
If a conflict arises between
the requirements in the
applicable building code
and SBC 801, Chapter 11,
the most restrictive require-
ment is applied. [Ref. SBC
801 - 1104.1] l
SBC 201 and 801 achieve time, distance and shielding by estab-
lishing requirements for means of egress: “a continuous and unob-
structed path of vertical and horizontal travel from any occupied
portion of a building or structure to a public way.” [Ref. SBC 201
and SBC 801 - 202] Wherever someone is in a building, they should
expect to be able to find an easy-to-navigate, protected and accessible
way to escape danger. In the Saudi Building Codes, there are three
distinct elements to the means of egress: the exit access, exit and exit
discharge. Each has its own criteria to enhance public safety.
SBC 201 and 801, Chapter 10, “Means of Egress,” are nearly iden-
tical1 and apply to construction in any new building or occupancy.
A second set of requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 11 is applied to
existing buildings.
INTRODUCTION TO MEANS OF EGRESS
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 10]
A building means of egress system has three distinct but integrated
components:
• Exit
• Exit access
• Exit discharge [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
To evaluate the entire means of egress for code compliance, one
must comprehend how the three components work together. Not
every door leading from a room, building or portion of a building may
qualify as a code-defined or required exit. One must also remember
that the code requirements are minimum standards for public safety:
design choices and day-to-day movement through a building often
provides more egress than the codes require. For example, a popular
restaurant may have multiple doors by which occupants could escape,
but the codes may require only two to satisfy safety regulations.
Means of egress requirements are driven by occupant load and
building use. Occupant load is the number of persons for which a
means of egress is designed. Except for some uses involving fixed
seating commonly found in stadiums, auditoriums and restaurants,
occupant loads are based on a factor that considers the number of
square meters required for each person given a building’s function
or use.
In areas without fixed seating, occupant load is determined by an
occupant load factor: the number of persons per square meter who
can occupy a space based on its use. The values are found in SBC 801,
Table 1004.1.2 (Table 13-1).
Note that when applying this table, certain occupant load factors
are based on the gross versus net floor area. Gross area is the area
within the inside perimeter of exterior walls of the building and
1. SBC 801 includes Section 1031—not found in SBC 201—which establishes requirements for
maintaining the means of egress after the building is occupied.
 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o M e a n s o f E g r e s s    1 8 3

excludes vent shafts, columns and the thickness of interior walls. Net
floor area is the actual occupied area and further excludes unoccu-
pied accessory uses including corridors, stairways, toilets, mechani-
cal rooms and closets. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1004.1.2]
TABLE 13-1  Maximum floor area allowances per occupant (SBC 801, Table 1004.1.2)
Function of space Occupant load factora
Accessory storage areas, mechanical equipment room 28 gross
Agricultural building 28 gross
Aircraft hangars 46 gross
Airport terminal
Baggage claim 1.9 gross
Baggage handling 28 gross
Concourse 9 gross
Waiting areas 1.4 gross
Assembly
Gaming floors (keno, slots, etc.) 1.02 gross
Exhibit gallery and museum 2.8 net
Assembly with fixed seats See Section 1004.4
Assembly without fixed seats
Concentrated (chairs only—not fixed) 0.65 net
Standing space 0.46 net
Unconcentrated (tables and chairs) 1.4 net
Bowling centers, allow 5 persons for each lane including 4.6 m of
runway, and for additional areas 0.65 net

Business areas 9 gross

Courtrooms—other than fixed seating areas 3.7 net
Day care 3.3 net
Dormitories 4.6 gross
Educational
Classroom area 1.9 net
Shops and other vocational room areas 4.6 net
Exercise rooms 4.6 gross
Group H-5 fabrication and manufacturing areas 19 gross
Industrial areas
Inpatient treatment areas 22 gross
Outpatient areas 9 gross
Sleeping areas 11 gross
Kitchens, commercial 19 gross
Library
Reading rooms 4.6 net
Stack area 9 gross
Mall buildings—covered and open See Section 402.8.2 of SBC 201
Mercantile
Areas on other floors 5.6 gross
Basement and grade floor areas 2.8 gross
Storage, stock, shipping areas 28 gross
Parking garages 19 gross
Residential 19 gross
Skating rinks, swimming pools
Rink and pool   4.6 gross
Decks   1.4 gross
Stages and platforms 1.4 net
Warehouses 46 gross

a. Floor area in square meters per occupant.

1 8 4    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

Code Essentials
Every occupiable space inside a building must be evaluated for occupancy load. The number
of persons derived from the occupant load calculations establishes the minimum widths and number of
exits.
For example, a school may have a variety of uses: classroom, administrative spaces, vocational training
areas, exercise rooms and a dining facility with a kitchen.
Using SBC 801, Table 1004.1.2 (Table 13-1) the occupant load factor for each space would be:
• Classroom 1.9 net
• Administrative space (offices) 9 gross
• Vocational area 4.6 gross
• Exercise rooms 4.6 gross
• Dining area (Unconcentrated use with tables and chairs) 1.4 net
• Kitchen 19 gross
The calculations will include not only each space, but depending upon the building design, may require
the values to be summed to obtain the aggregated occupant load. l

For the most part, any walking surface inside a

building is a component of the means of egress sys-
tem. The exit access is that portion of a means of
egress system that leads from any occupied portion
of a building or structure to an exit (Figure 13-1). Exit
access includes any area of the room or space where
egress begins. The occupiable space inside an office,
hotel room, factory, shopping mall or high-rise build-
ing is part of the exit access.
SBC 201 and SBC 801 means of egress require-
ments ensure that any building equipment or fixtures
do not impede, limit or obstruct one’s ability to safely
FIGURE 13-1  Exit access is the path from any point in leave a building. Exit access includes corridors that
the building to an exit. physically guide a person to an exit. Exit access must
comply with the general provisions for all means of
egress components, including ceiling height, protrud-
ing objects, continuity and walking surfaces. It also
must comply with the doorway, travel distance and
corridor requirements for exits and exit access. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202, 1016]
The exit is that portion of a means of egress sys-
tem between the exit access and the exit discharge or
public way (Figure 13-2). An exit is either an exterior
exit door at the level of discharge, an interior exit
stairway and ramp, an exit passageway, an exterior exit
stairway and ramp, or a horizontal exit. Even though
many building features are commonly referred to as
exits, those seven components are the only items the
codes consider as exits.
FIGURE 13-2 Exit An exit cannot be used for any purpose that inter-
feres with its function as a means of egress component.
 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o M e a n s o f E g r e s s    1 8 5

Once an exit is required to be constructed as a fire-resistive assembly

or is equipped with automatic fire sprinkler protection, the required
level of active or passive protection cannot be reduced until it ends
at the exit discharge. The minimum required number of exits is based
on the occupant load per story and the travel distance to the closest
exit. Depending on occupancy classification, only one exit may be
required, given the building occupant load and the location of the
occupancy in relation to the building’s grade plane. [Ref. SBC 801 -
202, 1022]
For code purposes, a person has
not completed egress from a building
until they reach a public way, such as a
street or alley. Exit discharge is defined
as the portion of a means of egress system
between the termination of an exit and
a public way (Figure 13-3). In a multi-
story building, the level of exit discharge
begins when the person reaches a grade
level where the exit ends and an exit
discharge begins. An exit discharge must
be at grade or provide a path to grade.
The exit discharge must be designed so
evacuees do not reenter the building.
FIGURE 13-3  Exit discharge continues to the public way.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 202, 1028]

You Should Know

All three components—exit access, exit and exit discharge—make up
the means of egress.
For example, consider people leaving from the ninth story of a build-
ing. As they begin their route, they are in the exit access. They continue
in the exit access until they reach an exit; in this case it is an interior
exit stairway.
Traveling down the stairs, they are in the exit. Upon reaching the
ground floor, they open the door to the outdoors. As they step through
this door, they are now in the exit discharge. They remain in the exit FIGURE 13-4  Exit access, exit and
discharge until they reach the public way (Figure 13-4). l exit discharge

A building’s size or the site’s topography may make

it impossible to have a direct and unobstructed path
to a public way. In this case, SBC 201 and 801 require
an area outside of the building that can safely accom-
modate each occupant. A minimum area of 0.46 m is
required for each person and the area must be located at
least 15 m from the building. The area must be perma-
nently maintained and identified as a safe dispersal area
(Figure 13-5). [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1028.5]
FIGURE 13-5  Safe dispersal area
1 8 6    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

All SBC 201 and SBC 801 means of egress requirements have
minimum features and characteristics that must be designed and
maintained compliant:
1. Any exit component requires a certain minimum width that is
dictated by the occupant load values. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1005.1]
2. A building’s function is limited to a certain number of occupants
per square meter. The number of persons allowed in the given
area is the occupant load. Because buildings can have numerous
functions, different occupant load factors are prescribed for dif-
ferent functions. The total width of all means of egress compo-
nents must equal or exceed the occupant load. [Ref. SBC 801
- 1004.1]
3. The code limits the distance from any
point in the building to an exit. In some cases,
the exit access travel distances can be extended
by providing fire-resistance-rated construc-
tion or by installing an automatic fire sprin-
kler system. In most buildings, two or more
means of egress are required, and exit doors
and exit access doors must be spatially remote
from one another. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1017.1]
4. Exits, exit access and the exit discharge
are constructed on horizontal planes. Any
change of elevation is accomplished using
FIGURE 13-6  Interior finishes on this exit ramp are regulated to
ramps, stairs or steps. The code prescribes
minimize the risk of fire spread. standard and consistent design criteria for
these components to reduce and minimize
tripping and fall hazards. [Ref. SBC 801 -
1011.1, 1012.1]
5. SBC 201 and SBC 801 require exit access and level of exit discharge
identification and illumination. When two or more exits are
required, emergency power for exit identification and illumina-
tion are required. [Ref. SBC 201 - 1008.1, 1013.1]
6. To limit the potential for fire spread, the code prescribes more
restrictive exit and exit access interior finish requirements com-
pared to the requirements for rooms or enclosed spaces (Figure
13-6). [Ref. SBC 801 - 803.3]
7. Generally, all means of egress require accessibility for mobility-
impaired individuals. Depending on the building’s occupancy clas-
sification and level of fire protection, one or more areas of refuge
may be required to shelter individuals who need rescue assis-
tance. A means of communication is commonly required at the
area of rescue assistance (Figure 13-7). [Ref. SBC 801 - 1009.1]
8. A means of egress system that requires special knowledge or skills
FIGURE 13-7  This stairwell
landing is designated as a location
is not permitted. A code-compliant means of egress system sim-
of rescue assistance for mobility- ply requires persons to walk, operate simple door hardware and
impaired persons. follow one of the designated paths to the level of exit discharge
 O c c u p a n t L o a d I n f l u e n c e s    1 8 7

(Figure 13-8). [Ref. SBC 801 - 1010.1, 1016.1,

1019.1]
9. Egress is complete when a person crosses the building
property line and is in a public way. [Ref. SBC 801 -
202]
10. Unless used for accessible means of egress, human
conveyance systems such as elevators, escalators and
moving sidewalks are prohibited from being compo-
nents of a means of egress system (Figure 13-9). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 1003.7] FIGURE 13-8  SBC 201 and SBC 801 door handle
11. The building code official is responsible for approv- standards enable persons with special needs to
ing the design and construction of new or renovated operate exit doors with levers that are easy to
grasp.
means of egress, including the occupant loads. The fire
code official is responsible for ensuring the means of
egress system is maintained. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1031]

OCCUPANT LOAD INFLUENCES

[Ref. SBC 801 - 1004.4]
In areas with fixed seating and aisles, the occupant load is calculated
based on the number of seats. When the seats are not fixed—such as
movable tables and chairs—the occupant load is determined in accor-
dance with the requirements of Section 1004.1.2 and Table 1004.1.2.
The calculated occupant load is added to the number of fixed seats that
may be available. Calculation of the occupant load with fixed seating
will also depend on the seat design: if it is bench seating, a load fac-
tor of 450 mm/person is used and for dining areas, an occupant load FIGURE 13-9  An escalator and
other types of people movers
factor of 600 mm/person is applied. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1004.4] cannot be used as a component in
The occupant load must be posted in Group A occupancies (Figure a required means of egress system.
13-11). Posting the occupant load is essential for enforcement, espe- The adjacent stairway provides the
egress path.
cially when the building or fire code official performs safety inspections
of these occupancies during peak use. Many fire code officials
perform inspections of assembly occupancies at night or on
busy days to ensure that the occupant load is not exceeded and
that the egress system is obstruction-free. The occupant load
sign must be conspicuously posted near the main exit or exit
access door and be of a legible, permanent design. [Ref. SBC
801 - 1004.3]

FIGURE 13-11  An occupant load sign

1 8 8    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

EXERCISE 1 (Answer on Page 336)

The Metropolitan is a one-story Group A-2 restaurant and coffee bar. The
business is moving into an existing building previously used as a convenience
store. The building is protected by an automatic sprinkler system in accor-
dance with SBC 801, Section 903.3.1.1. The building will be renovated by the
addition of seating and a waiting area (see Figure 13-10). An application was
submitted to a Group A Occupancy operating permit.
Calculate the following:
1. The occupant load based on the amount of open space in
the occupancy
2. The fixed seating occupant load
3. The required exit width based on the occupant load
Determine if the existing space complies with SBC 801, Section 1005.3.2.

The Metropolitan

Calculation Notes: N
1. Calculate the occupant load based on the number of fixed seats,
the coffee counter and its service area, the available area for tables
and chairs and the area of the waiting area.
2. The waiting area measures 2734 x 5000 mm. Its occupant load factor
is 0.46 m2/ person.
3. The serving area behind the coffee counter is 4.4 m2. Its occupant
load is 0.46 m2/person.
4. The coffee counter and adjacent seating measures 7.98 m2.
13716 mm
Seating Legend

6 Persons

4 Persons
15240 mm

2 Persons

1 Person

Waiting Area

838 mm
4572 mm

FIGURE 13-10  Means of egress exercise

Fire Department
Connection
 E g r e s s W i d t h    1 8 9

EGRESS WIDTH
[Ref. SBC 801 - 1005]
Means of egress components must be wide enough
to safely accommodate the people who are using
them in routine and emergency conditions. Width
demands vary by occupancy: an office or hotel may
not need wide egress paths, but hospitals, nursing
homes and ambulatory care facilities need capac-
ity to move bedridden or limited-mobility clients.
Means of egress minimum width components are
specified in the code, including the exit access, cor-
ridors, stairways, ramps and doors.
To ensure that adequate capacity is built into
the egress system, the code requires the egress
width calculation based on occupant load: the
estimated building capacity and the number of
persons who may need to use it simultaneously in
an emergency. The exit width calculation factors
depend on the means of egress component. Where
grade or elevation changes require stairs, a factor
of 7.5 mm per occupant is used (Figure 13-12). For
all other egress components such as corridors, doors
and ramps, a factor of 5 mm per occupant is used
(Figure 13-13). In multiple-story buildings, the
maximum capacity required from any story must
be maintained to the public way. [Ref. SBC 201
and SBC 801 - 1005.1, 1005.2, 1005.3] FIGURE 13-12  The minimum width of an exit stair is
7.5 mm per occupant.

FIGURE 13-13  The minimum width of a corridor or ramp is 5 mm per

occupant.
1 9 0    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

In all occupancies other than Groups H and I-2, the required

means of egress width components can be modified when an auto-
matic fire sprinkler system and an emergency voice/alarm communica-
tion system are installed. The emergency voice/alarm communication
system provides early notification for occupants, allowing more time
for a safe evacuation. The fire sprinkler system slows fire progress,
also allowing for a safer evacuation. When these two fire protection
systems are installed, the stairway width is determined using a fac-
tor of 5 mm per occupant. All other egress components receive a
25 percent reduction and those widths are based on a factor of
3.8 mm per occupant. These reductions are allowed when the fire
sprinkler system is designed according to NFPA 13 or 13R as appro-
priate for the occupancy. The emergency voice/alarm communication
system is not a standard evacuation fire alarm system. This system
must provide manual and automatic equipment to deliver oral
instructions. These instructions can be prerecorded or real-time
instructions from staff or emergency responders (see Chapter 11 of
this Guide). [Ref. SBC 801 - 1005.3]

EXERCISE 2 (Answer on Page 337)

This example will demonstrate how the required egress width can vary
within an egress route. However, each component of the egress system
is sized to adequately accommodate the occupant load served (refer to
Figure 13-14).
Given: A portion of the egress system serves 200 occupants in an unsprin-
klered Group B building.
Determine: The minimum required widths of each egress component.

Corridor
1118 mm minimum width
1520 mm minimum
width 1020 mm minimum width

Exterior
Exit Door

Exit Stairway
1020 mm minimum width

FIGURE 13-14  The width of each means of egress component is sized according to the
occupant load it serves.

Depending upon use or occupant load, means of egress may include

two separate and remote escape paths. Egress width requirements
are based on the provision that if one egress path is lost or compro-
mised due to the emergency, the remaining width will not be reduced
by more than 50 percent of the required capacity. [Ref. SBC 801 -
1005.5]
 E x i t A c c e s s a n d E x i t A c c e s s T r a v e l D i s t a n c e    1 9 1

Egress doors must be arranged to avoid

obstructions in the required exit width (Figure
Corridor or Ramp
13-15). SBC 201 and SBC 801 establish require- 178 mm
ments for doors that project into the egress encroachment
maximum

path to ensure the required width is not into required At least one-half required
egress width when width at any point in
reduced. When fully open, doors cannot reduce fully opened the door swing
the width of an egress component by more
than 175 mm. In any other position, the door FIGURE 13-15 Door encroachment into an egress path in the
cannot reduce the required width by more than corridor
50 percent. Surface-mounted latch release
hardware, such as door knobs or release latches,
are exempt from the 175 mm projection requirement if they face the
corridor when the door is fully open. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801
- 1005.7.1]

EXIT ACCESS AND EXIT ACCESS TRAVEL

DISTANCE
[Ref. SBC 801 - 1006]
SBC 201 and SBC 801 establish maximum egress travel distances in
the exit path. The exit access pathway must be clear and distinct and
should avoid travel through intervening spaces that could confuse
occupants attempting to leave. The code closely regulates travel dis-
tances and egress geometry (Figure 13-16).
Exit access requirements are established so egress should be
direct from any room or area. Since this is not always possible, the FIGURE 13-16  A well-marked and
code grants exceptions for a limited number of circumstances where lighted egress path is important to
occupant safety.
egress may be through adjoining rooms or spaces rather than directly
into corridors or exit enclosures.
Egress through an adjacent area or room is allowed if the path Code
is direct and obvious so that the occupant recognizes it is a way out Essentials
(Figure 13-17). When egress is through an intervening space, it must
be under the same control as the space where egress commenced. In multiple-tenant build-
ings, occupants may share
Intervening spaces the means of egress.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 1016] No single tenant can con-
When egress is through interven- trol a common means of
ing spaces, the space must be “ac- egress by locking doors,
cessory,” meaning that its use is installing obstructions or
complementary to the use of the otherwise compromising
room or area where egress starts. the path so tenants in one
The code is more concerned with space cannot use it in an
what occurs in accessory spaces FIGURE 13-17  In addition to the emergency. The means of
rather than their size when eval- stairway obstructions, this egress path egress must be available
does not clearly direct users to a way to anyone in the building.
uating this means of egress ele- out.
ment. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC
801 - 1016.2] 801 - 1016.2.1] l
1 9 2    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

The exit access path cannot pass through a room or area

that can be locked. In addition, certain building uses pres-
ent a very high probability of being obstructed, including
closets, storage rooms and kitchens. Therefore, the code
does not permit the use of these areas as exit access path-
ways. Group M occupancies are granted an exception that
allows egress through stockrooms (Figure 13-18). However,
there are specific limits, including that stored goods and
commodities must have the same hazard classification as
FIGURE 13-18  Exit access is allowed through
found in the main retail area, the egress path is demarcated
the stockroom in a Group M occupancy by partial or full-height walls with a minimum width of
provided it is constructed, available and 1100 mm that leads to an exit, and no more than 50 percent
maintained properly.
of the exit access is through the stockroom area. In addition,
doors from the retail space into the stockroom cannot be
locked. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1016.2]
Exit access distance also is regulated and the requirements are
based on the occupancy classification or a specific building’s use,
such as covered malls or atriums, and whether the building is
equipped with an automatic fire sprinkler system. The travel distance
requirements are measured from any occupied point in the building
to the nearest exit rather than to all required exits from a room, floor
or building. Exit access travel distances are shown in Table 13-2 and
are measured to
• An exit passageway
• A horizontal exit
• The door of an interior exit stairway or ramp
• An exterior exit stairway or ramp
• An exterior exit door when it is located at the level of exit dis-
charge. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1017.2]

TABLE 13-2  Exit access travel distance (SBC 801, Table 1017.2)
Without sprinkler system With sprinkler system
Occupancy (m) (m)
A, E, F-1, M, R, S-1 60 75b
You Should I-1 Not permitted 75b
Know B 60 90c
Exit access travel distance F-2, S-2, U 90 120b
limits stop once a person H-1 Not permitted 23c
enters one of the compo- H-2 Not permitted 30c
nents listed here. These
H-3 Not permitted 46c
means of egress elements
H-4 Not permitted 53c
require minimum active
H-5 Not permitted 60c
or passive fire protection
features, so once evacuees I-2, I-3, I-4 Not permitted 60c
are in that element they are (Footnotes not shown. See SBC 801, Table 1017.2 for all footnotes.)
shielded from threats. l
 E x i t A c c e s s a n d E x i t A c c e s s T r a v e l D i s t a n c e    1 9 3

Travel distance is measured along the available logical and unob-

structed path. The path may be interrupted by furnishings such
as workstations, chairs, machinery, or fixtures such as shelves or
storage racks. Some of these items may be movable, complicating Code
plan review or inspections to verify travel distance compliance. One
recognized method is measuring using right angles because it recog-
Essentials
nizes occupants may have to navigate around obstructions such as The common path of egress
machinery, racks and desks. This measurement method accounts for travel is “that portion of the
any future obstructions that may be located in the exit access travel exit access travel distance
path. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1017.3] measured from the most
Except for small-area occupancies, an egress system commonly remote point with a story
has two or more exits or exit access doorways. The code requires two to that point where the
doorways when the occupant load exceeds the values listed in SBC occupants have separate
201 and SBC 801, Table 1006.2.1 (Table 13-3), if the common path and distinct access to two
of egress travel exceeds the distance limitations of Section 1017.2, exits or exit access door-
and in rooms of a given area housing boilers, incinerators, furnaces, ways.” [Ref. SBC 201 and
or refrigeration machinery and stages. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 SBC 801 - 202] l
- 1006.2]

TABLE 13-3  Spaces with one exit or exit access doorway (SBC 801, Table 1006.2.1)
Maximum common path of egress travel distance (meters)
Maximum occupant
Occupancy Without sprinkler system (meters) With sprinkler system
load of space
OL ≤ 30 OL > 30 (meters)
A,c E, M 49 23 23 23a
B 49 30 23 30a
F 49 23 23 30a
H-1, H-2, H-3 3 NP NP 7.5b
H-4, H-5 10 NP NP 23b
I-1, I-2,d I-4 10 NP NP 23a
I-3 10 NP NP 30a
R-1 10 NP NP 23a
R-2 20 NP NP 38a
R-3e 20 NP NP 38a
R-4e 20 NP NP 38a
Sf 29 100 23 30a
U 49 23 75 23a

NP = Not Permitted.
a. Buildings equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Section 903.3.1.1 or 903.3.1.2. See Section 903 for
occupancies where automatic sprinkler systems are permitted in accordance with Section 903.3.1.2.
b. Group H occupancies equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Section 903.2.5.
c. For a room or space used for assembly purposes having fixed seating, see Section 1029.8.
d. For the travel distance limitations in Group I-2, see Section 407.4 of SBC 201.
e. The common path of egress travel distance shall apply only in a Group R-3 occupancy located in a mixed occupancy building or within a Group
R-3 or R-4 congregate living facility.
f. The length of common path of egress travel distance in a Group S-2 open parking garage shall be not more than 30 meters.
1 9 4    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

In addition to the allowance for one exit or exit access doorway,

SBC 201 and SBC 801 require an increase in egress width as the
occupant load increases and also prescribes more exit or exit access
doorways. The code permits two exits to serve up to 500 occupants.
From 501 to 1,000 occupants, three separate exits are required.
When the occupant load exceeds 1,000, a minimum of four exits are
required. The example below combines the requirements for mini-
mum exit width with the number of exits. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC
801 - Table 1006.3.1]

EXERCISE 3 (Answer on Page 337)

Given: Fully sprinklered Group M occupancy of 5760 m2. Refer to
Figure 13-19.
Determine: The minimum number of exits and the minimum exit
width

SBC 201 and SBC 801 prescribe specific requirements for

separating required exit or exit access doorways when two
or more exits are required. These requirements are intended
to increase the likelihood that if one means of egress is
Group M obstructed the others will remain available and will be usable.
5760 m2 This approach assumes that since the remaining means of
Fire sprinkler system egress are still available, there will be time for the building
occupants to use them to evacuate. If two exits or exit access
doorways are required, they must be separated to provide
access from the entire space, room or building. The minimum
distance between the two exits or exit access doorways—
FIGURE 13-19  Example for determining measured in a straight line—must be more than one-half
required exit width and number of exits of the spaces’ maximum overall diagonal dimension (Figure
13-20). [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1015.2.1]
In buildings protected throughout by an automatic fire
sprinkler system complying with NFPA 13 or NFPA 13R,
the exit or exit access doorways separation can be reduced
(Figure 13-21). Because the building is protected by an
automatic fire sprinkler system, SBC 201 and SBC 801 allow
the distance between exits and exit access doorways to be
reduced to one-third the diagonal distance. [Ref. SBC 201
and SBC 801 - 1015.2.1]

FIGURE 13-20  Where two exits or exit

access doorways are required, they must FIGURE 13-21  The separation between exit and exit access doorways
be separated by one-half of the longest can be reduced to one-third of the overall diagonal in buildings sprinklered
diagonal dimension of the space served. in accordance with NFPA 13 or NFPA 13R.
Measurements are made in a straight line.
 E x i t S i g n s a n d M e a n s o f E g r e s s I l l u m i n a t i o n    1 9 5

The codes specify how the separation distance measure-

ment between exits or exit access doors is determined.
Considering that a pair of exit doors typically is 1829 mm
wide, the measurement point between openings can affect
the door locations. SBC 201 and SBC 801 specify separations
are measured as follows:
1. For exit or exit access doorways, measure to any point
along the width of the doorway,
2. For exit access stairways, measure to the closest riser,
FIGURE 13-22  The separation between exit
or doorways is measured at any point along the
3. For exit access ramps, measure to the ramp run’s doorway width.
start (Figure 13-22). [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 -
1007.1.1.1] Code
Essentials
EXIT SIGNS AND MEANS OF EGRESS An aisle accessway is that

ILLUMINATION portion of the means of

egress that leads to an aisle
[Ref. SBC 801 - 1008]
(Figure 13-23).
An unwanted fire, natural or technological threat may affect An aisle is an unenclosed
building occupants. Once aware of the threat, they must be able exit access component
to find the means of egress and clearly identify paths that permit that defines and provides a
them to quickly and easily reach the exit discharge. To aid leaving, path of egress travel. [Ref.
the codes require means of egress illumination when the building is SBC 201 and SBC 801 -
occupied, and exit and exit access doorway identification using signs 202] l
designed to specific standards for ready comprehension.
Egress lighting is required for all occupancies except
Group U, Group A aisle accessways, Group I, R-1, R-2 and
R-3, and I dwelling and sleeping units. Illumination must
be provided throughout the exit access, at the exit and at
the point of exit discharge. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 -
1008.1]
Egress illumination must emit enough visible optical
energy to equal 11 lux at the walking surface (Figure 13-24).
This light level is intended to enable occupants to navigate
through the building under normal circumstances. [Ref.
SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1008.2.1]
FIGURE 13-23  Spaces between dining
tables that lead to an aisle are known as aisle
accessways.

FIGURE 13-24  Normal egress illumination must

equal 11 lux at floor level.
1 9 6    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

In the event of a power failure, SBC 201 and SBC 801 require
You Should emergency lighting for means of egress and exit sign illumination
Know (Figures 13-25 and 13-26).
Lux can be thought of
as light intensity within
a specific area. The total
output of visible light from
a light source is measured
in lumens. Typically, the
more lumens a light fixture
provides, the brighter it FIGURE 13-26  Exit signs must be internally
or externally illuminated to identify the egress
is. One lux is equal to one
path. This unit incorporates both a lighted
lumen per square meter exit sign and emergency lighting features.
(lux = lumens/m2). l

Emergency power—which must

operate within 10 seconds of normal
FIGURE 13-25  Emergency lighting power loss—is required for building
for the means of egress is activated
when normal power is lost. egress components that require two
or more exit or exit access door-
ways. This includes aisles, corridors,
exit enclosures and exit passage-
ways, as well as exterior landings at
the exit discharge. Specific rooms
or areas require emergency power
regardless of the number of exits
required. These rooms are fire com-
mand centers, fire pump rooms,
generator rooms, electrical rooms
and public restrooms larger than
28 m2 (Figure 13-27). [Ref. SBC
201 and SBC 801 - 1008.3]
The emergency power source
must be capable of operating for
at least 90 minutes. The power
source can be storage batteries, unit
equipment that is equipped with its
FIGURE 13-27 Fire pump rooms must have emergency lighting units so own standby power source (Figure
equipment operators can see what they are doing under adverse conditions. 13-25) or an engine-driven genera-
tor. Emergency lighting equipment
must be tested and maintained in accordance with SBC 801, Section
604.6. (See Chapter 7 of this Guide for a standby and emergency
power systems review.) [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1008.3.4]
SBC 201 and SBC 801 require approved exit signs to clearly iden-
tify exit and exit access doorways. Signs are required to indicate the
direction for egress travel when the exit or exit access is not clearly
 E x i t S i g n s a n d M e a n s o f E g r e s s I l l u m i n a t i o n    1 9 7

or immediately visible. Signs must be placed in

accordance with their listed viewing distance
but not more than 30 m from where an exit or
exit access doorway enters a corridor (Figure
13-28). Signs are not required in rooms or areas
with only one exit or exit access door and—
when approved by the building code official—in
buildings where the main exterior exit doors
are obvious and identifiable. Exit signs are not
required in Group U occupancies and in sleep-
ing or dwelling units of Group R-1, R-2, R-3 and
I-3 occupancies. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801
- 1013.1]
Exit signs can be either internally or exter-
nally illuminated. Internally illuminated signs
can use electric lamps or chemicals that are FIGURE 13-28  Exit signs are required in each room or space
self-illuminating or photoluminescent. All exit required to have two or more exits. The viewing distance is
signs must be listed and labeled for compliance measured from where the occupant would enter the corridor.
with UL 924, Standard for Emergency Lighting
and Power Equipment (Figure 13-29). Internally
illuminated signs must remain lit at all times. In the event of a power
loss, UL-listed exit signs constructed as unit equipment are required
to operate for at least 90 minutes at no less than 60 percent of their
rated voltage. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1013.3]
Externally illuminated exit signs also are allowed. When exter-
nally illuminated signs are used, they must meet the dimensional
sizing requirements and be of a contrasting color. At the face of the
sign, there must be a minimum luminance level of not less than
55 lux. The lighting source must be connected to an approved emer-
gency power source that can provide electricity for at least 90 min-
utes. [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 1013.6]

FIGURE 13-29  This listed exit sign includes a marking to indicate that its maximum viewing distance is 15.25 m.
1 9 8    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

MEANS OF EGRESS MAINTENANCE

[Ref. SBC 801 - 1031]
SBC 801, Section 1031 establishes requirements for the means
of egress maintenance. These provisions
address obstructing, blocking or disabling
means of egress components. The require-
ments also are intended to prevent condi-
tions that can cause confusion or obscure the
means of egress.
When a building is occupied, regardless of
occupant load, the exit components must be
free of any obstructions or impediments that
can interfere with egress. (These require-
FIGURE 13-30 Where security feaures like this roll-down grille are
installed, they must not interfere with egress when the building is ments do not prevent the use of security
occupied. devices that can render the means of egress
unusable when the building is not occupied.)
(Figure 13-30) [Ref. SBC 801 - 1031.2]
All means of egress components must be available in the event of
an emergency that requires occupants to leave a building. SBC 801
prohibits any obstructions to exits, exit access or the exit discharge.
Such obstructions must be immediately removed (Figures 13-31,
13-32 and 13-33). [Ref. SBC 801 - 1031.3]

FIGURE 13-31  The fire inspector FIGURE 13-32  Mercantile FIGURE 13-33  Accessory use storage
must remember to check both sides occupancies are known for rooms must be checked frequently to
of an exit door to verify it is not placing objects in the egress path ensure egress paths are clear.
obstructed. until they are ready for display.
 M e a n s o f E g r e s s M a i n t e n a n c e    1 9 9

Exits, exit access doors and exit signs must not be obstructed or
blocked by drapes, decorations or partitions, nor should there be any
other signs or signage that can distract or cause confusion (Figure
13-34 and Figure 13-35). [Ref. SBC 801 - 1030.4, 1031.6]

FIGURE 13-35  Exit doors must be distinguishable from

adjacent construction to avoid confusion.

FIGURE 13-34  While the exit sign is visible, the exit door
also should be unobstructed.
2 0 0    C h a p t e r 1 3 M e a n s o f E g r e s s

QUIZ
1. Which of the following is not part of the means of egress system?
a. exit
b. exit access
c. alternating tread device
d. exit discharge

2. An aisle is an unenclosed exit access component that defines and

provides a path of egress travel.
a. True
b. False

3. Which of the following occupancy groups does not require means

of egress lighting?
a. A
b. E
c. M
d. U

4. In a building or occupancy with from 501 to 1,000 occupants,

______ separate exits are required.
a. two
b. three
c. four
d. seven

5. In areas without fixed seating, the occupant load is determined by

an occupant load factor: the number of persons per square meter
that can occupy a space based on its use.
a. True
b. False
PART
Special Processes
V and
Building Uses
Chapter 14: Fueling and Repair
Chapter 15:  High-Piled Combustible
Storage
Chapter 16:  Other Special Uses and
Processes

201
 CHAPTER
Fueling and Repair
14

M
otor fuel-dispensing facilities and repair garages are closely
regulated because they allow the general population to
handle flammable and combustible liquids and flammable
gases that are more hazardous than the public may realize. To minimize
the risk of fire or unauthorized hazardous materials release, SBC 801,
Chapter 23 establishes requirements based on the hazards of the various
fuels available in the marketplace.
When fueling, the public is intimately involved with potentially vola-
tile products as they transfer them from the dispensing equipment into
their vehicles. Inattention to the operation, numerous fire hazards and
distractions—including video entertainment terminals on the dispens-
ers—make dispensing operations a high-risk environment. The dispenser
often is the point of sale for the entire transaction, so there may not be
any interaction with persons who are aware of the hazards associated
with handling fuels.
202
202
 F u e l - b a s e d R e q u i r e m e n t s    2 0 3

When vehicles are repaired or serviced, they may be vulnerable to

unwanted fires. While convenient operations such as drive-through Code
lubrication centers may handle only high flash point liquids and non- Essentials
hazardous vehicle fluids, motor vehicle repair shops that disassemble Motor vehicle fuel dis-
engines and their fuel lines may suffer unwanted leaks and spills that pensing and repair garage
could lead to fires. requirements apply to fuel
SBC 801 operational requirements—in conjunction with SBC storage, dispensing and
201, Section 406 construction standards—are intended to reduce repair operations for per-
the likelihood of a leak, spill or fire at one of these facilities, which sonal automobiles, fleet
could cause severe losses. SBC 801, Chapter 23 also relies on ref- vehicles like taxis, jitneys or
erences to NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel-dispensing Facilities and buses, trucks, watercraft,
Repair Garages. and aircraft. The regulations
are applicable to facilities
FUEL-BASED REQUIREMENTS that are privately operated
or open to the public. l
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 23]
SBC 801, Chapter 23 provisions are based on the fuel type and haz-
ards. They all are flammable or combustible, they can be a liquid or
gas, and the gases can be compressed or cryogenic (refrigerated gases).
SBC 801 prescribes specific requirements on fuel characteristics
and related hazards. Chapter 23 addresses fuel storage and dispens-
ing for unleaded gasoline, alcohol-gasoline mixtures and petroleum
distillates—such as No. 2 diesel fuel—kerosene and biodiesel. It also
addresses liquefied petroleum gases (LP-gas), natural gas (meth-
ane) and hydrogen stored as a compressed gas or cryogenic fluid.
Regardless of the fuel and its physical state, all motor fuel-dispensing
stations must comply with the general provisions in Section 2301
and the adopted NFPA standards shown in Table 14-1. The provi-
sions for these fuels are applied in conjunction with the applicable
hazardous material requirements in SBC 801, Chapters 53 through
61 and the applicable NFPA standards.

TABLE 14-1  Applicable SBC 801 requirements and NFPA standards by fuel
Stored and dispensed fuel Applicable SBC 801 requirements Applicable NFPA standards
Gasoline, diesel fuel, gasoline/ Section 2306, Chapter 57 NFPA 30, NFPA 30A
ethanol mixtures
Hydrogen – Compressed Section 2309, Section 5303 NFPA 55
Hydrogen – Liquefied Section 2309, Section 5806 NFPA 55
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Section 2307, Chapter 53; Chapter NFPA 58
61
Natural Gas – Compressed Section 2308, Chapter 53 NFPA 52
Natural Gas – Liquefied Chapter 58 NFPA 55, NFPA 57, NFPA 59A
Natural Gas – Liquefied
2 0 4    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r

Code Essentials
DISPENSING OPERATIONS AND
Acceptable portable
DEVICES—ALL FUELS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2304]
containers are listed or
approved materials with
Dispensing is the pouring or transferring of any material from a con-
a maximum 23 L capac-
tainer, tank, or similar vessel where vapors, fumes, mists or gases are
ity, and have tight closures
released to the atmosphere. These vapors may combine with air to
with screwed or spring-
create easily ignitable mixtures. In warm environments, even high
loaded covers designed
flash point vapor-air mixtures may ignite.
so the contents can be
SBC 801-regulated dispensing operations may be attended or
poured without spilling. l
unattended. Attended dispensing occurs where an individual at the
motor fuel-dispensing station supervises or performs the fuel trans-
fer. Note that in “attended” dispensing operations, the attendant
physically fuels the vehicle so the attendant is able to supervise the
fueling operations. Self-service motor fuel-dispensing facili-
ties, where the customer performs the fueling, can occur
at an attended or unattended dispensing operation. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202]
A self-service operation with an attendant who can
supervise the dispensing operation, even though the
attendant does not perform the fueling, is considered an
attended dispensing operation. At attended dispensing
facilities at least one responsible person supervises, con-
trols and observes the fuel dispensing operations. This
individual is responsible to ensure only motor vehicles
and suitable portable containers are filled.
FIGURE 14-1  This facility is considered an The attendant is responsible for controlling spills and
attended motor fuel-dispensing operation even must be able to use portable fire extinguishers. The atten-
though the attendant may not be fueling the
vehicles. dant must be able to communicate with persons who are
fueling and operate the emergency controls to stop the
dispensing operation if an incident occurs (Figure 14-1).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2304.2]

Code Essentials
Recent marketing changes have resulted in “boutique” mobile fueling operations
where the fuel is delivered to the customer’s automobile, regardless of where it
is located. A phone call, mobile app or text message summons a mobile fuel-
ing unit to a parking lot, street, private home or anywhere the customer may be,
and the vehicle operator fills the customer’s automobile.
SBC 801 currently prohibits this for gasoline and other highly volatile liquid fuels
(Class I flammable liquids) by Chapter 57, but there are efforts in the US to per-
mit these operations in newer fire code editions. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5706.5.4.5]
The fire code official can authorize Class I mobile fueling under the alternative
methods and materials provisions of SBC 801, Section 104.9. Several US juris-
dictions have done that to provide time and experience to evaluate the poten-
tial risk against market interest (Figure 14-2). l
 D i s p e n s i n g O p e r a t i o n s a n d D e v i c e s — A l l F u e l s    2 0 5

You Should
Know
Motor vehicle fuel-dis-
pensing equipment must
be mounted on concrete
at least 150 mm above
the adjacent driving level.
FIGURE 14-2  On-demand mobile fueling operations must be 8 mm These raised platforms are
from buildings, property lines, combustible storage, storm drains and called “islands.” l
any ignition source. (Courtesy of Booster Fuels, Inc.)

A typical motor fuel-dispensing facility includes dispensing

islands and a convenience store.
The fueling attendant’s primary responsibility is to the fueling
operation. Often, one or more employees are assigned to restock con-
venience store shelves or work behind the sales counter. If the sales
counter is behind windows that face the fueling islands,
the attendant should be able to see the fueling opera-
tions. The communication method with patrons must
be approved by the fire code official. Public address sys-
tems controlled at the sales counter are popular choices.
One popular convenience store advertising practice is to
place posters and advertisements on the display windows
(Figure 14-3). This becomes an issue when those posters
impair the attendant’s view of the fueling islands. The
attendant’s ability to supervision the operation must
be evaluated during the business’s operational lifetime.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2304.2.4, 2304.2.5] The fire code offi- FIGURE 14-3 The attendant must be able to view
the dispensing operation.
cial can evaluate the supervision design criteria when the
fuel dispensing permit is issued or renewed. [Ref. SBC
801 - 105.6.31]
Unattended fuel dispensing is self-service dispensing
and can be performed after business if the convenience
store is closed or at public or private fleet fueling facili-
ties. In these cases the dispenser serves as the point of
sale, so fueling and payment are conducted without quali-
fied supervision (Figure 14-4). SBC 801, Section 2304.3.1
requires the facility owner to perform daily fuel sale rec-
onciliation and a dispensing equipment inspection. The
daily reconciliation verifies the fuel storage tanks are not
leaking or otherwise losing product through theft, dam- FIGURE 14-4  There are no employees or
assistance at unattended fuel-dispensing
age or other means. operations.
2 0 6    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
You Should
Know
Modern motor vehicle fuel-
dispensing stations employ
turbine-style pumps to
draw liquids from the tops
of underground storage
tanks and send them under
pressure to the dispensers.
The dispenser includes a
fuel filter, an emergency
breakaway device, hose
and nozzle, sale volume
meter and point-of-sale
equipment.
Except for the emergency
breakaway device that
operates if a dispenser is
knocked off its founda-
tion or the in-line hose
breakaway fitting, fuel pipe
between the turbine pump
and the dispensing nozzle
has no built-in safety fea-
tures. Once opened, the
dispensing nozzle will
continue to run until it is
closed or de-energized. l
FIGURE 14-7  An emergency
disconnect switch must be readily
acccesible.
Each dispensing island requires signs to warn customers of the
dangers, as well as how to operate the equipment. The signs inform
individuals dispensing fuel of the actions they need to take in the
event of a fire, spill or release and identify the location for emergency
shutdown equipment that de-energizes the dispensers and stops fuel
delivery. The sign also includes statements that address fuel dispens-
ing into unauthorized containers (Figure 14-5). An on-site means
to summon emergency help is required. [Ref SBC 801 - 2304.3,
2305.6] Dispensing devices must be spaced minimum distances
from property lines, buildings and their openings, and fixed sources
of ignition. Dispensers must be located so the vehicle being fueled
and the dispensing nozzle are on the same property. Dispensing equip-
ment and components used by the motoring public must be listed by
a nationally recognized testing laboratory (Figure 14-6).
FIGURE 14-5  Operating instructions FIGURE 14-6 This dispensing hose and
and warning labels are required on the the breakaway device are listed by a
dispenser. nationally recognized testing laboratory.
Regardless of the fuel type, all dispensers require a clearly iden-
tified emergency disconnect switch that stops dispensing (Figure
14-7). Switches can be located indoors or outdoors. Outdoor switches
must be a minimum of 6 m but not more than 30 m from a dispenser.
If a spill occurs while dispensing, the person conducting the fueling
is inherently expected to go to the shutoff switch to stop the fuel
flow. The 6 m separation protects them by removing the person from
potential harm if the spill ignites. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2303.1, 2303.2]
SBC 801 also establishes operational requirements for tank fill-
ing, dispenser maintenance, and spill and ignition controls. Before a
storage tank is filled, the tank vehicle driver must measure existing
product volume to determine the available capacity before transfer-
 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d F u e l D i s p e n s i n g    2 0 7

ring fuel (Figure 14-8). Liquid transfer and vapor-recovery

connections on storage tanks with a volume of more than
3785 L must be liquid- and vaportight. When liquid is pumped
into above-ground storage tanks, the tank vehicle must be
located at least 4.5 m from a tank receiving Class II and IIIA
combustible liquids and 7.5 m from a tank receiving a Class I
flammable liquid. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2305.1]
Dispensing equipment must be maintained so it does not
become an ignition or leak source. Any equipment that is
leaking should be removed from service. Emergency shutoff
valves mounted beneath dispensers and liquid leak detectors
require an annual functional test (Figure 14-9). When dis- FIGURE 14-8  Connections from a tank vehicle
to a storage tank must be liquid- and vaportight.
pensing devices are repaired, SBC 801 requires the dispenser’s
electrical power and its source pump be disconnected, the
dispenser emergency shutoff valve is closed and a minimum 3.6 m
exclusion zone be established. Only persons knowledgeable in per-
forming the repairs are allowed within the exclusion zone. [Ref. SBC
801 - 2305.2.3]
Portable fire extinguishers are required near dispensers, pumps
and storage tank fill connections. Minimum 2A:20B:C portable fire
extinguishers are required within 22.5 m of these components.
Portable fire extinguishers must be installed in accordance with
SBC 801, Section 906 and NFPA 10 (Figure 14-10). [Ref. SBC 801
- 2305.5]

FIGURE 14-9  Devices such

as these vapor and liquid leak
detectors in a below-grade vaulted
storage tank must be tested
annually.

FIGURE 14-10  A portable fire extinguisher (rear) mounted near a

private fuel dispensing facility.

FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID

FUEL DISPENSING
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2306]
Unleaded gasoline, biodiesel, No. 2 diesel fuel and alcohol-blended
gasoline are commonly dispensed liquid fuels. SBC 801, Section 2306
addresses these liquids’ storage, transfer, dispensing and vapor re-
covery. Because stationary storage tanks are used, their installation
2 0 8    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r

must comply with the requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 57 and

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code; however, the tank
type selected and its siting requirements must comply with SBC 801,
Chapters 23 and 57. (A complete review of storage tank design and
installation requirements is found in Chapter 19 of this Guide.) [Ref.
SBC 801 - 2306.2]
Underground storage tanks (USTs) are a common fuel
storage method. USTs are desirable to many petroleum
retailers because they eliminate the above-ground stor-
age fire hazard and do not consume any land area since
the tank is buried. However, because the tank is under-
ground, leaks cannot be readily observed. To monitor for
potential leaks, leak detection equipment is required for
USTs storing Class I, II and III flammable and combustible
liquids. SBC 801 imposes an additional requirement for
daily product reconciliation between product sold, prod-
uct received and the available UST volume. Daily reconcil-
iation is required for each storage tank. Any consistent or
FIGURE 14-11  Electronic UST inventory and leak accidental loss of petroleum product must be reported to
detection device
the fire code official. In many cases, this reconciliation is
performed automatically by the tank’s inventory control
equipment (Figure 14-11). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.2.1.1]
SBC 801 and NFPA 30A requirements for above-
ground storage tanks (ASTs) for fuel dispensing are more
restrictive than the requirements for USTs because of the
public’s proximity to a fuel dispenser and the potential
for vehicular impact to the tank and its attachments.
These additional requirements are justified because of
the increased potential for fire or explosion. For motor
FIGURE 14-12  This protected above-ground vehicle fuel-dispensing operations, Class I flammable
storage tank contains gasoline, a Class I-B
flammable liquid. liquids—such as unleaded gasoline or alcohol-based
fuels formulated with 85 percent ethanol/15 percent
Code gasoline (E85)—must be stored in a listed protected above-ground
Essentials storage tank (PAST) (Figure 14-12). This type of AST is listed to the
requirements of UL 2085, Standard for Safety Protected Aboveground
Storage tanks for Class I
Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids, and is designed to resist
motor vehicle fuel-dispens-
damage from a hydrocarbon pool fire. PAST design and test criteria
ing systems must be:
were developed with the intent of creating an above-ground tank that
• Underground tanks
provided an equivalent level of fire safety to an underground tank.
meeting NFPA 30 A
PASTs are constructed with integral secondary containment, bul-
standards
let resistance and vehicle impact protection. For motor vehicle fuel
• UL 2085 listed protected
dispensing, Class II and IIIA combustible liquids such as No. 2 diesel
above-ground storage
fuel and biodiesel also must be stored in a PAST; however, the fire
tanks
code official can permit the use of other ASTs for these liquids since
• Tanks installed in above-
they have a higher flash point, making them more difficult to ignite
grade or below-grade
than Class I liquids.
vaults. l
 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d F u e l D i s p e n s i n g    2 0 9

The maximum single-tank AST volume at a publicly acces-

sible fueling facility is 45 000 L, and the aggregate site volume is
181 700 L. All tanks must be located in accordance with SBC 801,
Table 2306.2.3 requirements, which are more restrictive than the
Chapter 57 tank siting requirements. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.2.3,
5704.2.9.6]
Vault protection is a
another method that can
increase the on-site stored
volume. Vaults can be
installed above or below
grade (Figure 14-13). A
conventional, noninsu-
lated AST is an installed
concrete vault that has a
concrete cover. The liquid-
tight vault provides sec-
ondary containment if the
primary tank leaks.
Vaulted tanks are list- FIGURE 14-13  Tanks in a vault can be installed below grade or above grade.
ed as meeting UL 2245,
Below-Grade Vaults
for Flammable Liquid
Storage Tanks. They
Code
require a mechani- Essentials
cal ventilation system, Primary containment is
an overfill prevention the inside portion of a
device, and vapor and container, vessel or tank
liquid leak detection. with an inner wall that is in
Each vaulted AST is immediate contact with the
permitted to store up stored product.
to 56 775 L of Class I, II Secondary containment is
and IIIA liquids with a external to and separate
site total not to exceed from the primary contain-
181 700 L (Figure FIGURE 14-14 Interior of an above-ground tank in a ment. l
below-grade vault
14-14). [Ref. SBC 801
- 2306.2.4, 5704.2.8]
Tank openings [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.6, 5704]
To reduce leak potential, SBC 801 has requirements for piping and
valve system designs to ensure that, if a leak occurs, the amount re-
leased is minimal. These provisions are used in conjunction with the
requirements of SBC 801, Chapter 57 and NFPA 30A.
All tank openings are required to be through the top of the stor-
age tank. By requiring openings at the tank’s top, all liquids must be
pumped to the dispenser, which is safer than using a gravity delivery
method.
2 1 0    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r

To prevent tank overfilling SBC 801 requires the installation of

FIGURE 14-15  Overfill prevention
device (Courtesy of OPW Fueling
Components, Dublin, OH)
Anti Siphon Valve
Class I,II or
III liquid
FIGURE 14-16  Anti-siphon valve
an overfill prevention device. These devices are installed in the tank
fill pipe connection and are designed to limit the liquid flow when
the tank is filled to 90 percent of its volume. When the tank is filled
to 95 percent of its volume, the overfill prevention device closes and
prevents the delivery of any additional petroleum product (Figure
14-15). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.6.2.3, 5704.2.7.5.8, 5704.2.9.7.6]
Because SBC 801 requires all tank openings to be through the top,
transfer pumps are required. Pumps can be installed at the top of the
tank or at the dispenser. When a pump is installed in the product
delivery line or at the dispenser, the potential for product siphon-
ing can occur from above-ground tanks. If the pump is started and
the pipe has a leak ahead of the pump, the potential exists for the
negative pressure to siphon liquid from the storage tank, which can
increase the size of the release. When suction designs are used, SBC
801 requires the installation of an anti-siphon valve. This can be a
solenoid valve that opens when the dispenser is activated or an anti-
siphon valve (Figure 14-16). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.6.2.4]
A fuel dispenser is the point of consumer use.
Because fuel dispensing is predominantly self-ser-
vice, SBC 801 specifies requirements to minimize
the spill and fire potential. These requirements
address the method of fuel delivery, dispenser
mounting and construction, and the hose and
nozzles.
All components of a flammable or combustible
liquid dispensing system are required to be listed
by a nationally recognized testing laboratory. SBC
Pump
801 requires listed electrical equipment, dispens-
ers, hoses, nozzles and submersible or subsurface
pumps used for liquid transfer and dispensing.
To Dispenser
Equipment listing ensures that it has been evaluat-
ed for the fuel being dispensed and is constructed
using materials compatible with the fuel (Figures
14-17 and 14-18). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.7.1]

FIGURE 14-17  Variable frequency drive pump controllers.

These devices control the flow rate of pumps supplying
dispensers. Because they are part of the dispensing system, FIGURE 14-18  Listed turbine pump head installed at the
these controllers must be listed in order to comply with SBC 801. top of an underground tank.
 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d F u e l D i s p e n s i n g    2 11

Vehicle impact is a major concern with any dispenser.

Dispensers are equipped with valves and fittings that
prevent flammable and combustible liquid release if they
are hit by a vehicle. Vehicular impact protection can be
accomplished by the installation of guard posts or the
installation of the dispensers on a 150 mm high concrete
island or any other barrier approved by the fire code official
(Figure 14-19). [Ref. SBC 801 - 312] SBC 801 requires
the installation of a dispenser emergency shutoff valve at
the base of the dispenser in each product line that sup-
plies a dispenser. The spring-loaded valve is equipped
with a low-melting-point fusible link. In the event of a FIGURE 14-19  Dispensers protected from vehicular
fire, the link will soften and the valve will close. Dispenser impact by elevation above the driving surface
emergency shutoff valves are required to be functionally
tested annually (Figure 14-20). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2305.2.4, 2306.4,
2306.7.3, 2306.7.4]
A dispenser emergency shutoff valve has a weak shear section
that will separate from the main valve body attached to the dispenser
base. Separation of the shear section mechanically stops the flow
of liquid. Shear section positioning is important because it must be
parallel to the dispenser foundation and located so the shear section
can effectively operate. SBC 801 requires it to be installed within
13 mm of the top of the island (Figures 14-21 and 14-22). [Ref. SBC
801 - 2306.7.4]

Note: Dispenser to be
Shear attached to island per code
Groove FIGURE 14-20  An automatic
emergency shutoff valve is installed
at the base of the dispenser.
(Courtesy of OPW Fueling
3" Components, Dublin, OH)

Inlet OPW Inlet

Pipe Stabilizer Pipe
Bar
Angle iron rigidly supported Angle is embedded in concrete.
within the manhole and the Short angle bolted to valve to
valve mounted to it by means make certain valve and inlet
of a u-bolt. piping are rigid.

FIGURE 14-21  Proper installation of the dispenser emergency valve should

include verification of the location of the shear section in relation to the
foundation. (Courtesy of OPW Fueling Components, Dublin, OH)
FIGURE 14-22  This dispenser
emergency valve operated when an
automobile bumper snagged a dispensing
hose and pulled the equipment off its
island.
2 1 2    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
FIGURE 14-23  An automatic
emergency valve for vapor-recovery
lines in the dispenser (Courtesy of
OPW Fueling Components, Dublin,
OH)
FIGURE 14-24  An emergency
breakaway device is required in
the dispensing hose for Class I
and Class II liquids.
Petroleum-fuel vapor-recovery equipment may be installed where
air pollution concerns mandate that unwanted vapor releases are
captured and treated. Vapor-recovery piping is installed as a part of
the dispenser, so a dispenser emergency shutoff valve is required
(Figure 12-23). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.7.4]
Another safety component is an emergency breakaway device
that is designed to safely separate the dispensing hoses conveying
Class I and II liquids. In the event an automobile driver forgets to
remove the hose after fueling, the breakaway device will help reduce
the likelihood the entire dispenser will be pulled off its foundation.
When operated, the emergency breakaway device will contain liquid
on both sides of the hose that is separated (Figure 14-24). [Ref. SBC
801 - 2306.7.5.1]
Fuel-delivery nozzles dispensing Class I, II or III liquids are auto-
matic closing. As the automobile fuel tank fills, the backpressure
increases against the fuel being dispensed. Once the backpressure
reaches its limit, the fuel-delivery nozzle will close. Fuel-delivery
nozzles are designed so they will only allow dispensing when the
dispenser hose is pressurized with liquid. Pressure loss—such as
turning off a pump—will cause the nozzle valve to close. The nozzle
must be manually operated to ensure it is closed before dispensing
can be resumed. Its design must have a feature or component that
retains the nozzle in the vehicle fill pipe while dispensing is under-
way (Figure 14-25). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.7.6.1]
Fuel-delivery nozzles may or may not be equipped with a latch-
or hold-open device that enables fuel delivery without someone
squeezing the nozzle’s handle. The fire code official can determine
when latch-open devices are allowed. Some code officials do not allow
latch-open devices because they require the person dispensing the
fuel to be in constant attendance of the delivery nozzle. Conversely,
other fire code officials require latch-open devices because they pre-
vent the person dispensing fuel from inserting objects between the
nozzle body and valve such as vehicle fuel caps, credit cards or wal-
lets. When they are permitted, SBC 801 requires they be integral
latch-open devices provided by the nozzle manufacturer. [Ref. SBC
801 - 2306.7.6]
FIGURE 14-25  This listed fuel-delivery nozzle is equipped with
a latch-open device.
 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d F u e l D i s p e n s i n g    2 1 3

Alcohol-blended fuels [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.8]

Alcohol-blended fuel is gasoline mixed with up to 10 percent ethanol
or alcohol. The blend was created to extend petroleum stocks when
there was market anxiety about petroleum prices and supply. Etha-
nol is a water-miscible solvent Class IB flammable liquid because
of its flash point of 12.8°C and boiling point of 78.3°C. Ethanol is
blended with gasoline to make up two different formulations of
alcohol-blended fuels that include the designation “E”: E10, a blend
of 10 percent ethanol with 90 percent unleaded gasoline, and E85, a
blend of 85 percent ethanol with 15 percent gasoline. E85 alcohol-
blended fuel has a flash point temperature ranging from -29 to -20°C,
which is higher than unleaded gasoline, which has a -43°C flash point
temperature. The flammable range (also known as the “explosive
range”) of E85 alcohol-blended fuel is much wider than that of un-
leaded gasoline, as shown in Table 14-2.

TABLE 14-2  Flammability ranges of unleaded gasoline and alcohol-blended fuel

Lower Upper
flammable flammable Flammable
limit limit range
(percent (percent (percent
Fuel volume in air) volume in air) volume in air)
Unleaded gasoline 1.4 7.6 6.2
E85 alcohol-blended fuel 1.4 19.0 17.6

SBC 801 requires listed components for alcohol-blended fuel FIGURE 14-26  An E85 alcohol-
dispensing equipment such as nozzles, hoses, breakaway connec- unleaded gasoline dispenser
tions or any other component that contacts the fuel. [Ref. SBC 801
- 2306.8.1] Ethanol is an extremely aggressive water-miscible liquid You Should
and if equipment is not properly cleaned nor prepared for the storage Know
of alcohol-blended fuels, the ethanol will absorb water and contami- Compared to gasoline, eth-
nate the fuel (Figure 14-26). anol and ethanol-blended
Alcohol-blended fuels attack and cause premature failure of com- fuels have increased elec-
ponents constructed of metals, alloys and plastics that are not chem- trical conductivity that can
ically compatible with ethyl alcohol. Components constructed of soft affect material compat-
metals—including zinc, brass, aluminum or lead—are chemically ibility through corrosion.
incompatible with E85 alcohol-blended fuel. Unplated carbon steel, In this context, compat-
stainless steel and bronze are ethanol-resistant. Nonmetallic materi- ibility is the ability of two
als that are compatible with alcohol-blended fuels include neoprene or more substances to
rubber, polypropylene, nitrile plastic and polytetra-fluoroethylene maintain their respective
(marketed under the name Teflon™). If the facility stores petroleum physical and chemical
fuels in underground storage tanks constructed of fiberglass-rein- properties when in contact
forced plastic, the tank may or not be compatible with E85 fuel. Since with one another for the
the mid-1980s, all fiberglass-reinforced plastic underground stor- design life of the storage
age tanks constructed with integral secondary containment (such and dispensing system
as a double-wall) are compatible with 100-percent ethyl alcohol. In under normal conditions. l
2 1 4    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
FIGURE 14-27  LP-gas dispensing
equipment including a fueling meter
FIGURE 14-28  The point of transfer is measured
from the location where connections are made or
disconnected.
each case it is important that the original tank installation records
be reviewed and any questions concerning the compatibility of the
tank with the fuel be referred to the manufacturer. If a motor vehicle
fuel-dispensing facility converts existing storage tanks and dispens-
ing equipment to an alcohol-formulated fuel, the fire code official is
authorized to review and approve the change.
Automatic tank liquid level gauges using capacitance probes will
not work with alcohol-blended fuels. Therefore, part of the approval
process should include a review of manufacturer data sheets or list-
ings to confirm the component’s compatibility with ethanol. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 2306.8.2]
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS DISPENSING
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2307]
Liquefied petroleum gas (LP-gas) is a flammable liquefied compressed
gas used as a motor vehicle fuel. (See Chapter 20 of this Guide for
more information on LP-gas.) LP-gas is stored and dispensed as a liq-
uid from a stationary vessel or tank into the vehicle fuel tank. Before
it can be used as a motor fuel the vehicle must vaporize the liquid and
convert it to a gas for carburetion.
LP-gas storage and dispensing must comply with the requirements
in SBC 801, Chapters 23, 53 and 61 and the requirements in NFPA
58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code. The stationary LP-gas container and
its piping must be installed in accordance with NFPA 58 and Chapter
61. The dispenser, hose and nozzle are installed in accordance with
the requirements in Chapter 23 and the NFPA 58 for listed hoses,
hose connectors—including breakaway connections—vehicle fuel
connectors (nozzles), dispensers and LP-gas pumps (Figure 14-27).
The storage container, piping, pressure relief devices and pressure
regulators must be approved by the fire code official. [Ref. SBC 801
- 2307.2.2]
SBC 801 requires the fuel transfer point to be sepa-
rated from buildings, property line, streets and public
ways. Point of transfer is the location where dispensing
occurs: this is where the connection between the vehicle
and the dispensing nozzle is made and broken (Figure
14-28). During any LP-gas dispensing operation, a very
small volume of liquid is trapped between the nozzle and
vehicle fill connection. When the nozzle is disconnected
the liquid will vaporize into the atmosphere. At some
point between the nozzle and where the vapor-air mixture
is fully diluted, the LP-gas and air will form a flammable
mixture. Exposures must be separated so they will neither
cause nor be damaged by a fire.
 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s D i s p e n s i n g    2 1 5

The separation distances should be measured from the dispens-

ing location, not the dispenser. A minimum separation of 7.5 m is
required between the transfer point and:
• buildings with combustible exterior walls or noncombustible
walls that have less than a 1-hour fire-resistance rating,
• lot lines on property that can be built on,
• streets,
• sidewalks, and
• railroads.
The separation distance is reduced to 3 m when buildings have
noncombustible exterior walls with a fire-resistance rating of 1 hour
or more (Figure 14-29). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2307.4]

FIGURE 14-29  Required separation distances for LP-gas container and dispensing locations

NFPA 58 and SBC 801 include requirements for

LP-gas dispenser installations. An excess flow valve
and a manual shutoff valve are required in the pip-
ing between the transfer pump and the dispenser
inlet. An excess flow valve is designed to stop the
flow of liquid LP-gas automatically in the event a
pressurized pipe fails. The valve is sized based on the
pipe diameter and the liquid flow rate. Therefore, if
the pipe diameter changes as part of the design or
installation, an excess flow valve is required where
the pipe diameter changes (Figure 14-30). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 2307.6.1]
FIGURE 14-30  An internal excess flow control valve.
Because of the size of the LP-gas container, it is
equipped with a fusible link that closes the valve in the
event of a fire.
2 1 6    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
FIGURE 14-31  A differential backpressure valve
FIGURE 14-32  A listed dispenser nozzle for LP-gas
FIGURE 14-33  Hydrostatic pressure-relief valves
A second excess flow valve is required at the
connection of the dispenser hose to the liquid
LP-gas piping. This valve prevents the release of
liquid LP-gas if the dispensing hose ruptures. An
excess flow valve is not required when a differen-
tial backpressure valve is used (Figure 14-31). A
differential backpressure valve operates on the
basis of constant product flow and pressure. In
the event of a pipe or hose failure, the flow rate
increases, causing the valve to close because of
the pressure increase between the dispenser and
tank. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2307.6.1]
Dispenser hoses are listed for LP-gas service
and equipped with a listed automatic-closing-
type nozzle valve. This valve is designed so liquid
LP-gas cannot flow until a positive mechanical
connection is made at the vehicle fill connection
(Figure 14-32). A listed emergency breakaway
connection is required in the dispenser hose.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2307.6.3]
All liquefied compressed gases exhibit high
expansion ratios at normal temperatures. At
27°C, LP-gas has a vapor pressure of 883 kPa.
Therefore, if the liquid is trapped in a closed pipe
or hose, the pressure can increase as the pipe or
hose is warmed to a point where catastrophic
failure can occur.
To prevent a failure, SBC 801 specifies that
the system must be protected from mechanical
damage by an approved method. This requires
the installation of one or more hydrostatic pres-
sure relief valves. These valves are designed to
safely vent the LP-gas once the pressure reaches
a predetermined point. When the pressure is
relieved, the valve closes. A hydrostatic pressure
relief valve is required by NFPA 58 in any sec-
tion of pipe or hose where liquid LP-gas can be
trapped (Figure 14-33). This includes the LP-gas
dispenser hose because liquid can be trapped
between the dispenser valve and the LP-gas
pump. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2307.6.2]
 C o m p r e s s e d N a t u r a l G a s a n d H y d r o g e n    2 1 7

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS AND

HYDROGEN
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2308]
Although not yet so popular as liquid or LP-gas motor vehicle
fuels, compressed natural gas (CNG) and hydrogen (H2) are growing
in market shares. In many major urban centers, CNG-powered buses
are becoming favored alternatives to diesel-fueled vehicles because
of their cleaner and less smelly emissions. In the US, public service
fleets—such as municipal power companies—are converting trucks
and some automobiles to CNG. For many, CNG and H2 still are con-
sidered as “alternative fuels.” Table 14-3 compares some of the prop-
erties of alternative fuels to gasoline and LP-gas.

TABLE 14-3 Liquid, liquefied gas and gas fuel properties (all temperatures Celsius)
Property Gasoline LP-gas Natural Gas Hydrogen
Vapor density 4.0 1.52 0.56 0.0696
Flash point -43° -104° -188° N/A*
Boiling point 85° 42° -162° -253
Lower flammable limit (LFL) 1.4% 1.81% 5% 4%
Upper flammable limit (UFL) 7.6% 8.86% 15% 74%
Minimum ignition energy 0.2 mJ 0.26 mJ 0.29 mJ 0.02 mJ
(MIE)

mJ = millijoules
* Not applicable. Although hydrogen’s autoignition temperature (the point at which it ignites without an
external heat source) is around 500°C, it takes so little energy to ignite hydrogen-air mixtures that its flash
point is irrelevant.

Compressed natural gas [Ref. SBC 801 - 2308.3]

Natural gas is odorless and colorless in its natural state. As a
safety precaution, chemical odorants are intentionally added when
the gas is pumped into the local distribution network of pipelines to
give it a distinctive, pungent smell similar to rotten eggs. The odor
signals a potential compressed natural gas (CNG) gas leak.
A slight odor may be detected when the fueling nozzle is being
connected or disconnected during the refueling process. This is nor-
mal and should quickly dissipate when fueling has been completed.
Natural gas is lighter than air, so leaking natural gas from vehicles
parked outside will generally rise and disperse safely; however, natu-
ral gas leaks in an enclosed garage could pose a danger, as there is
limited area for the gas to disperse.
CNG is also stored at very high pressures, presenting different
safety issues than gasoline or diesel fuel. Repair facilities need to take
precautions to secure CNG cylinders while they are being serviced
and follow standard safety procedures while working. When vehicles
and fueling stations are operating well and are properly maintained,
the high-pressure gas is unlikely to present any danger.
2 1 8    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
Code
Essentials
Closed transfer systems
require the following writ-
ten items:
• A “logical sequence” that
explains the gas transfer
and capture procedures
• Actions in case of an
accidental gas release
• A drawing illustrating the
pipe, regulator and
equipment settings and the
equipment's spatial relation
to the compressor, storage
vessels and emergency
shutdown devices. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 2308.8.1.1]
CNG motor vehicle dispensing facilities must comply with both
SBC 801, Section 2308 and Chapter 53, “Compressed Gases.” Like
LP-gas fueling facilities, there are exposure spacing requirements
from compression, storage or dispensing equipment. Table 14-4 sum-
marizes these distance requirements. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2308.3.1]
TABLE 14-4 Hydrogen equipment spacing required
Exposure Distance (m)
Beneath electric power lines Not permitted
Nearest building, buildable lot line, public street, sidewalk or 3
ignition source
Railroad track 7.5
Electrically powered rail or rail transit line 15
Electrically powered trolley bus line overhead wires 15
If CNG must be removed from motor vehicle fuel cylinders for
maintenance purposes, the gas must be captured through a closed
transfer system or vented to the atmosphere in an approved manner.
The closed transfer system collects the gas into storage to permit its
reuse.
If the gas is vented to the atmosphere, SBC 801, Section
2308.8.1.2 outlines the safety requirements to accomplish it. These
requirements include a written plan, means to stabilize cylinders,
electrical bonding and grounding requirements and vent tubs for
gas discharge. Depending upon exposures, the process must occur at
least 4572 to 7620 mm away.
Hydrogen [Ref. SBC 801 - 2309]
The interest in hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel
stems from its ability to power fuel cells in zero-emission fuel-cell
electric vehicles, its production ease, its fast filling time and the fuel
cells’ high efficiency. In fact, a fuel cell coupled with an electric motor
is two to three times more efficient than an internal combustion
engine running on gasoline. Hydrogen can also serve as fuel for inter-
nal combustion engines. However, unlike fuel-cell electrical vehicles
(FCEVs), internal combustion engines produce tailpipe emissions
and are less efficient.
The energy in 1 kg of hydrogen gas is about the same as the
energy in 2.8 L of gasoline. Because hydrogen has a low volumetric
energy density, it is stored onboard a vehicle as a compressed gas
to achieve the driving range of conventional vehicles. Most current
applications use high-pressure tanks capable of storing hydrogen
at either 3500 or 7000 kPa. For example, the FCEVs in production
by automotive manufacturers and available at dealerships have
7000 kPa tanks. Retail dispensers, which are mostly co-located at
gasoline stations, can fill these tanks in about 5 minutes. Other
storage technologies are under development, including bonding
 M o t o r Ve h i c l e R e p a i r G a r a g e s    2 1 9

hydrogen chemically with a material such as metal hydride or low-

temperature sorbent materials.
Hydrogen motor vehicle generating, compression, storage and
dispensing facilities must comply with SBC 801, Section 2309,
Chapter 53, “Compressed Gases,” Chapter 55, “Cryogenic Fluids” and
Chapter 58, “Flammable Gases and Flammable Cryogenic Fluids,”
and NFPA 2, Hydrogen Technologies Code.

MOTOR VEHICLE REPAIR GARAGES

[Ref. SBC 801 - 2311]
SBC 801, Section 2311 addresses safety re-
quirements for motor vehicle repair garages
regardless of fuel type. Repair garages may
service a variety of manufacturers’ makes and
models that are fueled by different energy
sources. As vehicle fuel markets change, repair
garage safety features may have to change
as well. A repair garage designed solely for
work on heavier-than-air liquid-fueled vehicles
may have unexpected hazards when a lighter-
than-air gas-fueled vehicle is serviced (Figure
14-34).
The work performed in motor vehicle
repair garages ranges from inconsequential
to severe. Oil-changing and lubrication shops
FIGURE 14-34  A repair garage designed solely for work on
may work with only very high flash point petro- heavier-than-air liquid-fueled vehicles may have unexpected
leum products and nonhazardous fluids, while hazards when a lighter-than-air gas-fueled vehicle is serviced.
full-service garages may include open-flame
or heliarc welding, parts washing with volatile
liquids, spray finishing with flammable prod-
ucts and one or more of the fuels described in
this chapter. Vehicles may range from small
two-passenger sedans to large over-the-road
transports (Figure 14-35).
Flammable and combustible liquid storage
and use are regulated in SBC 801, Section
2311.2. Often, parts removed during repair
are coated with layers of dirt or grease. To
inspect and evaluate them—or prepare them
for reinstallation—these parts often have to
be cleaned. The cleaning process may involve FIGURE 14-35  Large over-the-road transport trucks require
flammable or combustible solvents. Part clean- regular service to keep them profitable.
ing must occur in a separate room or building
treated as a Group H-2 or H-3 occupancy, or in an approved and listed
parts cleaning and degreasing machine. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2311.2.1,
5705.3.6.1] Solvents must be compatible with the parts cleaning
machine, and their volume is limited based on their classifications.
2 2 0    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
FIGURE 14-36  Electrical equipment must
be located at least 457 mm above the
floor so heavier-than-air liquid fuel vapors
are less likely to be ignited by a spark or
arc.
FIGURE 14-37  Flammable gas detection
equipment must operate when the
atmosphere reaches 25 percent of its
LFL.
Multiple parts cleaning machines must be separated from one
another by at least 9 m or a 1-hour fire-resistance-rated fire bar-
rier. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5705.3.6.2.5]
Waste oil, motor oil and other Class IIIB liquids may be stored
and dispensed inside motor vehicle repair garages. If the repair
garage has floor drains, they must drain to an approved oil-water
separator so spilled oil can be captured before it runs into storm
or sanitary sewer systems.
Ignition sources—including electrical equipment—must be
located at least 450 mm above the floor so heavier-than-air
liquid fuel vapors are less likely to be ignited by a spark or arc
(Figure 14-36). Smoking is not permitted in repair garages
except in approved locations.
Repair garages used for lighter-than-air fuels (CNG and H2)
must have special ventilation to prevent the accumulation of
flammable gases. Unless the fire code official approves natural ven-
tilation, the mechanical system must provide continuous ventila-
tion at the rate of 0.00139 m3 of room volume per minute or by
a system that starts ventilation when the level of flammable gas
reaches 25 percent of its lower flammable limit (Figure 14-37).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2311.7.1.1, 2311.7.2.1] When operated, the
ventilation system may open rooftop vents to release accumu-
lated flammable gases (Figure 14-38).
FIGURE 14-38  Depending on its design, the gas dection system may
open roof vent to the outdoors.
 Q u i z    2 2 1

QUIZ
1. Outdoor switches for dispenser power controls at liquid-fuel ser-
vice stations must be a minimum of 6 m but not more than 30 m
from a dispenser.
a. True
b. False

2. Acceptable portable containers are listed or approved materials

with a maximum _______ L capacity and have tight closures with
screwed or spring-loaded covers designed so the contents can be
poured without spilling.
a. 5.7
b. 14.2
c. 16.8
d. 23

3. The maximum single-tank above-ground storage tank volume at

a public accessible fueling facility is ______ L.
a. 22 500
b. 45 000
c. 48 000
d. 55 000

4. Portable fire extinguishers having a minimum _________ rating

are required within 23 m of liquid fuel dispensers, pumps and
storage tank fill connections.
a. 2A
b. 2A:20B:C
c. 4A:60B:C
d. 10B

5. In LP-gas fuel dispensers, NFPA 58 requires a hydrostatic pres-

sure relief valve in any section of pipe or hose where liquid LP-gas
can be trapped.
a. True
b. False
2 2 2    C h a p t e r 1 4 F u e l i n g a n d R e p a i r
CHAPTER
High-Piled
15 Combustible
Storage

W
ith land costs increasing and technology changes that allow
manufacturing and consumer goods to be rapidly moved
anywhere in the world, high-piled storage is a preferred
wholesaling and retailing method in Group S and many Group M occu-
pancies. Home improvement, consumer electronics and soft goods such
as furniture, clothing, food and beverage retailers erect large warehouse-
like stores that use high-piled storage arrays to display merchandise,
fulfill their customer demands and control costs.
High-piled combustible storage allows a greater amount of materials
to be stored within a given floor area. This increased fuel load increases
the potential fire loss for each square meter of floor area. Property losses
resulting from smoke and fire damage in many cases can surpass the
building’s construction cost or current value.

223
2 2 4    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e

The automatic fire sprinkler system is probably the most impor-

You Should tant high-piled combustible storage fire protection feature in this
Know storage configuration. In the last two decades, the fire protection
Some products may be
engineering community has seen a variety of new automatic fire
stored more than 3600 mm
sprinklers introduced that are designed specifically for high-piled
above the floor and may not
combustible storage (see Chapter 10 of this Guide). Consequently,
be considered within the
there are more design and protection options, so it can be challeng-
scope of SBC 801, Chapter
ing to verify the adequacy of the automatic fire sprinkler system
32.
for the stored product(s). The available fire sprinkler design meth-
For example, entirely non-
ods also have evolved and NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of
combustible materials without
Sprinkler Systems, continues to be modified extensively to keep up
packaging are exempt from
with the changes.
protection: steel, iron or con-
crete pipe, steel construc-
tion materials, glass, concrete
WHAT IS HIGH-PILED COMBUSTIBLE
blocks and similar items are STORAGE?
noncombustible. A material
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 32]
that can pass ASTM E136, High-piled combustible storage is the storage of combustible materials
Standard Test Method for in closely packed piles or on pallets, in racks or on shelves where the
Assessing Combustibility of top of storage is greater than 3600 mm in height. When required by
Materials Using a Vertical Tube the fire code official, high-piled combustible storage also includes certain
Furnace at 750°C, is consid- high-hazard commodities, such as rubber tires, Group A plastics,
ered non-combustible. flammable liquids, idle pallets and similar commodities where the
If combustible packaging is storage height is greater than 1800 mm in height. [Ref. SBC 801
added, however, the com- - 202] The 3600-mm threshold is based on fire testing that was
bined product and packaging performed in the 1960s and 1970s. Those full-scale fire tests proved
may require that it comply that when combustible goods were stored more than 3600 mm in
with SBC 801, Chapter 32. For height, the fire spread and heat release rate increased to the point
example, empty glass bottles where a fire sprinkler system with a typical Ordinary Hazard, Group
in cardboard boxes are con- 2 design in accordance with NFPA 13 could not control the fire.
sidered combustible. l Commodities classified as “high-hazard” may require special
protection when the high-hazard commodity is 1800 mm above the
floor. These products include rubber tires, highly combustible and
fast-burning plastics (termed “Group A”), flammable and combustible
liquids, idle pallets, and alcohol- or hydrocarbon-formulated aerosols.
While SBC 801, Chapter 32 offers several fire protection design strat-
egies that don’t require fire sprinklers, high-hazard commodities
almost always require a specialized automatic fire sprinkler system
that is designed to control or suppress fires involving these goods
(Figure 15-1). [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3.1.1]
To determine if the requirements of SBC 801, Chapter 32 are
applicable, the stored commodities must be classified in accordance
with Section 3203, the height of storage must be determined and
the high-piled combustible storage area must be designated. The
FIGURE 15-1  Flammable and com- commodity classification and storage height will affect the fire pro-
bustible liquids in plastic containers tection strategy.
represent a significant challenge in
the design of automatic sprinkler sys-
tems and are treated as high-hazard
commodities by SBC 801.
 C o m m o d i t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n    2 2 5

COMMODITY CLASSIFICATION Code

[Ref. SBC 801 - 3203]
Commodities are classified based on an estimation and com-
Essentials
parison of the heat release rate of typical products within the same The high-piled storage area
category. A commodity’s overall fire hazard is a function of its heat is an “area within a build-
release rate. Heat release rate is measured in kilowatts (kW). The ing that is designated,
heat release rate is the product of the heat of combustion measured intended, proposed or
in kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg) and the burning rate is measured actually used for high-piled
in kilograms per second (kg/sec). The higher a commodity’s heat of combustible storage.” [Ref.
combustion and heat release rate, the higher the commodity classi- SBC 801 - 202]
fication. The higher a commodity’s classification, the more difficult A manufacturing facility
this material is to control and extinguish when it is involved in fire. may have building with an
A commodity is more than just the item awaiting sale or shipment. operational area of
A commodity is the combination of product, packing materials and 46 552 m 2 but only
containers. Product, packaging and container material flammability 20 percent, or 9290 m 2,
characteristics need to be evaluated together to establish adequate might be designated for
fire protection that prevents fire from spreading far beyond its ori- high-piled storage.
gin. As a result, the designated
SBC 801 separates hazards into five commodity classifications: high-piled storage area
• Class I, might have different fire
• Class II, protection requirements
• Class III, from the remainder of the
• Class IV and property. l
• High-hazard.
Figure 15-2 illustrates that a Class I commodity is considered to
have the lowest fire hazard, while a high-hazard commodity has the
highest fire hazard.
Packing materials can have a significant impact on the
commodity classification. Packing materials may include a
large amount or volume of plastics, which generally exhibit
higher heat of combustion when compared to other mate-
rials, lightweight paper, shredded paper or water-soluble
FIGURE 15-2  The higher the commodity class,
biodegradable packing materials made from natural, non- the greater the challenge in the design of the au-
toxic sources, such as wheat and cornstarch. tomatic sprinkler system.
Compare a typical Class I commodity to a Class II com-
modity. Class I commodities are essentially noncombustible
materials and products contained within combustible pack-
aging or stored on combustible pallets. For example, ceram-
ic coffee mugs packaged in a single-thickness cardboard box
are considered Class I commodities (Figure 15-3). A Class II
commodity includes Class I products that are packaged in
slatted wooden crates, solid wooden boxes, multiple-layer
paper or fiberboard cartons, or equivalent combustible
packaging materials with or without pallets. Ceramic coffee
mugs in a multiple-thickness cardboard box with multiple-
FIGURE 15-3  Single-thickness cardboard
thickness cardboard dividers used to separate and protect
2 2 6    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e

the mugs are considered Class II commodities (Figure

FIGURE 15-4  The additional layer in the cardboard is
referred to as a multiple-thickness cardboard and it in-
creases the commodity classification.
FIGURE 15-5  This product is tomatoes and tomato
paste in metal cans, with a paper wrapper, set in a
cardboard box. This is a Class I commodity, and is still a
Class I commodity when placed on a wooden pallet.
15-4). [Ref. SBC 801 - 202, 3203.2, 3203.3] When
packaging materials change from cardboard to highly
combustible Group A plastics (e.g., polystyrene foam)
simple noncombustible products may earn Class IV
or high-hazard designations. The commodity class
change may have significant consequences on the fire
protection strategies. A fire sprinkler system designed
to protect Class I or II commodities may not be able to
protect Class IV or high-hazard storage.
When classifying a commodity stored on pallets,
the pallet is not considered part of the commodity. It
is intentionally not included in the commodity defini-
tion. Based on fire testing, the commodity classifica-
tion and the fire sprinkler design criteria assume
there is a conventional wooden pallet (see the sub-
sequent discussion on plastic pallets, which, during
fires, may perform differently from wooden pallets)
(Figure 15-5).
NFPA 13 includes protection schemes for only Class
I through IV commodity classifications. Commodities
that end up in the SBC 801 high hazard category fall
under special NFPA 13 requirements. Though NFPA
13 does not include the term “high hazard,” it includes
many specific design criteria that will protect those
commodities. However, the high-hazard classifica-
tion does change SBC 801 requirements for smoke
and heat removal, allowable storage height, allowable
high-piled storage area size and automatic fire sprin-
kler thresholds.

You Should Know

Commodity classification is a complex skill that requires experienced judgment.
The fire code official should not be compelled to make the classification. The high-piled stor-
age permit applicant should provide a technical report and opinion from a qualified engineer,
specialist, laboratory or fire safety specialty organization that thoroughly evaluates the combi-
nation of product, packing materials and containers to recommend an effective fire protection
strategy.
For example, “foods in combustible containers” are catalogued in SBC 801 as a Class II com-
modity. That description might imply products such as Mazola, Blue Band or Star margarine.
However, further analysis shows that “vegetable oil and butter in plastic containers” are classi-
fied as high-hazard commodities. There is a significant difference in the fire protection features
needed to protect high-hazard commodities compared to Class II.
The fire code official should review and approve the application if the official is satisfied life
safety and fire protection are achieved. l
 C o m m o d i t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n    2 2 7

SBC 801 requires that the commodities’ physical

form be evaluated when determining the classification.
Physical form commonly is described as its geometry
that must be considered for accurate classification.
Materials may burn differently based on their geometry.
For example, because of its compacted mass, dimen-
sional lumber stored horizontally is difficult to ignite
and burn. SBC 801, Section 3203.4 classifies lumber as
a Class III commodity.
However, if the same dimensional lumber is assem-
bled into uniform shapes to create a conventional pallet
or other product with open geometry, more exposed FIGURE 15-6  The geometry influences the com-
surface area is created. Greater surface area increases modity classification. The dimensional wood on the
left is a Class III commodity, while the finished wood
the likelihood of ignition and rapid fire spread because fence sections on the right are a high-hazard com-
the material has plenty of available atmospheric oxygen modity.
(Figure 15-6). The result is that a material that may be
a Class III commodity now becomes a high-hazard com- Code Essentials
modity according to Section 3203.6 (listed as "pallets
High-piled storage configurations are
and flats that are idle combustible"). [Ref. SBC 801 -
described as arrays. The array includes
3203.1]
the packaging type, flue spaces, stor-
Class III, IV and high-hazard commodity classifica-
age height and compactness. The
tions include products made from or packaged in plas-
array influences the fire protection
tics. Plastics get special attention because they have
design strategy.
such a wide range of heat of combustion per unit of
• Automated rack storage occurs
mass that must be considered when classifying com-
on racks where commodities are
modities. Because of the large variety of plastics, the
moved by mechanical or electronic
complexity of their chemical constituents and the ease
methods.
with which burning characteristics can be changed with
• Bin-boxes are five-sided containers
additives, careful consideration of the resins is neces-
with the open side facing an aisle.
sary when classifying plastics. While some plastics pose
• Shelf storage is storage on shelves
a significantly greater fire hazard than ordinary com-
less than 750 mm deep with a verti-
bustibles, others are no more dangerous than wood or
cal distance of not more than
paper products.
900 mm between shelves.
Plastics’ heat of combustion can be two to three
• Palletized storage is storage where
times that of a similar amount of ordinary combustibles.
commodities are handled and
For example, the heat of combustion of ordinary com-
stacked on pallets. Pallets may be
bustibles—such as wood or paper—generally ranges
wood, steel, dense paper, or high-
between 25 104 and 33 472 kJ/kg. The heat of combus-
or low-density plastics. Wood pal-
tion for plastics generally ranges between 50 208 and
lets are called “conventional” wood
83 680 kJ/kg. A commodity’s burning rate depends on
pallets.
many variables, but plastic materials generally exhibit
• Rack storage occurs on metal racks
higher maximum burning rates than similarly arranged
larger than shelves, commonly
ordinary combustibles.
1200 mm by 2400 mm, that can be
Plastics are classified as either Group A, B or C.
open or closed.
Group A plastics represent the most challenging from a
• Solid-piled storage is where com-
fire protection viewpoint, while Group C plastics are the
modities are stored in closely
least challenging. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3203.7]
packed piles without pallets. l
2 2 8    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e
FIGURE 15-7  Expanded Group A plastic
FIGURE 15-8  Unexpanded Group A plastic
box
FIGURE 15-9  Free-flowing Group A plastic
FIGURE 15-10  This tomato box is con-
structed of polyethylene terephthalate, an
unexpanded Group A plastic.
Plastic geometry is important, as it will influence the ease
of ignition and the burning rate. Plastics have three basic
geometric forms:
• Expanded,
• Unexpanded, and
• Free-flowing.
Expanded plastics generally are a low-density product and
are commonly called “foamed plastics,” such as polystyrene
foam coffee cups or packaging and polyethylene or poly-
propylene foam sheeting. Expanded plastics have a cellular
structure made up of many small air pockets and voids. The
pockets increase the available surface area and promote easy
ignition and increased vertical flame spread (Figure 15-7).
Unexpanded plastics have a higher density compared to
expanded plastics and may or may not be rigid. Plastic films
are classified as unexpanded plastic as well as plastic sheets.
They are a solid material and can include goods such as toys,
tote bins and containers. In comparison to expanded plas-
tics, unexpanded plastics are less hazardous because of the
reduced surface area (Figure 15-8).
Free-flowing plastics are very small plastic items such as
bottle caps, hypodermic needle plungers, granular or flake
plastics, or powdered plastics. Free-flowing plastics burn less
severely when compared to expanded or unexpanded plas-
tics. When a package of free-flowing plastics fails under fire
exposure, the goods spill from the container. In rack storage,
the items may fill the rack flue spaces and slow fire spread.
Because of this phenomenon, free-flowing plastics generally
are assigned a Class IV commodity rating (Figure 15-9). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 3203.5]
Clear Group A plastics may be used in retail packaging
because they display the contents for the consumer. Whether
they are used in an expanded or unexpanded state, they
are pervasive and can easily be overlooked as a fire hazard
because the products they contain may be noncombustible
(Figure 15-10).
HIGH-PILED COMBUSTIBLE STORAGE
AREAS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 3204]
A high-piled storage area is space within a building that is
designated, intended, proposed or used for high-piled com-
bustible storage. SBC 801 requires that the most challenging
commodity class be used as the basis for high-piled storage area
fire protection features.
If a storage area has a mixture of Class I, II, III and IV
commodities, fire protection must be provided at the Class
 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e A r e a s    2 2 9

IV level. This approach assumes that if the fire protection You Should Know
features can protect the highest-hazard commodity, anything When new storage facilities are
having a lesser hazard designation will be protected. For designed and constructed—espe-
example, fire protection that can protect foam-backed rugs cially those where a tenant may
(Class IV) should easily protect bagged sugar (Class III), foods not yet be identified—the Class IV
in glass jars in cardboard cartons (Class II) and gypsum board commodity designation is the most
(Class I). This class designation will not affect requirements commonly applied classification
for Civil Defense access and fire-fighter access doorways but assigned to high-piled storage areas.
will influence the smoke and heat removal and automatic fire Excluding high-hazard commodities,
sprinkler system designs. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3204.1] this designation allows maximum
flexibility in the proposed, current or
TABLE 15-1  General fire protection and life safety requirements (SBC 801, future building use. l
Table 3206.2)
All Storage Areas Solid-Piled Storage, Shelf Storage And
Size Of High-Piled Storage (see Sections 3206, 3207 and 3208)b Palletized Storage (see Section 3207.3)
Areaa Automatic fire-
Commodity Fire detection Smoke and Maximum Maximum pile
(square meter) extinguishing Building access
Class system heat removal Maximum pile permissible volume
(see Sections 3206.2 and system (see Section
3206.4) (see Section (see Section dimensionc (m) storage heightd (cubic
(see Section 3206.6)
3206.5) 3206.7) (m) meters)
3206.4)
0–46.5 Not Requireda Not Required Not Requirede Not Required Not Required Not Required Not Required
46.6–232 Not Required a
Yes i
Not Requirede Not Required 30 12 2831
233–1,114 12 11,328
Yes Not Required Not Requirede Not Required 30
Public accessible
233 –1,114
Nonpublic accessible Yes Not Required Not Requirede Not Required 30 12 11,328
I–IV (Option 1)
232–1,114
Nonpublic accessible Not Requireda Yes Yes Yes i 30 9f 5,663
(Option 2)
1,115–1,858 Yes Not Required Yes Yesi 30 12 11,328
1,859–46,450 Yes Not Required Yes Yesi 30 12 11,328
Greater than 46,450g Yes Not Required Yes Yesi 30 12 11,328
0–46.5 Not Requireda Not Required Not Requirede Not Required 15 Not Required Not Required
46.6–232 9 2,124
Yes Not Required Not Requirede Not Required 15
Public accessible
46.6–232
Nonpublic accessible Yes Not Required Not Requirede Not Required 15 9 2,124
High
hazard (Option 1)
46.6–232
Nonpublic accessible Not Requireda Yesg Yes Yesi 15 6 1,416
(Option 2)
233–27 870 Yes Not Required Yes Yesi 15 9 2,124
27 871–46 450g,h Yes Not Required Yes Yesi 15 9 2,124

a. Where automatic sprinklers are required for reasons other than those in Chapter 32, the portion of the sprinkler system protecting the high-piled storage area shall
be designed and installed in accordance with Sections 3207 and 3208.
b. For aisles, see Section 3206.9.
c. Piles shall be separated by aisles complying with Section 3206.9.
d. For storage in excess of the height indicated, special fire protection shall be provided in accordance with Note g where required by the fire code official. See
Chapters 51 and 57 for special limitations for aerosols and flammable and combustible liquids, respectively.
e. Section 503 shall apply for fire apparatus access.
f. For storage exceeding 9 m in height, Option 1 shall be used.
g. Special fire protection provisions including, but not limited to, fire protection of exposed steel columns; increased sprinkler density; additional in-rack sprinklers,
without associated reductions in ceiling sprinkler density; or additional Civil Defense hose connections shall be provided required by the fire code official.
h. High-piled storage areas shall not exceed 46450 m2. A 2-hour fire wall constructed in accordance with SBC 201 Section 706 shall be used to divide high-piled
storage exceeding 46450 m2 in area.
i. Not required where an automatic fire-extinguishing system is designed and installed to protect the highpiled storage area in accordance with Sections 3207 and
3208.
j. Not required where storage areas are protected by either early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinkler systems or control mode special application sprinklers
with a response time index of 50 (m • s)½ or less that are listed to control a fire in the stored commodities with 12 or fewer sprinklers, installed in accordance with
NFPA 13.
2 3 0    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e
Code
Essentials
High-piled storage areas
“open to the public”
include mercantile occu-
pancies like Homeworks,
Ace Hardware and Farm
Superstores where custom-
ers are permitted to shop
among the stored prod-
ucts.
Those “not open to the
public” include opera-
tions like Tamer, HWE and
Kanoo Logistics where only
employees are permitted
to work in the high-piled or
rack storage areas. l
FIGURE 15-11  If high-piled storage occurs
in a Group S occupancy, automatic sprinkler
protection is required when the storage area
exceeds 1114 m . 2
Once commodities have been classified and the high-piled storage
area, storage method and storage height are established, fire pro-
tection requirements can be obtained from SBC 801, Table 3206.2
(Table 15-1). This table is an index to the detailed requirements in
SBC 801, Sections 3206.2 through 3206.10.
The requirements depend on the commodity classification, pub-
lic access and the high-piled storage area size. Note that the table is
divided into two commodity categories: Classes I through IV and high-
hazard. [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 3206.2]
SBC 801, Table 3206.2 offers two protection options for smaller
high-piled combustible storage areas. Class I–IV areas from 46.5 to
1114 m2 and high-hazard areas from 46.6 to 232 m2 can be protected
by automatic fire sprinklers or automatic fire detection. When fire
detection is installed, solid pile storage array sizes are limited and
there are additional requirements for fire-fighting access doors and
smoke- and heat-removal equipment. Smoke detection is the pre-
ferred sensing mode, but if smoke detection is not suitable based
on the use, heat detection may be used instead. [Ref. SBC 801 -
3206.5, 907.2.15]
SBC 801, Table 3206.2 differentiates fire protection require-
ments based on whether the building is accessible to the public.
The theory supporting this approach is based on “familiarity”:
persons who visit these buildings only occasionally may not be
familiar with their fire safety features and means of emergency
egress.
Buildings containing high-piled combustible storage that are
open to the public—such as mercantile (Group M) occupan-
cies—have area thresholds for requiring automatic fire sprin-
kler protection far less than the values prescribed in SBC 801
and SBC 201, Chapter 9 for Group M fire areas. The requirement
for an automatic fire sprinkler system is applicable in buildings
open to the public storing Class I–IV commodities with a high-
piled storage area more than 233 m2 and 46.6 m2 storing high-
hazard commodities (Figure 15-11). This provision is intended
to protect the customers. Group M occupancies can have large
occupant loads and fire loads, so when the Group M occupancy
contains high-piled combustible storage, SBC 801 lowers the area
threshold to ensure that the automatic fire sprinkler system
can control or suppress unwanted fires and provide prompt
evacuation notification. [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 3206.2]
Automatic fire sprinkler protection is required for Class
I–IV high-piled combustible storage areas more than 1115 m2 or high-
hazard commodities greater than 233 m2. The hazard classification is
the foundation for fire sprinkler system design: higher-hazard-class
high-piled combustible storage areas require greater water application
rates and totals than lower ones.
 S t o r a g e A r r a y D e t a i l s    2 3 1

There may be circumstances where a storage facility designated

for lower-hazard commodities (e.g., Class I or II) needs to store
Class III, Class IV or high-hazard products and it is assumed the fire
sprinkler system is not designed to protect this new challenge. SBC
801, Section 3204.2 provides an option that might accommodate the
higher-hazard commodity.
If a competent engineering analysis of the fire sprinkler system
shows it is capable of protecting individual higher-hazard class com-
modity areas up to 11 m2 and additional 11 m2 areas spaced 7.5 m
apart, the higher-hazard class products may be allowed. Often, this
solution may be as simple as storing the higher-hazard commodities
close to where the fire sprinkler system enters the building, but the
determination needs to be made by a qualified person and approved
by the fire code official. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3204.2]
SBC 801, Section 503 requires fire appa-
ratus access roads for all new buildings. When
the structure encompasses high-piled com-
bustible storage, there are additional require-
ments for Civil Defense access for manual
fire-fighting and overhaul operations. SBC
801, Table 3206.2 requires access doors
intended to provide fire fighters a conve-
nient way from the fire apparatus access
roads into the building. When required,
access doors must be spaced not more than
30 m apart. Doors must be at least 900 by
2100 mm. Roll-up doors do not qualify unless
the fire code official approves. FIGURE 15-12  Fire department access door in a building that
Sprinklered buildings require building contains high-piled combustible storage
access when the high-piled combustible storage
area for Class I–IV exceeds 1115 m2 or a high-hazard area is greater
than 46.6 m2. In buildings that are not sprinklered, the threshold
for building access drops to 232 m2 for Class I–IV commodities and
46.6 m2 for high-hazard commodities in areas not open to the public
(Figure 15-12). [Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.6.1]

STORAGE ARRAY DETAILS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 3207]
Different storage arrays are used based on the
commodity, cost, materials handling equipment
and customer preference.
Each storage method presents its own fire pro-
tection challenges. Certain storage methods may
be height-limited based on fire test data results.
Individual storage methods are regulated in SBC
801, Sections 3207 through 3210.
FIGURE 15-13  Solid-piled storage of baled cotton
2 3 2    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e

Solid-piled storage involves some commodi-

ties that are moved without the use of material-
handling aids such as conventional pallets (Figure
15-13). Solid-piled storage commonly is employed
for commodities such as rolled paper, rolled carpet
or materials that are baled (e.g., cotton or waste
paper). Some lightweight commodities packaged in
fiberboard cartons also may be stored using the sol-
id-piled storage method. Solid pile arrays generally
can support the live load of additional like materials
added to the pile. Solid-piled storage arranged on
the floor.
FIGURE 15-14  Palletized storage
Solid-piled storage has limited gaps between
products that enable air movement or fire spread.
Fires in solid-piled arrays are easier to control than
palletized or rack storage because they offer large,
exposed surfaces that are easy to wet with hand-
held hose lines or fire sprinklers.
Pallets are designed to serve as a uniform plat-
form for commodity packaging, handling and stor-
age. They are constructed as a flat structure using
wood, plastic, metal or paper (Figure 15-14).
Palletized storage fires are more challenging
FIGURE 15-15 The human-powered pallet jack is one me-
than solid-piled storage because the pallet includes
chanical means for moving palletized commodities. more surfaces available for ignition and permits
horizontal fire spread due to the arrangement of
its openings to accommodate mechanical handling
equipment (Figure 15-15).
These openings create flue spaces that allow the horizontal spread
of fire. Another consideration for fires involving palletized storage is
that the horizontal flue space created by the inherent hollow design
of pallets is shielded from water discharged by an automatic fire
sprinkler system. As a result, prewetting cannot occur because of the
shielding (Figure 15-16). Because of these concerns with palletized
storage, SBC 801 limits pile sizes to minimize potential losses. In
fire-sprinklered buildings, pile dimensions for palletized storage can
be up to 11 328 m3 with pile lengths up to 30 m and heights up to
12 m. (Note that in Table 3206.2 when the nonfire-sprinklered pro-
tection option is selected, the maximum pile volume is reduced to
5663 m3 and the height is limited to 9 m.) [Ref. SBC 801 - 3207.3]
FIGURE 15-16 The inherent open-
ings in pallet design increase fire pro-
tection challenges.
 S t o r a g e A r r a y D e t a i l s    2 3 3

Code
Essentials
The popularity of durable
and reusable plastic pallets
has added a variable that
can influence automatic fire
sprinkler system design.
Pallets, when constructed
of combustible materials
such as wood or plastic,
represent a significant fire
FIGURE 15-17  This plastic pallet listed to UL 2335 is considered equivalent to a wood threat. SBC 801 has specific
pallet with regard to fire load. (Courtesy of Rehrig Pacific Co., Los Angeles, CA) requirements for plastic
pallets used in high-piled
Fire tests used to classify commodities usually include conven-
combustible storage arrays.
tional wooden pallets as part of the fire load. Plastic pallets that
SBC 801 refers to UL 2335,
have not been listed in accordance with UL 2335 or FM 4996 can add
Fire Tests of Storage Pallets,
significant fuel to a palletized unit load of which the released heat
or FM 4996, Approved
energy can overpower an automatic fire sprinkler system.
Standard for Classification
To address the fire hazards associated with nonlisted pallets,
of Pallets and Other
NFPA 13 requires increased sprinkler performance in accordance
Material Handling Products
with Table 15-2. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.4.1]
as Equivalent to Wood
Pallets, as a basis for test-
TABLE 15-2  Effect of plastic pallet on commodity classification ing and listing of reduced-
Listed under UL hazard pallets. Pallets listed
2335, or Approved Nonlisted or Nonapproved to this standard can be
Type of Plastic Pallet under FM 4996 Plastic Pallet treated the same as wood
Unreinforced pallets. Listed pallets can
Treat as equivalent Increase one commodity
polyethylene or be identified by the listing
to wood pallet classification
polypropylene
mark that is molded into
Reinforced polyethylene Treat as equivalent For Class I, II or III – increase
or polypropylene one commodity classification the pallet (Figure 15-17). l
to wood pallet For Class IV – treat as Group
A cartoned, unexpanded
plastic commodity
Plastic materials other Commodity classification
Treat as equivalent
than polyethylene or based on specific fire testing,
to wood pallet
polypropylene or increase two commodity
classifications
Natural Gas – Liquefied

You Should
Rack storage is a predominant storage array that is regulated by Know
SBC 801. Rack storage is used because it can be erected rapidly, it is
The combination of one
designed to facilitate a wide range of storage practices and its height
pallet and the commod-
is generally unlimited because of its inherent structural design.
ity it holds is called a “unit
Storage racks are designed for mechanical or manual stocking and
load.”
retrieval.
2 3 4    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e

A storage rack is a combination of vertical, horizontal or diagonal

Code structural members designed to support stored materials (Figure
Essentials 15-18). Racks are constructed with or without solid shelves. Racks
Storage rack design and
can be stationary, movable or portable. Portable or movable storage
construction are regulated
racks represent their own fire protection engineering challenges and
in accordance with SBC
are outside the scope of SBC 801.
201, Section 2209.1 and
Rack Manufacturers Institute
standard ANSI/MH16.1,
Specification for Design,
Testing and Utilization of
Steel Industrial Storage
Racks.
The building official will
issue installation permits
for rack storage arrays to
ensure they are structurally
sound and resistant to
earthquakes. l

FIGURE 15-18  A soon-to-be-filled rack storage array in a Group M occupancy

There are no rack height limits in SBC 801 or NFPA 13. It is a

common construction practice to use the storage racks as the load-
bearing structural elements for the building walls and roof as well as
the stored commodities. Of all the storage configurations regulated
in the fire code, rack storage of commodities represents the most
challenging from a fire protection perspective. Fires involving rack
storage (Figure 15-19) are one of the most challenging types of fire
for an automatic fire sprinkler system to control or suppress because
• The rack supports the commodity. This allows the commodity to be
preheated and burn on the bottom, top and all vertical surfaces.
• A storage rack is constructed with airspaces on all sides that per-
mit rapid vertical and horizontal fire spread. These air spaces are
called “flues.”
FIGURE 15-19  Fire involving rack
storage of motor oil (Courtesy of In-
• The flue spaces among stored commodities enable fire gas veloc-
ternational Code Consultants Inc., ity to increase by compressing it between structural members
Austin, TX) and the stored products’ exposed surfaces. This gas velocity in-
crease must be overcome by the momentum and mass of the
water droplets from operating fire sprinklers or hose streams.
 S t o r a g e A r r a y D e t a i l s    2 3 5

Flue spaces are critical for fire con-

trol or suppression in storage racks. Flue
spaces are defined based on their orienta-
tion. As one stands in an aisle between
racks and faces the stored commodity,
the gaps between unit loads and racks are
called transverse flue spaces. Conversely,
if one stands at the end of a double- or
multiple-row rack and looks the length of
the back-to-back racks, this space is called
the longitudinal flue space. Longitudinal flue
spaces run the entire length of the storage
racks. Single-row racks do not have longi-
tudinal flue spaces between racks but may
back against a wall or other obstruction
that creates one (Figures 15-20 and 15-21).
Despite the fact that flue spaces promote
vertical and horizontal fire spread, they
are essential rack storage arrays because
they permit fire sprinkler discharge and
hose streams to reach the burning material FIGURE 15-20 Longitudinal and transverse flue spaces serve to al-
and wet nearby combustibles to slow fire low heat from the fire to rise to the sprinklers and allow water from
the sprinklers to penetrate back down to the fire.
spread. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3208.3]

FIGURE 15-21 The open space between this single-

row rack and the exterior wall may be considered a
longitudinal flue space.
2 3 6    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e
You Should
Know
• Carousel storage systems
are those where all the
stored product travels
on a support structure
from its storage point to
a spot where a human
or automated “picker”
sets it aside for sale or
transfer. The product can
move in either a vertical
or horizontal rotation
(Figure 15-22).
• Automated storage and
retrieval systems are
those where individual
products are moved
into and out of a pallet
storage rack. This typi-
cally involves computer-
controlled pallet movers,
lifts and robots (Figure
15-23). l
FIGURE 15-23  Automated rack
storage system
Automated rack storage is a stocking method where pallets, prod-
ucts, apparatus or systems are automatically controlled by mechani-
cal or electronic devices. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] These storage meth-
ods include carousel and robotic storage.
FIGURE 15-22  Horizontal carousel storage system
Carousel storage systems are factory-built motorized storage
systems that revolve around a fixed base. In most cases, the path of
the revolution has two long parallel sides connected by round, short
radius ends. They use fixed tracks with the motor mounted either on
the top or bottom. A conventional carousel storage system revolves
in the horizontal plane, but may be vertical, or a combination of
both. Products stored in the carousel are brought to a stationary
picking station using manual or computer control. Computers are
commonly used to simultaneously maintain inventory records and
conduct ordering. Typically, the commodities are small parts and
products. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3209.1]
Automated storage and retrieval systems consist of a rack storage
array with computer-controlled pallet movers, robots, aerial drones
and product lifts. The automatic storage and retrieval system rack
height often can reach more than 7.6 m. Usually the aisles are wide
enough only for the pallet movement and the automated lift can
move both horizontally from one end of the aisle to the other and
vertically to the upper storage tiers.
Automated storage systems require automatic shutdown dur-
ing a fire to prevent additional product being moved into the fire,
prevent burning product being moved to a location not yet involved
and protect fire fighters as they move among the array. [Ref. SBC
801 - 3209.4]
Automatic fire sprinkler protection for automated storage is
required when high-piled combustible storage areas require fire
sprinklers in accordance with SBC 801, Table 3206.2. NFPA 13 may
require in-rack fire sprinklers for automated systems, especially if
the storage height exceeds 2438 mm and combustible containers are
used. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3209.2]
 A i s l e s    2 3 7

AISLES
[Ref. SBC 801 - 3206]
Aisles are provided in high-piled combustible storage
areas to facilitate material handling and provide access for
fire fighting and overhaul. Aisles also are required by SBC
801, Chapter 10 to facilitate emergency egress. Aisle require-
ments in SBC 801, Section 3206.9 are applicable when the
high-piled combustible storage area is greater than 232 m2.
Minimum aisle widths are based on whether the building
is protected by an automatic fire sprinkler system. Aisles are
required to comply with the requirements of NFPA 13 based
on the storage method and automatic fire sprinkler system
design. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.9]
Well-maintained aisles will help limit the fire spread by
radiant heat transfer from one array to another. Radiant
heat transfer is the result of electromagnetic radiant energy
emitted from a burning object. Because it is an electromag-
netic source of radiation, heat transfer occurs through open
space. A classic example of radiant heat transfer is sunlight.
In sunlight, we sense radiant heat energy on our skin and
other objects. When clouds cover the sun, both heat and
light diminish.
Empty aisles reduce the potential for fire spread from FIGURE 15-24  Combustibles stored in rack
one storage pile or rack to another by providing an open array aisles increase the chances fire will
spread from one rack to another.
space without combustibles. The radiant energy from a
burning object is reduced significantly by every millimeter
of distance from the source. Conversely, for each millime-
ter an aisle is reduced, amount of radiant heat transfer is
doubled.
Open aisles reduce the potential for a fire to transfer
enough energy to ignite adjacent storage piles or racks
(Figure 15-24).
Aisles in fire-sprinklered rack storage arrays must be
at least 1100 mm wide and 2400 mm wide in high-hazard
storage arrays exceeding 232 m2 open to the public. In
nonfire-sprinklered arrays and operations using mechani-
cal stocking (e.g., powered industrial trucks), aisles must
be at least 2400 mm wide (Figure 15-25). SBC 801 allows
aisles limited to employee access to be as little as 600 mm
in width. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.9.1]

FIGURE 15-25  Aisles allow for movement of

material-handling equipment, provide an exit
access path, limit the potential for fire spread be-
tween racks and provide fire-fighting access.
2 3 8    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e

Moving or inserting products into racks (stocking) may be done

manually or mechanically. Manual stocking employs ladders or other
nonmechanical equipment to move stock, while mechanical stocking
uses motorized vehicles such as powered industrial trucks (fork lift
trucks), pallet jacks and pallet trucks (Figure 15-26). Aisles must be
maintained when manual or mechanical stocking is underway. Aisles,
exit doors and fire department access doors cannot be obstructed.
For manual stocking operations, aisle widths must equal at least
50 percent of the aisle dimension for aisles wider than 1200 mm. For
example, an aisle 1860 mm wide must be maintained 930 mm clear
during manual stocking. For aisles 1200 mm or less in width, a mini-
mum 600 mm aisle is required during manual stocking operations. In
cases where mechanical stocking occurs, a minimum 1100 mm aisle
is required. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3205.4]

FIGURE 15-26  Aisles must be maintained during stocking operations and cannot
obstruct the exit access.
 Q u i z    2 3 9

QUIZ
1. High-piled combustible storage is the storage of combustible
materials in closely packed piles or combustible materials on pal-
lets, in racks or on shelves where the top of storage is greater than
_________ mm in height.
a. 2000
b. 2248
c. 3278
d. 3600

2. NFPA 13 may require the installation of in-rack automatic fire

sprinklers for automated systems, especially if the storage height
of the storage exceeds 2400 mm and combustible containers are
used.
a. True
b. False

3. Automatic fire sprinkler protection is required for Class I–IV

high-piled combustible storage areas more than 1115 m2 or high-
hazard commodities greater than _____ m2.
a. 233
b. 250
c. 276
d. 288

4. In nonsprinklered rack storage arrays and operations using

mechanical stocking (e.g., powered industrial trucks) aisles must
be at least ______ mm wide.
a. 2400
b. 2438
c. 2446
d. 2452

5. Roll-up doors do not qualify for fire-fighting access to a high-piled

combustible storage area unless the fire code official approves.
a. True
b. False
2 4 0    C h a p t e r 1 5 H i g h - P i l e d C o m b u s t i b l e S t o r a g e
CHAPTER
Other Special Uses
16 and Processes

T
here are many day-to-day operations that may seem harmless
but quickly can turn into an unwanted fire. In addition to rou-
tine fire safety practices, some special hazards require greater
attention to their threat. A key fire prevention objective is to keep heat
sources away from combustible materials. This Guide chapter addresses
three of these operations and how to prevent them from creating dan-
gerous conditions: combustible-dust-producing operations, fire safety
during construction and demolition, and hot work.
Activities involving the use of combustible dusts present a deflagra-
tion hazard that can injure or kill plant personnel and first responders.
During building construction, alteration or demolition, buildings are
vulnerable to fire and collapse because the fire protection and structural
safety features of a completed building may be compromised. Hot work
is an inherently hazardous activity because it creates ignition sources
near combustible materials.
241
2 4 2    C h a p t e r 1 6 O t h e r S p e c i a l U s e s a n d P r o c e s s e s
You Should
Know
The human eye can see
objects as small as 40 µ.
The period at the end of
this sentence is 615 µ.
Human hair thicknesses
range from 40 to 300 µ.
Beach sand ranges from
100 to 1000 µ.
The eye of a needle is about
1230 µ. l
COMBUSTIBLE DUST-PRODUCING
OPERATIONS
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 22]
Combustible dust-producing operations occur in a variety of
industries, including food production, pharmaceutical manufactur-
ing, many woodworking facilities and some plastic manufacturing
processes. SBC 801, Chapter 22 addresses the controls needed to
prevent dust explosions, which technically are dust deflagrations.
A deflagration is an exothermic (heat-releasing) reaction resulting
from the rapid oxidation of combustible dust in which the reaction
progresses through the unburned material at a rate less than the
velocity of sound. Deflagrations are far more common in commercial
and industrial operations than detonations, which have burning rates
greater than the speed of sound. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
A combustible dust is a finely divided solid material measuring
420 microns (µ) or less in diameter. Dust is combustible when its par-
ticles will burn. Table salt (100 µ) is small enough to be considered
a dust but it is chemically noncombustible. Wood is combustible,
but dimensioned lumber is not dust: it is a solid mass with a surface
area large enough to make it difficult to ignite in air using even high-
energy sources like an oxygen-acetylene torch. However, wood prod-
ucts ground into small particles like wood flour1 (which can range
from 1 to 841 µ) are easily ignitable when in the right proportions
with air.
For SBC 801, Chapter 22 to be applicable, the material must
meet the definition of a dust by particle size and the material must
be combustible. A combustible dust is needed as a fuel source to pro-
duce a dust deflagration in air. When dispersed with air in the proper
proportions, it can be ignited by a low-energy ignition source. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 202] Particle size is an important factor in deflagration
physics. While smaller particles have less mass than larger ones,
their surface exposed to air is proportionally larger. This increases
the dust deflagration potential energy because the material is more
easily ignited and total consumption of the fuel particle occurs nearly
instantaneously.
The energy required to ignite a combustible dust is described as
the minimum ignition energy (MIE) and is measured in millijoules
(mJ). A typical spark created by walking across a carpeted floor and
touching a metal door is about 100 mJ. The lower the minimum igni-
tion energy value, the less energy is needed for ignition. For example,
an agricultural dust such as wheat flour has an average particle size
of 80 µ. The minimum ignition energy required to ignite such dust
is approximately 95 mJ. If the particle size is doubled to 160 µ, the
required ignition energy is more than 400 mJ. The range of poten-
tial combustible dust-air ratio mixtures and corresponding ignition
1. Wood flour is defined as a finely ground wood cellulose, often called “wood fiber.” It is used in
manufacturing a wide range of products ranging from composite decking/railing to office furniture to
caster wheels.
 C o m b u s t i b l e D u s t - p r o d u c i n g O p e r a t i o n s    2 4 3

energy requirements is so huge that a one-to-one rela-

tionship cannot be developed. Su
sp
r e en
The mechanism of a dust deflagration requires more s u de
n clo dD
factors compared to the conventional fire tetrahedron. E us
t
Researchers refer to dust explosion mechanics as the five-
sided “dust pentagon” (Figure 16-1). Including an ignition
source and needed fuel-air mixture, a dust deflagration
also requires the fuel to be in a confined enclosure—such

ere
C on
as a building or exhaust duct—and to be easily dispersed

osph
into the enclosure’s atmosphere. The burning combus-

cent

Atm
tible dust liberates flammable gases and it is the ignition

r
ation
of these gases that causes the deflagration.
One of the unusual characteristics of dust explo-
sions is that when there is an initial blast there often is
Ignition Source
a second, more deadly explosion. The initial explosion
may shake the structure enough that accumulated dust FIGURE 16-1  Dust deflagration pentagon
is disturbed into another dust cloud that has a fuel-air
ratio that also is ignited. Often, the explosive force of the
second explosion is greater than the first so emergency
responders must be wary of this phenomenon.
SBC 801 specifies requirements for controlling ignition
sources and housekeeping to reduce the dust deflagration
potential by referencing NFPA standards that regulate dust
deflagration hazards. A dust collection method is required
to prevent dust accumulation that can be suspended in
air (Figure 16-2). The key is to ensure the dust does not
accumulate at any locations where it can be suspended in
air, such as on ventilation ducts, light fixtures, building
trusses or purlins, cable trays or similar locations. Some
research suggests that as little as 6 mm accumulated dust FIGURE 16-2  Dust collector used to capture
on surfaces can cause a catastrophic explosion (Table 16-1 combustible dust produced during the
and Figure 16-3). [Ref. SBC 801 - 2203.1, 2203.2] manufacturing of furniture

TABLE 16-1  Minimum dust layer depth and area for a dust deflagration
hazard by material or facility type

Material or Dust layer Dust layer area

facility type depth
Combustible • For buildings less than 1858 m2,
0.79 mm
particulate solids the area of the dust layer shall
not exceed 5% of the floor
Wood processing area
and • For buildings of 1858 m2 or
3.2 mm
woodworking greater, the area of the dust
facilities layer shall not exceed
92.9 m2
FIGURE 16-3  The square panels on the sides
of this duct collector are pressure emergency
blow-out vents to relieve pressure caused by a
deflagration.
2 4 4    C h a p t e r 1 6 O t h e r S p e c i a l U s e s a n d P r o c e s s e s

In two of the referenced NFPA standards (Table

FIGURE 16-4  Hand-sanding with electrically powered
equipment increases the chances of a dust explosion if
adequate controls are not employed.
TABLE 16-2  Industry-specific standards
16-2), one means of determining if a dust deflagra-
tion hazard exists is to measure the dust layer depth.
NFPA 654, Standard for the Prevention of Fire and
Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing and
Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids, and NFPA
664, Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Explosions
in Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities, indicate
that such a hazard exists when the dust is combus-
tible, it has a density of 1201 kg/m3 or less, and the
area of dust layer and its depth exceeds the values
indicated in Table 16-1 (Figure 16-4).

Standard Subject
Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Dust Explosions in
NFPA 61 Agricultural and Food Processing Facilities
NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems
NFPA 70 National Electric Code

NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion System Hazards Code

NFPA 120 Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Coal Mines
NFPA 484 Standard for Combustible Metals
Standard for Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions
NFPA 654 from the Manufacturing, Processing and Handling of
Combustible Particulate Solids
NFPA 655 Standard for the Prevention of Sulfur Fires and Explosions
Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Dust Explosions in
NFPA 664 Wood and Woodworking Facilities

FIRE SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION

AND DEMOLITION
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 33]
Erecting, altering or demolishing a building introduces a variety
of hazards. When constructing a building, unprotected shafts may be
created that form a vertical path for fire travel. Numerous and varied
hazardous materials can be on site, such as paints, coatings and fuels
that can contribute to fire growth and spread. When a building is
demolished, structural components may be weakened or removed,
which reduces the building’s resistance to external loads like rain,
wind, snow or seismic ground motion. Previously functioning fire
protection systems (fire sprinklers and standpipes) may be discon-
nected or otherwise inoperable.
SBC 801, Chapter 33 addresses fire safety aspects of struc-
tures being constructed, altered or demolished. These requirements
address temporary heating, establishing fire safety precautions, haz-
ardous materials storage and use, and maintaining fire protection
 F i r e S a f e t y D u r i n g C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d D e m o l i t i o n    2 4 5

systems. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3301.1] SBC 801, Chapter 33 also requires
compliance with NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Code
Alteration and Demolition Operations. Essentials
Perhaps most significantly, SBC 801, Section 3308 requires the The construction site fire
project owner to designate a fire prevention program superintendent safety plan must include:
who is responsible for developing and overseeing a site fire safety • Construction site security
plan. details
The responsibility for implementing a fire prevention plan lies • A Civil Defense-
with the owner or any person the owner designates as the fire pre- approved preincident
vention program superintendent. plan
The fire prevention program superintendent is responsible for • Fire safety training for
the maintenance of any required fire protection systems. The super- construction workers
intendent is responsible for training job-site personnel about the • Location and
building’s fire protection features and systems and how they are identification of all fire
maintained and serviced. An approved prefire plan must be prepared protection systems and
for fire fighters to identify the location and types of various hazards equipment
or pitfalls the construction site may present. The fire prevention • A hot work control plan
program superintendent is responsible for the implementation of • A fire protection system
the hot work permit program. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3308] impairment plan l
The prefire plan should address the installation and maintenance
of fire department access, which includes vehicle
access to the site and building and building access
for both new construction and alterations (Figure
16-5). Site and building access can be accomplished
with the installation of a key box at a temporary gate
or entrance. Often, temporary roads or driveways
may be used during the construction process. Even
temporary access is required to meet the approval
of the fire code official and must be maintained clear
and unobstructed. Whether temporary or perma-
nent, the access roads must have road signs to des-
ignate street names for emergency responders. FIGURE 16-5  Fire apparatus access during construction
Fire protection water supplies must be pro- must be clearly marked and kept free from obstructions.
vided during construction and demolition. SBC
801, Section 507 is used to determine the required
water supply for new construction. Section 3312.1
allows that either the permanent water supply
can be installed, or a temporary water supply can
be provided where approved. Both require the fire
protection water supplies to be operable before
combustible materials are brought on site. The fire
code official may approve a temporary water supply
so construction can begin while waiting for the per-
manent water supply to be completed, tested and
approved (Figure 16-6). [Ref. SBC 801 - 505, 506, FIGURE 16-6  Temporary water supplies provided before
the permanent infrastructure is available (Photo courtesy
3310, 3312] of Jeff Lutz)
2 4 6    C h a p t e r 1 6 O t h e r S p e c i a l U s e s a n d P r o c e s s e s

The construction site fire safety plan must be

approved by the fire code official and available to
anyone who visits the site. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3308]
Temporary heating is used in buildings during
construction or demolition to maintain water-
based fire protection systems above water’s freez-
ing temperature, to dry wallboard finishes and
paint, and to provide worker comfort. Portable
heaters are required to be listed and operated in
accordance with SBC 501, Saudi Mechanical Code,
and SBC 1201, Saudi Fuel Gas Code. Refueling must
be in accordance with applicable SBC 801 require-
FIGURE 16-7  Heaters and fuel supplies must be used ments. Clearances between the heater and com-
and maintained in accordance with SBC 501, 801 and
1201. bustibles must be maintained to avoid ignition of
construction materials. Heaters must be supervised
by competent personnel (Figure 16-7). [Ref. SBC
801 - 3303]
Another consideration during building con-
struction or demolition is the type and amount of
fuels available on-site for equipment and machin-
ery. Most fueled equipment found at these sites
uses No. 2 diesel fuel, unleaded gasoline or LP-gas
(Figure 16-8). The requirements in SBC 801,
Chapter 33 require compliance with the SBC 801
flammable and combustible liquid and LP-gas pro-
visions.
FIGURE 16-8  Fuel quantity, location and security at a Any operations that require the application of
construction site is regulated by SBC 801, Sections 3305 flammable and combustible liquids—such as the
and 3306. application of paints, varnishes and coatings—
require these activities to be performed in areas
with adequate ventilation (Figure 16-9). Empty
containers also might be a safety hazard if not disposed at the end
of each work shift as required by SBC 801, Section 3304.2.2 (Figure
16-10). Note that specific requirements for such activities also are
found in SBC 801, Chapter 24 for flammable finishing. [Ref. SBC
801 - 3305]

FIGURE 16-9  Interior application

of flammable finishes in buildings
under construction or renovation is
a regulated activity.

FIGURE 16-10  Waste paint and other containers left on

a landing create an egress hazard during construction.
 W e l d i n g a n d O t h e r H o t W o r k    2 4 7

SBC 801 requires temporary standpipe systems com-

plying with NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of
Standpipe and Hose Systems, when construction height
reaches 12 192 mm. The standpipe system must be
extended to within one floor of the highest level of
construction where floors or decks are secured. During
demolition, any existing standpipe or automatic fire
sprinkler system must be maintained operable within
one floor of the floor level being demolished (Figure
16-11). [Ref. SBC 801 - 3313]

FIGURE 16-11  Temporary standpipes are required

WELDING AND OTHER HOT WORK when a building under construction reaches
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 35] 12 192 mm.

Building construction, machinery, appliances and

industrial processes commonly require the use of welding or other
hot work processes to achieve project completion (Figure 16-12).
Hot work is regulated based on the operation performed, such
as electric arc welding, gas welding and cutting, or a torch-applied
roof system. SBC 801 requires an operational hot work permit when
the permit applicant presents an acceptable plan for managing this
activity. [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.6.24] The permittee is responsible for
all hot work within their facility or building the permit’s duration. For
certain activities, such as hot work in an area where an automatic fire
sprinkler system is impaired, near flammable vapors or combustible
materials, or onboard docked ships, specific fire code official approval
is required. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3501.3]
All hot work operations must be performed under the supervision
of a person responsible for the hot work program. The individual is FIGURE 16-12  While the term
responsible for reviewing the site prior to issuing a permit and per- hot work may suggest open-flame
equipment, other operations, such
forming subsequent inspections as work progresses to ensure it is in as metal grinding, can generate
accordance with the hot work permit and program. Responsibilities sparks hot enough to ignite
combustibles.
include maintaining adequate documentation demonstrating compli-
ance with SBC 801, Chapter 35 and the hot work plan and ensuring
that adequate warn- Code
ing signs are posted in
the work area (Figure
Essentials
16-13). Hot work includes cutting,
welding, thermite-welding,
brazing, soldering, grind-
ing, thermal sprays, pipe
thawing, torch-applied
roofing and similar opera-
tions. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
l

FIGURE 16-13  Welding warning signs must be

posted near temporary and permanent hot work
sites to warn of the hazards.
2 4 8    C h a p t e r 1 6 O t h e r S p e c i a l U s e s a n d P r o c e s s e s
FIGURE 16-14  Welding partitions are designed to prevent
slag, sparks and hot objects escaping the work area.
FIGURE 16-15  Fire watch during hot work operations
FIGURE 16-16 Oxygen-acetylene
fuel gas cutting torch
A work area review and inspection is required
prior to starting hot work. This inspection—
performed by the responsible person—ensures
combustibles and building openings are properly
shielded or removed. When welding partitions
are used, the inspection should verify the par-
titions prevent the passage of sparks, slag and
heat from the hot work area (Figure 16-14). In
areas protected by an automatic fire sprinkler
system, the fire sprinklers in the immediate area
can be shielded with noncombustible barriers
or damp cloth guards; however, these shields
must be removed at the end of the workday or
hot work assignment. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3504.1,
3504.3]
A fire watch is required during and after
hot work activities (Figure 16-15), and must
be maintained for at least 30 minutes after hot
work has ended. The individual is responsible for
extinguishing any spot fires and reporting fires
to the Civil Defense. Fire watch personnel must
be trained in the use of portable fire extinguish-
ers. A fire watch is not required in areas with no
fire hazards or no combustible materials. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 3504.2]
Many cutting, welding and brazing activi-
ties use oxygen and a flammable gas to create
the fuel-air mixture needed to achieve high
temperatures to cut or bond metal. Typical fuel gases include acety-
lene, methylacetylene-propadiene propane (MAPP gas) or LP-gas
(Figure 16-16). Acetylene is the most commonly used because
of the high temperatures it can develop when mixed in the right
proportions with oxygen. Oxygen-acetylene fuel gas mixtures can
produce temperatures from 3204 to 3482°C depending on the mix-
ture. Acetylene is classified as compressed flammable gas and Class
2 unstable (reactive) material. The gas is dissolved in solution with
acetone to facilitate its safe storage and handling.
Oxygen-acetylene equipment is assembled using two compressed
gas cylinders connected to a torch (Figure 16-16). One cylinder con-
tains compressed or cryogenic oxygen and the other cylinder contains
the fuel gas. Because the gases are stored at high pressures, a pres-
sure regulator is installed on each cylinder to control the torch pres-
sure. While oxygen and all of the fuel gases are incompatible materials
(see Chapter 18 of this Guide), SBC 801 allows the cylinders to be
located adjacent to each other because they are equipped with pres-
sure regulators and because of the low loss history involving oxygen-
fuel gas cutting and welding. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3505.2.1]
 W e l d i n g a n d O t h e r H o t W o r k    2 4 9

The appropriate pressure regulator is required for oxygen and

the selected fuel gas. Acetylene pressure regulators are designed to Code
limit the discharge pressure to 103 kPa (Figure 16-17). Acetylene Essentials
becomes explosively reactive above this pressure. Oxygen regulators Incompatible materials are
must be designed and handled so they never contact any flammable those that—when mixed—
or combustible liquids, including petroleum-based lubricants. Oil and have the potential to react
oxygen are incompatible materials and if oil is ever introduced into an in a manner that gener-
oxygen system the pressure regulator can explode. [Ref. SBC 801 - ates heat, fumes, gases or
3505.3, 3505.4] byproducts that are haz-
Another common hot work activity is the installation of torch- ardous to life or property.
applied roofing systems. The roofing materials are made watertight [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] l
by fusing bitumen and asphalt in the roofing material to the roof’s
substrate. The fusing of these materials is commonly performed
using specialized LP-gas-fueled burners. Torch-applied roofing sys-
tems should only be performed by individuals who have been trained
in the fire safety requirements for the application of these materials,
the safe storage and handling of LP-gas, and the use of portable fire
extinguishers. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3317.1]

FIGURE 16-17  Acetylene pressure

regulators are designed to limit the
discharge pressure to 103 kPa.
2 5 0    C h a p t e r 1 6 O t h e r S p e c i a l U s e s a n d P r o c e s s e s

QUIZ
1. In areas protected by an automatic fire sprinkler system, the fire
sprinklers in the immediate hot work area can be shielded; how-
ever, these shields must be removed at the end of the workday or
assignment.
a. True
b. False

2. A fire watch is required during and after hot work activities and
must be maintained for at least _______ minutes after hot work
has ended.
a. 15
b. 30
c. 45
d. 60

3. The fire prevention program superintendent is not responsible

for the following:
a. hot work program
b. fire protection impairment plan
c. food delivery to employees working on a roof
d. prefire plan

4. Detonations are far more common in commercial and industrial

operations than deflagrations that have burning rates greater
than the speed of sound.
a. True
b. False

5. The fire code official may approve a temporary fire protection

water supply so construction can begin while waiting for the per-
manent water supply to be completed, tested and approved.
a. True
b. False
PART
Hazardous
VI Materials

Chapter 17:  General Requirements for

Hazardous Materials
Chapter 18:  Compressed Gases
Chapter 19:  Flammable and Combustible
Liquids
Chapter 20: Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LP-gas)

251
 CHAPTER
General
17 Requirements for
Hazardous Materials
207
283
kPa = kilopascals
103 310
kPa

30 30 30
41 41 41
15 45 15 45 15 45
P.S.I.A. P.S.I.A. P.S.I.A.

Compressed Liquefied Dissolved

(Nonliquefied) Gas (Compressed) Gas (Compressed) Gas

H
azardous materials storage, handling, use and dispensing
requirements represent the largest body of regulations in
SBC 801. Hazardous materials are given this great deal of
attention because of their potential to cause significant life loss or
property damage over a large area. Hazardous materials gained world-
wide attention following the December 2, 1984, accident at a Union
Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, where at least 27.2 metric
tons of highly toxic methyl isocyanate gas and other poisonous gases
were released accidentally. The pesticide plant was surrounded by
shantytowns, leading to more than 600,000 people being exposed to
the deadly gas cloud that night. The gases stayed low to the ground,
causing victims’ throats and eyes to burn, inducing nausea, and many
deaths. Estimates of the death toll vary from as few as 3,800 to as
many as 16,000, but government figures now refer to an estimate of
15,000 killed over the years.
252
252
 S B C 8 0 1 , C h a p t e r 5 0    2 5 3

Hazardous materials regulation can be a challenge due to the

complexity of proper material classification to determine and apply Code
the SBC 801 and SBC 201 requirements. In some cases, determin- Essentials
ing the proper classification itself can be a significant challenge that
Hazardous materials are
requires technical assistance from a variety of qualified and compe-
those chemicals or sub-
tent sources.
stances that are physical
Not all chemicals and chemical compounds are SBC 801-defined
hazards or health hazards
hazardous materials. Chemicals and chemical formulations that do
as defined and classi-
not fall into one of the 12 SBC 801 hazard categories are exempt from
fied by SBC 201 and 801,
SBC 801 and SBC 201 regulations. The American Chemical Society
Section 202, whether the
and its international chapters have more than 88 million chemicals
materials are usable or
or formulations registered in the Chemical Abstracts Service. SBC
waste.
801 regulates only about 5 percent of these chemicals; however, the
SBC 801, Chapter 50
chemicals that are regulated are essential in the manufacturing of
applies to all hazardous
numerous consumer and industrial products.
materials regulated by
Chapter 17 of this Guide reviews hazardous materials general
SBC 801. Chapter 50 is
requirements for storage, handling, use and dispensing.
used in conjunction with
Chapters 18 through 20 of this Guide focus on hazardous materi-
the requirements for each
als that fire code officials regularly encounter: compressed gases, flam-
specific class of hazard-
mable and combustible liquids and liquefied petroleum gases (LP-gas).
ous materials further pre-
scribed in Chapters 51
SBC 801, CHAPTER 50 through 67.
Exemption from the
SBC 801, Chapter 50, Hazardous Materials—General Provisions, is Chapter 50 requirements
applied in conjunction with the material-specific requirements in does not relieve the permit
SBC 801, Chapters 51 through 67. applicant from complying
The requirements in SBC 801, Chapter 50 are used in combina- with other applicable SBC
tion with the specific regulations for each hazardous materials class. requirements. l
For example, a facility storing 1136 L of a toxic oxidizing liquid needs
to comply with SBC 801, Chapters 50, 60 and 63: Chapter 50 for
the general hazardous material provisions, Chapter 60 for the toxic
elements and Chapter 63 for the oxidizing liquid provisions (Figure Code
17-1).
Chapter 50 contains definitions (Section 5002) and general Essentials
requirements (Section 5003) that are applicable regardless of the SBC 801 administrative
hazardous materials quantity. requirements state, “where
Section 5004 contains requirements there is a conflict between
that are applicable when the storage a general requirement and
exceeds a certain quantity known a specific requirement,
as a Maximum Allowable Quantity the specific requirement
per Control Area (MAQ). Section shall be applicable.” There
5005 specifies requirements that may be specific require-
are applicable when the hazardous ments in SBC 801, Chapters
materials are being used or dis- 51 through 67 that will
pensed and exceed the MAQ (Table FIGURE 17-1  This natural gas take precedence over the
17-1) . pipeline is regulated by the Saudi Chapter 50 regulations.
Ministry of Transportation, not SBC
[Ref. SBC 801 - 102.10]l
801.
2 5 4    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

TABLE 17-1  SBC 801, Chapter 50 application framework

Code
Essentials
“Where a material has mul-
tiple hazards, all hazards
shall be addressed.” [Ref.
SBC 801 - 5001.1] l
Section Application
Scope, exceptions, material classification,
administrative requirements and hazardous materials
5001 not exceeding the maximum allowable quantity per
control area
5002 Definitions: refer to SBC 801, Chapter 2
5003 Hazardous materials not exceeding the maximum
allowable quantity per control area

5004 Storage: hazardous materials exceeding the

maximum allowable quantity per control area

5005 Use, dispensing and handling exceeding the

maximum allowable quantity per control area

Understanding the terms storage, use, handling and dispensing

is important to the proper application of the code. These terms
describe the “environment” in which hazardous materials occur, and
they affect the MAQ.
Each class of hazardous material is assigned a MAQ based on its
hazards and the relative material risk. As long as hazardous materi-
als remain in their containers, generally they are easier to control.
Materials in storage exist in their original, unopened containers, such
as those one might find in the paint or bagged fertilizer section of a
home improvement store. Since the packaging has not been opened
and the contents have not mixed with the atmosphere, the code
allows a greater quantity to exist within a specific area than if the
same product were in use or dispensing where the material could leak,
spill, spread or otherwise expose the environment where it creates a
hazard.
Control areas [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3]
Equally important is understanding the control area concept. Build-
ing and fire safety code developers recognize that most businesses
and industries need some amount of hazardous materials to operate.
Small quantities of liquid oxygen, for example, can be found in the
local medical clinic. Denatured alcohol in liquid or gel form exists in
hand sanitizers distributed throughout hospitals and care facilities.
Compressed flammable and LP-gases are used in jewelry making.
Without small amounts of hazardous materials, many industries likely
could not operate.
Concern regarding hazardous materials arises when the amount
in storage or use creates an abnormal hazard. When they are danger-
ous, safety regulations are adopted to protect lives and property.
The challenge for code officials is establishing the threshold between
normal use and dangerous conditions. At what point does the day-to-
day use of a Class IA cleaning solvent become dangerous? One liter?
Two liters? One hundred liters? Is the difference between 1 and 2
liters enough to trigger requirements for fire-resistive construction,
 M a t e r i a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n    2 5 5

automatic fire protection systems, emergency and standby power

systems, mechanical ventilation, explosion venting, and other safety Code
features? Essentials
To address the incremental increases, SBC 201 and SBC 801 rely There are 10 exceptions
on control areas. Control areas is a term used to describe space within a to SBC 801, Chapter 50,
building (or outdoors) where the hazardous materials quantities listed including:
in Chapter 50 are not exceeded. (Quantity limits will be explained • Medicines, foodstuffs or
later in the Chapter) (Figure 17-2). consumer products that
A single building may comprise are not more than
one control area, or control areas 50 percent by volume
may be separated from one another water-miscible liquids
by fire-resistive construction. [Ref. and containers do not
SBC 201 - 707.3.8] Control area exceed 5 L.
sizes are limited only by SBC 201 • Pesticide and agricultural
Saudi Building Code limits for con- material application and
struction types. A 92.9 m2 con- release when performed
struction Type VB office building in accord with the manu-
FIGURE 17-2  This small amount of
(Group B) could be one control area, paints and solvents is not considered facturers’ instructions and
as could a 92 903 m2 construc- overly hazardous. label directions.
tion Type IIB storage building (Group • Building materials not
S-1). Conversely, a one-story, 92.9 m2 construction Type VB chemical otherwise regulated by
production facility (Group F) might include four control areas. SBC 801.
The purpose of the control area is to allow the property to store • Mechanical refrigeration
or use up to the MAQ without the occupancy classification having to systems that are regu-
change from its original category (e.g., Group B) to a Group H-2 or lated by SBC 801, Section
H-3 with their restrictive regulations and additional costs. (Control 606 and SBC 501, Saudi
areas will be explained in greater detail later in the Chapter.) Mechanical Code.
Exceptions • Explosives and fireworks
Certain processes and storage do not have to comply with the that meet SBC 801,
Chapter 50 requirements because they are identified as exceptions Chapter 56.
to the chapter’s scope, found at SBC 801, Section 5001.1. The excep- • Wall-mounted dispensers
tions do not relieve the permit applicant from compliance with other for Class I or II liquids for
SBC 801 provisions or the jurisdictions’ other construction, environ- hand sanitizers.
mental and safety regulations. The exceptions also do not relieve the • Off-site and pipeline
permit applicant from performing the SBC 801 hazardous materials transportation regu-
classification requirements. lated by the Ministry of
Transportation (Figure

MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION 17-1). [Ref. SBC 801 -

5001.1 Exceptions] l
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5001]
Before SBC 201 and SBC 801 building safety requirements can be
applied, the building must be assigned an occupancy classification. A
similar exercise is required when applying SBC 801 hazardous materi-
als storage, handling, dispensing and use regulations.
The hazardous materials must be classified based on their
• Hazard—physical or health hazards
• Physical state—solid, liquid or gas
• Environment—storage, dispensing or use, and if use, whether
it occurs in an open system or closed system.
2 5 6    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

The SBC 801 classification system

Code You Should recognizes that many hazardous mate-
Essentials Know rials represent more than one hazard,
SBC 801 addresses two Although SBC 801, Section
so all hazards of the chemical or
use categories: open and 202 defines vessel as a
compound must be addressed. Each
closed. motorized watercraft used
hazardous material subject to regula-
An open system is one as a means of transporta-
tion must be evaluated and assigned
where solid or liquid tion, in the hazardous
its hazard classifications. [Ref. SBC
hazardous materials are materials context a vessel is
801 - 5001.2]
continuously open to the a dimensionless container
Hazardous materials classifica-
atmosphere during nor- (such as a cask, bottle,
tion can be challenging. Classifying
mal operations and where kettle, cup, or bowl) for
hazardous materials requires an
vapors that might be ignited holding something. In
understanding of each SBC 801-reg-
are liberated. Examples Chapter 50, the term vessel
ulated hazardous material class.
include dispensing from or applies to containers, tanks,
Classifications can be complicated
into open beakers or con- cylinders, barrels (metal,
when a material is diluted in water
tainers, dip tanks and plat- plastic or cardboard),
or intentionally mixed with other
ing tank operations. bottles, totes, intermediate
chemicals, or its physical form or
A closed system is one bulk containers or any other
state is modified. SBC 801 allows
where solid or liquid object that can hold solid,
classifications to be assigned using
hazardous materials are liquid or gas hazardous
nationally recognized standards, an
continuously closed to the materials. l
approved organization or individual,
atmosphere during nor-
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
mal operations. Examples
or other approved means. [Ref. SBC
include products conveyed
801 - 5001.2.1]
through piping systems into
Many resources exist to aid hazardous materials classification.
a closed vessel. [Ref. SBC
SBC 801, Appendix E contains examples of selected hazardous
801 - 202] l
materials based on the Chapter 50 classification system. Another
economical and reliable information source available from ICC is the
Hazardous Materials Expert Assistant (HMEX) (Figure 17-3). HMEX
is an electronic database cataloging more than 8,000 hazardous
materials, compounds and product formulations based on SBC 801
classification criteria. It also contains
basic physical and chemical information
for each material. The program contains
material-specific information based on
SBC 801 material definitions, United
Nations material definitions and other
sources. The fire code official can always
rely on the technical assistance provi-
sions of SBC 801, Section 104.7.2 to have
a qualified engineer, specialist, labora-
tory or other approved agency provide a
classification report.
Hazardous materials are commonly
manufactured, shipped and consumed
as a mixture with some diluent such as
FIGURE 17-3  HMEX screen capture for acetylene gas
 M a t e r i a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n    2 5 7

water or nitrogen gas to fulfill a market or customer need. In other

cases, chemicals are not diluted but may be mixed together to serve
a particular purpose or application. Mixtures are required to be clas-
sified based on their hazards as a whole. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5001.2.1]
Consider a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O).
Sulfuric acid is used in aerospace, automotive, food, electronics,
textile, pharmaceutical and plastics manufacturing and products.
Like other hazardous materials, its hazards can change based on the
percentage (sometimes termed as “strength”) of sulfuric acid in solu-
tion with water. As illustrated in Table 17-2, the sulfuric acid hazards
change when the percentage of acid in water lessens.
TABLE 17-2  Hazard classifications of selected concentrations of sulfuric acid
Concentration
(percent volume of SBC 801 hazard
sulfuric acid in water) classification Common uses
Class 2 Water
Reactive, Fertilizer manufacturing; cleaning
98% Corrosive, Toxic, of semiconductor wafers
Class 1 Oxidizer
Class 1 Water Electrolyte in wet-cell automobile
32–38% Reactive, batteries
Corrosive
Cutting an onion releases an amino
acid known as a sulfoxide. When
2.5% Nonhazardous the sulfoxide mixes with the water
in a human eye, it forms a weak
solution of sulfuric acid.

The SBC 801 hazardous materials classification system is based

on the classification system used by the US Department of Labor,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The OSHA
criteria are used because their classification method focuses on work-
place safety, which matches the intent and scope of the fire code.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5001.2.2]
Hazardous materials classified using the SBC 801 scheme are
physical hazards, health hazards or a combination of both. A single
hazardous material can present one or more physical and
health hazards. Physical hazard materials burn, accelerate burn-
ing, and may either detonate or deflagrate. Many of the physical
hazard materials that burn can produce a deflagration under
certain conditions, such as when heated or if they are pres-
surized. Likewise, certain oxidizer classes and most explosives
classes are capable of detonation. Oxidizers are the only physi-
cal hazard that can chemically accelerate burning because they
release oxygen into the combustion process (Figure 17-4). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 5001.2.2.1] Oxidizers may not even include oxygen
in their chemical composition but include materials that react
chemically to oxidize combustible materials. The oxygen com-
bines chemically with the other material in a way that increases FIGURE 17-4  Sodium nitrite is a common
powdered oxidizer even though it contains
the chance of a fire or explosion. no oxygen.
2 5 8    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s
You Should
Know
Short-term exposure is
called acute exposure.
Long-term exposure is
called chronic exposure.
Either may cause health
effects.
Acute exposure is a short
contact with a chemical. It
may last a few seconds or
a few hours. For example,
it might take a few minutes
to clean windows with
ammonia, use nail polish
remover or spray a can of
paint. The fumes someone
might inhale during these
activities are examples of
acute exposures.
Chronic exposure is con-
tinuous or repeated con-
tact with a toxic substance
over a long period of time
(months or years). If a
chemical is used every day
on the job, the exposure
would be chronic. Over
time, some chemicals, such
as polychlorinated biphe-
nyls and lead, can build up
in the body. l
Many physical hazard materials are assigned a “class” designa-
tion. The class designation is a relative estimation of the potential
outcome if the hazardous material is improperly stored or used. The
class designation provides an indication of the ease of igniting the
material or initiating an uncontrolled chemical reaction.
Different physical hazard materials can have a different number of
hazard classes. Regrettably, the classification numbering convention
is not consistent among all the physical hazard materials and can be
confusing. For example, a Class 4 oxidizer (e.g., hydrogen peroxide
greater than 91 percent by weight) is more hazardous than a Class 1
oxidizer (e.g., hydrogen peroxide from 8 to 27.5 percent by weight).
The opposite ranking is true for organic peroxides, where a Class I
organic peroxide (e.g., fulfonyl peroxide) is more dangerous than a
Class IV organic peroxide (e.g., benzoyl peroxide 70 percent). This
classification criteria anomaly is a result of how hazardous materials
classification criteria in consensus safety standards were developed
before they were incorporated into the model codes (Figure 17-5).
Furthermore, the anomaly reinforces the importance of using quali-
fied persons to classify hazardous materials.
SBC 801, Chapter 50 regulates hazardous materials that are a
physical hazard as shown in Table 17-3.
Arabic numeral Potential Roman numeral
4 GREATEST POTENTIAL I
3 II
2 III
1 IV
LEAST POTENTIAL V
FIGURE 17-5  Physical hazard numbering convention. The code official must be
cautious to understand some materials are more dangerous with lower numbers
and others are more dangerous with higher numbers.
TABLE 17-3  SBC 201 and SBC 801 physical hazard categories
Explosives and blasting agents Oxidizing gases
Flammable and combustible liquids Pyrophoric solids, liquids or gases
Unstable (reactive) solids, liquids or
Flammable solids and gases gases
Organic peroxide solids or liquids Water-reactive solids or liquids
Oxidizer, solids or liquids Cryogenic fluids
SBC 801 regulates health hazard materials that cause death,
injury or incapacitation if an individual has a single, brief exposure
to the hazardous material.
Health hazard material ratings are based on analytical and labo-
ratory testing of living organisms and the three routes by which
the human body can be exposed to hazardous materials: inhalation,
absorption and ingestion. The results of these tests determine if a
health hazard material is classified as
 M a t e r i a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n    2 5 9

1. Highly toxic solid, liquid or gas

2. Toxic solid, liquid or gas
3. Corrosive solid, liquid or gas
TABLE 17-4  SBC 801 classification criteria for highly toxic and toxic materials
Exposure route
SBC 801 Inhalation Absorption Ingestion
classification toxicity toxicity threshold toxicity
threshold threshold
Highly Toxic 200 ppm or less; 200 mg/kg or less 50 mg/kg or less
2 mg/L or less
Toxic Greater than 200 Greater than Greater than
ppm but not more 200 mg/kg but 50 mg/kg but
than 2,000 ppm; not more than not more than
greater than 2 mg/L 1,000 mg/kg 500 mg/kg
but not more than
20 mg/L

mg/kg = milligrams/kilogram of body weight

You Should
mg/L = milligrams/liter of mist, fume, or dust Know
ppm = parts per million of gas or vapor
LC50 values measure hazard-
ous material toxic effects
The distinction among health hazard materials as being highly that are exposed through
toxic or toxic is based on reproducible results from tests supervised inhalation (breathing).
by toxicologists. These tests, in conjunction with other scientific LD50 values measure hazard-
literature, are used to establish the values known as LC50 and LD50 ous material toxic effects
(Table 17-4). The term LC50 is a measurement of the lethal concen- that are exposed through
tration of a hazardous material that kills 50 percent of the animals skin absorption (contact) or
tested. LC50 values are measurements of toxins that are inhaled and ingestion (eating). l
the measurement is expressed in milligrams of toxin per liter of air
(mg/L) or in parts per million or billion (PPM or PPB) of the contami-
nant in air. LD50 is the measurement of the amount of a toxin that
kills 50 percent of the test animals when exposed to the chemical by
skin absorption or ingestion. LD50 values are expressed in milligrams
of toxin per kilogram of animal weight (mg/kg). The lower the LD50
or LC50 value, the more powerful the toxin because it requires less of
the material to cause 50 percent of the test animals to die. The SBC
801 criterion for classifying these materials is based on specific ani-
mal species of a certain body weight. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]

EXERCISE
Acrolein is used in the manufacturing of a number of plastics. Acrolein has a flash point tempera-
ture of -26.1°C and a boiling point temperature of 52.7°C. The material has an absorption LD50
value of 200 mg/kg and an ingestion LD50 value of 26 mg/kg. Based on the definitions and clas-
sifications for flammable and combustible liquids and highly toxic and toxic materials in SBC 801,
Section 202, what is its classification?
ANSWER
Acrolein is a Class I-B flammable and highly toxic liquid.
2 6 0    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

Materials that cause visible destruction or irreversible altera-

tions in living tissues by a chemical action are classified as corrosive.
Corrosives can be solid, liquid or gas. SBC 801’s corrosive definition spe-
cifically excludes materials that react chemically when they contact
an inanimate object such as metals. One example is ferric chloride
used in water treatment and metal etching. Ferric chloride aggres-
sively attacks most metals yet will not harm human skin.
A hazardous material is classified as a corrosive based on the test
method specified by the United Nations (UN) and US Department
of Transportation (DOT). Because SBC 801 references the UN/DOT
test method, a hazardous material bearing a transportation corrosive
label or placard generally is assigned the same SBC 801 hazard clas-
sification (Figure 17-6).
FIGURE 17-6  DOT corrosive label

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS REPORTING

[Ref. SBC 801 - 5001.5]
The SBC 801 operational permit re-
quirement to store, handle, use or dis-
pense a hazardous material is based on
the permit applicant reporting the
material classification, physical state,
storage or use method, and material
quantity. When required by the fire code
official, the applicant for a hazardous
materials construction or operational
permit may be required to submit a
Hazardous Materials Management Plan
(HMMP) and a Hazardous Materials In-
ventory Statement (HMIS). (Example
formats for HMMP and HMIS submit-
tal documents are contained in SBC
801, Appendix H) (Figure 17-7).
The HMMP provides basic infor-
mation so emergency responders
understand the building or premises’
construction and access routes, such as
emergency exits that can be used for
entry, the hazardous materials physi-
FIGURE 17-7  Sample Hazardous Materials Management Plan cover cal and health hazards within partic-
page ular areas, where on-site emergency
responders will meet the Civil Defense
liaison and the location of all tanks, sumps, vaults, below-grade
treatment systems, pipes or any other storage and operating areas.
The HMMP also identifies building areas constructed as control areas
and Group H occupancies. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5001.5.1, Appendix
H101.3]
 H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s R e p o r t i n g    2 6 1

An HMIS contains information beneficial to building and fire

code officials, plans examiners and inspectors attempting to deter-
mine the hazardous materials’ environment and quantity (Figure
17-8).
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INVENTORY STATEMENT (HMIS)
SUMMARY REPORT

STORAGE CONDITIONS
Inventory Amount Maximum Allowable Quantity
Hazard Subclass
Hazard Class Solid Liquid Gas Solid Liquid Gas
(Abbrev)
(lb.) (gal.) (cu. ft.) (lb.) (gal.) (cu. ft.)
C-II 25 120
Combustible Liquid C-IIIA 330
C-IIIB 160 13,200
Corrosive Cor 15 500
Flammable Gas FLG 150 1,000
F-IA 30
Flammable Liquid F-IB & F-IC 15 120
Combined F-IA, F-IB & F-IC 15 120
Oxidizer OX 600 1,500
Toxic T 15 50
UR4 10
UR3 50
Unstable Reactive
UR2 150 750
UR1 NL
WR3 0.5
Water Reactive WR2 5
WR1 15 NL

INVENTORY REPORT
Product Name CAS Container Hazard Hazard Hazard Stored Stored Stored Use-closed Use-closed Use-closed Use-open Use-open Use-open
Location
(Components) Number >55 gallon Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 (lbs.) (gal.) (cu.ft.) (lbs.) (gal.) (cu.ft.) (lbs.) (gal.) (cu.ft.)
Control
Acetylene Gas 74-86-2 FLG UR2 150
Area 1
Control
Diesel 68476-34-6 C-II 25
Area 2
Gasoline, Control
8006-61-9 F-IB 15
Unleaded Area 1
Motor Oil Control
64762-54-7 Yes C-IIIB 105
10W/40 Area 1
Control
Oxygen Gas 7782-44-7 OX 600
Area 1
Control
Sulfuric Acid 7664-93-9 Cor T WR1 15
Area 2
Transmission Control
64742-65-0 Yes C-IIIB 55
Fluid Area 2

FIGURE 17-8  Sample Hazardous Materials Inventory Statement

An HMIS documents the product’s name, its chemical constitu-

ents along with their respective Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
number, container or tank volumes, the product’s hazard classifica-
tion, and the amount in storage, open and closed systems. This infor-
mation is beneficial for plans examiners to confirm the occupancy
classification, permit requirements, maximum allowable quantities
per control area (MAQ) and Chapter 50 compliance (Figure 17-9).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5001.5.2]

FIGURE 17-9  The HMIS will help the code official evaluate MAQ.
2 6 2    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

Unauthorized releases [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.3]

SBC 801 generally requires that any accidental or unauthorized haz-
ardous material release be reported to the fire code official. A haz-
ardous material release or emission in a manner
that does not conform to the SBC 801 storage,
use, dispensing or handling requirement or ap-
plicable health and safety regulation is defined
as an unauthorized discharge. [Ref. SBC 801 -
202] When a hazardous material unauthorized
discharge results from a container failure, the fire
code official is authorized to require its repair or
removal from service. Those responsible for the
unauthorized discharge are responsible for the
costs associated with cleanup. If Civil Defense re-
sources such as protective clothing, fire-fighting
foam or personnel costs are expended to respond
FIGURE 17-10  The fire department is authorized to recover and mitigate an unauthorized discharge, the fire
the costs associated with the response to this unauthorized
discharge and subsequent flammable liquid fire. code official is authorized to recover the costs
(Figure 17-10). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.3.1]

ENVIRONMENT: STORAGE AND USE

[Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
The hazardous materials’ environment is an important part of SBC
801 and SBC 201 regulations.
Storage is defined as keeping, retaining or leav-
ing hazardous materials in closed containers, tanks,
cylinders, or similar vessels; or vessels supplying
operations through closed connections to the vessel.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 202] A stored hazardous material is
essentially static and dormant and is generally await-
ing use. (See Table 17-1 for applicable Chapter 50
requirements.)
A material that is “placed into action” is defined by
SBC 801 as being in use. Use occurs when a material’s
stored energy is released, kinetic energy is introduced,
mixtures are created or gravity is used to facilitate its
movement (Table 17-1). The use of hazardous mate-
rials is regulated because placing the material into
action introduces the possibility of an unauthorized
discharge, and therefore the piping or process systems
must be reviewed and approved by the fire code official.
Use can occur within a closed or open system (Figure
17-11).
A closed system is the use of a solid or liquid hazard-
FIGURE 17-11  Transferring product from its original ous material involving a closed vessel or system that
container through this hand pump is an example of use. remains closed during normal operations. Product
vapors are not released outside of the vessel or system
 M a x i m u m A l l o w a b l e Q u a n t i t y P e r C o n t r o l A r e a    2 6 3

and the product is not exposed to the atmosphere during normal

operations. Compressed gases are in this closed system category even
though they may be released to the atmosphere at the point of use,
such as with oxygen-acetylene welding. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
An open system involves solid or liquid hazardous materials but
not compressed gases. An open system includes vessels or systems
that are continuously open to the atmosphere during normal opera-
tions. Open systems for solids and liq- Valve
uids include dispensing from or into
open beakers or containers, dip tanks
and plating tank operations (Figure
17-12). [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] Pump

Use Closed System

When determining whether the
material environment is part of an open
or closed system, the fire code official Storage
Pump
must consider routine operations. The
key distinction between an open system
and closed system is that open systems
are “continuously open to the atmo-
sphere during normal operations,”
while closed systems are “closed during
normal operations.” Use Open System

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE Dip Tank

QUANTITY PER FIGURE 17-12  This graphic depicts the three situations for hazardous
materials: use-closed (product delivery through fixed connections), storage
CONTROL AREA (storage tank) and use-open systems (open-top dip tank).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5003]
The amount of hazardous materials permitted to be stored and used
inside of a building is based on the material’s hazard classification,
environment and physical state. The Maximum Allowable Quantity
per Control Area (MAQ) is the maximum amount of a class of haz-
ardous material that is permitted within a building without requiring
the building to be classified as a Group H (hazardous) occupancy. The
MAQ values were derived from the relative physical and health haz-
ards associated with each regulated hazardous material class.
The SBC 201 and SBC 801 indoor MAQ values are found in Table
17-5. Table 5003.1.1(1) includes the physical hazard indoor MAQ
and Table 5003.1.1(2) lists the health hazard indoor MAQ. (There are
two additional MAQ tables for outdoor storage and use not included
in this Guide.)
SBC 801 MAQ tables are divided into five major headings:
• Material (by classification)
• Occupancy classification when the MAQ is exceeded
• Storage
• Use-Closed System
• Use-Open System [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 5003.1.1(1)]
 2 6 4    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

TABLE 17-5  Maximum allowable quantity per control area of hazardous materials posing a physical hazarda, j, m, n, p [SBC 801, Table
5003.1.1(1)]

Group when Storageb Use-closed systemsb Use-open systemsb

the maximum Gas Solid Gas Solid
Material Class allowable Solid kg Liquid (cubic kg Liquid (cubic kg Liquid
quantity is (cubic
Liters (kg) meters at (cubic Liters (kg) meters at (cubic Liters (kg)
exceeded meters) NTP) meters) NTP) meters)
Combustible See See See
NA H-2 NA NA NA NA NA
dust Note q Note q Note q
Combustible Loose (2.8) (2.8) (0.57)
H-3 NA NA NA NA NA
fiberg Baledo (28) (28) (5.7)
II H-2 or H-3 454d, e 454d 113.5d
Combustible
IIIA H-2 or H-3 NA 1249d, e NA NA 1249d NA NA 303d
liquidc, i
IIIB NA 49,962e, f 49,962f 12,491f
Consumer
1.4G H-3 56.8e,l NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
fireworks
Cryogenic
NA H-2 NA 170d NA NA 170d NA NA 38d
flammable
Cryogenic
inert
NA NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA

Cryogenic
NA H-3 NA 170d NA NA 170d NA NA 38d
oxidizing
Division 1.1 H-1 0.45e, g (0.45) e, g 0.114g (0.114) g 0.114g (0.114)g
Division 1.2 H-1 0.45e, g (0.45) e, g 0.114g (0.114) g 0.114g (0.114)g
Division 1.3 H-1 or H-2 2.3e, g (2.3) e, g 0.45g (0.45) g 0.45g (0.45)g
Explosives Division 1.4 H-3 22.7e, g (22.7) e, g NA 22.7g (22.7)g NA NA NA
Division 1.4G H-3 56.8 d, e, l NA NA NA NA NA
Division 1.5 H-1 0.45e, g (0.45) e, g 0.114g (0.114) g 0.114g (0.114)g
Division 1.6 H-1 0.45e, g NA NA NA NA NA
Flammable Gaseous NA 28d, e NA 28d, e
H-2 NA NA NA NA
gas Liquefied (68)d, e NA (68)d, e NA
Flammable IA 114d, e 114d 38d
H-2 or H-3 NA NA NA NA NA
liquidc IB and IC 454d, e 454d 113.5d
Flammable
liquid,
NA H-2 or H-3 NA 454d, e, h NA NA 454d, h NA NA 113.5d, h
combination
(IA, IB, IC)
Flammable NA H-3 56.8d, e NA NA 56.8d NA NA 11.4d NA
solid

Inert gas
Gaseous NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA
Liquefied NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA
UD H-1 0.45e, g (0.45)e, g 0.114g (0.114)g 0.114g (0.114)g
I H-2 2.3d, e (2.3)d, e 0.45d (0.45)d 0.45d (0.45)d
Organic II H-3 22.7d, e (22.7)d, e NA
22.7d (22.7)d NA
4.5d (4.5)d
peroxide III H-3 56.8d, e (57)d, e 56.8d (56.8)d 11.4d (11.4)d
IV NA NL NL NL NL NL NL
V NA NL NL NL NL NL NL
4 H-1 0.45g (0.45)e, g 0.114g (0.114)g 0.114g (0.114)g
3k H-2 or H-3 4.5d, e (4.5)d, e 0.9d (0.9)d 0.9d (0.9)d
Oxidizer NA NA
2 H-3 113.5d, e (113.5)d, e 113.5d (113.5)d 22.7d (22.7)d
1 NA 1,816e,f (1,816)e,f 1,816 f (1,816)f 454f (454)f
continued
 M a x i m u m A l l o w a b l e Q u a n t i t y P e r C o n t r o l A r e a    2 6 5

TABLE 17-5  Maximum allowable quantity per control area of hazardous materials posing a physical hazarda, j, m, n, p [SBC 801, Table
5003.1.1(1)]­—Cont’d
Group when Storageb Use-closed systemsb Use-open systemsb
the maximum Gas Solid Gas Solid
Material Class allowable Solid kg Liquid (cubic kg Liquid (cubic kg Liquid
quantity is (cubic
Liters (kg) meters at (cubic Liters (kg) meters at (cubic Liters (kg)
exceeded meters) NTP) meters) NTP) meters)

Oxidizing Gaseous NA 42.5d, e NA 42.5d, e

H-3 NA NA NA NA
gas Liquefied (68)d, e NA (68)d, e NA

Pyrophoric NA H-2 1.8e,g (1.8)e,g 1.42e,g 0.45g (0.45)g 0.28e,g 0 0

4 H-1 0.45e, g (0.45)e, g 0.28e, g 0.114g (0.114)g 0.057e, g 0.114g (0.114)g

Unstable 3 H-1 or H-2 2.3d, e (2.3)d, e 1.42d, e 0.45d (0.45)d 0.28d, e 0.45d (0.45)d
(reactive) 2 H-3 22.7d, e (22.7)d, e 7.1d, e 22.7d (22.7)d 7.1d, e 4.5d (4.5)d
1 NA NL NL NL NL NL NL NL NL
3 H-2 2.3d, e (2.3)d, e 2.3d (2.3)d 0.45d (0.45)d
Water 2 H-3 22.7d, e (22.7)d, e NA 22.7d (22.7)d NA 4.5d (4.5)d
reactive 1 NA NL NL NL NL NL NL

NA = Not Applicable; NL = Not Limited; UD = Unclassified Detonable.

a. For use of control areas, see Section 5003.8.3.
b. The aggregate quantity in use and storage shall not exceed the quantity listed for storage.
c. In retail and wholesale sales occupancies, the quantities of medicines, foodstuff or consumer products and cosmetics containing not more than
50 percent by volume of water-miscible liquids with the remainder of the solutions not being flammable shall not be limited, provided that such
materials are packaged in individual containers not exceeding 5 liters.
d. Maximum allowable quantities shall be increased 100 percent in buildings equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system in
accordance with Section 903.3.1.1. Where Note e also applies, the increase for both notes shall be applied accumulatively.
e. Maximum allowable quantities shall be increased 100 percent when stored in approved storage cabinets, day boxes, gas cabinets, gas rooms,
exhausted enclosures or listed safety cans in accordance with Section 5003.9.10. Where Note d also applies, the increase for both notes shall
be applied accumulatively.
f. Quantities shall not be limited in a building equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system in accordance with Section
903.3.1.1.
g. Allowed only in buildings equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system.
h. Containing not more than the maximum allowable quantity per control area of Class IA, Class IB or Class IC flammable liquids.
i. The maximum allowable quantity shall not apply to fuel oil storage complying with Section 603.3.2.
j. Quantities in parenthesis indicate quantity units in parenthesis at the head of each column.
k. A maximum quantity of 91 kg of solid or 76 liters of liquid Class 3 oxidizers is allowed where such materials are necessary for maintenance
purposes, operation or sanitation of equipment where the storage containers and the manner of storage are approved.
l. Net weight of pyrotechnic composition of the fireworks. Where the net weight of the pyrotechnic composition of the fireworks is not known,
25 percent of the gross weight of the fireworks including packaging shall be used.
m. For liters of liquids, divide the amount in liters by 1.2 kg/L in accordance with Section 5003.1.2.
n. For storage and display quantities in Group M and storage quantities in Group S occupancies complying with Section 5003.11, see Table
5003.11.1.
o. Densely-packed baled cotton that complies with the packing requirements of ISO 8115 shall not be included in this material class.
p. The following shall not be included in determining the maximum allowable quantities:
1. Liquid or gaseous fuel in fuel tanks on vehicles.
2. Liquid or gaseous fuel in fuel tanks on motorized equipment operated in accordance with this code.
3. Gaseous fuels in piping systems and fixed appliances regulated by SBC 1201.
4. Liquid fuels in piping systems and fixed appliances, regulated by SBC 501.
5. Alcohol-based hand rubs classified as Class I or II liquids in dispensers that are installed in accordance with Sections 5705.5 and 5705.5.1.
The location of the alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) dispensers shall be provided in the construction documents.
q. Where manufactured, generated or used in such a manner that the concentration and conditions create a fire or explosion hazard based on
information prepared in accordance with Section 104.7.2.
2 6 6    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

Beneath the major headings for storage and use, each group of
table columns is divided into physical states (solid, liquid or gas) and
the unit of measurement for each. The only exception to this is under
Use-Open Systems, where gases are not listed because they are treated
as Use-Closed Systems. Depending on the material classification, the
MAQ for liquids is based on the volume (liters) or weight (kilograms)
of the material.
Note that a Class III organic peroxide has a 56.8 kg MAQ in either
solid or liquid states.
The reason both states are measured in kilograms is because
most processes that use this particular class of hazardous material
measure the quantity based on weight (kilograms) rather than vol-
ume (liters). To determine the correct amount, MAQ values that are
in parentheses are based on the measurement value referenced at the
top of the column in the “Material” row of Tables 5003.1.1(1) and
5003.1.1(2) (Table 17-5).
Where quantities are listed in kilograms and where the liquid
weight per liter of the specific product under consideration is not
provided to the fire code official, a conversion factor of 1.2 kg/L shall
be used unless the liquid’s density or specific gravity is provided. For
example, Table 5003.1.1(1) lists the MAQ for a cryogenic flammable
liquid as 170 kg. If the actual product information is not provided,
the fire code official could accept a liquid value of 204 L as equivalent
(170 kg × 1.2 kg/L = 204 L). This value (204 L) is treated as the MAQ
for that product. The actual conversion value could be determined
from the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), but the 1.2 kg/L factor
can be used and is a conservative value. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.1.2]
SBC 801 is more restrictive for materials in use. For materials
used in a Use-Open System, the code sets a much lower MAQ com-
pared to the same materials in Use-Closed Systems (Figure 17-13). A
Class IC flammable liquid has a Use-Closed System MAQ of 454 L com-
pared to a Use-Open System MAQ of 113.5 L. Similar reductions exist
for other physical and health hazard materials. The reason for the
reduction is a Use-Open System presents a greater number of hazards
compared to a Use-Closed System because it is constantly
open to the atmosphere where its vapors can ignite or—for
health hazard materials—cause a chemical exposure. If mul-
tiple materials exist in Use-Open Systems in the same work
area, this increases the potential for accidental mixing of
incompatible hazardous materials. [Ref. SBC 801 - Tables
5003.1.1(1), 5003.1.1(2)]
When using these tables for determining the MAQ in
one or more control areas, it is important to review and apply
the various footnotes. The footnotes provide supplemental
FIGURE 17-13  This open dip tank of a
requirements for the proper application of the tables.
combustible liquid is an example of a use-
open system.
 M a x i m u m A l l o w a b l e Q u a n t i t y P e r C o n t r o l A r e a    2 6 7

Footnote b in Tables 5003.1.1(1) through (4) Storage class III-A

combustible liquid
stipulates that the aggregate quantity in storage
and use cannot exceed the MAQ listed for storage.
For example, the storage MAQ for a Class IIIA com-
1135 L
bustible liquid is 1249 L and its Use-Open System
MAQ is 113.5 L. Assume that an industrial process
requires the open use of a Class IIIA combustible
liquid for a dip tank with a volume of 113.5 L. The Use-open system class III-A
combustible liquid
proper application of this footnote would limit the
operation to 1135 L in storage and 113.5 L in a Use- 113.5 L
Open System. The sum of the liquid volumes in stor-
age and Use-Open System is 1248.5 L and does not The aggregate amount in storage & use cannot exceed the
total amount of storage.
exceed the combined limit of 1249 L (Figure 17-14).
[Ref. SBC 801 - Table 5003.1.1(1)] FIGURE 17-14  1135 L in storage and 113.5 L in use-open
results in an aggregate of 1249 L of Class IIIA combustible
MAQ increases [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003] liquid.

SBC 201 and SBC 801 allow the amount of

hazardous materials in a control area to be increased for most physical
hazard and all health hazard materials when additional safety features
are provided—especially automatic fire sprinklers and hazardous
material storage cabinets or flammable liquid storage cabinets (Figure
17-15). Footnote d in Tables 5003.1.1(1) and (2) permits a 100 per-
cent quantity increase when automatic fire sprinkler protection is
provided throughout the building.
For example, a solid or liquid Class 2 oxidizer MAQ is 113.5 kg
in a single control area of a nonsprinklered building. If the building
is protected by an approved fire sprinkler system, the MAQ may be
increased to 227 kg.
Two footnote items are important:
1. the automatic fire sprinkler system must comply with Section
903.3.1.1, which requires a system designed to NFPA 13, and
2. the entire building must be protected with the fire sprinkler
FIGURE 17-15  This gas cabinet
system, not just the room, control area or fire area where was involved in a fire resulting
the hazardous materials are located. [Ref. SBC 801 - Table from a release of silane. Silane
is a pyrophoric and flammable
5003.1.1(1), Table 5003.1.1(2), Footnote d] gas. Because of the hazards with
silane, the room and gas cabinet
were required by SBC 801 to
You Should be protected by an approved
automatic sprinkler system, which
Know effectively controlled the fire.
MAQ increases are
allowed because approved
and maintained automatic
fire sprinklers have an envi-
able fire control reliability
and performance record. l
2 6 8    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s
Code
Essentials
Certain hazardous materi-
als are such a high fire or
explosion risk that SBC 801
requires an automatic fire
sprinkler system through-
out the building at very
small MAQs.
The indoor storage of
explosive materials, pyro-
phorics (e.g., silane), and
certain classes of organic
peroxides, oxidizers and
unstable (reactive) materi-
als can occur only when
they are protected by an
approved automatic fire
sprinkler system. The auto-
matic fire sprinkler system
must be installed in accor-
dance with the require-
ments in Section 903.3.1.1
(Figure 17-16). [Ref. SBC
801 - Table 5003.1.1(1),
Footnote g] l
FIGURE 17-17  Storage in
approved cabinets is a permitted
method to increase many
hazardous materials’ MAQ.
SBC 801, Tables
5003.1.1(1) and (2)
footnote e also allow
the quantity to be
doubled when haz-
ardous materials are
stored in approved
storage cabinets,
day boxes, gas cabi-
nets, exhausted enclo-
sures or listed safety
cans (Figures 17-17
and 17-18). Each
FIGURE 17-16  Some hazardous materials are so
dangerous that any indoor storage must be protected method protects the
by automatic fire sprinkler systems. hazardous material
from fire exposures
or spills by providing a fire-resistive enclosure or second means of
containment for the stored product. Enclosure doors generally are
required to be self-closing and self-latching. When used in con-
junction with an automatic fire sprinkler system, the MAQ can be
increased by 400 percent. For example, the MAQ for the previously
mentioned solid or liquid Class 2 oxidizer in a nonsprinklered build-
ing is 113.5 kg. If the building is protected by an approved automatic
fire sprinkler system, the MAQ is increased by 100 percent to 227 kg.
If the building is sprinklered and the liquid is stored in an approved
hazardous materials storage cabinet, the MAQ may be increased again
by 100 percent to 454 kg. [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 5003.1.1(1),
Footnotes d and e] This MAQ doubling for sprinklers and cabinets
is not permitted for all hazardous materials, so it is essential the fire
code official carefully review the table footnotes.
FIGURE 17-18  The amount of hazardous materials stored in an
approved cabinet is limited.
 C o n t r o l A r e a s    2 6 9

CONTROL AREAS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3]
For the purpose of regulating hazardous mate-
rials, all buildings and facilities are treated as a
single control area unless they are subdivided in
accordance with the code as described in this
section (Figure 17-19). A control area is a space
inside a building or an outdoor facility where
the amount of hazardous materials stored, used,
handled or dispensed does not exceed the MAQ.
A building can have more than one control area.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3]
When a building is divided into different
spaces for hazardous materials storage and use FIGURE 17-19  Storage in approved cabinets is a permitted
by fire-resistive construction, each space may be method to increase many hazardous materials’ MAQ.
treated as a control area. Control areas are required
to be constructed in accordance with SBC 201
for fire barriers or fire walls (Figures 17-20 and
17-21). The number of indoor control areas is
determined by the amount of hazardous material
in each location in relation to the grade plane.

Code Essentials
FIGURE 17-20  Control areas in a 1-story building require
Determining grade plane can be a minimum 1-hour separation constructed in accordance
tedious. When the ground on which a with SBC 201.
building sits is flat, the building’s first
or ground floor establishes the grade
plane.
When the ground slopes, however, it
is a little more complicated. Grade
plane is a reference plane represent-
ing the average of the finished ground
level elevation adjoining the building
adjacent to the exterior walls.
When the ground slopes away from
the exterior walls, grade plan is the
lowest point in the area between
the building and lot line. When the
lot line is more than 1800 mm from
the building, a point 1800 mm from FIGURE 17-21  The fire-resistance rating of floor areas
the building is the referenced grade supporting control areas in some buildings can be reduced
to 1 hour when the building is protected by an automatic
plane (Figure 17-22). l sprinkler system.
2 7 0    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

Elevation 35.4 m Elevation 30.48 m

Elevation 41.1 m
1.8 m

Elevation 38.1 m
Elevation
35.4 m

Grade plane = 32.9 m

Elevation 30.48 m

Elevation
Elevation 35.4 m Elevation 30.48 m

FIGURE 17-22  Grade plane determinations can be complicated.

The number of control areas and the hazardous material MAQ in

each control area vary based on the floor level where the control areas
are located. [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 5003.8.3.2] In a one-story build-
ing, four control areas are permitted, each containing up to the MAQ
for each material hazard class. Footnote a to Table 5003.8.3.2 (Table
17-6) reduces the MAQ and the number of control areas while increas-
ing the fire-resistive separation requirements as the control areas are
located above or below grade plane. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3.1]

TABLE 17-6  Design and number of control areas (SBC 801, Table 5003.8.3.2)
Percentage of
the maximum Fire-resistance
allowable quantity Number of control rating for fire
Floor level per control areaa areas per floor barriers in hoursb
Higher than 9 5 1 2
7-9 5 2 2
6 12.5 2 2
Above 5 12.5 2 2
grade plane 4 12.5 2 2
3 50 2 1
2 75 3 1
1 100 4 1
1 75 3 1
Below 2 50 2 1
grade plane
Lower than 2 Not allowed Not allowed Not allowed

a. Percentages shall be of the maximum allowable quantity per control area shown in Tables 5003.1.1(1) and 5003.1.1(2), with
all increases allowed in the footnotes to those tables.
b. Separation shall include fire barriers and horizontal assemblies as necessary to provide separation from other portions of the
building.
 C o n t r o l A r e a s    2 7 1

For example, a university chemistry laboratory may be con-

structed on the sixth floor of a building. In this example, the building
is fully sprinklered and the materials are stored in approved cabinets.
Table 17-7 describes the impact of footnote a using the Class 2 oxi-
dizer example.
Fire walls, fire barriers and horizontal assemblies that separate
buildings into multiple control areas must comply with SBC 201,
Chapter 7 and be approved by the building code official. Table 5003.8.2
TABLE 17-7  Footnote a to Table 5003.8.3.2 impact

MAQ Control Fire-resistance Total MAQ Total MAQ

maximum areas rating per control per floor
Story
percentage per story in hours area
(kg)
1st 100 4 1 454 1816
6th 12.5 2 2 56.75 113.5

includes the required fire barrier

and horizontal assembly fire-resis-
tance rating of the separating sto-
ries.
SBC 201 requires that the
structural members supporting
a fire-resistance-rated horizontal
assembly have at least the same
fire-resistance rating as the floor/
ceiling assembly they support.
Therefore, the supporting struc-
tural elements must be at least
2-hour fire-resistance rated to sup-
port a control area above (Figure
17-23). In buildings of Type IIA,
IIIA or VA construction three sto-
ries or less in height with control
FIGURE 17-23  The building code official will be responsible for approving the
areas constructed using fire-resis- fire-resistance rating of horizontal assemblies separating control areas.
tance-rated assemblies, SBC 201
and SBC 801 permit the
fire-resistance rating of
horizontal assemblies
to be reduced to 1 hour
when the building is pro-
tected throughout by an
approved automatic fire
sprinkler system (Figure
17-24). [Ref. SBC 801 -
5003.8.3.4]
FIGURE 17-24  Example: seven control areas in a two-story building
2 7 2    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SIGNS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 407.3, 5003.5]
To ensure that emergency responders are aware of the presence
of hazardous materials, SBC 801 requires hazard identification signs
to be posted at certain locations. [Ref. SBC 801 - 407.3] A hazard
identification sign must comply with the format and classification
criteria in NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the
Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response. This hazard identifica-
tion sign is not allowed to be used for identifying the hazards of
materials in transportation that use UN/DOT placarding. An NFPA
704 hazard identification sign identifies the health, flammability and
chemical instability of one or more materials in storage or use. It does
not identify the specific hazardous material(s).
An NFPA 704 diamond is divided into four colored fields (Figure
17-26). The color fields and hazards are
• Blue – Health Hazards – 9 o’clock position
• Red – Flammable Hazards – 12 o’clock position
• Yellow – Chemical Instability – 3 o’clock position
• White – Special Hazards – 6 o’clock position
SBC 801 adopts the NFPA 704 system because it provides a
uniform means of estimating the on-site material hazards. Because
NFPA 704 provides a uniform method of hazard identification, the
system is easily implemented on local and regional levels. This is
an important consideration because hazardous materials incident
response can involve regional deployment of emergency response
personnel and equipment from multiple jurisdictions. [Ref. SBC
801 - 5003.5]
The NFPA 704 system uses a numerical scale of 0 to 4 to indicate
the relative hazards of hazardous materials. A value of 0 represents
the least hazard, while 4 represents the greatest hazard. Table 17-8
summarizes the NFPA 704 hazard ratings based on the hazard cat-
egories. Additional guidance in SBC 801, Appendix F correlates the
hazardous material classifications to the NFPA 704 ratings.
 I n c o m p a t i b l e M a t e r i a l S e p a r a t i o n s    2 7 3

TABLE 17-8  NFPA 704 hazard ratings by hazard categories

NFPA 704 Hazard categories

hazard rating
Health Flammability Instability
Materials that under emergency Materials that rapidly or completely Materials that in themselves are readily
conditions can be lethal. vaporize at atmospheric pressure and capable of detonation or explosive
4 normal ambient temperature or that decomposition or explosive reaction at
are readily dispersed in air and burn normal temperatures and pressures.
readily.
Materials that under emergency Liquids and solids (including finely Materials that in themselves are
conditions can cause serious or divided suspended solids) that can capable of detonation or explosive
permanent injury. be ignited under almost all ambient decomposition or explosive reaction
3
temperature conditions. but that require a strong initiating source
or must be heated under confinement
before initiation.
Materials that under emergency Materials that must be moderately Materials that readily undergo
conditions can cause temporary heated or exposed to relatively high violent chemical change at elevated
2
incapacitation or residual injury. ambient temperatures before ignition temperatures and pressures.
can occur.
Materials that under emergency Materials that must be preheated Materials that in themselves are normally
1 conditions can cause before ignition can occur. stable but that can become unstable at
significant irritation. elevated temperatures and pressures.
Materials that under emergency Materials that will not burn under Materials that in themselves are normally
conditions would present no typical fire conditions, including stable, even under fire conditions.
0
hazard beyond that of ordinary intrinsically noncombustible materials
combustible materials. such as concrete, stone, and sand.
NFPA 704 special hazards
NFPA 704 special hazard designations represent hazardous materials that may be water reactive, an oxidizer, corrosive, or a simple
asphyxiation hazard. A water-reactive hazard is designated with a stricken-through W (W). Oxidizers can be represented with the
letters “OX” while corrosives are designated as “COR” or “ALK” for alkali materials. Simple asphyxiants such as inert gases or inert
cryogenic fluids are designated as “SA.”

NFPA 704 hazard identification signs are required

for above-ground storage tanks and stationary contain-
ers to identify the hazards of the stored material (Figure
17-26). Identification signs are required at specific facility
entrances or locations required by the fire code official and
in locations where the class and amount of hazardous mate-
rial exceed the permit quantities in SBC 801, Section 105.6.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.5]

INCOMPATIBLE MATERIAL
SEPARATIONS FIGURE 17-25  An NFPA 704 hazard
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5005] identification sign is required for above-ground
storage tanks storing hazardous materials.
Accidental mixing of hazardous materials that are
chemically incompatible is one cause of unauthorized discharges. It
can result from an individual not understanding the hazards of mix-
ing two chemicals together or from personnel improperly modifying
equipment or piping at a stored energy source.
Materials are considered incompatible when they have the
potential to react in a manner that generates heat, fumes, gases or
byproducts that are hazardous to life or property. Certain manufac-
2 7 4    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

turing processes perform “intentional chemistry” so desired chemi-

cal reaction takes place. Intentional chemistry is classified as use by
SBC 801 and the fire code has specific requirements to ensure that
the temperature, pressure, process flow rates and mixing sequences
are conducted safely. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5005.1.11]
SBC 801, Section 5003.9.8 provisions address separating incom-
patible materials that may be accidentally mixed or interact if the
primary container fails. The requirements are applicable to contain-
ers with a volume of more than 2.2 kg or 1.9 L and all compressed
gas containers regardless of the cylinder or tank volume. [Ref. SBC
801 - 5003.9.8]
Information on hazardous materials’ chemical compatibility can
be found on the product Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
Certain hazardous material classes are some form of a reactive
hazard raising the potential of an unauthorized discharge. Substances
with the potential for spontaneous ignition can form or are formu-
lated as either an inorganic or organic peroxide, water-reactive material
or self-reactive material. These materials must be closely evaluated
for incompatibility with air, water and any contaminants that could
affect them.
The ICC HMEX software enables one to evaluate the incom-
patibility hazards if two chemicals contact or are mixed together
(Figure 17-27). The software does not include algorithms that con-
template mixing three or
more hazardous materials.
Such an operation should
be treated as intentional
chemistry and requires
careful analysis by quali-
fied persons.
SBC 801 identifies four
methods for separating
incompatible materials:
1. Separation can be
accomplished by providing
at least 6 m of separation
between the two incompat-
ible materials,
2. Solids or liquids can
stored in separate approved
hazardous material cabi-
nets,
3. For gases, such as meth-
ane (a flammable gas) and
FIGURE 17-26  The HMEX software program allows users to determine if two materials
mixed together are incompatible.
 I n c o m p a t i b l e M a t e r i a l S e p a r a t i o n s    2 7 5

oxygen (an oxidizer gas), one of the gas cylinders can be located
into a gas cabinet or exhausted enclosure, or
4. Separation by a noncombustible line-of-sight barrier that
extends a minimum of 450 mm beyond and above each
stored incompatible material (Figure 17-28). [Ref. SBC 801 -
5003.9.8]

FIGURE 17-27  These incompatible hazardous materials are adequately

separated by a noncombustible barrier.
2 7 6    C h a p t e r 1 7 G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r H a z a r d o u s M a t e r i a l s

QUIZ
1. All control areas can be separated from one another by 1-hour fire
barriers.
a. True
b. False

2. SBC 801 administrative requirements state, “where there is a con-

flict between a general requirement and a specific requirement,
the specific requirement shall be applicable.”
a. True
b. False

3. Which of the following is not considered by SBC 801 to be a physi-

cal hazard material?
a. corrosive
b. flammable liquid
c. flammable gas
d. explosive gels

4. A hazardous material release or emission in a manner that does

not conform to the SBC 801 storage, use, dispensing or handling
provisions or applicable health and safety regulation is defined as
a(n) _____________.
a. civil violation
b. criminal violation
c. intentional chemistry
d. unauthorized discharge

5. In a one-story, Type VB, fully sprinklered office building (Group

B), what is its maximum number of control areas?
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four
CHAPTER
Compressed Gases
18

G
ases are any substance that boils at atmospheric pressure (about
101.4 kPa) and any temperature between absolute zero (-273°C)
and up to about 27°C. Eleven chemical elements have boiling
points within this temperature range: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluo-
rine, chlorine, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. Compressed
gases are divided into two major groups depending on their physical state
in containers under certain pressures and temperatures and their range of
boiling points: nonliquefied gases and liquefied gases.
Nonliquefied gases are also known as compressed, pressurized or
permanent gases. These gases do not become liquid when they are com-
pressed at normal temperatures, even at very high pressures. Common
examples of these are oxygen, nitrogen, helium and argon.

277
2 7 8    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s 

Liquefied gases are gases that can

become liquids at normal temperatures
207 when they are inside cylinders under pres-
283
kPa = kilopascals
103 310 sure. They exist inside the cylinder in a liq-
kPa uid-vapor balance or equilibrium. Initially
the cylinder is almost full of liquid and gas
fills the space above the liquid. As gas is
removed from the cylinder, enough liquid
evaporates to replace it, keeping the pres-
sure in the cylinder constant. Anhydrous
ammonia, chlorine, propane, nitrous oxide
and carbon dioxide are examples of lique-
fied gases (Figure 18-1).
SBC 801 has a third category of com-
30 30 30
41 41 41
15 45 15 45 15 45
P.S.I.A. P.S.I.A. P.S.I.A.

pressed gas known as dissolved gas, but

Compressed Liquefied
(Nonliquefied) Gas (Compressed) Gas
FIGURE 18-1  Compressed, liquefied and dissolved gases
You Should
Know
A compressed gas cylinder
with a pressure gauge
reading of 0 kPa is not
empty. It still contains gas
at atmospheric pressure
and should be treated as a
hazardous material. l
this group includes only acetylene, which
is a flammable gas. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
Acetylene is an unstable (reactive) mate-
rial and must be stabilized for safe use.
Acetylene gas can explode at atmospheric
pressure. Acetylene is routinely stored and
Dissolved used safely in cylinders at high pressures
(Compressed) Gas
(up to 1724 kPag at 21°C) because acetylene
cylinders are fully packed with an inert,
porous filler. The filler is saturated with
acetone or other suitable solvent. When
acetylene gas is added to the cylinder, the gas dissolves in the acetone.
Acetylene in solution is stable.
Nonliquefied or compressed gases do not liquefy at normal
temperatures and under storage pressures that range up to about
41 368 kPa. Compressed gases become a liquid if cooled below their boil-
ing points. When these gases are liquefied at these very low tempera-
tures they generally are called cryogenic fluids and are regulated by SBC
801, Chapter 55. Examples of compressed gases that can be converted
to cryogenic fluids include nitrogen, argon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Liquefied compressed gases become liquids at ordinary temperatures
and pressures from 172 to 17 236 kPa. Liquefied gases are elements
or compounds that have boiling points relatively near atmospheric
temperatures ranging from approximately -90°C to -1.11°C. Liquefied
compressed gases would become solid at the low temperatures used for
storing cryogenic fluids. Liquefied gases are packaged and transported
under rules that limit the maximum amount that can be packaged into
a container to allow space for liquid expansion when ambient tempera-
tures rise. Examples of liquefied compressed gases include anhydrous
ammonia, propane and carbon dioxide (Table 18-1).
 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s    2 7 9

TABLE 18-1  Sample gases by category

Compressed Liquefied Dissolved

Code
Nitrogen Anhydrous ammonia Acetylene
Essentials
Chapter 53 compliance is
Hydrogen Propane
accomplished through the
Oxygen Carbon dioxide
application of the storage
Argon Chlorine and handling requirements
Helium Nitrous oxide in Chapter 53, the haz-
Hydrogen bromide ardous material-specific
Dichlorane requirements in SBC 801,
Chapters 51 through 67
and the general hazardous
SBC 801, Chapter 53 regulates compressed gas requirements for
material requirements in
storage, use and handling in gas containers, cylinders, tanks and systems
Sections 5001 and 5003.
for the following products (Table 17-2).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5301.1] l
TABLE 18-2  SBC 801-regulated gases

INERT CORROSIVE
Flammable* Highly toxic You Should
Oxidizing Pyrophoric Know
Radioactive Unstable (reactive) • Potential energy is the
* Including liquefied petroleum gas (LP-gas) regulated by stored energy in an object
SBC 801, Chapter 61. (See Chapter 20 of this Guide.) or system because of its
Chapter 53 requirements are intended to safely control the release position or configuration.
of the potential energy stored in a compressed gas container. The acci- Contained compressed
dental release of a compressed gas and its stored potential energy can gases have potential
be instantaneous. This rapid, violent energy release can easily propel a energy that can be
57 kg gas cylinder through the air as a missile; the projectile cylinder released by expansion
and debris can injure or kill individuals. or—if flammable—heat
Safety controls ensure the cylinder is correctly designed and con- energy.
structed to contain the volume of filled gas at the required delivery • Kinetic energy describes
pressure, the cylinder valve is constructed with a unique fitting to a gas's motion relative to
prevent it from being connected to the wrong type of pressure regula- other moving and station-
tor, and the compressed gas source and system to which it is connected ary objects in its immedi-
are operated within prede- ate environment. As a gas
termined safe temperature, is released, either inten-
pressure and flow limits tionally or accidentally,
(Figure 18-2). SBC 801 the moving gas possesses
requires protection for the kinetic energy. l
cylinder and its connected
components. Installations
must be protected from
mechanical impact, fire
exposure and other condi-
tions or external exposures
that could compromise FIGURE 18-2  A properly engineered and
constructed compressed gas storage and
the system (Figure 18-3). distribution system
2 8 0    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s
FIGURE 18-3  These carbon dioxide and nitrogen
transfer facilites are protected from vehicle impact.
FIGURE 18-4  These stationary tanks must be
constructed in accordance with the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code.
FIGURE 18-5  Compressed gas cylinders have
circular cross sections to evenly resist internal
pressure.
SBC 801 prohibits the use of compressed gas containers
and systems that are leaking, fire-damaged or improperly
assembled or modified.
CYLINDERS, CONTAINERS AND
TANKS
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 53]
Compressed gas containers must be engineered to safely
store and dispense the gas based on its physical or health
hazards and its physical properties. Compressed gas con-
tainers are designed and constructed in accordance with the
requirements of the United Nations and US Department
of Transportation (UN/DOT). SBC 801 requires station-
ary pressure vessels not intended to be heated or “fired” to
be constructed in accordance with the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (Figure
18-4). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.2]
All compressed gas containers have common and stan-
dard features:
• The size of a cylinder or container is limited. If it is a
tank, like a stationary pressure vessel, its size generally
is unlimited.
• The gas volume that can be stored is directly propor-
tional to the gas molecular density. The lighter the gas
molecules, the greater the gas volume that can be stored
compared to heavier gas molecules stored in the same
volume.
• Cylinders, containers and tanks always have a circu-
lar cross-sectional area. They are not constructed using
other geometric shapes because of the imposed forces
in the corners of rectangular
or square-shaped containers,
where they are weakest (Fig-
ure 18-5).
• Proper compressed gas con-
tainer storage and use de-
pend on their orientation.
Cylinders may be designed
for either a vertical or hori-
zontal orientation. Specially
designed cylinders can be
stored and used in either ori-
entation (Figure 18-6). FIGURE 18-6  A stationary
pressure vessel designed to be
installed vertically
 P r e s s u r e R e l i e f D e v i c e s    2 8 1

• Except for a limited number of physical or health hazard materials,

all compressed gas containers are equipped with a pressure relief
device. The pressure relief device protects the cylinder from an ex-
plosion resulting from excessive content heating (Figure 18-7).
• Valve fittings are equipped with unique, gas-specific connections
to prevent the connection of the gas cylinder to the wrong pipe or
distribution system.
• Cylinders require markings that identify the standard to which
they are constructed, that they are qualified for service, their con-
tents and the basic hazards of the stored gas.

PRESSURE RELIEF DEVICES

[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.3]
With few exceptions, all compressed gas containers are equipped FIGURE 18-7  The pressure
relief device—a burst disk (at
with a pressure relief device (PRD). A PRD is a safety device that lower left)—is intended to prevent
protects a gas container from catastrophic failure resulting from it catastrophic cylinder failure.
being overpressurized. Overpressurizing a compressed gas cylinder
or tank can occur if the container is directly involved in or exposed
to a fire or if it is overfilled. PRDs provide a safe, reliable method of
gas container venting so they do not explode or become a projectile.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.3.1]
There are two forms of PRDs: reusable devices or sacrificial
devices. The PRD selected is based on the size of the gas container
and the characteristics and hazards of the stored gas. The most
common reusable PRD is a spring-loaded safety relief valve (Figure FIGURE 18-8  An internal spring-loaded
18-8). Sacrificial PRDs are either a rupture disk or a fusible plug. pressure relief valve. The valve is
Spring-loaded PRDs utilize a valve that is maintained closed by a installed inside the gas container.
tensioned spring. The valve remains closed during normal cylinder
use and filling. If the pressure inside the container exceeds a predeter-
mined set point, the spring is compressed, opening a valve to release Code Essentials
some of the gas and lower the internal pressure. When the container’s
With few exceptions, all
internal pressure is reduced below the PRD set point, the valve closes,
cylinders and gas containers
stopping the release of gas. The PRD will continue to cycle open and
require a means of pressure
closed until enough gas is
relief. Pressure relief devices
discharged and the internal
are either reusable or
pressure is reduced (Figure
sacrificial. Spring-loaded
18-9).
pressure relief valves are
When a sacrificial PRD
one type of a reusable
operates it cannot reclose.
pressure relief device. Burst
Sacrificial PRD operation
disks and fusible plugs are
expels the entire gas con-
sacrificial relief devices.
tainer contents. Sacrificial
PRDs operate when the Toxic or highly toxic gas
device’s pressure or temper- cylinders normally do not
ature limits are exceeded. FIGURE 18-9  External spring-loaded pressure include relief valves. l
Heat-activated PRDs are relief valves
2 8 2    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s

You Should
Know
Alloys with extremely reli-
able and predictable melt-
ing temperatures are known
as “eutectics.” Fire sprinkler
fusible links are a familiar
eutectic application where
the alloys are blended to
operate within specific
temperature ranges. l
manufactured as
fusible relief valves
known as fusible
plugs. Fusible plugs
operate when they are
subjected to direct or
indirect heat. Fusible
plugs are set to oper-
ate at temperatures
between 54.4 and
177°C and are assem-
bled using alloys with
extremely reliable and
predictable melting
temperatures (Figure
18-10).

FIGURE 18-10  Front view of a 1-ton-capacity

compressed gas container. The cylinder is equipped
with three fusible plugs located at the 9 o’clock,
1 o’clock and 5 o’clock positions. Each fusible plug
is constructed by machining a hole inside a pipe plug
and filling the hole with a low-melt-point metal.

Sacrificial pressure-sensitive PRDs are

known as burst discs or rupture discs. A burst
disc is an engineered device that uses a metal
or graphite disc that is weakened by scoring
(Figure 18-11). Scoring is a mechanical pro-
cess where the metal is partially cut to cause a
FIGURE 18-11  A burst disc installed on top of a cryogenic predictable failure at the opening pressure of
nitrogen container. If the container becomes overpressurized,
the disc will burst open to safely release the cryogenic fluid. the burst disc. The disc’s size, geometry and
material of construction govern its opening or
“burst” pressure. When a burst disc operates, it
opens like a flower and the stored gas is released
to the atmosphere (Figures 18-12 and 18-13).
Regardless of the type of PRD used, it must
be properly installed and maintained. PRD siz-
ing is governed by the specification to which
the container was fabricated and is based on
the flow characteristics and the hazards of the
stored gas. After the gas container empties, the
sacrificial PRD is replaced. [Ref. SBC 801 -
5303.3.3]

FIGURE 18-12  Unopened and opened burst discs.

The top burst disc has operated. (Courtesy of BS&B
Safety Systems, Tulsa, OK)
 M a r k i n g s    2 8 3

You Should
Know
The markings required on
compressed gas contain-
ers depend on whether
the container is a portable
cylinder or stationary tank.
Pipe networks connected
to compressed gas sources
also require markings to
FIGURE 18-13  This LP-gas cylinder was exposed to a fire identify the pipe contents
and its sacrificial pressure release device operated.
and flow direction. l

MARKINGS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.4]
Stationary and portable gas containers, cylinders and tanks require
markings. Markings demonstrate that cylinders or tanks have been
evaluated to safely store and contain compressed gases. For portable
compressed gas cylinders, markings are used to identify that contain-
ers have been subjected to periodic pressure tests and inspections as
prescribed by the UN/DOT regulations. Markings can communicate
the stored gas hazards to consumers and emergency responders.
When compressed gas containers are connected to a gas distribution
system, markings are required on the piping network so maintenance
personnel and first responders are aware of the pipe contents. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 5303.4]
Stationary containers, like pressure vessels, require markings to
identify their NFPA 704 hazard rating as well as the actual contents of
the container (Figure 18-14). Signs are also required to indicate that FIGURE 18-14 Hazard
open flames or other ignition sources are not permitted near contain- identification markings on a liquid
ers storing flammable gases. When the containers are located within a (cryogenic) oxygen container
room or enclosure, the room or cabinet must also be marked with the
words “COMPRESSED GAS” or the specific gas (Figure 18-15). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 5003.5.1, 5303.4.1]
Portable containers, cylinders and tanks have various markings
that identify the standard that governed their construction and design
pressure. Other markings indicate that the vessel is qualified for the
compressed gas it contains. The markings will indicate the UN/DOT
specification that the cylinder was constructed to, its type and mate-
rial of construction, the cylinder’s service pressure measured in kPa,
the manufacturer’s mark and the cylinder’s serial number. Additional
markings are required to indicate the month and year the cylinder was
manufactured and cylinder testing requirements (Figure 18-16).

FIGURE 18-15  The sign identifies

the room contents.
2 8 4    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s

Suitability for underwater use “UW” (if

applicable; composite cylinders only)

Stamp of non-destructive testing

(if applicable)

Identifies aluminum alloy (if applicable)

Compatibility mark for hydrogen embrittlement

gases or gas mixtures “H” (if applicable; steel Working pressure in Bar.
pressure receptacles only) Intended for cylinders
transporting compressed
Serial number assigned gases and acetylene
by manufacturer
Test pressure in Bar
Country of manufacture
Empty or tare weight
Identification of cylinder 25E USA 765432 in kilograms
thread type
For liquefied gases,
the water capacity

PW200 PH300BAR 62.1KG 50 L 5.8MM Minimum wall thickness

measured in millimeters
u ISO 9809-1
u USA/MXXXX IB 2005/12

UN packaging symbol ISO standard (e.g. 9809-1,
9809-2, etc.) used for design,
construction, and testing
Mark of country or countries where Identity mark or stamp Date of initial inspection,
approval is granted followed by of the Independent year followed by month
manufacturer’s approval mark. Only inspection agency separated by slash
UN pressure receptacles marked
“USA” are authorized for transport to,
from, or within the United States

FIGURE 18-16  Cylinder markings required by UN/DOT

FIGURE 18-17  A CGA C-7-compliant cylinder shoulder label for acetylene, a
flammable gas (Courtesy of Label Solutions, Inc.)
FIGURE 18-18  Pipe labels indicate the direction of
flow and the contents (anhydrous ammonia) in this
mechanical refrigeration system.
A common consumer mis-
conception is that the cylinder
color identifies its contents. This
assumption is not correct. There
is no standard that regulates cyl-
inder color to identify contents.
Labeling or marking the cylin-
der are the only means for iden-
tifying its contents. Cylinders
require markings in accordance
with Compressed Gas Association
(CGA) Standard C-7, Guide to the Preparation of
Precautionary Labeling and Marking of Compressed Gas
Containers. These labels are located on the cylinder
shoulder or wall. CGA Standard C-7 requires that the
marking contain the hazardous material name and
its UN/DOT hazard division identification number
(Figure 18-17).
Piping systems carrying compressed gases to a
point of use are required to be marked with the name
of the product being conveyed and the direction of
flow. The markings must comply with ASME A13.1,
Scheme for the Identification of Piping Systems.
Pipe labels are required at each valve, at penetra-
tions of a wall, floor or ceiling, and at a maximum
spacing interval of 6096 mm along the entire length
of the pipe run (Figure 18-18). [Ref. SBC 801 -
5303.4.3]
 S e c u r i t y    2 8 5

SECURITY
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.5]
SBC 801 requires cylinders to be properly secured
and protected from physical impact to limit the like-
lihood of damage and a subsequent unauthorized dis-
charge. SBC 801 prescribes three types of protection
for compressed gas containers: security to safeguard
the gas containers, physical protection from mechan-
ical impact and a method of ensuring gas cylinders
are protected from being knocked over or falling
(Figure 18-19). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.5]
Physical protection is required when compressed FIGURE 18-19  This cylinder exchange storage cabinet
gas cylinders or containers could be subjected to is designed to protect the cylinders from tampering and is
constructed of expanded metal to provide ventilation and
mechanical impact. Impact can be in the form of an so hose streams can apply water to cool cylinders that
object being accidentally dropped—such as material may be involved in a fire. Guard posts protect the LP-gas
movement by a crane above or near the compressed cylinders from vehicular impact.
gas cylinders—or physically striking the cylinders
with material-handling equipment. If containers or
stationary tanks are located outdoors in an area sub-
ject to vehicle impact, physical protection consisting
of guard posts or similar barriers is required. SBC
801, Section 312.1 provides criteria on methods of
protecting these cylinders or tanks from vehicular
impact (Figure 18-20). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.5.2]
Cylinders stored and used in either a vertical or
horizontal orientation require protection from falling
as a result of being accidentally hit, equipment vibra- FIGURE 18-20  Vehicle impact protection is provided for
tion or seismic ground motion. SBC 801 recognizes this stationary pressure vessel storing carbon dioxide.
several methods to
protect cylinders from falling:
• Securing cylinders or containers
to a fixed object with one or more re-
straint methods.
• Securing the cylinders or con-
tainers on a cart or other device
designed for the movement of com-
pressed gas containers or cylinders
(Figure 18-21).
• Cylinder “nesting,” which is a
method of aligning flat-bottomed
compressed gas cylinders in a tight
mass using a contiguous three-point
contact system where all cylinders
within a group have a minimum of
FIGURE 18-21  Argon cylinders
three contact points with other cyl-
securely banded and stored on a inders, walls or bracing (Figure 18-
gas cart. 22).
2 8 6    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s

FIGURE 18-22  Properly nested cylinder storage requires that all of the cylinders have at least three points of contact.
• Securing cylinders in a gas cabinet, storage rack
or frame (Figure 18-23). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.5.3]

FIGURE 18-23  A cylinder storage rack
VALVE PROTECTION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.6]
SBC 801 requires cylinder valves to be pro-
tected when they are moved or are in storage. This
is intended to prevent the valve from being dam-
aged and the cylinder becoming a flying projectile
when its stored energy is released. Valve protection
is accomplished by either shielding the valve or
installing a protective cap. Valve shields are installed

Code
Essentials
Physical protection is
required for all compressed
gas cylinders and tanks . This
includes protection from
falling, vehicular impact,
being dislodged during a
seismic event or being hit
with water stream during
fire-fighting operations FIGURE 18-24  These acetylene cylinders, although
small, should be protected from falling.
(Figure 18-24). l
 S e p a r a t i o n f r o m H a z a r d o u s C o n d i t i o n s    2 8 7

directly on the compressed gas container and are constructed with an

opening to facilitate installation or removal of pressure regulators or
piping. If a cylinder is not constructed with a valve shield it is equipped
with a protective valve cap (Figures 18-25 and 18-26). [Ref. SBC 801
- 5303.6.1]

FIGURE 18-25  A shield protects

the valve on a 9-kg liquefied
petroleum gas container.

FIGURE 18-26  Protective valve covers on high-pressure oxygen cylinders

SEPARATION FROM HAZARDOUS

CONDITIONS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.7]
SBC 801 requirements are intended to protect the compressed gas
systems from exposure to hazardous conditions. This includes incom-
patible hazardous materials, physical damage, excessive cylinder and
container heating, or ignition sources.
SBC 801, Section 5003.9.8 includes requirements for incompatible
hazardous materials separation, including compressed and liquefied
compressed gases. For certain gas hazard classes, SBC 801 specifies
additional requirements that further limit the potential for incompat-
ible storage.
SBC 801 limits the cylinder volume of highly toxic and toxic gases
in Assembly, Business, Educational, Institutional, Mercantile and
Residential occupancies to 566 L and requires they be stored in a gas
cabinet or exhausted enclosure. Placing these gases in gas cabinets or
exhausted enclosures satisfies the requirement for incompatible mate-
rials separation. Pyrophoric gases are separated from incompatible
materials by 1-hour fire barriers unless they are stored in approved
hazardous material storage cabinets, gas cabinets or exhausted enclosures.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.7.1, 6404.1.4] Cylinders, containers and
tanks must be protected from excessive temperatures unless they are
designed to operate in such conditions.
2 8 8    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s

Cylinders must be stored in an

area where surface temperatures
do not exceed 52°C. The objective
is to reduce the potential of the gas
pressure increasing to a level that
could cause the container’s pressure
relief device to open. In areas where
extreme temperatures occur, SBC
801 requires that a cover or shade
structure be provided to protect
the cylinders (Figure 18-27). [Ref.
SBC 801 - 5303.7.4, 5303.14]
Some gas cylinders or their
connected piping may be equipped
with a device or system to inten-
tionally heat the container. Heating
the cylinder increases the gas pres-
sure, which allows for it to be safely
FIGURE 18-27  This canopy provides weather and fire protection (automatic distributed. Cylinder heaters are
fire sprinklers) and spaces to separate incompatible materials. equipped with a fail-safe control to
ensure the temperature does not
exceed 52°C and can only be used
by properly trained personnel. They are installed in accordance with
the requirements in SBC 501 and the National Electrical Code (Figure
18-28). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.7.6]
Nesting (Figure 18-22) is a common means to prevent compressed
gas cylinders, containers and tanks from falling. When nesting is used
on an elevated platform or near the edge of a building such as a load-
ing dock, the gas containers must be placed away from the edge to limit
the damage potential if the cylinder or container falls. The minimum
separation distance is one-half of the cylinder height (Figure 18-29).
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.7.3]

FIGURE 18-28  A jacket cylinder

heater

FIGURE 18-29  Cylinders must be protected or moved when near the edge of a
platform or loading dock.
 E x h a u s t e d E n c l o s u r e s a n d G a s C a b i n e t s    2 8 9

EXHAUSTED ENCLOSURES AND GAS

CABINETS
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.7.9]
Exhausted enclosures and gas cabinets are noncombustible appli-
ances designed to capture and safely exhaust leaks. They are one
of several methods permitted by SBC 801, Tables 5003.1.1(1) and
5003.1.1(2) that permit a 100 percent MAQ increase for most gases.
Gas cabinets and exhausted enclosures provide a means of separating
incompatible hazardous materials and provide protection to comply
with the requirements in Section 5303.7 for
separating cylinders and containers from haz-
ardous conditions.
The difference between an exhausted enclo-
sure and a gas cabinet is the number of sides
that are open. An exhausted enclosure is an
appliance that is constructed to form a top,
sides and back. The front, or part of the front,
is open, allowing access to the cylinders. The
exhausted enclosure is equipped with mechani-
cal ventilation to capture and exhaust gases or
fumes so they do not escape through the open
front. Examples of exhausted enclosures include
laboratory hoods or exhausted fume hoods
(Figure 18-30). A room or area provided with FIGURE 18-30  A laboratory hood is a type of exhausted
enclosure.
a hazardous exhaust mechanical ventilation
system is not an exhausted enclosure. [Ref. SBC
801 - 5303.7.9, 5003.8.5]
A gas cabinet is a noncombustible enclosure that provides an
isolated environment for compressed gas cylinders in storage or use
(Figure 18-31). Gas cabinets are constructed with doors and windows
that allow access to operate pressure regulators or for exchanging cyl-
inders. They are constructed of at least 1.35 mm steel with self-closing
access ports or windows and doors. They must be equipped with a
mechanical ventilation system that maintains a negative pressure in
relation to the surrounding room or area. Not more than three com-
pressed gas cylinders are permitted in a single gas cabinet. [Ref. SBC
801 - 5303.7.10, 5003.8.6]

FIGURE 18-31  A gas cabinet

2 9 0    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s

LEAKS, DAMAGE OR CORROSION

[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.12]
Experience shows that leaks in a hazardous material sys-
tem, regardless of the chemical’s physical state, rarely become
smaller—they generally become bigger with corresponding
hazards. A leak in a compressed gas system presents serious fire,
safety and health implications: the atmosphere in the room or
area can become toxic, become oxygen deficient or increase
the possibility of a fire or explosion. Because of these risks,
SBC 801 establishes a zero-tolerance requirement that prohib-
its the use of leaking, damaged or corroded gas containers. If
these conditions are identified, the cylinder must be removed
and repaired to a serviceable condition or otherwise replaced.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.12]
The term corrosion relates directly to the reduction of the
thickness of carbon or stainless steel, such as in the wall or
head of a compressed gas container, cylinder or storage tank. Any
unprotected carbon steel exposed to humidity eventually will
have external corrosion or rust (Figure 18-32).
Corrosion is the process of deterioration of materials as a
result of chemical, electrochemical or other reactions. Rusting
FIGURE 18-32  Surface rust alone on the
LP-gas cylinder may not be enough to require
is a part of corrosion and is a chemical process that results
internal inspection and cylinder testing. in the formation of red or orange coating on the surface of
metals. Rust alone should not be the determining factor for
whether or not the equipment should be replaced. Verification and
confirmation of internal corrosion will require the measurement of
the metal’s thickness and a hydrostatic pressure test to determine that
the container’s pressure-containing ability has not been compromised.
A compressed gas container that has been exposed to a fire must
be removed from service. Fire exposure on a compressed gas container
can cause sacrificial pressure relief devices to operate, requiring their
replacement. A fire’s heat can damage the container’s metallurgy,
reducing its strength or resistance to mechanical impact. Fire-damaged
containers, cylinders or tanks should be removed by approved qualified
personnel who have experience dealing with damaged compressed gas
containers. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.11]
 Q u i z    2 9 1

QUIZ
1. Compressed gas cylinder valve protection is accomplished by
either shielding the valve or installing a protective _________.
a. pressure relief device
b. stopper
c. burst disk
d. cap

2. There is no standard that regulates compressed gas cylinder col-

ors to identify contents.
a. True
b. False

3. The difference between an exhausted enclosure and a gas cabinet

is ____________.
a. metal wall thickness
b. the number of sides that are open
c. exhausted enclosures have fire sprinklers in them
d. the number of doors

4. Product labels for compressed gas distribution piping are required

at each valve, at penetrations of a wall, floor or ceiling, and at a
maximum spacing interval of _______ m along the entire length
of the pipe run.
a. 6
b. 9
c. 10
d. 15

5. Cylinder nesting is a method of securing flat-bottomed com-

pressed gas cylinders upright in a tight mass using a contiguous
contact system whereby where all cylinders within a group have a
minimum of four contact points of contact with other cylinders,
walls or bracing.
a. True
b. False
2 9 2    C h a p t e r 1 8 C o m p r e s s e d G a s e s
CHAPTER
Flammable and
19 Combustible
Liquids

O
f all the physical and health hazard materials available to private
and industrial consumers, flammable and combustible liquids are
the most abundant and easily accessible. Flammable and combus-
tible liquids are used as transportation fuels, lubricants, and chemical feed-
stock in the manufacturing of plastics, pharmaceuticals, semiconductors
and a host of other industries.
Flammable and combustible liquids are among the most regulated haz-
ardous material in SBC 801. Requirements for storage, use, handling and dis-
pensing are found in Chapter 57. SBC 801 references portions of NFPA 30,
Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, and NFPA 30A, Code for Motor
Fuel Dispensing Stations and Repair Garages, for specific applications.
Because flammable and combustible liquids have such a wide range of
uses, other SBC 801 chapters also have requirements when they are used
for specific purposes. Other provisions that regulate specific flammable
and combustible liquid uses are found in Table 19-1.

293
2 9 4    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s
Code
Essentials
Flammable and combus-
tible liquids are catego-
rized into specific hazard
classifications based on
their
• flash point temperature
and
• boiling point temperature. l
You Should
Know
Fire scientists use two
terms to describe ignition:
Piloted ignition occurs
when a fuel is ignited by
an outside source such as a
flame, spark, arc, compres-
sion or friction.
Autoignition temperature
occurs when the fuel is
heated to a point where it
will ignite without external
influences. l
TABLE 19-1  SBC 801 flammable and combustible liquid correlated chapters
Chapter Topic
Fuel-Fired Appliances and Commercial Kitchen Cooking-Oil
6
Storage
20 Aviation Facilities
21 Dry Cleaning
23 Motor Fuel-Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages
24 Application of Flammable Finishes
27 Semiconductor Fabrication Facilities
29 Manufacture of Organic Coatings
32 High-piled Combustible Storage
33 Fire Safety During Construction and Demolition
36 Marinas
LIQUID CLASSIFICATION
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 57]
Liquids regulated by SBC 801, Chapter 57 are divided into two
groups: flammable and combustible. A liquid is assigned to either
group based on its boiling point and flash point temperatures. A liq-
uid’s boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
a liquid equals the absolute pressure of 101.2 kPa. The boiling point
temperature is a measurement of the volatility of the liquid and is
one method of measuring how quickly or slowly a liquid evaporates.
The lower a liquid’s boiling point temperature, the more rapidly it
will produce vapors. This is an important consideration because
flammable and combustible liquids themselves do not burn—it is
their vapors that ignite and burn. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
Flash point temperature is the minimum temperature at which a
liquid—under controlled laboratory conditions—will emit enough
vapors to form an ignitable mixture with air near its surface or in the
container but will not continue to burn after the vapors flash across
the surface. It is the primary basis for classifying a liquid as either
flammable or combustible.
Flash point temperature is determined by tests performed in
a specialized instrument. In a flash point test apparatus, a small
amount of liquid is incrementally heated to a specific temperature.
As the liquid temperature rises, a pilot flame is swept directly over
the test sample. If the pilot flame ignites, the vapor a flame flashes
across the liquid surface. This event does not cause the vapor to sus-
tain burning and is documented as the liquid’s flash point tempera-
ture. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
 L i q u i d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n    2 9 5

There are two test protocols commonly used to evaluate flash

point: so-called “open-cup” and “closed-cup” tests (Figure 19-1).
SBC 801 requires closed-cup flash point testing to be performed in
accordance with one of four ASTM standards. Closed-cup tests are
required by SBC 801 and NFPA 30 because they provide a higher
degree of reproducibility. The results of closed-cup flash point tests
must be reproducible within ±14.4°C versus ±7.8°C for open-cup
flash point tests. Flash point temperature is different from a liquid’s
fire point: the lowest temperature at which a liquid will ignite and
sustain burning. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
Flammable and combustible liquids classifications are further
refined by creating individual classes based on flash point and boiling
point temperatures.
These additional categories are used to assign the relative fire
hazard of liquids and serve as the basis for determining the maximum
allowable quantities (MAQ) in a control area. (See Chapter 17 of this FIGURE 19-1  Cleveland Open Cup
Guide for additional MAQ information.) Table 19-2 lists the classifi- Flash Point test apparatus (Cour-
cation for the different classes of flammable and combustible liquids. tesy of AMETEK PetroLab, Albany,
NY)

TABLE 19-2  Classification of flammable and combustible liquids

Flash point Boiling point Example liquids
You Should
Classification temperature temperature by class Know
Flammable liquid
Boiling point is the tem-
Class IA < 23°C < 38°C N-Pentane; Ethyl ether perature at which a liquid’s
Gasoline; Isopropyl vapor pressure equals
Class IB < 23°C ≥ 38°C alcohol
atmospheric pressure of
Class IC ≥ 23°C and < 38°C Not applicable Methyl ethyl ketone 101 kPa absolute or
Combustible liquid 760 mm of mercury. l
No. 2 Diesel fuel;
Class II ≥ 38°C and < 60°C Not applicable Kerosene
Turpentine; No. 3 fuel
Class IIIA ≥ 60°C and < 93°C Not applicable oil
Motor oil; Cooking oil;
Class IIIB ≥ 93°C Not applicable No. 6 (Bunker) fuel oil

For ignition to occur, the vapor volume must be within a given

flammability range in air. The flammable range is the measurement
of the percent vapor volume mixed with air. Ignition can occur only
when the vapor and air concentration are within the flammable
range. All flammable and combustible liquids have a flammable range
in air and these ranges are based on a material’s lower and upper
flammable limits. The lower flammable limit (LFL) is the lowest vapor
concentration at which ignition of the vapor-air mixture can occur.
The upper flammable limit (UFL) is the highest concentration at which
ignition of the vapor-air mixture can occur.
2 9 6    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s

Ignition cannot occur when the flammable vapor-air mixture

You Should is less than LFL or greater than UFL. A liquid’s flammable range is
Know based on its flash point and boiling point temperature, vapor pressure,
Flammable range is just one
molecular weight and the arrangement of its molecules. Liquid mix-
term the describes an ignit-
ing may influence the flammable range as well as its flash point and
able vapor-air mixture.
boiling point. The flammable range of any liquid or gas is determined
Other terms include explo-
by testing in accordance with one of several ASTM standards. The
sive limits and explosive
flammable range of liquids and gases will change if the atmosphere
range. The terms are syn-
is enriched with oxygen or if it is diluted with an inert gas or inert
onymous. l
liquid such as water (Figure 19-2).

FIGURE 19-2  The flammable range of seven liquids

QUESTIONS
Carbon disulfide is used for the manufacturing of rayon and cellophane. The liquid has a
boiling point temperature of 46.2°C and closed-cup flash point temperature of -1.67°C.

A. Is carbon disulfide a flammable or combustible liquid?

B. What is its classification?
ANSWERS
A. Flammable liquid
B. Class IB flammable liquid
 C o n t a i n e r s , P o r t a b l e Ta n k s a n d S t a t i o n a r y Ta n k s    2 9 7

CONTAINERS, PORTABLE TANKS AND Code

STATIONARY TANKS Essentials
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5704]
A drum is a UN/DOT-
Flammable and combustible liquids are packaged and stored in
regulated vessel of 450.4 L
containers, portable tanks or stationary tanks. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
or less used for transport-
These terms are not interchangeable and understanding the differ-
ing or storing hazardous
ences among them is an important part of code enforcement. The
materials. Drum is not an
construction materials, volume and any safety features are depen-
SBC-recognized term.
dent on the liquid hazards, specific consumer requirements such as
When SBC 801 refers to
product purity and if the vessel is designed for transportation. If
containers, the reference
a container or portable tank can be used for transportation, it must
includes drums only if they
be designed and constructed in accordance with UN/DOT require-
are 225 L or less in capac-
ments. Stationary tanks are regulated by SBC 801 requirements in
ity. Above 225 L the drum
the and specific sections of NFPA 30 that are referenced in SBC 801,
is treated as a portable
Chapter 57.
tank. l
SBC 801 limits the volume of containers and portable tanks, and
NFPA 30 has specific requirements based on the liquid classification
and the stored volume. A container is a vessel of 225 L or less in
capacity used for transporting or storing hazardous materials
(Table 19-3).
Flammable and combustible liquid containers are constructed
of glass, plastic or steel in accordance with the requirements
in NFPA 30 and UN/DOT. SBC 801 does not consider pipes,
piping systems and engine fuel tanks (e.g., for motor vehicles
or stationary generators) to be containers. NFPA 30 limits the
volume of glass and plastic containers storing Class IA, IB, IC
and II liquids because these containers can rapidly fail if they
are subject to fire exposure (Figures 19-3 and 19-4). [Ref. SBC
FIGURE 19-3 The allowed volume of glass
801 - 5003.2.1, 5704.3.1] containers is restricted by the fire code
Portable tanks are vessels larger than 225 L that are designed based on the classification of the stored
for transportation. Portable tanks are equipped with compo- liquid.
nents or features to facilitate material handling. Both UN/DOT
and NFPA 30 limit the volume of portable tanks to 3000 L. A
portable tank is equipped with a connection on the bottom of
the tank to allow gravity dispensing. All portable tanks require
some means of pressure relief to prevent the tank from ruptur-
ing or exploding if it is involved in a fire.

FIGURE 19-4  The allowed volume of metal

containers can be greater since the level of
fire safety is increased and the potential for
a spill is decreased compared to glass con-
tainers.
2 9 8    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s

TABLE 19-3  Maximum size of container, portable tank and intermediate bulk container
You Should Flammable liquids Combustible liquids
Know Container type
Class IA Class IB Class IC Class II Class IIIA
UN/DOT uses the term
Glass 0.473 L 0.947 L 4.92 L 4.92 L 18.9 L
intermediate bulk container
(IBC) to describe many Metal (other than drums) or
4.92 L 18.9 L 18.9 L 18.9 L 18.9 L
approved plastic
portable tanks and permits
them to be constructed of Safety cans 9.84 L 18.9 L 18.9 L 18.9 L 18.9 L

metal, plastic, fiberboard Metal drum 450.5 L 450.5 L 450.5 L 450.5 L 450.5 L
or any combination of Approved metal portable
3000 L 3000 L 3000 L 3000 L 3000 L
approved materials. DOT tanks and IBCs
allows the packaging of Rigid plastic IBCs and
composite IBCs with rigid NP NP NP 3000 L 3000 L
many flammable and com-
inner receptacle
bustible liquids in IBCs
Composite IBCs with flexible
constructed of plastic, NP NP NP NP NP
inner receptacle
fiberboard or composite Non-bulk Bag-in-Box NP NP NP NP NP
materials. However, NFPA
Polyethylene 4.92 L 18.9 L 18.9 L 450.5 L 450.5 L
30 prohibits the packaging
of any flammable liquids Fiber drum NP NP NP 450.5 L 450.5 L
in portable tanks, drums or
IBCs constructed of these
materials; only approved
metals can be used as the
material of construction
when storing flammable
liquids. NFPA 30 allows
combustible liquids in
rigid plastic and metal
IBCs; however, flammable
or combustible liquids
storage is prohibited in a
composite IBC or a “bag-in-
a-box,” which essentially is
a plastic bag inserted into FIGURE 19-5  A metallic IBC storing a flammable
dye
a fiberboard box (Figures
19-5 and 19-6). [Ref. SBC
FIGURE 19-6  A fiberboard IBC
801 - 202, 5704.3.1] l with an internal plastic bag. NFPA
30 prohibits the storage of flam-
mable and combustible liquids in
this type of package. (Courtesy of
International Code Consultants,
Austin, TX)
 S t o r a g e Ta n k D e s i g n a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n    2 9 9

A stationary tank is designed for permanent installation and is

not intended for attachment to a transportation vehicle as a part
of its normal operation or use. Stationary tanks are designed for
above-ground or underground installation and can be installed inside
of buildings within SBC 801 limits. Tanks can be field-erected or
fabricated in a shop and can be constructed with integral second-
ary containment to contain any leaks from the primary tank. Tanks
are designed and installed in accordance with SBC 801 and NFPA
30 and with few exceptions their size and volume are unlimited FIGURE 19-7  Stationary, field-
(Figure 19-7). Table 19-4 compares the characteristics of the terms erected tanks at a bulk distribution
container, drum, portable tank and stationary tank. [Ref. SBC 801 terminal.
- 202, 5704.2.7]

TABLE 19-4 Tank and container terminology

Storage
terminology Volume Fixed or portable Typical refilling method
Container ≤ 225 L Portable; nonfixed Remove empty & insert full

Drum ≤ 450.5 L Portable; nonfixed Remove empty & insert full

> 225 L and ≤

Portable tank Portable; nonfixed Remove empty & insert full
3000 L
Stationary tank Any size Fixed in position Add product to tank

STORAGE TANK DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5704]
Flammable and combustible liquid storage tanks are designed and
constructed in accordance with Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or
American Petroleum Institute (API) standards as well as the NFPA
30 and SBC 801 requirements. For SBC 201 Saudi Building Code pur-
poses, they are classified as a Group U occupancy. All storage tanks
have features that are common among any design:
• The construction material is chemically compatible with and de-
signed to support the stored liquid’s weight and corresponding
pressures.
• The tank has a normal vent to relieve pressures that are developed
when product is introduced or withdrawn.
• Storage tanks operate at pressure of less than 103 kPa. A station-
ary container designed to operate at a pressure above 103 kPa is
treated as a pressure vessel and must be constructed in accordance
with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code.
3 0 0    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s
FIGURE 19-8  Nameplate for a protected
above-ground storage tank. The nameplate
indicates the UL standard the tank was built
to and any special installation and operation
limitations.
FIGURE 19-9 A shop-fabricated tank for standby power-
generation fuel
• A nameplate is attached to the tank that indicates the stan-
dard to which it was constructed (Figure 19-8). [Ref. SBC 801
- 5704.2.7]
The design requirements vary based on whether the tank is
intended for underground or above-ground installation and its
operating pressure.
Tanks may designed for atmospheric pressure or low-
pressure service. Atmospheric tanks store liquid at atmospheric
pressure (760 mm through 812 mm mercury). Low-pressure
tanks store liquids at pressures from 3.4 to 103.4 kPag. Low-
pressure tanks are used predominantly for storing very volatile
liquids or liquids that may also be mixed with gases. [Ref. SBC
801 - 5704.2.7]
Petroleum storage tanks fall into two categories: shop-
fabricated and field-erected. Shop-fabricated storage tanks are
fabricated in a manufacturing plant and shipped as a finished
assembly to the customer (Figure 19-9). Field-erected storage
tanks are manufactured from plate steel cut and formed into
different shapes (Figure 19-10). These components are shipped
to where the tank is assembled and tested on site. All UL-listed
tanks are shop-fabricated tanks. Tanks constructed to API
standards are either shop-fabricated or field-erected. The pre-
ponderance of storage tanks constructed to API standards are
field-erected.
FIGURE 19-10  Construction of a field-erected above-
ground storage tank
 S t o r a g e Ta n k D e s i g n a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n    3 0 1

Compared to shop-fabricated above-ground storage tanks (ASTs),

field-erected ASTs are subject to more rigorous inspection require-
ments. The reason is that neither SBC 801 nor NFPA 30 limits
the volume or diameter of a field-erected AST. Conversely, shop-
fabricated ASTs generally are limited to between 189 271 L and
264 980 L because the tank has to be assembled and tested in the
factory as a condition of its listing. The finished tank is then trans-
ported over rail or highways, limiting the size and weight of loads
that can be transported. Table 19-5 summarizes the major differ-
ences between shop-fabricated and field-erected ASTs.

TABLE 19-5  Design and construction differences between field-erected and shop-fabricated above-ground storage tanks
Variable Field-erected AST Shop-fabricated AST
Diameter and height of the tank are not Volume is limited to between 189 270 L and
Volume of liquid limited 264 980 L and transportation laws
Tank bottom is the foundation and Tank heads are constructed of metal that is thicker
Design practices contains the thickest metal than the tank shell
Normally constructed inside of a
Secondary Constructed in the factory and can be listed as
containment structure with engineered
containment having integral secondary containment
dike walls and foundation
Subject to periodic internal and
Inspections external inspections in accordance with Inspections occur as part of the listing process
American Petroleum Institute standards
Designed by a registered Professional Listed by a nationally recognized testing laboratory
Approval Engineer and approved by the owner and is approved by the fire code official
and fire code official

Storage tanks are constructed to one of the standards shown in

Table 19-6.
TABLE 19-6 Liquid storage tank design and construction standards
Standard Title

API 12B Bolted Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids

API 12D Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids

API 12F Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids
API 620 Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
API 650 Welded Tanks for Oil Storage
Steel Tank
Standard for Aboveground Tanks
Institute SP01
UL 58 Standard for Steel Underground Storage Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
UL 80 Standard for Steel Underground Storage Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
UL 142 Standard for Steel Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Underground Storage Tanks for Petroleum Products, Alcohols and
UL 1316
Alcohol-Gasoline Mixtures
UL 2085 Standard for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
UL 2245 Standard for Below-Grade Vaults for Flammable Liquid Storage Tanks
3 0 2    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s
FIGURE 19-11  Installation of an underground storage tank (Cour-
tesy of the Steel Tank Institute, Lake Zurich, IL)
FIGURE 19-12  An above-ground
storage tank at a manufacturing
plant
Underground storage tanks (USTs) are
constructed of carbon steel or fiberglass-
reinforced thermosetting plastic. USTs pro-
vide the highest level of fire safety because
the tank has no possibility of being exposed
to a fire (Figure 19-11). Because a UST is
buried, SBC 801 requires these tanks to be
provided with a primary and secondary con-
tainment. The primary containment is the
tank itself, and the secondary containment
can be provided by another tank shell or
other approved containment systems. The
outer (secondary) containment will capture
any leaking product that escapes the pri-
mary tank and prevent the stored product
from contaminating soil or a water body.
These tanks are equipped with an overfill
protection system and electronic systems for leak detection and
product reconciliation. Product reconciliation is an important part of
an overall spill prevention program, as it ensures each liter of product
is accounted for through receipt, sales or evaporative losses. If the
UST is made of steel, it is connected to a cathodic protection system
to protect it from corrosion.
ASTs are constructed of carbon steel or other ferrous materials
(Figure 19-12). They can be installed outside or inside of buildings
within SBC volumetric limits. Because an AST can be easily inspected,
it normally does not require cathodic protection. Based on the tank
type and its application, tank connections may be above or below the
liquid level. Even though ASTs can be visually inspected, almost all
installations will require secondary containment.
ASTs and USTs are commonly used for vehicle fuel storage,
including unleaded gasoline, gasoline-ethanol mixtures, diesel fuel
and biodiesel. The requirements for the type of tank allowed for
motor fuel-dispensing facilities are specified in SBC 801, Chapter 23.
Since many motor fuel-dispensing facilities are accessible by the
general public, SBC 801 prescribes the use of either ASTs located in
below-grade vaults or protected above-ground storage tanks (PASTs)
when storing Class I liquids. When a PAST is used, the tank must be
installed in accordance with the requirements in Chapter 57. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 2306.2.3] (See Chapter 14 of this Guide.)
 S t o r a g e Ta n k D e s i g n a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n    3 0 3

A PAST is a shop-fabricated tank listed in

accordance with UL 2085, Standard for Protected
Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible
Liquids. A PAST consists of a primary tank that is
constructed to the requirements of UL 142 and is
protected from physical damage such as vehicle
impact (Figure 19-13). PASTs are designed to oper-
ate at atmospheric pressure and are constructed
with a method of secondary containment that is
integral to the assembly. The tank is constructed
with a fire-resistive feature to protect it from a liq-
uid petroleum pool fire. The tank may provide all
these protection elements as a single unit, may be FIGURE 19-13  Protected above-ground storage tanks at a
an assembly of components or may be a combina- regional airport
tion of both. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.9.7]
Installation requirements for ASTs are found
in SBC 801, Chapters 23 and 57. SBC 801, Table
2306.2.3 (Table 19-7) provides the requirements for locating storage
tanks for fuel dispensing based on the tank type, its volume and its
location in relation to exposures such as important buildings on the
same property, the dispenser, property lines and public ways. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 2306.2.3]

TABLE 19-7  Minimum separation requirements for above-ground tanks

Minimum Minimum
distance distance from
from nearest lot line that is
important Minimum or can be built Minimum Minimum
Individual building distance from upon, including distance from distance
tank on same nearest fuel the opposite nearest side between
Class of liquid capacity property dispenser side of a public of any public tanks
and tank type (liters) (meters) (meters) way (meters) way (meters) (millimeters)

Less than or
Class I, II and equal to 1.5 7.5a, c 4.5 1.5 900
III protected 22 710
above-ground
tanks
Greater than 4.5 7.5a, c 7.5 4.5 900
22 710
Separate
compartment
Tanks in vaults 0 – 75 700 0 b
0 0 b
0 required for
each tank
Other tanks All 15.0 15.0 30 15.0 900

a. At fleet vehicle motor fuel-dispensing facilities, a minimum separation distance is not required.
b. Underground vaults shall be located such that they will not be subject to loading from nearby structures, or they shall be designed to
accommodate applied loads from existing or future structures that can be built nearby.
c. For Class IIIB liquids in protected above-ground tanks, a minimum separation distance is not required.
3 0 4    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s

STORAGE TANK OPENINGS

[Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.7]
A tank has several openings to accommodate simultaneous tank
filling, product withdrawal and vents. USTs and ASTs are equipped
with at least two openings. One opening is designed to allow the
tank to vent vapor to the atmosphere when product is delivered
into or withdrawn from the tank. It allows outside air into the tank
when product is withdrawn during transfer or dispensing. This open-
ing is called the normal vent. [Ref. SBC 801 -
5704.2.7.3, 5704.2.7.5]
Storage tanks are designed to resist the
positive and negative pressures generated when
liquid is introduced into or withdrawn from the
tank. Improper sizing of a tank’s normal vent or
1.5 m obstructions in it can generate excessive nega-
3.6 m tive pressure, causing the tank to collapse into
itself. Normal vents on storage tanks storing
Class I, II and IIIA liquids are terminated out-
side of buildings at least 3.6 m above the adja-
cent ground level. The 3.6 m elevation of the
vent is necessary to ensure that the surrounding
air mixes with the vapor being exhausted so it is
diluted below 25 percent of the liquid’s LFL prior
to the vapor reaching the ground and drifting
away from the vent opening (Figure 19-14).
The vent piping is arranged so vapors are
FIGURE 19-14  Normal venting of an above-ground storage discharged upward or away from property lines.
tank
The normal vent is terminated at least 1.5 m
from building openings or lot (property) lines
that can be built upon. Vent pipes on tanks stor-
ing Class IIIB liquids need not meet the 3.6 m
above-grade requirement because of their high
flash point (Figure 19-15). Tank vents for Class
IIIB liquids may be inside buildings, provided
the vents are normally closed. [Ref. SBC 801 -
5704.2.7.3.3]

FIGURE 19-15  A normal vent and volume gauge on a low-

hazard Class IIIB liquid storage tank
 S t o r a g e Ta n k O p e n i n g s    3 0 5

The normal vent on a tank storing Class I

liquids must be equipped with a pressure-vacuum
(PV) vent (Figure 19-16). A PV vent is designed
to remain in a normally closed position and only
operates when the tank is operating under posi-
tive pressure or negative pressure (vacuum) con-
ditions. SBC 801 specifies a PV vent to minimize
the loss of vapor when the tank is atmospherically
heated. On tanks storing Class IB and IC liquids,
a flame arrester provides an alternative to the PV
(Figure 19-17). [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.7.3.2]
A second opening is provided for product fill-
ing or withdrawal (Figure 19-18). The size, loca-
tion and valve arrangement depend on the tank’s FIGURE 19-16  The device at the top of this vent pipe is a
pressure-vacuum vent connected to a tank storing a Class I
function. For bulk storage, outlets often are at the liquid.
lowest points of the tanks. For dispensing opera-
tions, they are located at the tank top.

FIGURE 19-18  Product transfer lines and control valves installed at the tank base

FIGURE 19-17  For Class IB and

IC liquids, a flame arrester at the
vent outlet is an alternative to a
pressure-vacuum vent.
3 0 6    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s

A third opening is an emergency vent. Except for tanks larger than

45 420 L storing Class IIIB combustible liquids, every AST requires
an emergency vent that protects the tank from a pressure rupture
if it is involved in or exposed to fire (Figures 19-19 and 19-20). The
emergency vents must be sized corresponding to the tank size. [Ref.
SBC 801 - 5704.2.7.4] The emergency vent opening is intended to
discharge vapors that will be generated if the tank is involved in a
pool fire or is subject to an exposure fire. An emergency vent is not
required for ASTs that contain more than 45 420 L of Class IIIB liq-
uids when the tank is not within the same containment dike or drain-
age path of tanks containing Class I or II flammable or combustible
liquids. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.7.4]

FIGURE 19-19  An emergency FIGURE 19-20  An emergency vent on

vent on a 1000 L tank. This vent is a 1000 L tank. Increased vapor pres-
closed. sure will push the vent open.

Several methods are available to meet the SBC 801 require-

ments for emergency venting. On shop-fabricated ASTs, the
most common methods are the installation of a direct-action
emergency vent or a long-bolt emergency vent. A direct-action
emergency vent is constructed to a minimum diameter and a
cover is attached to a metal guide (Figure 19-21). The internal
diameter of the direct-action emergency vent governs its pres-
sure relief flow capacity. The weight of the cover governs its
opening pressure, which cannot exceed 17.2 kPa under the tank
design requirements. Direct-action emergency vents offer a reli-
able means of emergency venting for ASTs because the cover is
the only moving part.

FIGURE 19-21  Direct-action emergency

vent. This particular manufacturer uses a
spring-loaded cover that is secured closed
by a graphite pin. The pin breaks at an open-
ing pressure of approximately 7 kPa, caus-
ing the vent cover to open.
 S t o r a g e Ta n k O p e n i n g s    3 0 7

Another acceptable method of pro-

viding an emergency vent is installing a
long-bolt vent (Figure 19-22). A long-bolt
emergency vent is simply a flange cover
mounted onto a flanged manway open-
ing on top of an AST. Every other bolt is
removed from the flange cover and the
remaining bolts are installed so they have
minimum 460 mm of movement. These
vents are less reliable because to disable
the vent by bolting the cover tightly to the
flange. They are also subject to warping,
especially in hot climates when the metal
is cooled by rain.
NFPA 30 requires that all emergency
vents be marked to indicate the vent’s flow FIGURE 19-22  Some tanks are equipped with “long bolt” emergency
rate. This requirement applies to commer- vents. When the tank pressure increases the entire lid rises. These
cially manufactured and listed emergency bolts should never be tightened.
vent devices and also to long-bolt vents.
The required flow rate to adequately vent
a tank under fire exposure, expressed in
standard cubic meters per hour, is based on
the AST “wetted area.” The wetted area is
the tank’s internal surface area in contact
with the stored liquid. Wetted area calcula-
tions are based on storage tank shape and
whether it is designed for a horizontal or
vertical installation.
The nameplate for UL-listed ASTs is
marked to indicate the required emer-
gency vent flow rate. An inspection of
any AST should include a comparison of
the provided emergency vent flow rate to
the required flow rate on the tank name-
plate. An emergency vent is undersized if
the flow rate does not equal or exceed the
required rated flow capacity on the storage
tank nameplate. NFPA 30 permits adding
the rated flow capacity through the normal
vent to the rated capacity of the emergency
vent to satisfy the total required flow rate
indicated on the tank nameplate. In this
case, the normal vent must also be marked
to indicate its rated flow capacity (Figure
19-23).
FIGURE 19-23  The flow rate of an emergency vent must be marked
on the device.
3 0 8    C h a p t e r 1 9 F l a m m a b l e a n d C o m b u s t i b l e L i q u i d s

QUIZ
1. Except for tanks larger than 45 420 L storing _________ liquids,
every above-ground storage requires an emergency vent that
protects the tank from a pressure rupture.
a. Class IC
b. Class II
c. Class IIIA
d. Class IIIB

2. A liquid’s __________ is the temperature at which the vapor

pressure of a liquid equals the absolute pressure of 101.2 kPa.
a. flash point
b. boiling point
c. volatile point
d. vapor point

3. Normal vents on storage tanks storing Class I, II and IIIA liquids

are terminated outside of buildings at least _______ m above the
adjacent ground level.
a. 3.6
b. 3.7
c. 3.8
d. 5.2

4. Wetted area calculations are based on storage tank shape and

whether it is designed for a horizontal or vertical installation.
a. True
b. False

5. Above-ground flammable and combustible liquid storage tanks

are made of ferrous steel or fiberglass-reinforced thermosetting
plastic.
a. True
b. False
CHAPTER
Liquefied Petroleum
20 Gas (LP-gas)

L
iquefied petroleum gases (LP-gases) are flammable hydrocar-
bon gases from natural gas processing and petroleum refining
that are liquefied through pressurization. LP-gas becomes liquid
at approximately 220 kPa at 20°C for pure butane and approximately
2200 kPa at 55°C for pure propane. Propane, butane and blends are stored
in containers that have LP-gas in both liquid and gas phases.

309
3 1 0    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

LP-gas exists as “wet natural gas” during drilling in natural gas and
crude oil production. It often is burned at the extraction site because
processing this raw material from such sources may be uneconomical.
When it is captured, LP-gas most often is used for heating or cooking but
also can be used as a commercial refrigerant or fuel for vehicles with gas-
oline engines that have an LP-gas system (see Chapter 14) (Figure 20-1).

FIGURE 20-1  LP-gas is stored in steel vessels in a variety of sizes based on customer

needs.

LP-gas is stored in steel vessels ranging from small gas cylinders

(often called “bottles”) to larger gas cylinders and tanks. LP-gas tanks
are most commonly referred to by their water capacity volume and
propane tanks are normally filled to 80% of its water capacity. LP-gas
measurement is in kilograms because the volume and pressure can be
affected by temperature. LP-gas (propane) expands at 1.5% per 5.55°C
temperature increase. In other words, the density changes. So, if the gas
bottle was filled by volume on a hot day, it would have less gas, in liters,
than a gas bottle filled on a cold day. That’s why it is measured and sold
in kilograms. For example, a 120 kg tank will hold approximately 379 L
of propane when completely full. Since propane is stored in a liquid state
under pressure, it needs room to expand into a vapor. This extra “room”
that is in the tank allows for that expansion. Table 20-1 describes some
commonly sized LP-gas vessels.
  L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )    3 11

TABLE 20-1  LP-gas tank capacities (assuming 80% of tank water capacity)
Storage Vessel Size LP-gas Quantity
(kg) (L)
0.51 270
15 800
45 2400
90 4800
210 11 300

Homes and small businesses typically use LP-gas in 45 kg, 90 kg or

210 kg LP-gas gas cylinder sizes. Specific domestic LP-gas bottle dimen-
sions, domestic gas cylinder weight, specifications, LP-gas cylinder
height, diameter and capacity vary by manufacturer. For example:
• 9 kg gas bottles with a product of 16.7 L are the most common LP-
gas cylinder size for small outdoor cooking appliances or heaters.
• 45 kg domestic LP-gas cylinders that have an 88 L capacity are the
most common LP-gas cylinder size for home cooking and heating
use.
• Larger pressure containers, for bulk storage and distribution at
wholesale or consumer sites, are measured in liters of water and reg-
ularly can range up to 455 000 L.
To sustain the liquid-vapor concentration, gases are stored in steel
tanks and held at high pressures—about 20 times atmospheric pres-
sure. These tanks must meet construction standards established by the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and receive Saudi
Standards, Metrology and Quality Organization certification. The pres-
sure vessels have additional safety features because of this extreme pres-
surization: mainly a built-in shutoff valve to seal the tank if there are
leaks and overpressurization vent lines. In some cases, LP-gas bulk con-
tainers are insulated to keep the liquid at extremely cold temperatures
(-202°C). Lowering temperatures condenses the liquid to enable more
product to be stored inside the vessel (Figure 20-2).

FIGURE 20-2  Horizontal LP-gas containers are referred to as “ASME” tanks.

3 1 2    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

LP-gas is hazardous for a number of reasons: it has a relatively large

You Should flammable range (from 1.81 to 9.5 percent in air), a vapor density from
Know about 1.5 to 2 times heavier than air (that causes it to pool in low-lying
LP-gas has yet another areas) and an ignition temperature from 410 to 580°C. Since LP-gas
hazard that makes it par- generally has no odor, small amounts of ethanethiol (a foul-smelling
ticularly dangerous: its mercaptan, a type of odorant) are added to help people smell dangerous
expansion ratio. When gas leaks.
the liquid escapes from One of the key safety features with LP-gas is spacing containers away
a storage container, it from buildings, other LP-gas containers, roads and sidewalks and adja-
expands rapidly in air. cent property lines where buildings one day could be built. The purpose
One L of liquid stored for these spacing requirements is to address potential safety hazards
under pressure in a con- with inadvertent leaks or fires (see SBC 801, Table 6104.3) (Figure 20-3).
tainer will expand to
approximately 270 L of
vapor if released to the
atmosphere. For com-
parison, 1 L of gasoline
will expand to 13.5 to
15 L in air. The significant
LP-gas expansion ratio
means first responders
can anticipate danger-
ously large vapor clouds
around leaking LP-gas
vessels. l FIGURE 20-3  These LP-gas cylinders were destroyed in a fire, releasing their contents.

Because LP-gas is heavier than air, a catastrophic leak may result

in a large LP-gas pool beneath a bulk container. If ignited, the vapors
immediately above the liquid pool would result in a fire of about 1970°C
that could impinge upon the container and heat the remaining contents
to their boiling point (-42°C).
When LP-gas pressure vessels
are exposed to sustained fires,
they are susceptible to boiling
liquid expanding vapor explo-
sions (BLEVEs). A BLEVE occurs
when the liquid product is heat-
ed and the expanding vapors
cannot be dissipated adequately
through pressure-relief vents.
The combination of heat and
stress may cause a catastrophic
cylinder failure, spreading a fire-
ball and cylinder shrapnel as far
as 800 m (Figure 20-4).

FIGURE 20-4  A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE)

 C o n t a i n e r C o m p o n e n t s    3 1 3

A BLEVE’s size is dependent on the size and weight of the container

along with the amount of liquid that remains inside the container when a
BLEVE occurs. Most flame-induced liquefied gas BLEVEs occurred when
there was approximately one-half to three-fourths of the liquid remain-
ing in the container.
Fireballs several hundred meters in diameter have also been observed
as a result of BLEVEs, and deaths and injuries have been documented as
far as 800 m from the container. Research shows that a 1000-L-container
BLEVE with LP-gas would result in an approximately 25-m radius for a
fireball. Fireball shapes vary significantly. If a container fails rapidly, it
will produce classic, spherical fireballs. If the liquid within the tank is
relatively cool at the time of a BLEVE, a large ground fire may result.

CONTAINER COMPONENTS
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 61]
NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, prescribes the methods for
constructing LP-gas containers. As vessels under constant internal pres-
sure, bottles, cylinders, tanks and containers must be fabricated to meet
UN/US Department of Transportation standards, the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code or the API-ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels for
Petroleum Liquids and Gases. Depending upon the expected LP-gas inte-
rior vapor pressure, vessels must be rated from 0.6 to 1.5 MPag (mega-
pascal gauge pressure) at 37.8°C and have a maximum working pressure
from 0.7 to 2.2 MPag. Portable containers up to about 454 kg generally
are referred to as UN/DOT cylinders and usually are installed upright.
Larger vessels are called ASME containers and are installed horizontally
(Figure 20-5).

FIGURE 20-5  Portable, upright LP-gas cylinders are known as “DOT” cylinders and must
meet Saudi safety standards.
3 1 4    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

LP-gas containers must have openings to attach fill/withdrawal

connections (vessels up to 15.2 kg can be filled into the vapor space),
pressure regulators and pressure relief valves. On portable UN/DOT
cylinders, these features usually included in a combined fill valve/relief
assembly on top of the cylinder. The relief assembly usually is a spring-
loaded disk designed to open at about 1723 kPa (Figures 20-6 and 20-7).

FIGURE 20-6  Fill/withdrawal connections, pressure relief vents and pressure regulators

on an ASME tank that will be installed underground

FIGURE 20-7  Close-up view of the round pressure-relieving spring-loaded disk vent

outlet
 C o n t a i n e r C o m p o n e n t s    3 1 5

In addition to the fill and pressure relief valves, ASME containers

more than 15.2 kg also have pressure gauges, emergency shutoff and
excess flow valves. Pressure relief valves are an important element to
minimize the likelihood of a BLEVE. Under current design ASME stan-
dards, pressure relief valves must start to open when the valve setting
reaches the containers’ pressure rating. (Pre-1949 ASME standards
allowed a start-to-leak pressure of 125% of the container pressure rat-
ing.) Containers more than 151 m3 must have spring-loaded or pilot-
operated relief valves. The relief valves’ flow rates are a function of the
containers’ surface area. Table 20-2 is an extract from NFPA 58’s require-
ments for relief valve capacity (Figure 20-8).

FIGURE 20-8  Pressure relief valves and vent pipes on adjacent bulk containers

TABLE 20-2  Relief valve flow rate extract from NFPA 58 (refer to NFPA 58 for the full table)
Container surface Flow rate
(m2) (SLPM*)
22.3 135 921
32.5 185 192
65 327 060
134.8 594 087
167 709 337
337

*Standard liters per minute

Single- or multiple-stage pressure regulators are installed in the

product supply line from the container to the appliance or equipment it
is serving.
ASME containers greater than 15.2 kg often have fittings for both
vapor and liquid withdrawal. Vapor withdrawal outlets must be equipped
with either a positive shutoff valve with an excess control valve installed
in the container or an “internal valve,” which is a primary shutoff valve
that can be closed remotely and incorporates an excess flow valve. An
“excess flow valve” is a valve designed to close when the liquid or vapor
flow through it exceeds a prescribed rate.
3 1 6    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

Liquid withdrawal openings on ASME containers must have an

internal valve fitted for remote closure and shutoff using thermal (fire)
operation.

LP-GAS CONTAINER INSTALLATION

[Ref. SBC 801 - 6101]
Considering LP-gas’s potential for hazardous conditions, SBC 801
includes special safeguards to protect from leaks, overpressurization,
fires, and explosions. SBC 801, Chapter 61 storage, handling and trans-
portation safety requirements are derived primarily from NFPA 58,
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code. If there are concerns about a LP-gas instal-
lation or operation not addressed in SBC 801, NFPA 58 should be con-
sulted (Figure 20-9).

FIGURE 20-9  Where large LP-gas quantities are stored or dispensed, special safety features are required.

The installer must submit construction documents to the fire code

official when installing a single container more than 7000 L or when the
aggregate (total) on-site amount will be more than 15 000 L. [Ref. SBC
801 - 6101.3]
Portable containers—those that are intended to be moved readily—
are restricted in indoor use because of LP-gas’s hazardous characteristics:
high expansion ratio, volatility, and heavier-than-air vapor density. Table
20-3 summarizes LP-gas’s indoor restrictions (Figure 20-10). [Ref. SBC
801 - 6103.2]

FIGURE 20-10  The indoor use and storage of LP-gas containers is limited to prevent
serious fire hazards.
 L P - g a s C o n t a i n e r I n s t a l l a t i o n    3 1 7

TABLE 20-3  Permitted LP-gas indoor uses

Use or Location Water Capacity Limits Aggregate
Basements, pits and similar locations* Not allowed
Allowed only with approved
Under-floor spaces above grade*
ventilation
Construction and temporary heating 334 kg when heater is on same floor

23 kg individual containers
Construction and temporary heating in buildings open to
Number of containers not to exceed
public
number of workers using LP-gas
Group F occupancies 334 kg
Group E occupancies 23 kg and not permitted in classrooms
Group I occupancies 5 kg
Public exhibits and demonstrations 5 kg
Self-contained open-flame heating/soldering tools 1 kg
Food preparation 5 kg
Industrial vehicles and floor maintenance machines 48 kg
337

*Self-contained open-flame heating/soldering tools less than 1 kg are permitted.

Large LP-gas containers—that are intended to remain in one posi-
tion while the product is in use or storage—are required to meet separa-
tion distances outlined in Table 6104.3. One critical difference between
SBC 801 and NFPA 58 is that SBC 801, Section 6104.3.1 does not allow
LP-gas containers to be permanently installed on building roofs.
3 1 8    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

TABLE 6104.3
LOCATION OF LP-GAS CONTAINERS

MINIMUM SEPARATION BETWEEN LP-GAS

CONTAINERS AND BUILDINGS, PUBLIC WAYS OR
LOT LINES OF ADJOINING MINIMUM SEPARATION
LP-GAS CONTAINER
PROPERTY THAT CAN BE BUILT UPON BETWEEN LP-GAS
CAPACITY
CONTAINERSb, c
(water Liters) Mounded or underground Above-ground LP-gas (m)
LP-gas containersa containersb
(m) (m)
Less than 473c,d 3 1.5e None

473 to 950 3 3 None

950.1 to 1,893 3 3 0.9

1,893.1 to 7,570 3 7.5e,f 0.9

7,570.1 to 113,550 15 15 1.5

113,550.1 to 264,950 15 22.5

(0.25 of sum of diameters of
264,950.1 to 340,650 15 30
adjacent LP-gas containers)
340,650.1 to 454,200 15 37.5
a. Minimum distance for underground LP-gas containers shall be measured from the pressure relief device and the filling or liquid-level gauge vent
connection at the container, except that all parts of an underground LP-gas container shall be not less than 3000 mm from a building or lot line of
adjoining property that can be built upon.
b. For other than installations in which the overhanging structure is 15 m or more above the relief-valve discharge outlet. In applying the distance
between buildings and ASME LP-gas containers with a water capacity of 473 Liters or more, not less than 50 percent of this horizontal distance shall
also apply to all portions of the building that project more than 1,500 mm from the building wall and that are higher than the relief valve discharge
outlet. This horizontal distance shall be measured from a point determined by projecting the outside edge of such overhanging structure vertically
downward to grade or other level upon which the LP-gas container is installed. Distances to the building wall shall be not less than those prescribed
in this table.
c. Where underground multicontainer installations are composed of individual LP-gas containers having a water capacity of 473 liters or more, such
containers shall be installed so as to provide access at their ends or sides to facilitate working with cranes or hoists.
d. At a consumer site, if the aggregate water capacity of a multicontainer installation, comprised of individual LP-gas containers having a water capacity
of less than 473 liters, is 1,893 liters or more, the minimum distance shall comply with the appropriate portion of Table 6104.3, applying the aggregate
capacity rather than the capacity per LP-gas container. If more than one such installation is made, each installation shall be separated from other
installations by not less than 7500 mm. Minimum distances between LP-gas containers need not be applied.
e. The following shall apply to above-ground containers installed alongside buildings:
1. LP-gas containers of less than a 473 liters water capacity are allowed next to the building they serve where in compliance with Items 2, 3 and 4.
2. Department of Transportation (DOTn) specification LP-gas containers shall be located and installed so that the discharge from the container
pressure relief device is not less than 900 mm horizontally from building openings below the level of such discharge and shall not be beneath
buildings unless the space is well ventilated to the outside and is not enclosed for more than 50 percent of its perimeter. The discharge from LP-
gas container pressure relief devices shall be located not less than 1,500 mm from exterior sources of ignition, openings into direct-vent (sealed
combustion system) appliances or mechanical ventilation air intakes.
3. ASME LP-gas containers of less than a 473 Liters water capacity shall be located and installed such that the discharge from pressure relief devices
shall not terminate in or beneath buildings and shall be located not less than 1,500 mm horizontally from building openings below the level of
such discharge and not less than 1,500 mm from exterior sources of ignition, openings into direct vent (sealed combustion system) appliances, or
mechanical ventilation air intakes.
4. The filling connection and the vent from liquid-level gauges on either DOTn or ASME LP-gas containers filled at the point of installation shall be
not less than 3000 mm from exterior sources of ignition, openings into direct vent (sealed combustion system) appliances or mechanical
ventilation air intakes.
f. This distance is allowed to be reduced to not less than 3,048 mm for a single LP-gas container of 4,542-litre water capacity or less, provided such
container is not less than 7500 mm from other LP-gas containers of more than 473 liters water capacity.
 F i r e P r o t e c t i o n    3 1 9

These larger containers may be used to supply LP-gas at produc-

tion sites, commercial or industrial locations (see Chapter 14 for motor
vehicle fuel dispensing systems) or may serve as an intermediate storage
facility where distribution trucks or smaller containers are brought to
transport the fuel gas to other locations for heating, cooking and similar
processes.
Where these larger above-ground containers are installed near special
hazards—such as above-ground flammable or combustible liquid storage
tanks, oxygen or hydrogen gas containers, areas subject to flooding, or
beneath power lines—they must be installed in accordance with NFPA
30, Flammable and Combustible Liquid Code, and NFPA 55, Compressed
Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code, respectively (see Table 20-4). [Ref. SBC
801 - 6104.3.2]
TABLE 20-4  LP-gas container separation from special hazards
Minimum Distance
Condition Code Section
(m)
Class I, II or IIIA liquid storage tanks having a
6 NFPA 30 22.4.2.4
flash point less than 93.4°C
Centerline of the wall of diked areas around
3 NFPA 58 6.4.4.5
liquid storage tanks
Electric power lines more than 600 volts 1.8 NFPA 58 6.4.4.13
LP-gas up to 3785 L and oxygen bulk
7.5 NFPA 55 9.3.2
containers*
LP-gas more than 3785 L and oxygen bulk
1.5 NFPA 55 9.3.2
containers*
Gaseous hydrogen bulk containers* 4.8 NFPA 55 10.3.2.2.1

* When a 2-hour fire-resistance-rated protective structure is erected between the LP-gas and oxygen or hydrogen container, no separation
distance is required. [Ref. SBC 801 - 6104.3.2 and NFPA 58 - 6.4.4.9]

FIRE PROTECTION
[Ref. SBC 801 - 6108]
When an ASME LP-gas container has a water capacity greater than
15 140 L, special fire protection must be provided. [Ref. SBC 801 -
6108.1] The fire protection methods must be specified in a written fire
safety analysis provided by the container owner, operator, or another
person or firm approved by the fire code official. The fire safety analysis
must include an evaluation of the entire container and pipe distribution
or dispensing system, such as emergency shutoff and internal valves
equipped for remote closure and automatic shutoff using thermal actua-
tion, pullaway protection (if provided), and fire apparatus access roads.
If the fire safety analysis determines the installation constitutes a hazard
to adjacent structures, one of the protection methods described in the
next paragraph must be employed. [Ref. SBC 801 - 6108.1 and NFPA
58 - 6.27.3]
In those circumstances where more than one bulk LP-gas container is
located on a property, special additional rules are applied. [Ref. SBC 801
- 6104.4] Multiple LP-gas containers with an aggregate water capacity
of 631 000 L (567 750 L LP-gas capacity) must be separated into groups
3 2 0    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

not exceeding 631 000 L in each group. These groups must be separated
Code from one another by at least 15 m, unless all containers are protected
Essentials with one of the following protection methods (Figure 20-11):
Close study between
codes is important to
obtain compliance.
NFPA 58, Section 6.4.4.9
allows no separation
distance between an
LP-gas container and
gaseous hydrogen ves-
sels when a 2-hour
fire-resistance-rated
protective structure is
erected between them.
However, NFPA 55,
Table 10.3.2.2.2.1(b)
requires at least 1500
mm between the gas-
eous hydrogen container
FIGURE 20-11  This long row of pressure relief vents reveals little about what lies
and the fire-resistance- underneath the dirt mounds: large-volume LP-gas containers.
rated protective struc-
ture. Generally, a fire
• Mounded in an approved manner
code official will insist
• Approved insulation on areas that are subject to impingement of
the more restrictive ignited gas. If insulation is used, it must be capable of limiting
requirement is imposed. the container temperature to not more than 430°C for 50 min-
In this case, it is the utes. [Ref. NFPA 58 - 6.27.5.1]
1.5 m space between • Approved fire walls
the hydrogen system • Approved water-application system
and the fire-resistance- • Another method approved by the fire code official.
rated protective struc- When one of these methods is employed, the separation between
ture. l bulk LP-gas groups may be reduced to 7.5 m (Figure 20-12).

FIGURE 20-12  A large-volume water monitor is one means that can be

employed to protect bulk LP-gas containers.
 P o r t a b l e C o n t a i n e r S t o r a g e    3 2 1

PORTABLE CONTAINER STORAGE Code

[Ref. SBC 801 - 6109]
One of the benefits of LP-gas containers is that they are often por-
Essentials
table and can be transported on short notice to where they are needed. The portable fire extin-
Their ease of use makes them susceptible to being installed in areas guisher requirements for
where LP-gas creates a distinct safety hazard (Figure 20-13). LP-gas installations are
specified in NFPA 58.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 6108.2]
• Each industrial plant,
bulk plant and distrib-
uting point must have
at least one portable
fire extinguisher with a
minimum dry chemical
capacity of 8.2 kg with
a Class B:C rating.
• Each LP-gas cargo tank
vehicle or tractor must
have at least one por-
table fire extinguisher
with a minimum dry
chemical capacity of
8.2 kg with a Class B:C
rating.
FIGURE 20-13  Containers greater than 1 kg awaiting use must be positioned so the
pressure relief valve is in direct contact with the vapor space. • Retail cylinder
exchange locations
must have at least one
To avoid the consequences of dangerous leaks and catastrophic
fire extinguisher with a
container failures, SBC 801 provides specific requirements for LP-gas
dry chemical capacity
container storage. Containers greater than 1 kg must be positioned so
of 4.5 kg with a Class
the pressure relief valve is in direct contact with the vapor space. Laying
A-B:C rating.
an LP-gas container on its side, where the liquid phase can seep from the
• Storage locations,
relief valve, increases the danger of a significant leak. [Ref. SBC 801 -
other than retail
6109.3]
exchange locations,
Some of the basic safety precautions for LP-gas include:
where the aggregate
• Containers may not be stored near exit access doors, exits, stair-
amount of LP-gas
ways or other areas normally used as a means of egress. [Ref. SBC
exceeds 327 kg must
801 - 6109.4]
have at least one fire
• Containers that are not connected for use may not be stored on
extinguisher with a dry
roofs. [Ref. SBC 801 - 6109.6]
chemical capacity of
• Because LP-gas is heavier than air, containers may not be stored in
8.2 kg with a Class 40
pits, basements or similar locations. There is an exception for up to B:C or 80 B:C rating.
9 kg of 1 kg cylinders for self-contained hand torches and similar A 40 B:C extinguisher
applications. [Ref. SBC 801 - 6109.7] may be not more than
• In areas accessible to the public—such as retail stores—1 kg cylin- 10 m—and an 80 B:C
ders for self-contained hand torches and similar applications may extinguisher not more
be stored or displayed, but the aggregate quantity of LP-gas is lim- than 15 m—from
ited to 91 kg (Figure 20-14). [Ref. SBC 801 - 6109.9] LP-gas storage areas. l
3 2 2    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )
FIGURE 20-14  In areas
accessible to the public—such
as retail stores—1 kg cylinders
for self-contained hand torches
and similar applications may
be stored or displayed, but the
aggregate quantity of LP-gas is
limited to 91 kg.
FIGURE 20-15  LP-gas cylinder exhange programs have become a very popular way to
reduce problems and take old, potentially dangerous cylinders out of service.
In areas not accessible to the public or in gas production facilities
quantities may increase to 334 kg and 4540 kg, respectively. [Ref. SBC
801 - 6109.10, 6109.11]
There also is danger, however, when the LP-gas wholesaler or retailer
moves and stores containers that are not empty. In fact, SBC 801, Section
6109.5 states that once used, LP-gas containers must be treated as full
vessels. This enables the fire code official to evaluate risks without hav-
ing to measure the LP-gas in each container. When containers are stored
closely together, small individual LP-gas quantities can aggregate into a
much larger hazard.
LP-GAS CYLINDER EXCHANGE PROGRAM
[Ref. SBC 801 - 6106]
A common sight at many retail facilities is LP-gas cylinder exchange
cabinets. The cylinder exchange program, where the consumer returns
an empty cylinder and takes a full cylinder, has been around for decades.
However, in 1998, NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, was revised
to prohibit the refilling of cylinders from 1.8 kg to 18.1 kg not equipped
with an overfill prevention device (OPD). An OPD is designed to keep
the LP-gas cylinder from being overfilled. The contents of the LP-gas
cylinder consist of a combination of gas and liquid. The LP-gas cylinder
must be provided with a vapor space to allow changes in pressure as the
surrounding temperature changes. An OPD is calibrated to stop the flow
into the cylinder when the maximum fill level is reached. The OPD must
be listed to ANSI/UL 2227, Standard for Overfilling Prevention Devices
(Figure 20-15). [Ref. SBC 801 - 6106.2]
 L P - g a s Ta n k Ve h i c l e s 323

This led to the exchange program seen today, which results in the
following scenario:
• A consumer takes an empty LP-gas cylinder to a cylinder exchange
location, leaves the empty and returns home with a full cylinder.
• The LP-gas refill company takes the empty (returned) cylinder and
evaluates it.
• The cylinder must pass a visual inspection (the company looks for
signs of damage).
• The cylinder is hydrostatically tested, depending on the date of
manufacture or the date of the previous test.
• If the cylinder passes the visual and hydrostatic tests, the cylinder
will be retrofitted with an OPD.
• Acceptable cylinders will be refilled and placed back into a cylinder
exchange cabinet.
According to the US National Propane Gas Association, this process
has resulted in nearly one million cylinders that did not pass the inspec-
tion and testing criteria being removed from service. As the cylinder
exchange program has expanded, the cylinder exchange stations have
become automated. The customer can complete the exchange and pay
with a credit card at the kiosk. The code requires that the exchange com-
ponents and equipment be inspected daily. The cylinder cabinet must be
designed so that the returned cylinder can be inserted only in an upright
position. This ensures that the pressure relief device is in the vapor space
rather than in the residual liquid that may be present in the cylinder. All
electrical equipment within 1524 mm of the cylinder storage cabinet
must be designed as Class I, Division 2. [Ref. SBC 801 - 6109.15.1]

LP-GAS TANK VEHICLES

[Ref. SBC 801 - 6111.1]
Safety regulations extend to LP-gas tank vehicles that distribute to
residential or commercial locations from bulk facilities. Vehicle opera-
tion and safety practices are established in NFPA 58.
Unattended LP-gas vehicle parking is prohibited within 152 m of a
residential area, apartment or hotel complex, educational facility, hospital
or care facility. The fire code official may also limit unattended parking in
other areas if it poses an extreme life hazard. Any parking lasting longer
than 1 hour must be off public streets, highways, avenues or alleys, inside
a bulk plant or in other approved locations not less than 15 240 mm from
buildings.
3 2 4    C h a p t e r 2 0 L i q u e f i e d P e t r o l e u m G a s ( L P - g a s )

QUIZ
1. I n areas accessible to the public—such as retail stores—1 kg cylin-
ders for self-contained hand torches and similar applications may be
stored or displayed, but the aggregate quantity of LP-gas is limited to
_________ kg.
a. 45
b. 60
c. 91
d. 200

2. LP-gas has an expansion ratio of _________ :1.

a. 14
b. 50
c. 127
d. 270

3. A BLEVE occurs when a liquid product is heated and the expanding

vapors cannot be dissipated adequately through pressure-relief vents.
a. True
b. False

4. When a 1-hour fire-resistance-rated protective structure is erected

between the LP-gas and oxygen or hydrogen container, no separation
distance is required.
a. True
b. False

5. Multiple LP-gas containers with an aggregate water capacity of

631 000 L (567 750 L LP-gas capacity) must be separated into groups
not exceeding __________ L in each group.
a. 300 000
b. 500 000
c. 567 750
d. 631 000
CHAPTER
Final Exam
21
1. According to the SBC 801 definitions, a “vessel of 225 L or less in capacity
used for transporting or storing hazardous materials” is a ____________.
a. tank
b. cargo tank
c. container
d. cylinder

2. The purpose of SBC 801 is to establish minimum requirements for

________.
a. exits, exit access and exit discharge
b. flammable and combustible liquids and other hazardous materials
c. aircraft, mobile and marine fueling stations
d. a reasonable level of life safety and property protection

3. According to SBC 801, who is authorized to enforce its provisions and has
the authority to render interpretations and to adopt policies, procedures,
rules and regulations in order to clarify the application of its provisions?
a. fire code official
b. fire chief
c. Saudi Building Code National Committee
d. all of the above

4. A civil engineer asks the fire code official what the SBC 801 minimum
required width of a fire apparatus access road is for a new building. The
fire code official should respond:
a. 3.9 m
b. 4.6 m
c. 6.5 m
d. 6.52 m

5. Which of the following is not an SBC 801 occupancy classification?

a. Group A
b. Group B
c. Group S
d. Group X

325
3 2 6    C h a p t e r 2 1 F i n a l E x a m

6. A building or facility used for semiconductor fabrication using haz-

ardous production materials (HPM) has the following SBC 801 occu-
pancy classification:
a. H-1
b. H-2
c. H-3
d. H-4
e. H-5  

7. All parts of an underground LPG container with a water capacity of

10 000 L shall be located at least _______ m from a building.
a. 1.5
b. 3
c. 7.5
d. 15

8. A process that employs flammable liquids in a paint dip tank is best

described as:
a. storage
b. use-closed system
c. handling
d. use-open system
e. transportation

9. The jurisdiction has legally adopted SBC 801, Appendix B, “Fire-flow

Requirements for Buildings.” An architect proposes the construction
of a Group B building that is four stories (14 628 mm) tall and Type
IA construction. The building is not protected by automatic fire sprin-
klers. Each floor measures 32 367 m2. The architect wants to know
what the required fire flow is. The fire code official should respond:
a. 12 300 Lpm for 3 hours
b. 15 000 Lpm for 3 hours
c. 18 246 Lpm for 4 hours
d. 22 456 Lpm for 4 hours

10. Rubbish containers with a capacity of 0.15 m3 or more shall be

equipped with lids.
a. True
b. False

11. According to SBC 801, the preferred fire suppression system for com-
mercial cooking systems is _____________________.
a. one that meets UL 300
b. wet chemical
c. dry chemical
d. carbon dioxide
e. automatic sprinklers or water mist
 F i n a l E x a m    3 2 7

12. SBC 801 specifically is intended to provide a reasonable level of safety to

fire fighters and emergency responders during training operations.
a. True
b. False

13. According to SBC 801, “spaces within a building where quantities of

hazardous materials not exceeding the maximum allowable quantities
per control area are stored, dispensed, used or handled” best describes a
_________________________.
a. spill control feature
b. control area
c. secondary containment feature
d. hazardous materials waste site

14. Interior finishes are regulated by SBC 801 to __________________.

a. limit allowable fire performance
b. limit smoke development
c. guarantee flashover does not occur
d. a and b

15. Which of the following persons is responsible for controlling spills and
using portable fire extinguishers at a motor vehicle fuel-dispensing facil-
ity?
a. the owner
b. the driver
c. the attendant
d. passersby

16. Acceptable portable containers for motor vehicle fuels are listed or
approved materials with a maximum _______ L capacity and have tight
closures with screwed or spring-loaded covers designed so the contents
can be poured without spilling.
a. 9.29
b. 22.7
c. 25
d. 26.4

17. At LP-gas motor vehicle fuel-dispensing stations, a hydrostatic pressure

relief valve is required by NFPA 58 in any section of pipe or hose where
liquid LP-gas can be trapped.
a. True
b. False

18. Motor vehicle fuel dispensers mounted on islands must have an emer-
gency breakaway device that is designed to safely separate the dispensing
hoses conveying only Class I liquids.
a. True
b. False
3 2 8    C h a p t e r 2 1 F i n a l E x a m

19. Automatic fire sprinkler protection is required for Class I–IV high-
piled combustible storage areas more than _______ m2 or high-haz-
ard commodities greater than 232 m2.
a. 232
b. 929
c. 1000
d. 1115

20. In high-piled storage areas, automated storage systems require auto-

matic shutdown during a fire to prevent additional product being
moved into the fire, prevent burning product being moved to a
location not yet involved and protect the fire fighters as they move
among the array.
a. True
b. False

21. Aisles in fire-sprinklered high-piled combustible storage rack stor-

age arrays must be at least 1000 mm wide and _______ mm wide in
high-hazard storage arrays exceeding 232 m2 open to the public.
a. 1118
b. 1250
c. 2400
d. 2500

22. In fire-sprinklered buildings, pile dimensions for high-piled combus-

tible palletized storage can be up to 11 327 m3 with pile lengths up to
30 480 mm and heights up to 12 192 mm.
a. True
b. False

23. For buildings under construction, temporary standpipe systems

complying with NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe
and Hose Systems, are required when construction height reaches
_________ m.
a. 12
b. 14
c. 15
d. 16

24. For fuel oil storage systems connected to fuel-fired appliances, if the
indoor storage quantity exceeds _____ L, the fuel oil must be stored
underground or in a protected above-ground storage tank (PAST).
a. 1520
b. 2500
c. 2720
d. 2900
 F i n a l E x a m    3 2 9

25. NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, prohibits the use or storage
of liquefied petroleum-gas (LP-gas) containers on exterior balconies
when the LP-gas container volume is greater than 0.5 kg.
a. True
b. False

26. Each emergency egress lighting unit fixture must be tested

__________ for a 30-second period and tested annually for the full
90-minute duration.
a. daily
b. weekly
c. monthly
d. semiannually

27. To ensure building or fire protection system design complies with SBC
801 intent or requirements and its adopted standards, the fire code
official may obtain _________ from other qualified professionals.
a. permits
b. technical assistance
c. waivers
d. alternative methods and materials

28. SBC 801 grants the fire code official, the fire chief or the incident
commander at the scene of a fire or other emergency to control and
direct the incident scene for the protection of life and property or
take any other actions necessary in the reasonable performance of
duty.
a. True
b. False

29. A(n) ____________ is a written document issued by a code official

that legally authorizes an individual or business to conduct certain
businesses, services or construction in accordance with the require-
ments of the jurisdiction’s adopted codes.
a. permit
b. technical assistance
c. waiver
d. alternative methods and materials request

30. If a jurisdiction wishes to adopt and enforce an appendix—for exam-

ple, Appendix B, “Fire-flow Requirements for Buildings”—the appen-
dix must be specifically identified in the adopting ordinance.
a. True
b. False
3 3 0    C h a p t e r 2 1 F i n a l E x a m

31. A petroleum service station operator wants to buy portable fire extin-
guishers for use at the gasoline and diesel dispensers. The operator
asks the fire code official for the minimum fire extinguisher rating
required. The fire code official should respond:
a. 2A:20B:C
b. 4A:60B:C
c. 5B:C
d. 4A:10B:C

32. A LP-gas retail company wants to install a 7608 L LP-gas container

on a vacant lot. There is an existing 7608 L LP-gas container at the
site. The installer wants to know the minimum separation distance
between LP-gas containers. The fire code official should respond:
a. no separation is required
b. 1 m
c. 1.5 m
d. 3 m

33. Which of the following occupancy classes best describes a

3 785 412 L petroleum storage tank at a refining facility?
a. Group H
b. Group M
c. Group S
d. Group U

34. The jurisdiction has legally adopted SBC 801, Appendix B “Fire-flow
Requirements for Buildings.” An architect proposes the construction
of a Group M building that is one story (8534 mm) tall and Type VB
construction. The building is protected by automatic fire sprinklers.
The floor area measures 13 935 m2. The architect wants to know
what the required fire flow is. The fire code official should respond:
a. 5678 Lpm for 2 hours
b. 7570 Lpm for 2 hours (75% fire sprinkler reduction)
c. 15 141 Lpm for 4 hours
d. 30 283 Lpm for 4 hours

35. The jurisdiction has legally adopted SBC 801, Appendix C “Fire
Hydrant Locations and Distribution.” A developer wants to create an
office campus with several high-rise buildings. The required fire flow
for manual suppression has been determined to be 20 855 Lpm. How
many fire hydrants are required for this project?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
 F i n a l E x a m    3 3 1

36. Corridors and exit enclosures in a nonsprinklered Group I-2 building

must have Class ____ flame spread ratings on interior walls.
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D

37. A Group M occupancy with a fire area exceeding 1115 m2 and occu-
pant load of 119 persons above the lowest level of exit discharge is
required to have ___________________.
a. one manual fire alarm box
b. an emergency voice/alarm communication system
c. three fire sprinkler risers
d. one visible alarm device at the fire alarm control unit

38. In Group R occupancies, other than Group R-4, automatic fire sprin-
klers are not required in bathrooms that do not exceed 5 m2 in area
and are located within individual dwelling units or sleeping units,
provided that walls and ceilings, including the walls and ceilings
behind a shower enclosure or tub, are of noncombustible or limit-
ed-combustible materials with a 15-minute thermal barrier rating.
a. True
b. False

39. According to a list in SBC 801, glycol in combustible containers

(greater than 25 percent and less than 50 percent) is a Class _____
commodity for the purpose of high-piled combustible storage. In
a high-piled combustible storage area that measures 1520 m2 and
has this product in storage, is an automatic fire sprinkler system
required?
a. I, no
b. II, yes
c. II, no
d. IV, yes

40. Control areas for storing up to the maximum allowable quantities of

hazardous materials may be separated from one another or the main
occupancy by fire partitions and horizonal assemblies.
a. True
b. False

41. In a building without automatic fire sprinklers or storage cabinets,

what is the maximum allowable quantity per control area for com-
bined Class IA, IB and IC flammable liquids in storage?
a. 114 L
b. 228 L
c. 454 L
d. 908 L
3 3 2    C h a p t e r 2 1 F i n a l E x a m

42. In a building without automatic fire sprinklers or storage cabinets,

what is the maximum allowable quantity per control area for inert
gases in use in a closed system?
a. 28 m3
b. 54 m3
c. 60 m3
d. not limited

43. The minimum horizontal distance between an LP-gas container and

a Class I, II or IIIA above-ground liquid storage tank shall be:
a. No separation required
b. 3 m
c. 6 m
d. 8 m

44. Supports, foundations and anchorages for above-ground flammable

and combustible liquid storage tanks shall be designed and installed
in accordance with ________________.
a. API 610
b. UL 258
c. ASTM 1623
d. NFPA 30 and SBC 201, Saudi Building Code

45. Above-ground LP-gas containers having a 268 000 L water capacity

must be located at least ____ m from LP-gas containers and build-
ings, public ways or lot lines of adjoining property that can be built
upon.
a. 3
b. 7.5
c. 15
d. 30

46. For hazardous materials regulations, “the deliberate transport by

any means to a point of storage or use” best defines ____________.
a. use
b. handling
c. transportation
d. dispensing

47. Guard posts to prevent vehicle impact with above-ground storage

tanks, fire department connections, gas meters, pipe systems or
other items vulnerable to vehicle impact shall be at least _______
mm in diameter and concrete filled.
a. 60
b. 102
c. 254
d. 300
 F i n a l E x a m    3 3 3

48. Attic, under-floor and concealed spaces used for storage of combus-
tible materials shall be protected on the storage side as required for
____-hour fire-resistance-rated construction. Openings shall be pro-
tected by assemblies that are self-closing and are of noncombustible
construction or solid wood core not less than 45 mm in thickness.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4

49. A fully fire-sprinklered, one-story Group S occupancy has four control

areas, each of which has 28 m3 of baled shredded wastepaper awaiting
recycling. The facility operator has decided to increase the amount
of baled shredded wastepaper to 30 m3 per control area. What is the
occupancy classification now?
a. Group M
b. Group S
c. Group H-2
d. Group H-3

50. Interior wall and ceiling finishes must be tested in accordance with
_______ to establish their flame spread rating and smoke-developed
index.
a. NFPA 13 or 14
b. ASTM E84 or NFPA 286
c. ASTM E199 or NFPA 243
d. ANSI 30.1 or NFPA 96
3 3 4    C h a p t e r 2 1 F i n a l E x a m
Quiz
Answers
Chapter 2 Chapter 7
1. b. False. An inspection is a visual check. 1. a. 38 [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
2. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.9] 2. a. True [Ref SBC 801 - 603.3.2]
3. a. True[Ref. SBC 801 - 101.2.1] 3. c. three-month [Ref. SBC 801 - 609.3.3.1]
4. d. the fire code official [Ref. SBC 801 4. b. 7500 [Ref. SBC 801 - 607.1]
- 103.2] 5. b. False [Ref. SBC 201 - Table 509]
5. b. registered design professional [Ref. SBC
801 - 105.4.1] Chapter 8
1. e. All of the above [Ref. SBC 801 - 805]
Chapter 3 2. a. 320 kg/m3 [Ref. SBC 801 - 804.2.1]
1. c. IC [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] 3. d. 10 [Ref. SBC 801 - 804.1]
2. b. use [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] 4. b. Walls [Ref. SBC 801 - 803.1]
3. a. sheltered canopy [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] 5. c. C [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 803.3]
4. d. fire code official [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] Chapter 9
5. b. sleeping unit [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] 1. b. fire wall
Chapter 4 2. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 5003.1.1(1),
1. d. 60 [Ref. SBC 801 - 308.3.1] Footnote g]
2. a. Class A [Ref. SBC 801 - 317.2] 3. b. unplanned
3. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 316] 4. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 507.1]
4. a. 457 [Ref. SBC 801 - 315.3.1] 5. e. All of the above
5. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 304.3.3 Chapter 10
Exception 2] 1. d. 1115 [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.2.7]
Chapter 5 2. b. False
1. d. semiannually on each shift [Ref. SBC 3. a. True
801 - Table 405.2] 4. b. False [Ref. SBC 201 or SBC 801 - 202]
2. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 403.4] Fire partitions are not included.
3. c. 1,000 [Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12.3] 5. b. I [Ref. SBC 201 or SBC 801 - 903.2.6]
4. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 403.12.1] Chapter 11
5. a. procedures to order emergency supplies 1. a. 1 [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
for rest and rehabilitation following a 2. d. 500 [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.2]
drill [Ref. SBC 801 - 406.3] 3. a. True
Chapter 6 4. b. manually activated [Ref. SBC 801
1. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 503.1.1] - 907.2.1]
2. b. 138 [Ref. SBC 801 - Appendix B] 5. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 907.2.3
3. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 510.1 Exception 3]
Exception 2]
4. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - Appendix B]
5. e. as determined by the Civil Defense
authorities [Ref. SBC 801 - 503.2.7]

335
336  Q u i z A n s w e r s

Chapter 12 Chapter 13
1. c. NFPA 750 [Ref. SBC 801 - 1. c. alternating tread device [Ref. SBC 801
Table 901.6.1] - 202]
2. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.4.1] 2. a. True [Ref. SBC 201 and SBC 801 - 202]
3. d. annually [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.8.1] 3. d. U [Ref. SBC 801 - 1008.2 Exception 1]
4. a. a chain-breaking reaction 4. b. three [Ref. SBC 801 - 1006.2.1.1]
5. d. UL 710B [Ref. SBC 801 - 904.12 5. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 1004.1.2]
Exception]

EXERCISE 1 SOLUTION (Chapter 13, Page 188)

This space contains flexible seating patterns with movable tables and chairs in addition to
the coffee counter, so several calculations will be needed.
1. Determine the area of the entire space: 15 240 mm × 13 716 mm equals an area of
209.03 m2 (gross area).
2. There are four uses in this space: fixed seating, coffee counter service area, tables and chairs
(unconcentrated use), and a waiting area. The occupant load for each must be calculated
separately based on the SBC 801, Table 1004.1.2 occupant load factors. Because the coffee
counter and fixed seating area are fixed to the floor, their area can be deducted from the
gross area of the room (209.3 m2 – 7.98 m2 = 201 m2). This is the net floor area.
3. The coffee counter service area measures 4.4 m2. Using the occupant load factor for a com-
mercial kitchen (19 gross), its occupant capacity is 0.23, but since a fraction of a person
cannot exist, the number is rounded up to 1. The 4.4 m2 can be deducted from the 201 m2
net area because it is been assigned its own use and occupant load. (201 m2 – 4.4 m2 =
196.6 m2. This is the adjusted net area.)
4. The waiting area measures 13.67 m2. Because this is a concentrated use, its occupant load
factor is 0.46 m2/ person (13.67 m2/0.46 m2 = 29.7, rounded up to 30). The waiting area’s
space also can be deducted from the net area because it is been assigned its own use and
occupant load (196.6 m2 – 13.67 m2 = 182.93 m2). This is the net area remaining for tables
and chairs.
5. Dividing the final net area for tables and chairs (182.93 m2) by the less-concentrated use
occupant load factor from Table 1004.1.2 (1.4 m2 per person) results in an occupant load of
131 persons (189.93 m2 / 1.4 m2 = 130.66, rounded up to 131).
6. Based on these calculations, the total occupancy in the space is 171 persons.

Area Occupant Load Factor Occupants

(m2/person)
Fixed seats Not applicable 9 9
Coffee counter service 4.4 m 2
19 1
Waiting area 13.67 m2 0.46 30
Tables and chairs 189.93 m2 1.4 131
TOTAL 171

Since the building is provided with an automatic sprinkler system, the egress width factor
is 3.8 mm per occupant [Ref. SBC 801 - 1005.3.2 Exception 1]. The Metropolitan’s occupant
load (171) multiplied by 3.8 mm results in 649.8 mm of required exit width. The door that is
provided is 838 mm wide.
While the exit width in this example satisfies SBC 801, Section 1005.3.2, you will soon learn
that this space requires two exits where the total occupant load exceeds 50 persons, so at least
one more 838 mm exit door would have to be provided.
 Q u i z A n s w e r s   337

EXERCISE 2 SOLUTION (Chapter 13, Page 190)

Solution: Minimum Required Calculated Stair Width:
Given: Exit width per person for stairs = 7.5 mm/person [Ref. SBC 801 - 1005.3.1]
1. (200) × (7.5 mm/person) = 1500 mm
Minimum Required Calculated Width of All Other Components:
Given: Exit width per person = 5 mm/person [Ref. SBC 801 - 1005.3.2]
2. (200) × (5 mm/person) = 1000 mm
3. (200) × (5 mm/person) = 1000 mm
4. SBC 801, Table 1020.2 specifies a minimum corridor width of 1100 mm when serving 50 or
more occupants.

EXERCISE 3 SOLUTION (Chapter 13, Page 194)

Solution:
Occupant load
Table 1004.1.2 requires 5.6 m2/person
5760 m2 / 5.6 m2 = 1,029 occupants
Number of exits
Section 1006.2.1.1 requires 4 exits
4 exits provided—OK
Exit width
1,029 × 3.8 mm = 3910 mm required
An exit door must provide 800 mm clear width
7 exit doors provided
7 × 800 = 5600 mm of exit width—OK

Chapter 14
1. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 2303.2] Chapter 17
2. d. 23 [Ref. SBC 801 - 2304.4.1] 1. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3.1]
3. b. 45 000 [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.2.3] 2. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 102.10]
4. b. 2A:20B:C [Ref. SBC 801 - 2305.5] 3. a. corrosive [Ref. SBC 801 - Table
5. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 2307.6.2] 5003.1.1(2)]
4. d. unauthorized discharge [Ref. SBC 801
Chapter 15
- 202]
1. d. 3600 [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
5. d. four [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3.3]
2. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 3209.3]
3. a. 233 [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 3206.2] Chapter 18
4. b. 2438 [Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.9.1] 1. d. cap [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.6.1]
5. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 3206.6.1.2] 2. a. True
3. b. the number of sides that are open [Ref.
Chapter 16
SBC 801 - 5003.8.5]
1. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 3504.1.8]
4. a. 6 [Ref. SBC 801 - 5303.4.3]
2. b. 30 [Ref. SBC 801 - 3504.2.1]
5. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
3. c. food delivery to employees working on a
roof Chapter 19
4. b. False 1. d. Class IIIB [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.7.4]
5. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 3312.1] 2. b. boiling point
3. a. 3.6 [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.7.3.3]
4. a. True
5. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.7.1]
338  Q u i z A n s w e r s
Chapter 20
1. c. 91 [Ref. SBC 801 - 6109.9]
2. d. 270
3. a. True
4. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 6104.3.2] It must
be 2-hour rated.
5. d. 631 000 [Ref. SBC 801 - 6104.4]
Final Exam
1. c. container [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
2. d. a reasonable level of life safety and prop-
erty protection [Ref. SBC 801 - 101.2]
3. a. fire code official [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.1]
4. b. 4.6 m [Ref SBC 801 - 503.1.1]
5. d. Group X [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
6. e. H-5 [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
7. b. 3 [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 6104.3,
Footnote a]
8. d. use-open system [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
9. a. 12 300 Lpm for 3 hours [Ref. SBC 801 -
B104.3, Table B105.1(2)]
10. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 304.3.2]
11. a. one that meets UL 300 [Ref. SBC 801 45. d. 30 [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 6104.3]
- 904.12]
12. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 101.3]
13. b. control area [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
14. d. a and b [Ref. SBC 801 - 803.1]
15. b. the driver [Ref. SBC 801 - 2304.2]
16. b. 22.7 [Ref. SBC 801 - 2304.4]
17. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 2307.6.2]
18. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 2306.7.5.1]
19. d. 1115 [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 3206.2]
20. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 3209.4]
21. c. 2400 [Ref. SBC 801 - 3209.1]
22. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 3206.2]
23. a. 12 [Ref. SBC 801 - 3313]
24. b. 2500 [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.3.2.1
Exception]
25. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 603.4.2.1]
26. c. monthly [Ref. SBC 801 - 604.6.1]
27. b. technical assistance [Ref. SBC 801
- 104.7.2]
28. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 104.11]
29. a. permit [Ref. SBC 801 - 105.1]
30. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 101.2.1]
31. a. 2A:20B:C [Ref. SBC 801 - 2305.5]
32. c. 1.5 m [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 6104.3]
33. d. Group U [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
34. b. 7570 Lpm for 2 hours [Ref. SBC 801 -
B104.3 and Table B105.1(2)]
35. d. 6 [Ref. SBC 801 - Table C102.1]
36. a. A [Ref. SBC 801 - Table 803.3]
37. b. an emergency voice/alarm commuication
system [SBC 801 - 903.2.7, 907.2.7]
38. a. True [Ref. SBC 801 - 903.3.1.1.2]
39. d. IV, yes [Ref. SBC 801 - 3203.5, Table
3206.2]
40. b. False [Ref. SBC 801 - 5003.8.3.1]
41. c. 454 L [Ref. SBC 801 -
Table 5003.1.1(1)]
42. d. not limited [Ref. SBC 801 - Table
5003.1.1(1)]
43. c. 6 m [Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.9.6.3]
44. d. NFPA 30 and SBC 201, Saudi Building Code
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5704.2.9.3]
46. b. handling [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]
47. b. 102 [Ref. SBC 801 - 312.2]
48. a. 1 [Ref. SBC 801 - 315.3.4]
49. d. Group H-3 [Ref. SBC 801 - Table
5003.1.1(1)]
50. b. ASTM E84 or NFPA 286 [Ref. SBC 801 -
803.1.1, 803.1.2]
Glossary
A C
addition – An extension or increase in floor area, num-
ber of stories or height of a building or structure.
alteration – Any construction or renovation to an exist-
ing structure other than a repair or addition.
appliance – Any apparatus or equipment that utilizes gas
as a fuel or raw material to produce light, heat, power,
refrigeration or air conditioning.
approved – Acceptable to the fire code official.
automatic sprinkler system – For fire protection purpos-
es, an integrated system of underground and overhead
piping designed in accordance with fire protection engi-
neering standards. The system includes a suitable water
supply. The portion of the system above the ground is a
network of specially sized or hydraulically designed pip-
ing installed in a structure or area, generally overhead,
and to which automatic sprinklers are connected in a
systematic pattern. The system is usually activated by
heat from a fire and discharges water over the fire area.
B torial documents prepared or assembled for describing
boiling point – The temperature at which the vapor
pressure of liquid equals the atmospheric pressure of
760 mm of mercury. Where an accurate boiling point is
unavailable for the material in question, or for mixtures
that do not have a constant boiling point, for the purpos-
es of this classification, the 20-percent evaporated point
of a distillation performed in accordance with ASTM D86
shall be used as the boiling point of the liquid.
branch circuit – That part of an electric circuit extending
beyond the last circuit breaker or fuse. The branch cir-
cuits start at the breaker box and extend to the electrical
devices connected to the service. Branch circuits are the
last part of the circuit supplying electrical devices. These
circuits are classified in two different ways, according to
the type of loads they serve or according to their current-
carrying capacity.
building official – The officer or other designated author-
ity charged with the administration and enforcement of
the building code, or a duly authorized representative.
carbon dioxide enrichment system – A system where
carbon dioxide gas is intentionally introduced into an
indoor environment, typically for the purpose of stimu-
lating plant growth.
catalyst – A substance that initiates or accelerates a
chemical reaction without itself being affected.
change of occupancy – A change in the purpose or level
of activity within a building that involves a change in
occupancy classification or a change in application of the
requirements of the code.
code – A written set of rules, principles or laws.
combustible dust – Finely divided solid material that is
420 microns or less in diameter and which, when dis-
persed in air in the proper proportions, could be ignited
by a flame, spark or other source of ignition. Combustible
dust will pass through a US No. 40 standard sieve.
commodity – A combination of products, packing materi-
als and containers.
construction documents – The written, graphic and pic-
the design, location and physical characteristics of the
elements of the project necessary for obtaining a permit.
corrosive – A chemical that causes visible destruction of,
or irreversible alterations in, living tissue by chemical
action at the point of contact. A chemical shall be consid-
ered corrosive if, when tested on the skin of albino rab-
bits by the method described in DOTn 49 CFR 173.137,
such chemical destroys or changes irreversibly the struc-
ture of the tissue at the point of contact following an
exposure period of 4 hours. The term does not refer to
action on inanimate surfaces.
D
deflagration – An exothermic reaction, such as the
extremely rapid oxidation of a flammable dust or vapor
in air, in which the reaction progresses through the
unburned ­material at a rate less than the velocity of
sound. A deflagration can have an explosive effect.
339
3 4 0    G l o s s a r y
detonation – An exothermic reaction characterized by
the presence of a shock wave in the material that estab-
lishes and maintains the reaction. The reaction zone
progresses through the material at a rate greater than
the velocity of sound. The principal heating mechanism
is one of shock compression. Detonations have an explo-
sive effect.
dewar – A double-walled flask of metal or silvered glass
with a vacuum between the walls, used to hold liquids at
well below ambient temperature.
dispensing – The pouring or transferring of any material
from a container, tank or similar vessel, whereby vapors,
dusts, fumes, mists or gases are liberated to the atmo-
sphere.
E tion reaction produces heat and calculated by multiply-
emergency voice/alarm communications – Dedicated man-
ual or automatic facilities for originating and distributing
voice instructions, as well as alert and evacuation signals
pertaining to a fire emergency, to the occupants of a
building.
exit – That portion of a means of egress system between
the exit access and the exit discharge or public way. Exit
components include exterior exit doors at the level of
exit discharge, interior exit enclosures, interior exit
ramps, exit passageways, exterior exit stairways, exterior
exit ramps and horizontal exits.
exit access – That portion of a means of egress system
that leads from any occupied portion of a building or
structure to an exit.
exit discharge – The portion of a means of egress system
between the termination of an exit and a public way.
F I
fire – A chemical reaction that releases heat and light
and is accompanied by flame, especially the exothermic
oxidation of a combustible substance.
fire area – The aggregate floor area enclosed and bound-
ed by fire walls, fire barriers, exterior walls or horizontal
assemblies of a building. Areas of the building not pro-
vided with surrounding walls shall be included in the
fire area if such areas are included within the horizontal
projection of the roof or floor next above.
fire code official – The fire chief or other designated
authority charged with the administration and enforce-
ment of the code, or a duly authorized representative.
fire flow – The flow rate of a water supply, measured at
138 kPa residual pressure, that is available for fire fight-
ing.
fire protection system – Approved devices, equipment and
systems or combinations of systems used to detect a fire,
activate an alarm, extinguish or control a fire, control or
manage smoke and products of a fire, or any combination
thereof.
fire resistance – That property of materials or their
assemblies that prevents or retards the passage of exces-
sive heat, hot gases or flames under conditions of use.
flashover – An event during a fire’s growth where the hot
smoke layer inside a room or compartment releases the
greatest amount of convective and radiant energy.
H
heat release rate – A measurement of the rate a combus-
ing the effective heat of combustion of a material by its
mass loss rate. It is expressed in British thermal units
[Btu]/minute or kilowatts (kW).
high-piled combustible storage – Materials in closely
packed piles or combustible materials on pallets, in racks
or on shelves where the top of storage is greater than
3628 mm in height. When required by the fire code offi-
cial, high-piled combustible storage also includes certain
high-hazard commodities, such as rubber tires, Group A
plastics, flammable liquids, idle pallets and similar com-
modities, where the top of storage is greater than 3628
mm in height.
hood – An air intake device used to capture, by entrap-
ment, impingement, adhesion or similar means, grease,
moisture, heat and similar contaminants before they
enter a duct system.
inspection – A formal or official examination.
interlock – A method of preventing undesired states in a
machine, which in a general sense can include any electri-
cal, electronic or mechanical device or system.
L
laboratory suite – A fire-rated enclosed laboratory area
that will provide one or more laboratory spaces, within
a Group B educational occupancy, that are permitted to
include ancillary uses such as offices, bathrooms and
corridors that are contiguous with the laboratory area.
level of exit discharge – The story at the point at which
an exit terminates and an exit discharge begins.

liability – The state of being legally obliged and respon-
sible.
lower flammable limit (LFL) – The minimum concentra-
tion of vapor in air at which propagation of flame will
occur in the presence of an ignition source. The LFL is
sometimes referred to as LEL or lower explosive limit.
M confine and limit the escape of spray vapor and residue
manometer – An instrument for measuring differences of
pressure. The weight of a column of liquid enclosed in a
tube is balanced by the pressures applied at its opposite
ends, and the pressure difference is computed from the
hydrostatic equation.
minimum explosive concentration (MEC) – The lowest
concentration of dust cloud that will allow combustion.
May also be referred to as the lower explosive limit.
mobile fueling – The operation of dispensing liquid fuels
from tank vehicles into the fuel tanks of motor vehicles.
Mobile fueling may also be known by the terms “mobile
fleet fueling,” “wet fueling” and “wet hosing.”
O vessels; or vessels supplying operations through closed
occupant load – The number of persons for which the
means of egress of a building or a portion thereof is
designed.
on-demand mobile fueling – The operation of delivering
a liquid fuel to a vehicle and dispensing the fuel from
tank vehicles into the fuel tanks of motor vehicles. The
vehicle owner calls to schedule the fuel delivery and
specifies the location of the vehicle.
P tion of vapor in air at which propagation of flame will
performance-based design – An engineering approach
to  design elements of a building based on agreed-upon
performance goals and objectives, engineering analysis
and quantitative assessment of alternatives against the
design goals and objectives using accepted engineering
tools, methodologies and performance criteria.
pressure, residual – The available pressure inside of a
pipe while the liquid is flowing.
pressure, static – The pressure inside of a pipe or con-
tainer while the liquid is at rest.
G l o s s a r y    3 4 1
R
retroactive – Affecting things past.
S
spray booth – A mechanically ventilated appliance
of varying dimensions and construction provided to
enclose or accommodate a spraying operation and to
and to exhaust it safely.
spray room – A room designed to accommodate spray-
ing operations and constructed in accordance with the
International Building Code.
spraying space – An area in which dangerous quantities
of flammable vapors or combustible residues, dusts or
deposits are present due to the operation of spraying
processes. The fire code official is authorized to define the
limits of the spraying space in any specific case.
standard – Something set up and established by author-
ity as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight, extent,
value or quality.
storage – The keeping, retention or leaving of hazardous
materials in closed containers, tanks, cylinders or similar
connections to the vessel.
supervisory signal – A signal indicating the need of action
in connection with the supervision guard tours, the fire
suppression system or equipment, or the maintenance
features of related systems.
U
upper flammable limit (UFL) – The maximum concentra-
occur in the presence of an ignition source.
use-closed system – The use of a solid or liquid hazard-
ous material involving a closed vessel or system that
remains closed during normal operations where vapors
emitted by the product are not liberated outside of the
vessel or system and the product is not exposed to the
atmosphere during normal operations; and all uses of
compressed gases.
use-open system – The use of a solid or liquid hazardous
material involving a vessel or system that is continuously
open to the atmosphere during normal operations and
where vapors are liberated, or the product is exposed to
the atmosphere during normal operations.
3 4 2    G l o s s a r y

W
water-miscible – The property of a substance to mix with
water and form a homogeneous solution.
wildland – An area in which development is essentially
nonexistent, except for roads, railroads, power lines and
similar facilities.
Checklist

FIRE CODE CHECKLIST – SBC 801

PERMITS

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Operational permits for storage, use, handling or dispensing issued? 105.6
Construction permits isued? 105.7

EGRESS

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Exit width and number are adequate 1005.3.2, 1006.3
Exit doors available and unobstructed 1031.3
Draperies, decorations, furnishings in exit path 1031.6
Tables and/or chairs in exit paths 1031.6
Means of egress adequately illuminated (normal power) 1008.2.1
Exit signs in place and illuminated 1013.1
Emergency lighting units in place and operational 1008.3.1
Exit door hardware suitable for occupancy 1010.9.1
Occupant load sign posted (Group A) 1004.3
Overcrowded, no occupant load sign posted 1004.3, 107.6
Exits, exit enclosure, corridors or stairways free from storage 315.3.2
Walls and ceilings meet flame spread requirements 803.3
Corridor and enclosed stair finishes meet flame spread 803.3

343
344  C h e c k l i s t s

HOUSEKEEPING

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Boiler rooms, mechanical rooms, electrical equipment rooms or fire 315.3.3
command centers free from storage
Attic, garage, under stairs free from storage 315.3.4
Combustible rubbish and waste material in suitable containers 607.3.3.2
Combustibles stored away from water heater or furnace 315.3.3
Oily rags; spontaneous ignition materials in suitable containers with lids 304.3.1
Electrical motors free of lint, dust, grease 605.1
Kitchen hood, filters and duct system clean with current service tag 609.3.3, 609.3.3.1
Storage at least 457 mm beneath sprinklers or 610 mm below ceiling 315.3.1
High-piled storage area aisles are maintained 3206.9
Industrial process combustible dust is controlled 2203.2

FIRE PROTECTION/CONSTRUCTION

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Emergency vehicle access to property suitable and maintained 503, 503.4
Fire protection water supply suitable and maintained 507.1, 507.5.2
Fire extinguishers in place; suitable for hazard 906.2, NFPA 10
Class K extinguisher in cooking area 906.4, 904.12.5
Fire extinguishers possess current service tags 906.2, NFPA 10
Fire sprinkler, fire alarm, special hazard system installed where required? 903.1, 904.1, 907.1
Fire department connection accessible and undamaged 912.4
Sprinkler heads not obstructed or painted 901.4, NFPA 13-
6.2.6.2.2
Fire protection systems and equipment possess current service reports 901.6.1
Smoke alarms provided in sleeping areas and dwelling units 907.2.10.2, 1103.7.2,
1103.7.5, 1103.7.6,
1103.8
Carbon monoxide alarms provided in classrooms, sleeping areas and 915.1.1
dwelling units where gas-operated appliances are present
Fire walls, fire barriers, fire partitions in place and undamaged 703.1
Fire door or shutters in place and undamaged 703.2
Fire door or shutters possess current test reports 703.4
Door hold-open devices and closers working 703.2
 Fire Code Checklist – SBC 801   345

UTILITIES

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Extension cords and other electrical problems 604.4, 604.5
Fuel gas piping, meters, tanks have vehicle impact protection 312
Emergency and standby power systems installed and maintained 604.1, 604.4
Elevator controls and emergency keys in place 607.1, 607.7, 607.8
Stationary battery storage room ventilation in place 608.6
Electrolyte spill control and neutralization addressed 608.5
Heating equipment operational and maintained 603.5.2
Fuel in appropriate quantity and storage method 603.3, 604.2.3
Chimneys, vents and appliances open to outdoors 603.6

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Maximum allowable quantities per control area not exceeded 5003.1.1
Hazardous Materials Inventory Statement (HMIS) available 407.5
Hazardous Materials Management Plan (HMMP) available 407.6
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) available 407.2, 5003.4
Hazardous materials warning signs in place 407.3, 5003.5
Flammable liquids in appropriate quantity and storage 5704.3.3.5.3
Flammable liquids in appropriate quantity and use 5705.1, 5705.3.8.2
Safety cans used for dispensing or transfer 5003.9.10
Compressed gases in appropriate quantity and storage 5303.1
Compressed gases in appropriate quantity and use 5305.1
Compressed gas cylinders are secure in correct position 5304.1
LP-gas in appropriate quantity and storage 6103.2, 6104.1
LP-gas in appropriate quantity and use 6105, 6106.1, 6107
Other solid, liquid, gas hazardous materials in appropriate quantity and See below
storage
General hazardous materials 5004.1
Aerosols 5101.4
Corrosive materials 5404.1
Cryogenic fluids 5504.1
Explosives and fireworks 5604.1
Flammable gases and flammable cryogenic fluids 5804.1
Flammable solids 5904.1
Highly toxic and toxic materials 6004.1
Organic peroxides 6204.1
Oxidizers, oxidizing gases and oxidizing cryogenic fluids 6304.1
Pyrophoric materials 6404.1
346  C h e c k l i s t s

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS—continued

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Pyroxylin (cellulose nitrate) plastics 6504.1
Unstable (reactive) materials 6604.1
Water-reactive solids and liquids 6704.1
Other solid, liquid, gas hazardous materials in appropriate quantity and use XX05 section of
Chapters 50–67
Incompatible hazardous materials separated or isolated 5003.9.8
All hazardous materials storage neat and orderly 5003.9.9
Motor vehicle fueling dispensers securely mounted 2306.7, 2307.4,
2308.3, 2309.3
Fuel dispensing instructions and warning signs posted 2304.2.3, 2304.3.5
Emergency dispenser shutoff switch provided 2306.7.4
Dispensing area portable fire extinguisher (2A-20B:C) in place 2305.5

GENERAL

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Required permits displayed and current 105.3.5
Building or facility address legible and visible from street 505.1
Key boxes in place with suitable keys 506.1
Smoking areas designated and enforced 310.2
Ashtrays and match receivers in smoking areas 310.6
Fire safety evacuation plan available 405.5
Fire drill and staff training records provided 405.5, 406.2
Shaftways and trap doors marked and secured 316.2
Emergency Responder Radio Communication System in place or proof that 510.1, 1103.2
it is not required
Hot work operations (welding/cutting/soldering/brazing) have safety 3504.1
controls

MISCELLANEOUS

YES NO N/A CHECKLIST ITEM SBC 801 Reference

Portable fire extinguishers installed as required? 303.5, 906
Portable fire extinguishers readily accessible? 906.5
Premises are clear of accumulated waste paper, litter, combustibles and 304.1.1
flammables?
Extension cords and flexible cords are not used for permanent appliances? 605.5
Fire lanes (fire apparatus access roads) are not obstructed? 503.4
Fire safety and evacuation plan is available for Group E occupancies? 401.2, 404
Required exterior doors and openings are maintained properly? 504.1
Emergency responder radio coverage available in new buildings? 510
Are gas containers stored inside of the building? If yes, do they comply 603.4.2.3.4
with Section 6109.9?
Annex

Chapter
This annex chapter is intended to provide certain additional summary information related to this
SBC Guide for coverage of sections not specifically addressed in the body of the Guide. It is not intend-
ed to cover subjects in detail, it is to serve only as supplementary information.

CHAPTER 11: EXISTING BUILDINGS

Chapter 11 applies to existing buildings that were constructed prior to SBC 201, Saudi Building
Code—General being effective. There are certain minimum safety requirements that should apply for
protection of building occupants regardless of when a building was constructed. Chapter 11 intends
to improve such safety features over a transitory time period such that it will have the least detri-
mental impact on building occupants and building owners. Many retroactive provisions of Chapter 11
apply to certain occupancies where egress is more challenging for the occupants or where emergency
responders have a need, such as protecting vertical openings in Group I institutional occupancies and
improving elevators for emergency personnel.
In taller buildings, vertical openings will also need to be enclosed and protected with 1-hour-rated
assemblies in other occupancies where some exceptions apply here. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1103.3, 1103.4]
Likewise, automatic sprinkler systems will be required in existing Group I-2 occupancies, and existing
high-rise buildings are required to install standpipe systems. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1103.5, 1103.6, 1105]
A very important safety feature is accommodating easy egress from buildings during an emergency; as
such, illuminated exit signs in accordance with the building code are required to be present in existing
buildings. [Ref. SBC 801 - 1104.3] Table 1103.1 provides Chapter 11 section number references for
various occupancies and uses to accommodate the application of Chapter 11 to existing buildings.
[Ref. SBC 801 - Table 1103.1]

CHAPTERS 12–19: RESERVED

SBC 801 does not contain any technical information in Chapters 12 through 19. These chapters are
reserved for future subjects to be added.

347
3 4 8    A n n e x

CHAPTER 24: FLAMMABLE FINISHES

Chapter 24 addresses opera-
tions that involve flammable
finishes and sets forth require-
ments for protection against
fire. These operations typically
involve spray painting, immers-
ing articles or items into dipping
tanks, use of powder spray guns,
and use of Class I or II liquids.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2401.1] One
challenge for the entire industry
is the accurate classification of
various chemical materials such
that the code can be applied
as intended. As such, owners,
designers and building officials should use certain publications and tools to facilitate the classification
of chemicals. One such online tool is the HMEx Assistant, which is offered through the International
Code Council’s online store and is coordinated with the ICC-published codes that are the bases on
which Saudi Building Codes have been built.
Flammable finish operations are required to take place in protected rooms or booths, such as
spray booths of finishing rooms. Spray rooms must be protected with an automatic sprinkler system
complying with Section 2404.2 and its exceptions. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2404] Spray booths cannot be as
large as the owner desires; there are certain size limitations, such as that the aggregate area of all spray
booths in a building may not exceed the lesser of 10 percent of any floor of a building or the basic area
allowed for a Group H-2 occupancy. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2404.3.2.6] Dipping operations and powder
coating operations are covered in Sections 2405 and 2406.

CHAPTER 25: FRUIT AND CROP RIPENING

Fruit and crop ripening operations involve processes where certain gases might be introduced and low
heating operations take place, and therefore the hazards created must be addressed. If gases such as
ethylene gas are used for these activities, then the gas should be introduced into approved rooms or
enclosures designed for this specific purpose. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2503] Electrical wiring, lighting and
heating sources must all meet specific operating standards as outlined in Section 2504. [Ref. SBC
801 - 2504]
 A n n e x    3 4 9

CHAPTER 26: FUMIGATION AND INSECTICIDAL FOGGING

Fumigation and insecticidal fogging operations must be controlled due to possible health and fire haz-
ards. There are fire safety requirements for electricity, ignition source and electrical devices that must
be followed. Fires, open flames and similar sources of ignition must be eliminated from the room or
area that will be fumigated or fogged. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2603] Chapter 2 of SBC 801 provides detailed
definitions for fumigant, fumigation and insecticidal fogging. [Ref. SBC 801 - 202]

CHAPTER 27: SEMICONDUCTOR FABRICATION FACILITIES

Semiconductor fabrication
facilities are very specialized
facilities and involve unique
operations. The requirements
and safety features of such facil-
ities are addressed in Chapter 27
and include construction of fab-
rication areas; means of egress,
such as corridors; automatic
sprinkler systems; exhaust
ducts and many other subjects.
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 27]
Semiconductor fabrication facil-
ities often involve a certain
level of hazardous material and
such materials must be stored within approved or listed storage cabinets. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2704]
Workstations in fabrication areas shall be constructed of materials compatible with the materials used
and stored at the workstation. The portion of the workstation that serves as a cabinet for HPM gases,
Class I flammable liquids, or Class II or Class IIIA combustible liquids shall be noncombustible and, if
of metal, shall be not less than 1.2 mm steel. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2705]
3 5 0    A n n e x

CHAPTER 28: LUMBER YARDS AND AGRO-INDUSTRIAL, SOLID

BIOMASS AND WOODWORKING FACILITIES
Lumber yards and woodworking
facilities, due to their large size
and combustible contents, have
the potential for large fires.
It is very important not only
that safety precautions such as
proper storage, control of wood-
working dust and other such
activities be conducted safely,
but also that the Civil Defense
be notified immediately in case
of fire. As a result, an approved
means of transmitting alarm to
Civil Defense is required to be
provided in timber and lumber
production mills and plywood and veneer mills. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2804] Another hazard in such facil-
ities is the storage of lumber in a way that prevents collapsing and crushing workers or other people.
Exterior storage of lumber and solid biofuel products must be in stable piles with a maximum height
of 6 m and maximum volume of 4248 m3. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2809]

CHAPTER 29: MANUFACTURE OF ORGANIC COATINGS

Organic coating is defined as “A liquid mixture of binders such as alkyd, nitrocellulose, acrylic or oil,
and flammable and combustible solvents such as hydrocarbon, ester, ketone or alcohol, which, when
spread in a thin film, convert to a durable protective and decorative finish.” Facilities that contain
these operations must be in a building that has no other occupancies and does not contain any base-
ments. [Ref. SBC 801 - 2903] These operations typically involve hazardous materials and storage,
use and handling of flammable and combustible liquids that must comply with SBC 801, Chapter 57.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 2909]
 A n n e x    3 5 1

CHAPTER 30: INDUSTRIAL OVENS

Industrial ovens and furnaces
are to meet specific industry
codes and standards such as
SBC 1201 Fuel Gas Code; SBC
501 Mechanical Code; and
NFPA 86, Standard for Ovens
and Furnaces. [Ref. SBC 801 -
3001] Furnaces are of four types,
which are defined in Chapter 2:
Class A, Class B, Class C and
Class D. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3002]
Once constructed or installed,
safe operation and maintenance
of industrial ovens and furnaces
are critical. For this reason, Section 3007.1 requires that “an approved, clearly worded, and promi-
nently displayed safety design data form or manufacturer’s nameplate shall be provided stating the
safe operating condition for which the furnace system was designed, built, altered or extended.” [Ref.
SBC 801 - 3007]

CHAPTER 31: TENTS AND OTHER MEMBRANE STRUCTURES

Tents and membrane structures
are very popular in many dif-
ferent settings and can be used
as temporary or permanent
structures. Chapter 31, Section
3103 covers the requirements
for temporary tents and mem-
brane structures and Section
3104 covers both temporary and
permanent structures. Many
such structures are used for the
purpose of assembly; therefore,
egress becomes a very import-
ant safety issue that must be
complied with. Other aspects,
such as anchoring the structure for stability and resistance to environmental loads such as wind loads,
are also important. Due to the nature of these structures, regardless of the general smoking rules of
the society, country or region, smoking is not permitted in tents and membrane structures and “No
Smoking” signs must be posted in visible areas. [Ref. SBC 801 - 3104]
3 5 2    A n n e x

CHAPTER 34: TIRE REBUILDING AND TIRE STORAGE

Tire rebuilding and storage facil-
ities are unique in that a large
amount of combustible mate-
rial and operation is involved
and fires in such facilities are
often enormous and difficult
to control. For this reason,
smoking, open burning and
sources of heat are all prohib-
ited and a fire safety plan must
be developed and submitted to
the Civil Defense for approval.
Unauthorized access to open
storage yards can be a source of
concern; as such, where the bulk
volume of stored material is more than 566 m3, a firmly anchored fence or other approved method of
security that controls unauthorized access to the storage yard shall surround the storage yard. [Ref.
SBC 801 - Chapter 34]

CHAPTER 36: MARINAS

A marina is defined in Chapter 2 as any portion of the ocean or inland water, either naturally or arti-
ficially protected, for the mooring, servicing or safety of vessels and shall include artificially protected
works, the public or private lands ashore, and structures or facilities provided within the enclosed body
of water and ashore for the mooring or servicing of vessels or the servicing of their crews or passen-
gers. NFPA 303, Fire Protection Standard for Marinas and Boatyards, is refenced in Section 3603.5.
Fuel dispensing facilities related to marinas are referenced to Chapter 23 for compliance. [Ref. SBC
801 - Chapter 36]

CHAPTER 37: COMBUSTIBLE FIBERS

Buildings in which combustible fibers are used and stored have great vulnerability to fires and explo-
sions. These operations are generally associated with cotton processing involving balled cotton, seed
cotton and other combustible fibers. Approved dust collectors are required for machinery and process
where dust is created. Dust collectors and exhaust systems must comply with SBC 801, Chapter 22 and
SBC 501, Section 511. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 37]
 A n n e x    3 5 3

CHAPTERS 38 THROUGH 49: RESERVED

SBC 801 does not contain any technical information in Chapters 38 through 49. These chapters are
reserved for future subjects to be added.

CHAPTER 51: AEROSOLS

Aerosols are defined in Chapter
2 and aerosol products are cat-
egorized into Levels 1, 2 and 3.
Aerosol products are obviously
under pressure and their manu-
facture, storage and display are
regulated by SBC 801, Chapter
51; SBC 201; and NFPA 30B,
Code for the Manufacture and
Storage of Aerosol Products.
Aerosol products have contrib-
uted to major warehouse fires
that necessitated the fire code
to address the regulatory provi-
sions for such products. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 51]

CHAPTER 52: RESERVED

SBC 801 does not contain any technical information in Chapter 52. This chapter is reserved for future
subjects to be added.

CHAPTER 54: CORROSIVE MATERIALS

Corrosives are hazardous materials that pose a hazard not only to building occupants but also to fire
personnel and emergency responders. A corrosive is defined in Chapter 2 as “a chemical that causes
visible destruction of, or irreversible alterations in, living tissue by chemical action at the point of
contact. A chemical shall be considered corrosive if, when tested on the intact skin of albino rabbits by
the method described in U.S. Department of Transportation (DOTn) 49 Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) 173.137, such chemical destroys or changes irreversibly the structure of the tissue at the point
of contact following an exposure period of 4 hours. This term does not refer to action on inanimate
surfaces.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] Where corrosive materials are in use, specific exhaust systems are
required to protect against hazardous fumes and vapors. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5405.1.2]
3 5 4    A n n e x

CHAPTER 55: CRYOGENIC FLUIDS

Cryogenic fluids are those fluids that have very low boiling points. They are a freezing hazard if they
come in contact with skin and they can be very dangerous to eyes. Pipes associated with cryogenics are
required to be well insulated. Release of cryogens at extremely low temperatures can also make some
materials, such as rubber, carbon steel and plastic, so brittle that those materials can fail. Storage, use,
containers and other elements involved in facilities that involve cryogens are regulated in Chapter 55.
[Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 55]

CHAPTER 56: EXPLOSIVES AND FIREWORKS

Chapter 56 addresses the reg-
ulations for the manufacture,
storage and handling of explo-
sive materials, ammunition,
blasting agents and fireworks.
Because explosions are instan-
taneous events and do not
allow for timely protection and
egress of occupants, they must
follow strict rules. Explosive
materials are categorized into
six divisions: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4,
1.5 and 1.6. [Ref. SBC 801 -
Table 911.1] In addition to the
requirements of Chapter 56,
NFPA 495, Explosive Materials Code and NFPA 498 Standard for Safe Havens and Interchange Lots
for Vehicles Transporting Explosives must be complied with. Unlike any other chapter in SBC 801,
Section 5601.2.4, Financial Responsibility obligates the permit applicant to file a bond or certificate
of insurance and obtain approval from the Civil Defense. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 56]
 A n n e x    3 5 5

CHAPTER 58: FLAMMABLE GASES AND FLAMMABLE

CRYOGENIC FLUIDS
The primary focus of this chapter is bulk hydrogen gas stored in compression or as a cryogenic fluid.
While Chapter 55 covers cryogenic fluids of all classifications, Chapter 58 contains additional criteria
for flammable cryogenic fluids. The various terms associated with this chapter are defined in Chapter
2, such as flammable gas being defined as “A material which is a gas at 20°C or less at 101 kPa of pres-
sure [a material that has a boiling point of 20°C or less at 101 kPa] which:
1. Is ignitable at 101 kPa when in a mixture of 13 percent or less by volume with air; or

2. Has a flammable range at 101 kPa with air of not less than 12 percent, regardless of the lower
limit.
The limits specified shall be determined at 101 kPa of pressure and a temperature of 20°C in accor-
dance with ASTM E 681.” [Ref. SBC 801 - 202] Medical gas systems are also addressed in this chapter
and such gas supply cylinders are required to be located in medical gas storage rooms or gas cabinets
in accordance with Section 5306 that are of 1-hour-rated construction and connected to an exhaust
system. [Ref. SBC 801 - 5803.1.1.1]

CHAPTER 59: FLAMMABLE SOLIDS

Flammable solids are defined in Chapter 2 and, based on that definition, could include a wide variety
of solids. Magnesium and several other metals, such as titanium, calcium, zinc, sodium and lithium,
can become fire hazards. The conditions for storage and use of flammable solids are set forth in
Chapter 59, addressing subjects such as maximum allowable quantities, pile size limits and locations
and storage limitations. As an example, flammable solids are not allowed to be stored in basements.
[Ref. SBC 801 - 5904.1.3] The main focus of the chapter is on magnesium, detailed provisions being
set forth in Section 5906. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 59]

CHAPTER 60: HIGHLY TOXIC AND TOXIC MATERIALS

A highly toxic material is defined in Chapter 2 as “A material which produces a lethal dose or lethal con-
centration which falls within three main categories detailed in chapter 2.” These materials, as indicated
by their name, are an immense threat to building occupants and emergency responders. Depending
on the nature and the form of the toxic material, Chapters 50, 53 and 60 could all be applicable. As is
the case with all chemicals, the amounts of toxic materials that can be stored is limited in each control
area. Exhaust systems are critical parts of facilities where toxic materials are stored and used. In cer-
tain cases, gas detection systems are required for immediate identification of toxic gases being released
into or out of the facility. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 60]
3 5 6    A n n e x

CHAPTER 62: ORGANIC PEROXIDES

Organic peroxides are of five different types—Class I, II, III, IV and V—as defined in Chapter 2. Like
any other hazardous or flammable chemical, the amount and extent of use of organic peroxides are
limited in each control area; otherwise, any building or portion of a building housing uses associated
with this use will be classified as a hazardous occupancy and subject to additional requirements. An
approved supervised smoke detection system in accordance with Section 907 must be provided in
rooms or areas where Class I, II or III organic peroxides are stored and activation of the smoke detec-
tion system shall sound a local alarm. The only exception is that a smoke detection system is not
required in detached storage buildings equipped throughout with an approved automatic fire-extin-
guishing system. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 62]

CHAPTER 63: OXIDIZERS, OXIDIZING GASES AND OXIDIZING

CRYOGENIC FLUIDS
Oxidizers can be in the form of a solid, liquid or gas. Oxidizers are common chemicals used in indus-
trial operations. Oxidizers include chemicals such as chlorates, nitrates and bromates. Oxidizing
cryogenic fluids include liquid oxygen, which is regulated by this chapter and Chapter 55. Both indoor
and outdoor storage requirements are included in this chapter. Oxidizers are categorized into four
classes—Class 1 through 4—each having a limitation for use in certain occupancies. For example, no
amount of liquid or solid oxidizers are allowed to be stored in a Group R occupancy due to their great
explosive hazard. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 63]

CHAPTER 64: PYROPHORIC MATERIALS

A pyrophoric is defined in Chapter 2 as a chemical with an autoignition temperature in air, at or below
a temperature of 54°C. Due to this characteristic, pyrophoric materials have a great capacity to ignite
at low temperatures, posing a high detonation hazard. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) informa-
tion, along with the nature of use and storage in the building, are required to be submitted to obtain a
permit. Both storage and use of pyrophoric materials are included and addressed in Chapter 64. In the
case of outdoor storage areas, where overhead construction is provided for sheltering outdoor storage
areas, the storage areas must be provided with approved automatic fire-extinguishing system protec-
tion. The various storage areas must also be separated from each other according to the requirements
listed in Table 6404.2.1. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 64]
 A n n e x    3 5 7

CHAPTER 65: PYROXYLIN (CELLULOSE NITRATE) PLASTICS

Pyroxylin (cellulose nitrate) plastic is formulated from a combination of cellulose, nitric acid and sul-
furic acid. The resulting compound, known as pyroxylin, is an unstable and extremely combustible
plastic. Once exposed to elevated temperatures, pyroxylin plastic is subject to spontaneous ignition.
The products of combustion of pyroxylin plastic are extremely toxic. These compounds burn vigor-
ously because of the chemically bound oxygen in their structure. Pyroxylin plastics burn at a rate 15
times greater than comparable common combustibles. Various aspects of safety related to the use and
storage of pyroxylin are addressed in Chapter 65, including the means of egress: in Section 6503.3, the
code requires that sales or display tables be located such that, in the event of a fire at a table, the table
will not interfere with the free means of egress. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 65]

CHAPTER 66: UNSTABLE (REACTIVE) MATERIALS

Unstable materials are extremely dangerous because they can react with themselves or when exposed
to heat, light, cold, moisture or other conditions. Their reactions can cause fires or explosions, or
decompose to form toxic materials. The storage of unstable materials is regulated in Chapter 66, which
addresses maximum storage quantities in control areas, limitations of storage in various occupancies,
floors that must be liquidtight for protection against spillage, prohibition of storage in basements and
other requirements. [Ref. SBC 801 - Chapter 66]

CHAPTER 67: WATER-REACTIVE SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

A water-reactive material is defined in Chapter 2 as “a material that explodes; violently reacts; pro-
duces flammable, toxic or other hazardous gases; or evolves enough heat to cause autoignition or
ignition of combustibles upon exposure to water or moisture.” Water-reactive materials are subdi-
vided into three classes: 1, 2 and 3. Chemicals in this category are used in various industrial processes
and are unique due to the limitation of Civil Defense not being able to use water as the primary fire
suppression tool. As can be expected for such highly hazardous material, planning for emergency sit-
uations is critical and in many situations these materials must be kept in detached storage facilities,
as required by Section 5003.8.2. Additional requirements, such as watertight containers, liquidtight
floors and waterproof rooms, are specified in Sections 6704.1.2, 6704.1.3 and 6704.1.4. [Ref. SBC
801 - Chapter 67]

CHAPTERS 68 THROUGH 79: RESERVED

SBC 801 does not contain any technical information in Chapters 68 through 79. These chapters are
reserved for future subjects to be added.
3 5 8    A n n e x

CHAPTER 80: REFERENCED STANDARDS

Chapter 80 lists all the standards referenced in SBC 801. The publishing agency, the standard number
and title, and the year edition that applies are listed in this chapter. These are the specific editions of
the standards that apply to design, construction and enforcement under SBC 801.

APPENDIX CHAPTERS
SBC 801 contains 13 appendix chapters, A though M. Appendix chapters E and G are informational
only, and the remainder of the appendix chapters are not mandatory and are not enforceable unless
specifically referenced in the adopting law.

Appendix A: BOARD OF APPEALS

Appendix B: FIRE-FLOW REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDINGS

Appendix C: FIRE HYDRANT LOCATIONS AND DISTRIBUTION

Appendix D: FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS ROADS

Appendix E: HAZARD CATEGORIES

Appendix F: HAZARD RANKING

Appendix G: CRYOGENIC FLUIDS WEIGHT AND VOLUME EQUIVALENTS

Appendix H: HAZARDOUS MATERIALS MANAGEMENT PLAN (HMMP) AND HAZARDOUS

MATERIALS INVENTORY STATEMENT (HMIS) INSTRUCTIONS

Appendix I: FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS—NONCOMPLIANT CONDITIONS

Appendix J: BUILDING INFORMATION SIGNS

Appendix K: CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR EXISTING AMBULATORY CARE FACILITIES

Appendix L: REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE FIGHTER AIR REPLENISHMENT SYSTEMS

Appendix M: HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS—RETROACTIVE AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER REQUIREMENT