Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 – Business Activity
The Economic Problem
Need: a good or service essential for living. Examples include water and food and
shelter.
Want: a good or service that people would like to have, but is not required for
living. Examples include cars and watching movies.
Scarcity is the basic economic problem. It is a situation that exists when there are
unlimited wants and limited resources to produce the goods and services to
satisfy those wants. For example, we have a limited amount of money but there are
a lot of things we would like to buy, using the money.
Opportunity cost
Opportunity cost is the next best alternative forgone by choosing another item.
Due to scarcity, people are often forced to make choices. When choices are made it
leads to an opportunity cost
SCARCITY → CHOICE → OPPORTUNITY COST
Example: the government has a limited amount of money (scarcity) and must
decide on whether to use it to build a road, or construct a hospital (choice). The
government chooses to construct the hospital instead of the road. The opportunity
cost here are the benefits from the road that they have sacrificed (opportunity cost).
Factors of Production
Factors of Production are resources required to produce goods or services. They
are classified into four categories.
Land: the natural resources that can be obtained from nature. This includes
minerals, forests, oil and gas. The reward for land is rent.
Labour: the physical and mental efforts put in by the workers in the production
process. The reward for labour is wage/salary
Capital: the finance, machinery and equipment needed for the production of goods
and services. The reward for capital is interest received on the capital
Enterprise: the risk taking ability of the person who brings the other factors of
production together to produce a good or service. The reward for enterprise is
profit from the business.
Specialization
Specialization occurs when a person or organisation concentrates on a task at
which they are best at. Instead of everyone doing every job, the tasks are divided
among people who are skilled and efficient at them.
Advantages:
Workers are trained to do a particular task and specialise in this, thus increasing
efficiency
Saves time and energy: production is faster by specialising
Quicker to train laborers: workers only concentrate on a task, they do not have to
be trained in all aspects of the production process
Skill development: workers can develop their skills as they do the same tasks
repeatedly, mastering it.
Disadvantages:
It can get monotonous/boring for workers, doing the same tasks repeatedly
Higher labour turnover as the workers may demand for higher salaries and
company is unable to keep up with their demands
Over-dependency: if worker(s) responsible for a particular task is absent, the
entire production process may halt since nobody else may be able to do the task.
Business is any organization that uses all the factors of production (resources)
to create goods and services to satisfy human wants and needs.
Businesses attempt to solve the problem of scarcity, using scarce resources, to
produce and sell those goods and services that consumers need and want.
Added Value
Added value is the difference between the cost of materials bought in and the
selling price of the product.
Which is, the amount of value the business has added to the raw materials by
turning it into finished products. Every business wants to add value to their
products so they may charge a higher price for their products and gain more
profits.
For example, logs of wood may not appeal to us as consumers and so we won’t
buy it or would pay a low price for it. But when a carpenter can use these logs to
transform it into a chair we can use, we will buy it at a higher cost because the
carpenter has added value to those logs of wood.
How to increase added value?
Reducing the cost of production. Added value of a product is its price less the
cost of production. Reducing cost of production will increase the added value.
Raising prices. By increasing prices they can raise added value, in the same way
as described above.
But there will be problems that rise from both these measures. To lower cost of
production, cheap labour, raw materials etc. may have to be employed, which will
create poor quality products and only lowers the value of the product. People may
not buy it. And when prices are raised, the high price may result in customer loss,
as they will turn to cheaper products.
Branding
Adding special features
Provide premium services etc.
Entrepreneurship
An entrepreneur is a person who organizes, operates and takes risks for a new
business venture. The entrepreneur brings together the various factors of
production to produce goods or services. Check below to see whether you have
what it takes to be a successful entrepreneur!
Risk taker
Creative
Optimistic
Self-confident
Innovative
Independent
Effective communicator
Hard working
Business plan
A business plan is a document containing the business objectives and
important details about the operations, finance and owners of the new
business.
It provides a complete description of a business and its plans for the first few years;
explains what the business does, who will buy the product or service and why;
provides financial forecasts demonstrating overall viability; indicates the finance
available and explains the financial requirements to start and operate the business.
Some of the content of a regular business plan are:
Executive summary: a brief summary of the key features of the business and the
business plan
The owner: educational background and what any previous experience in doing
previously
The business: name and address of the business and detailed description of the
product or service being produced and sold; how and where it will be produced,
who is likely to buy it, and in what quantities
The market: describe the market research that has been carried out, what it has
revealed and details of prospective customers and competitors
Advertising and promotion: how the business will be advertised to potential
customers and details of estimated costs of marketing
Premises and equipment: details of planning regulations, costs of premises and the
need for equipment and buildings
Business organization: whether the enterprise will take the form of sole trader,
partnership, company, or cooperative
Costs: indication of the cost of producing the product or service, the prices it
proposes to charge for the products
Finance: how much of the capital will come from savings and how much will come
from borrowings
Cash flow: forecast income (revenue) and outgoings (expenditures) over the first
year
Expansion: brief explanation of future plans
Making a business plan before actually starting the business can be very helpful.
By documenting the various details about the business, the owners will find it
much easier to run it. There is a lesser chance of losing sight of the mission and
vision of the business as the objectives have been written down. Moreover, having
the objectives of the business set down clearly will help motivate the employees.
A new entrepreneur will find it easier to get a loan or overdraft from the bank if
they have a business plan.
Businesses come in many sizes. They can be owned by a single individual or have
up to 50 shareholders. They can employ thousands of workers or have a mere
handful. But how can we classify a business as big or small?
Business growth
Businesses want to grow because growth helps reduce their average costs in the
long-run, help develop increased market share, and helps them produce and sell to
them to new markets.
There are two ways in which a business can grow- internally and externally.
Internal growth
This occurs when a business expands its existing operations. For example, when
a fast food chain opens a new branch in another country. This is a slow means of
growth but easier to manage than external growth.
External growth
This is when a business takes over or merges with another business. It is
sometimes called integration as one firm is ‘integrated’ into the other.
A merger is when the owner of two businesses agree to join their firms together to
make one business.
A takeover occurs when one business buys out the owners of another business ,
which then becomes a part of the ‘predator’ business.
External growth can largely be classified into three types:
Horizontal merger/integration: This is when one firm merges with or takes
over another one in the same industry at the same stage of production. For
example, when a firm that manufactures furniture merges with another firm that
also manufacturers furniture.
Benefits:
Reduces number of competitors in the market, since two firms become one.
Opportunities of economies of scale.
Merging will allow the businesses to have a bigger share of the total market.
Vertical merger/integration: This is when one firm merges with or takes over
another firm in the same industry but at a different stage of production.
Therefore, vertical integration can be of two types:
Backward vertical integration: When one firm merges with or takes over
another firm in the same industry but at a stage of production that is
behind the ‘predator’ firm. For example, when a firm that manufactures
furniture merges with a firm that supplies wood for manufacturing furniture.
Benefits:
Merger gives assured supply of essential components.
The profit margin of the supplying firm is now absorbed by the expanded
firm.
The supplying firm can be prevented from supplying to competitors.
Forward vertical integration: When one firm merges with or takes over
another firm in the same industry but at a stage of production that is ahead
of the ‘predator’ firm. For example, when a firm that manufactures
furniture merges with a furniture retail store.
Benefits:
Merger gives assured outlet for their product.
The profit margin of the retailer is now absorbed by the expanded firm.
The retailer can be prevented from selling the goods of competitors.
Conglomerate merger/integration: This is when one firm merges with or takes
over a firm in a completely different industry. This is also known as
‘diversification’. For example, when a firm that manufactures furniture merges
with a firm that produces clothing.
Benefits:
Conglomerate integration allows businesses to have activities in more than one
country. This allows the firms to spread its risks.
There could be a transfer of ideas between the two businesses even though they
are in different industries. This transfer o ideas could help improve the quality
and demand for the two products.
Drawbacks of growth
Difficult to control staff: as a business grows, the business organisation in terms
of departments and divisions will grow, along with the number of employees,
making it harder to control, co-ordinate and communicate with everyone
Lack of funds: growth requires a lot of capital.
Lack of expertise: growth is a long and difficult process that will require people
with expertise in the field to manage and coordinate activities
Diseconomies of scale: this is the term used to describe how average costs of a
firm tends to increase as it grows beyond a point, reducing profitability. This is
explored more deeply in a later section.
Not all businesses grow.Some stay small, employ a handful of workers and have
little output. Here are the reasons why.
Type of industry: some firms remain small due to the industry they operate in.
Examples of these are hairdressers, car repairs, catering, etc, which give personal
services and therefore cannot grow.
Market size: if the firm operates in areas where the total number of customers is
small, such as in rural areas, there is no need for the firm to grow and thus stays
small.
Owners’ objectives: not all owners want to increase the size of their firms and
profits. Some of them prefer keeping their businesses small and having a personal
contact with all of their employees and customers, having flexibility in controlling
and running the business, having more control over decision-making, and to keep
it less stressful.
Not all businesses are successful. The main reasons why they fail are:
Poor management: this is a common cause of business failure for new firms. The
main reason is lack of experience and planning which could lead to bad decision
making. New entrepreneurs could make mistakes when choosing the location of
the firm, the raw materials to be used for production, etc, all resulting in failure
Over-expansion: this could lead to diseconomies of scale and greatly increase
costs, if a firms expands too quickly or over their optimum level
Failure to plan for change: the demands of customers keep changing with change
in tastes and fashion. Due to this, firms must always be ready to change their
products to meet the demand of their customers. Failure to do so could result in
losing customers and loss. They also won’t be ready to quickly keep up
with changes the competitors are making, and changes in laws and regulations
Poor financial management: if the owner of the firm does not manage his
finances properly, it could result in cash shortages. This will mean that the
employees cannot be paid and enough goods cannot be produced. Poor cash flow
can therefore also cause businesses to fail
Why new businesses are at a greater risk of failure
Less experience: a lack of experience in the market or in business gets a lot of
firms easily pushed out of the market
New to the market: they may still not understand the nuances and trends of the
market, that existing competitors will have mastered
Don’t a lot of sales yet: only by increasing sales, can new firms grow and find
their foothold in the market. At a stage when they’re not selling much, they are at a
greater risk of failing
Don’t have a lot of money to support the business yet: financial issues can
quickly get the better of new firms if they aren’t very careful with their cash flows.
It is only after they make considerable sales and start making a profit, can they
reinvest in the business and support it
1.4 – Types of Business Organizations
Sole Trader/Sole Proprietorship
A business organization owned and controlled by one person. Sole traders can
employ other workers, but only he/she invests and owns the business.
Advantages:
Easy to set up: there are very few legal formalities involved in starting and
running a sole proprietorship. A less amount of capital is enough by sole traders to
start the business. There is no need to publish annual financial accounts.
Full control: the sole trader has full control over the business. Decision-making is
quick and easy, since there are no other owners to discuss matters with.
Sole trader receives all profit: Since there is only one owner, he/she will receive
all of the profits the company generates.
Personal: since it is a small form of business, the owner can easily create and
maintain contact with customers, which will increase customer loyalty to the
business and also let the owner know about consumer wants and preferences.
Disadvantages:
Unlimited liability: if the business has bills/debts left unpaid, legal actions will be
taken against the investors, where their even personal property can be seized, if
their investments don’t meet the unpaid amount. This is because the business and
the investors are the legally not separate (unincorporated).
Full responsibility: Since there is only one owner, the sole owner has to undertake
all running activities. He/she doesn’t have anyone to share his responsibilities with.
This workload and risks are fully concentrated on him/her.
Lack of capital: As only one owner/investor is there, the amount of capital
invested in the business will be very low. This can restrict growth and expansion of
the business. Their only sources of finance will be personal savings or borrowing
or bank loans (though banks will be reluctant to lend to sole traders since it is
risky).
Lack of continuity: If the owner dies or retires, the business dies with him/her.
Partnerships
These companies can sell shares, unlike partnerships and sole traders, to raise
capital. Other people can buy these shares (stocks) and become
a shareholder (owner) of the company. Therefore they are jointly owned by the
people who have bough it’s stocks. These shareholders then
receive dividends (part of the profit; a return on investment).
The shareholders in companies have limited liabilities. That is, only their
individual investments are at risk if the business fails or leaves debts. If the
company owes money, it can be sued and taken to court, but it’s shareholders
cannot. The companies have a separate legal identity from their owners, which is
why the owners have a limited liability. These companies are incorporated.
(When they’re unincorporated, shareholders have unlimited liability and don’t
have a separate legal identity from their business).
Companies also enjoys continuity, unlike partnerships and sole traders. That is,
the business will continue even if one of it’s owners retire or die.
Shareholders will elect a board of directors to manage and run the company in
it’s day-to-day activities. In small companies, the shareholders with the highest
percentage of shares invested are directors, but directors don’t have to be
shareholders. The more shares a shareholder has, the more their voting power.
These are two types of companies:
Private Limited Companies: One or more owners who can sell its’ shares to only
the people known by the existing shareholders (family and friends). Example: Ikea.
Public Limited Companies: Two or more owners who can sell its’ shares to any
individual/organization in the general public through stock exchanges (see
Economics: topic 3.1 – Money and Banking). Example: Verizon Communications.
Advantages:
Limited Liability: this is because, the company and the shareholders have separate
legal identities.
Raise huge amounts of capital: selling shares to other people (especially in Public
Ltd. Co.s), raises a huge amount of capital, which is why companies are large.
Public Ltd. Companies can advertise their shares, in the form of
a prospectus, which tells interested individuals about the business, it’s activities,
profits, board of directors, shares on sale, share prices etc. This will attract
investors.
Disadvantages:
Required to disclose financial information: Sometimes, private limited
companies are required by law to publish their financial statements annually, while
for public limited companies, it is legally compulsory to publish all accounts and
reports. All the writing, printing and publishing of such details can prove to be
very expensive, and other competing companies could use it to learn the company
secrets.
Private Limited Companies cannot sell shares to the public. Their shares can
only be sold to people they know with the agreement of other shareholders.
Transfer of shares is restricted here. This will raise lesser capital than Public Ltd.
Companies.
Public Ltd. Companies require a lot of legal documents and investigations before
it can be listed on the stock exchange.
Public and Private Limited Companies must also hold an Annual General
Meeting (AGM), where all shareholders are informed about the performance of
the company and company decisions, vote on strategic decisions and elect board of
directors. This is very expensive to set up, especially if there are thousands of
shareholders.
Public Ltd. Companies may have managerial problems: since they are very
large, they become very difficult to manage. Communication problems may occur
which will slow down decision-making.
In Public Ltd. Companies, there may be a divorce of ownership and control:
The shareholders can lose control of the company when other large shareholders
outvote them or when board of directors control company decisions.
A summary of everything learned until now, in this section, in case you’re getting
confused:
Franchises
Need to pay
franchisor franchise
fees and royalties
Joint Ventures
Public sector corporations are businesses owned by the government and run by
directors appointed by the government. They usually provide essentials services
like water, electricity, health services etc. The government provides the capital to
run these corporations in the form of subsidies (grants). The UK’s National Health
Service (NHS) is an example. Public corporations aim to:
to keep prices low so everybody can afford the service.
to keep people employed.
to offer a service to the public everywhere.
Advantages:
Some businesses are considered too important to be owned by an individual.
(electricity, water, airline)
Other businesses, considered natural monopolies, are controlled by the
government. (electricity, water)
Reduces waste in an industry. (e.g. two railway lines in one city)
Rescue important businesses when they are failing through nationalisation
Provide essential services to the people
Drawbacks:
Motivation might not be as high because profit is not an objective
Subsidies lead to inefficiency. It is also considered unfair for private businesses
There is normally no competition to public corporations, so there is no incentive
to improve
Businesses could be run for government popularity
1.5 – Business Objectives and Stakeholder Objectives
Business objectives
Business objectives are the aims and targets that a business works towards to help
it run successfully. Although the setting of these objectives does not always
guarantee the business success, it has its benefits.
Setting objectives increases motivation as employees and managers now have
clear targets to work towards.
Decision making will be easier and less time consuming as there are set targets to
base decisions on. i.e., decisions will be taken in order to achieve business
objectives.
Setting objectives reduces conflicts and helps unite the business towards reaching
the same goal.
Managers can compare the business’ performance to its objectives and make any
changes in its activities if required.
Objectives vary with different businesses due to size, sector and many other
factors. However, many business in the private sector aim to achieve the following
objectives.
Survival: new or small firms usually have survival as a primary objective. Firms
in a highly competitive market will also be more concerned with survival rather
than any other objective. To achieve this, firms could decide to lower prices, which
would mean forsaking other objectives such as profit maximization.
Profit: this is the income of a business from its activities after deducting total
costs. Private sector firms usually have profit making as a primary objective. This
is because profits are required for further investment into the business as well as
for the payment of return to the shareholders/owners of the business.
Growth: once a business has passed its survival stage it will aim for growth and
expansion. This is usually measured by value of sales or output. Aiming for
business growth can be very beneficial. A larger business can ensure greater
job security and salaries for employees. The business can also benefit from
higher market share and economies of scale.
Market share: this can be defined as the proportion of total market sales achieved
by one business. Increased market share can bring about many benefits to the
business such as increased customer loyalty, setting up of brand image, etc.
Service to the society: some operations in the private sectors such as social
enterprises do not aim for profits and prefer to set more economical objectives.
They aim to better the society by providing social,
environmental and financial aid. They help those in need, the underprivileged,
the unemployed, the economy and the government.
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A business’ objectives do not remain the same forever. As market situations
change and as the business itself develops, its objectives will change to reflect its
current market and economic position. For example, a firm facing serious
economic recession could change its objective from profit maximization to short
term survival.
Stakeholders
Shareholder/ Owners: these are the risk takers of the business. They invest
capital into the business to set up and expand it. These shareholders are liable to a
share of the profits made by the business.
Objectives:
Shareholders are entitled to a rate of return on the capital they have
invested into the business and will therefore have profit maximization as an
objective.
Business growth will also be an important objective as this will ensure that the
value of the shares will increase.
Workers: these are the people that are employed by the business and are
directly involved in its activities.
Objectives:
Contract of employment that states all the right and responsibilities to and of
the employees.
Regular payment for the work done by the employees.
Workers will want to benefit from job satisfaction as well as motivation.
The employees will want job security– the ability to be able to work without
the fear of being dismissed or made redundant.
Managers: they are also employees but managers control the work of
others. Managers are in charge of making key business decisions.
Objectives:
Like regular employees, managers too will aim towards a secure job.
Higher salaries due to their jobs requiring more skill and effort.
Managers will also wish for business growth as a bigger business means that
managers can control a bigger and well known business.
External Stakeholders:
Customers: they are a very important part of every business. They purchase and
consume the goods and services that the business produces/ provides. Successful
businesses use market research to find out customer preferences before producing
their goods.
Objectives:
Price that reflects the quality of the good.
The products must be reliable and safe. i.e., there must not be any false
advertisement of the products.
The products must be well designed and of a perceived quality.
Government: the role of the government is to protect the workers and
customers from the business’ activities and safeguard their interests.
Objectives:
The government will want the business to grow and survive as they will bring a
lot of benefits to the economy. A successful business will help increase the
total output of the country, will improve employment as well as increase
government revenue through payment of taxes.
They will expect the firms to stay within the rules and regulations set by the
government.
Banks: these banks provide financial help for the business’ operations’
Objectives:
The banks will expect the business to be able to repay the amount that has been
lent along with the interest on it. The bank will thus have business liquidity as
its objective.
Community: this consists of all the stakeholder groups, especially the third parties
that are affected by the business’ activities.
Objectives:
The business must offer jobs and employ local employees.
The production process of the business must in no way harm the
environment.
Products must be socially responsible and must not pose any harmful effects
from consumption.
Government owned and controlled businesses do not have the same objectives as
those in the private sector.
Objectives:
Financial: although these businesses do not aim to maximize profits, they will
have to meet the profit target set by the government. This is so that it can be
reinvested into the business for meeting the needs of the society
Service: the main aim of this organization is to provide a service to the community
that must meet the quality target set by the government
Social: most of these social enterprises are set up in order to aid the community.
This can be by providing employment to citizens, providing good quality goods
and services at an affordable rate, etc.
They help the economy by contributing to GDP, decreasing unemployment rate
and raising living standards.
This is in total contrast to private sector aims like profit, growth, survival, market
share etc.
As all stakeholders have their own aims they would like to achieve, it is natural
that conflicts of stakeholders’ interests could occur. Therefore, if a business tries to
satisfy the objectives of one stakeholder, it might mean that another stakeholders’
objectives could go unfulfilled.
For example, workers will aim towards earning higher salaries. Shareholders
might not want this to happen as paying higher salaries could mean that less profit
will be left over for payment of return to the shareholders.
Similarly, the business might want to grow by expanding operations to build new
factories. But this might conflict with the community’s want for clean and
pollution-free localities.
Have a better standard of living: by earning incomes they can satisfy their needs
and wants
Be secure: having a job means they can always maintain or grow that standard of
living
Gain experience and status: work allows people to get better at the job they do and
earn a reputable status in society
Have job satisfaction: people also work for the satisfaction of having a job
Motivation is the reason why employees want to work hard and work
effectively for the business. Money is the main motivator, as explained above.
Other factors that may motivate a person to choose to do a particular job may
include social needs (need to communicate and work with others), esteem
needs (to feel important, worthwhile), job satisfaction (to enjoy good
work), security (knowing that your job and pay are secure- that you will not lose
your job).
Why motivate workers? Why do firms go to the pain of making sure their
workers are motivated? When workers are well-motivated, they become highly
productive and effective in their work, become absent less often, and less
likely to leave the job, thus increasing the firm’s efficiency and output, leading
to higher profits. For example, in the service sector, if the employee is unhappy at
his work, he may act lazy and rude to customers, leading to low customer
satisfaction, more complaints and ultimately a bad reputation and low profits.
Motivation Theories
F. W. Taylor: Taylor based his ideas on the assumption that workers were
motivated by personal gains, mainly money and that increasing pay would
increase productivity (amount of output produced). Therefore he proposed
the piece-rate system, whereby workers get paid for the number of output they
produce. So in order, to gain more money, workers would produce more. He also
suggested a scientific management in production organisation, to break down
labour (essentially division of labour) to maximise output
However, this theory is not entirely true. There are various other motivators in the
modern workplace, some even more important than money. The piece rate system
is not very practical in situations where output cannot be measured (service
industries) and also will lead to (high) output that doesn’t guarantee high quality.
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Financial Motivators
Wages: often paid weekly. They can be calculated in two ways:
Time-Rate: pay based on the number of hours worked. Although output may
increase, it doesn’t mean that workers will work sincerely use the time to
produce more- they may simply waste time on very few output since their pay
is based only on how long they work. The productive and unproductive worker
will get paid the same amount, irrespective of their output.
Piece-Rate: pay based on the no. of output produced. Same as time-rate, this
doesn’t ensure that quality output is produced. Thus, efficient workers may feel
demotivated as they’re getting the same pay as inefficient workers, despite their
efficiency.
Salary: paid monthly or annually.
Commission: paid to salesperson, based on a percentage of sales they’ve made.
The higher the sales, the more the pay. Although this will encourage salespersons
to sell more products and increase profits, it can be very stressful for them because
no sales made means no pay at all.
Bonus: additional amount paid to workers for good work
Performance-related pay: paid based on performance. An appraisal (assessing the
effectiveness of an employee by senior management through interviews,
observations, comments from colleagues etc.) is used to measure this performance
and a pay is given based on this.
Profit-sharing: a scheme whereby a proportion of the company’s profits is
distributed to workers. Workers will be motivated to work better so that a higher
profit is made.
Share ownership: shares in the firm are given to employees so that they can
become part owners of the company. This will increase employees’ loyalty to the
company, as they feel a sense of belonging.
Non-Financial Motivators
Fringe benefits are non-financial rewards given to employees
Company vehicle/car
Free healthcare
Children’s education fees paid for
Free accommodation
Free holidays/trips
Discounts on the firm’s products
Job Satisfaction: the enjoyment derived from the feeling that you’ve done a
good job. Employees have different ideas about what motivates them- it could be
pay, promotional opportunities, team involvement, relationship with superiors,
level of responsibility, chances for training, the working hours, status of the job
etc. Responsibility, recognition and satisfaction are in particular very important.
So, how can companies ensure that they’re workers are satisfied with the job, other
than the motivators mentioned above?
Job Rotation: involves workers swapping around jobs and doing each specific
task for only a limited time and then changing round again. This increases the
variety in the work itself and will also make it easier for managers to move around
workers to do other jobs if somebody is ill or absent. The tasks themselves are not
made more interesting, but the switching of tasks may avoid boredom among
workers. This is very common in factories with a huge production line where
workers will move from retrieving products from the machine to labelling the
products to packing the products to putting the products into huge cartons.
Job Enlargement: where extra tasks of similar level of work are added to a
worker’s job description. These extra tasks will not add greater responsibility or
work for the employee, but make work more interesting. E.g.: a worker hired to
stock shelves will now, as a result of job enlargement, arrange stock on shelves,
label stock, fetch stock etc.
Job Enrichment: involves adding tasks that require more skill and
responsibility to a job. This gives employees a sense of trust from senior
management and motivate them to carry out the extra tasks effectively. Some
additional training may also be given to the employee to do so. E.g.: a receptionist
employed to welcome customers will now, as a result of job enrichment, deal with
telephone enquiries, word-process letters etc.
Team-working: a group of workers is given responsibility for a particular
process, product or development. They can decide as a team how to organize and
carry out the tasks. The workers take part in decision making and take
responsibility for the process. It gives them more control over their work and thus a
sense of commitment, increasing job satisfaction. Working as a group will also add
to morale, fulfill social needs and lead to job satisfaction.
Opportunities for training: providing training will make workers feel that their
work is being valued. Training also provides them opportunities for personal
growth and development, thereby attaining job satisfaction
Opportunities of promotion: providing opportunities for promotion will get
workers to work more efficiently and fill them with a sense of self-actualisation
and job satisfaction
2.2 – Organization and Management
Organizational Structure
Advantages:
All employees are aware of which communication channel is used to reach them
with messages
Everyone knows their position in the business. They know who they are
accountable to and who they are accountable for
It shows the links and relationship between the different departments
Gives everyone a sense of belonging as they appear on the organizational chart
Line Managers have authority over people directly below them in the
organizational structure. Traditional marketing/operations/sales managers are good
examples.
Staff Managers are specialists who provide support, information and assistance to
line managers. The IT department manager in most organisations act as staff
managers.
Management
So,, what role do manager really have in an organization? Here are their five
primary roles:
Advantages to subordinates:
the work becomes more interesting and rewarding- increased job satisfaction
employees feel more important and feel trusted– increasing loyalty to firm
can act as a method of training and opportunities for promotions, if they do a good
job.
Leadership Styles
Leaderships styles refer to the different approaches used when dealing with
people when in a position of authority. There are mainly three styles you need to
learn: the autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire styles.
Autocratic style is where the managers expects to be in charge of the business and
have their orders followed. They do all the decision-making, not involving
employees at all. Communication is thus, mainly one way- from top to bottom.
This is standard in police and armed forces organizations.
Democratic style is where managers involve employees in the decision-making
and communication is two-way from top to bottom as well as bottom to top.
Information about future plans is openly communicated and discussed with
employees and a final decision is made by the manager.
Laissez-faire (French phrase for ‘leave to do) style makes the broad objectives of
the business known to employees and leaves them to do their own decision-
making and organize tasks. Communication is rather difficult since a clear
direction is not given. The manger has a very limited role to play.
Trade Unions
A trade union is a group of workers who have joined together to ensure their
interest are protected. They negotiate with the employer (firm) for better
conditions and treatment and can threaten to take industrial action if their requests
are denied. Industrial action can include overtime ban (refusing to work overtime),
go slow (working at the slowest speed as is required by the employment contract),
strike (refusing to work at all and protesting instead) etc. Trade unions can also
seek to put forward their views to the media and influence government decisions
relating to employment.
Benefits to workers of joining a trade union:
strength in number- a sense of belonging and unity
improved conditions of employment, for example, better pay, holidays, hours of
work etc
improved working conditions, foe example, health and safety
improved benefits for workers who are not working, because they’re sick, retired
or made redundant (dismissed not because of any fault of their own)
financial support if a member thinks he/she has been unfairly dismissed or treated
benefits that have been negotiated for union member such as discounts on firm’s
products, provision of health services.
Disadvantages to workers of joining a trade unions:
Recruitment
Job Analysis, Description and Specification
Recruitment is the process from identifying that the business needs to employ someone
up to the point where applications have arrived at the business.
When a person is interested in a job, they should apply for it by sending in a curriculum
vitae (CV) or resume, this will detail the person’s qualifications, experience, qualities
and skills.The business will use these to see which candidates match the job
specification. It will also include statements of why the candidate wants the job and why
he/she feels they would be suitable for the job.
Selection
Applicants who are shortlisted will be interviewed by the H.R. manager. They will also
call up the referee provided by the applicant (a referee could be the previous employer
or colleagues who can give a confidential opinion about the applicant’s reliability,
honesty and suitability for the job). Interviews will allow the manager to assess:
the applicant’s ability to do the job
personal qualities of the applicant
character and personality of applicant
In addition to interviews, firms can conduct certain tests to select the best
candidate. This could include skills tests (ability to do the job), aptitude tests
(candidate’s potential to gain additional skills), personality tests (what kind of a
personality the candidate has- will it be suitable for the job?), group situation tests (how
they manage and work in teams) etc.
When a successful candidate has been selected the others must be sent a letter of
rejection.
The contract of employment: a legal agreement between the employer and the
employee listing the rights and responsibilities of workers. It will include:
the name of employer and employee
job title
date when employment will begin
hours to work
rate of pay and other benefits
when payment is made
holiday entitlement
the amount of notice to be given to terminate the employment that the employer or
employee must give to end the employment etc.
Employment contracts can be part-time or full-time. Part-time employment is often
considered to be between 1 and 30-35 hours a week whereas full-time
employment will usually work 35 hours or more a week.
Advantages to employer of part-time employment (disadvantages of full-time
employment to employer):
more flexible hours of work
easier to ask employees just to work at busy times
easier to extend business opening/operating hours by working evenings or at weekends
works lesser hours so employee is willing to accept lower pay
less expensive than employing and paying full-time workers.
Disadvantages to employer of part-time employment (advantages of full-time
employment to employers)
less likely to be trained because the workers see the job as temporary
takes longer to recruit two part-time workers than one full-time worker
can be less committed to the business/ more likely to leave and go get another job
less likely to be promoted because they will not have gained the skills and experience
as full-time employees
more difficult to communicate with part-time workers when they are not in work- all work
at different times.
Training
Training is important to a business as it will improve the worker’s skills and
knowledge and help the business be more efficient and productive, especially
when new processes and products are introduced. It will improve the workers’ chances
at getting promoted and raise their morale.
The three types of training are:
Helps new employees to settle into their job quickly
May be a legal requirement to give health and safety training before the start of work
Less likely to make mistakes
Disadvantages:
Time-consuming
Wages still have to be paid during training, even though they aren’t working
Delays the state of the employee starting the job
On-the-job training: occurs by watching a more experienced worker doing the job
Advantages:
It ensures there is some production from worker whilst they are training
It usually costs less than off-the-job training
It is training to the specific needs of the business
Disadvantages:
The trainer will lose some production time as they are taking some time to teach the
new employee
The trainer may have bad habits that can be passed onto the trainee
It may not necessarily be recognised training qualifications outside the business
Off-the-job training: involves being trained away from the workplace, usually by
specialist trainers
Advantages:
A broad range of skills can be taught using these techniques
Employees may be taught a variety of skills and they may become multi-skilled that
can allow them to do various jobs in the company when the need arises.
Disadvantages:
Costs are high
It means wages are paid but no work is being done by the worker
The additional qualifications means it is easier for the employee to leave and find
another job
Workforce Planning
Workforce Planning: the establishing of the workforce needed by the business for the
foreseeable future in terms of the number and skills of employees required.
They may have to downsize (reduce the no. of employees) the workforce because of:
Introduction of automation
Falling demand for their products
Factory/shop/office closure
Relocating factory abroad
A business has merged or been taken over and some jobs are no longer needed
They can downsize the workforce in two ways:
Dismissal: where a worker is told to leave their job because their work or behaviour is
unsatisfactory.
Redundancy: when an employee is no longer needed and so loses their work, through
not due to any fault of theirs. They may be given some money as compensation for the
redundancy.
Worker could also resign (they are leaving because they have found another job) and
retire (they are getting old and want to stop working).
Communication Methods
Written methods (eg: letters, memos, text-messages, reports, e-mail, social media,
faxes, notices, signboards)
Advantages:
No feedback
May not be understood/ interpreted properly.
Speed: if the receiver has to get the information quickly, then a telephone call or
text message has to be sent. If speed isn’t important, a letter or e-mail will be more
appropriate.
Cost: if the company wishes to keep costs down, it may choose to use letters or
face-to-face meetings as a medium of communication. Otherwise, telephone,
posters etc. will be used.
Message details: if the message is very detailed, then written and visual methods
will be used.
Leadership style: a democratic style would use two-way communication methods
such as verbal mediums. An autocratic one would use notices and announcements.
The receiver: if there is only receiver, then a personal face-to-face or telephone
call will be more apt. If all the staff is to be sent a message, a notice or e-mail will
be sent.
Importance of a written record: if the message is one that needs to have a written
record like a legal document or receipts of new customer orders, then written
methods will be used.
Importance of feedback: if feedback is important, like for a quick query, then a
direct verbal or written method will have to be used.
Formal communication is when messages are sent through established channels
using professional language. Eg: reports, emails, memos, official meetings.
Informal communication is when information is sent and received casually with
the use of everyday language. Eg: staff briefings. Managers can sometimes use the
‘grapevine’ (informal communication among employees- usually where rumours
and gossips spread!) to test out the reactions to new ideas (for example, a new shift
system at a factory) before officially deciding whether or not to make it official.
Communication Barriers
Communication barriers are factors that stop effective communication of
messages.
Mass Marketing: selling the same product to the whole market with no attempt to
target groups with in it. For example, the iPhone sold is the same everywhere, there
are no variations in design over location or income.
Advantages:
Larger amount of sales when compared to a niche market
Can benefit from economies of scale: a large volume of products are produced and
so the average costs will be low when compared to a niche market
Risks are spread, unlike in a niche market. If the product isn’t successful in one
market, it’s fine as there are several other markets
More chances for the business to grow since there is a large market. In niche
markets, this is difficult as the product is only targeted towards a particular group.
Limitations:
They will have to face more competition
Can’t charge a higher price than competition because they’re all selling similar
products
Market Segmentation
A market segment is an identifiable sub-group of a larger market in which
consumers have similar characteristics and preferences
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The process of primary research:
Detailed information can be collected
Customer’s opinions about the product can be obtained
Online surveys will be cheaper and easier to collate and analyse
Can be linked to prize draws and prize draw websites to encourage customers to
fill out surveys
Disadvantages:
If questions are not clear or are misleading, then unreliable answers will be
given
Time-consuming and expensive to carry out research, collate and analyse them.
Interviews: interviewer will have ready-made questions for the interviewee.
Advantages:
Interviewer is able to explain questions that the interviewee doesn’t understand
and can also ask follow-up questions
Can gather detailed responses and interpret body-language, allowing
interviewer to come to accurate conclusions about the customer’s opinions.
Disadvantages:
The interviewer could lead and influence the interviewee to answer a certain
way. For example, by rephrasing a question such as ‘Would you buy this
product’ to ‘But, you would definitely buy this product, right?’ to which the
customer in order to appear polite would say yes when in actuality they
wouldn’t buy the product.
Time-consuming and expensive to interview everyone in the sample
Focus Groups: A group of people representative of the target market (a focus
group) agree to provide information about a particular product or general spending
patterns over time. They can also test the company’s products and give opinions on
them.
Advantage:
They can provide detailed information about the consumer’s opinions
Disadvantages:
Time-consuming
Expensive
Opinions could be influenced by others in the group.
Observation: This can take the form of recording (eg: meters fitted to TV screens
to see what channels are being watched), watching (eg: counting how many people
enter a shop), auditing (e.g.: counting of stock in shops to see which products sold
well).
Advantage:
Inexpensive
Disadvantage:
Only gives basic figures. Does not tell the firm why consumer buys them.
Secondary Market Research (Desk Research)
The collection of information that has already been made available by others.
Second-hand data about consumers and markets is collected from already
published sources.
Sales department’s sales records, pricing data, customer records, sales reports
Opinions of distributors and public relations officers
Finance department
Customer Services department
External sources of information:
Government statistics: will have information about populations and age structures
in the economy.
Newspapers: articles about economic conditions and forecast spending patterns.
Trade associations: if there is a trade association for a particular industry, it will
have several reports on that industry’s markets.
Market research agencies: these agencies carry out market research on behalf of
the company and provide detailed reports.
Internet: will have a wide range of articles about companies, government
statistics, newspapers and blogs.
Accuracy of Market Research Data
The reliability and accuracy of market research depends upon a large number of
factors:
How carefully the sample was drawn up, its size, the types of people selected etc.
How questions were phrased in questionnaires and surveys
Who carried out the research: secondary research is likely to be less reliable since
it was drawn up by others for different purpose at an earlier time.
Bias: newspaper articles are often biased and may leave out crucial information
deliberately.
Age of information: researched data shouldn’t be too outdated. Customer tastes,
fashions, economic conditions, technology all move fast and the old data will be of
no use now.
Presentation of Data from Market Research
Different data handling methods can be used to present data from market research.
This will include:
Tally Tables: used to record data in its original form. The tally table below shows
the number and type of vehicles passing by a shop at different times of the day:
Charts: show the total figures for each piece of data (bar/ column charts) or the
proportion of each piece of data in terms of the total number (pie charts). For
example the above tally table data can be recorded in a bar chart as shown below:
The pie chart above could show a company’s market share in different countries.
Graphs: used to show the relationship between two sets of data. For example how
average temperature varied across the year.
3.3 – Marketing Mix
Marketing mix refers to the different elements involved in the marketing of a
good or service- the 4 P’s- Product, Price, Promotion and Place.
Product
Product is the good or service being produced and sold in the market. This
includes all the features of the product as well as its final packaging.
Types of products include: consumer goods, consumer services, producer goods,
producer services.
Can create a Unique Selling Point (USP) by developing a new innovative product
for the first time in the market. This USP can be used to charge a high price for the
product as well as be used in advertising.
Charge higher prices for new products (price skimming as explained later)
Increase potential sales, revenue and profit
Helps spreads risks because having more products mean that even if one fails, the
other will keep generating a profit for the company
Disadvantages:
Profit earned is very high
Helps recover/compensate research and development costs
Disadvantage:
It may backfire if competitors produce similar products at a lower price
Penetration pricing: Setting a very low price to attract customers to buy a new
product
Advantages:
Attracts customers more quickly
Can increase market share quickly
Disadvantages:
Low revenue due to lower prices
Cannot recover development costs quickly
Competitive pricing: Setting a price similar to that of competitors’ products
which are already available in the market
Advantage:
Business can compete on other matters such as service and quality
Disadvantage:
Still need to find ways of competing to attract sales.
Cost plus pricing: Setting price by adding a fixed amount to the cost of
making the product
Advantages:
Quick and easy to work out the price
Makes sure that the price covers all of the costs
Disadvantage:
Price might be set higher than competitors or more than customers are willing
to pay, which reduces sales and profits
Loss leader pricing/Promotional pricing: Setting the price of a few products at
below cost to attract customers into the shop in the hope that they will buy other
products as well
Advantages:
Helps to sell off unwanted stock before it becomes out of date
A good way of increasing short term sales and market share
Disadvantage:
Revenue on each item is lower so profits may also be lower
Factors that affect what pricing method should be used:
Is it a new or existing product?
If it’s new, then price skimming or penetration pricing will be most suitable. If it’s
an existing product, competitive pricing or promotional pricing will be appropriate.
Is the product unique?
If yes, then price skimming will be beneficial, otherwise competitive or
promotional pricing.
Is there a lot of competition in the market?
If yes, competitive pricing will need to be used.
Does the business have a well-known brand image?
If yes, price skimming will be highly successful.
What are the costs of producing and supplying the product?
If there are high costs, costs plus pricing will be needed to cover the costs. If costs
are low, market penetration and promotional pricing will be appropriate.
What are the marketing objectives of the business?
If the business objective is to quickly gain a market share and customer base, then
penetration pricing could be used. If the objective is to simply maintain sales,
competitive pricing will be appropriate.
Price Elasticity
The PED of a product refers to the responsiveness of the quantity demanded for
it to changes in its price.
PED (of a product) = % change in quantity demanded / % change in price
When the PED is >1, that is there is a higher % change in demand in response to a
change in price, the PED is said to be elastic.
When the PED is <1, that is there is a lower % change in demand in response to a
change in price, the PED is said to be inelastic.
Producers can calculate the PED of their product and take suitable action to make
the product more profitable.
If the product is found to have an elastic demand, the producer can lower prices
to increase profitability. The law of demand states that a fall in price increases the
demand. And since it is an elastic product (change in demand is higher than change
in price), the demand of the product will increase highly. The producers get more
profit.
If the product is found to have an inelastic demand, the producer can raise
prices to increase profitability. Since quantity demanded wouldn’t fall much as it
is inelastic, the high prices will make way for higher revenue and thus higher
profits.
For a detailed explanation about PED, click here
Place
Place refers to how the product is distributed from the producer to the final
consumer. There are different distribution channels that a product can be sold
through.
The type of product it is: if it’s sold to producers of other goods, distribution
would either be direct (specialist machinery) or wholesaler (nuts, bolts, screws
etc.).
The technicality of the product: as lots of technical information needs to be
passed to the customer, direct selling is usually preferred.
How often the product is purchased: if the product is bought on a daily basis, it
should be sold through retail stores that customers can easily access.
The price of the product: if the products is an expensive, luxury good, it would
only be sold through a few specialist, high-end outlets For example, luxury
watches and jewellery.
The durability of the product: if it’s an easily perishable product like fruits, it
will need to be sold through a wide amount of retailers to be sold quickly.
Location of customers: the products should be easily accessible by its customers.
If customers are located over the world, e-commerce (explained below) will be
required.
Where competitors sell their product: in order to directly compete with
competitors, the products need to be sold where competitors are selling too.
Promotion
Promotion: marketing activities used to communicate with customers and
potential customers to inform and persuade them to buy a business’s products.
Aims of promotion:
Sales Promotion: using techniques such as ‘buy one get one free’, occasional price
reductions, free after-sales services, gifts, competitions, point-of–sale displays (a
special display stand for a product in a shop), free samples etc. to encourage sales.
Below-the-line promotion: promotion that is not paid for communication but uses
incentives to encourage consumers to buy. Incentives include money-off coupons
or vouchers, loyalty reward schemes, competitions and games with cash or other
prizes.
Personal selling: sales staff communicate directly with consumer to achieve a sale
and form a long-term relationship between the firm and consumer.
Direct mail: also known as mailshots, printed materials like flyers, newsletters and
brochures which are sent directly to the addresses of customers.
Sponsorship: payment by a business to have its name or products associated with
a particular event. For example Emirates is Spanish football club Real Madrid’s
jersey sponsor- Emirates pays the club to be its sponsor and gains a high customer
awareness and brand image in return.
What affects promotional decisions?
Stage of product on the PLC: different stages of the PLC will require different
promotional strategies; see above.
The nature of the product: If it’s a consumer good, a firm could use persuasive
advertising and use billboards and TV commercials. Producer goods would have
bulk-buy-discounts to encourage more sales. The kind of product it is can affect
the type of advertising, the media of advertising and the method of sales
promotion.
The nature of the target market: a local market would only need small amounts
of advertising while national markets will need TV and billboard advertising. If the
product is sold to a mass market, extensive advertising would be needed. But niche
market products such as water skis would only need advertising in special sports
and lifestyle magazines.
Cost-effectiveness: the amount of money put into promotion (out of the total
marketing budget) should be not too much that it fails to bring in the sales revenue
enough to cover those costs at least. Promotional activities are highly dependent on
the budget.
Technology and the Marketing Mix
It is also worth noting that the internet/ e-commerce is now widely used to
distribute products. E-Commerce is the use of the internet and other technologies
used by businesses to market and sell goods and services to customers. Examples
of e-commerce include online shopping, internet banking, online ticket-booking,
online hotel reservations etc.
Websites like Amazon and e-Bay act as online retailers.
Online selling is favoured by producers because it is cheaper in the long-run and
they can sell products to a larger customer base/ market. However there will
be increased competition from lots of producers.
Consumers prefer online shopping because there are wider choices of detailed
products that are also cheaper and they can buy things at their
own convenience 24×7. However, there is no personal communication with the
producer and online security issues may occur.
However, e-commerce means an entire new type of marketing strategy is also
required – online promotions, new channel of distribution, new pricing strategies
(since price competition in e-commerce is very high and demand is very price
elastic). It requires a lot of money to set up – online websites, promotions, web
developers and technicians to run and maintain the system etc.
The internet is also used for promotion and advertising of products in the form of
paid social media ads and sponsors, pop-ups, email newsletters etc. It helps reach
target customers, is relatively cheap and helps the firm respond to market
changes quicker (since online ads can be easily altered/updated rather than
billboards and TV ads). But it can alienate and chase customers away if they see
it too frequently and find it annoying. There is also the risk of the adverts
being publicised negatively if it has annoying or offensive content that customers
quickly criticise (since content is more easily shareable online).
3.4 – Marketing Strategy
Marketing Strategy
There are various laws that can affect marketing decisions on quality, price and
the contents of advertisements.
laws that protect consumers from being sold faulty and dangerous goods
laws that prevent the firms from using misleading information in
advertising Example: Volkswagen falsely advertised environmentally friendly
diesel cars and were legally forced to pull all cars from the market
laws that protect consumers from being exploited in industries where there is
little or no competition, known as monopolising.
Entering New Markets
Growing business in other countries can increase sales, revenue and profits. This
is because the business is now available to a wider group of people,
which increases potential customers. If the home markets have saturated (product
is in maturity stage), firms take their products to international markets. Trade
barriers and restrictions have also reduced significantly over the years, along with
new transport infrastructures, so it is now cheaper and easier to export
products to other countries.
Problems of entering foreign markets:
Difference in language and culture: It may be difficult to communicate with
people in other countries because of language barriers and as for culture, different
images, colors and symbols have different meanings and importance in different
places. For example, McDonald’s had to make its menu more vegetarian in Indian
markets
Lack of market knowledge: The business won’t know much about the market it is
entering and the customers won’t be familiar with the new business brand, and so
getting established in the market will be difficult and expensive
Economic differences: The cost and prices may be lower or higher in different
countries so businesses may not be able to sell the product at the price which will
give them a profit
High transport costs
Social differences: Different people will have different needs and wants from
people in other countries, and so the product may not be successful in all countries
Difference in legal controls to protect consumers: The business may have to
spend more money on producing the products in a way that complies with that
country’s laws.
How to overcome such problems:
Joint venture: an agreement between two or more businesses to work together
on a project. The foreign business will work with a domestic business in the same
industry. Eg: Japan’s Suzuki Motor Corporation created a joint venture with
India’s Maruti Udyog Limited to form Maruti Suzuki, a highly successful car
manufacturing project in India.
Advantages:
Reduces risks and cuts costs
Each business brings different expertise to the joint venture
The market potential for all the businesses in the joint venture is increased
Market and product knowledge can be shared to the benefit of the businesses
Disadvantages:
Any mistakes made will reflect on all parties in the joint venture, which may
damage their reputations
The decision-making process may be ineffective due to different business
culture or different styles of leadership
Franchise/License: the owner of a business (the franchisor) grants a licence to
another person or business (the franchisee) to use their business idea – often in
a specific geographical area. Fast food companies such as McDonald’s and
Subway operate around the globe through lots of franchises in different countries.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Businesses look to increase productivity, as the output will increase per employee
and so the average costs of production will fall. This way, they will be able to
sell more while also being able to lower prices.
Ways to increase productivity:
improving labour skills by training them so they work more productively and
waste lesser resources
introducing automation (using machinery and IT equipment to control production)
so that production is faster and error-free
improve employee motivation so that they will be willing to produce more and
efficiently so.
improved quality control and assurance systems to ensure that there are no
wastage of resources
Inventory Management
Firms can hold inventory (stock) of raw materials, goods that are not completed yet
(a.k.a work-in-progress) and finished unsold goods. Finished good stocks are kept
so that any unexpected rise in demand is fulfilled.
When inventory gets to a certain point (reorder level), they will be reordered by
the firm to bring the level of inventory back up to the maximum level again. The
business has to reorder inventory before they go too low since the reorder supply
will take time to arrive at the firm
The time it takes for the reorder supply to arrive is known as lead time.
If too high inventory is held, the costs of holding and maintaining it will be very
high.
The buffer inventory level is the level of inventory the business should hold at the
very minimum to satisfy customer demand at all times. During the lead time the
inventory will have hit the buffer level and as reorder arrives, it will shoot back up
to the maximum level.
Lean Production
Lean production refers to the various techniques a firm can adopt to reduce
wastage and increase efficiency/productivity.
Benefits:
increased productivity
reduced amount of space needed for production
improved factory layout may allow some jobs to be combined, so freeing up
employees to do other jobs in the factory
Just-in-Time inventory control: this techniques eliminates the need to hold any
kind of inventory by ensuring that supplies arrive just in time they are needed for
production. The making of any parts is done just in time to be used in the next
stage of production and finished goods are made just in time they are needed for
delivery to the customer/shop. The firm will need very reliable suppliers and an
efficient system for reordering supplies.
Benefits:Reduces cost of holding inventory
Warehouse space is not needed any more, so more space is available for other
uses
Finished goods are immediately sold off, so cash flows in quickly
Cell Production: the production line is divided into separate, self-contained units
each making a part of the finished good. This works because it improves worker
morale when they are put into teams and concentrate on one part alone.
Methods of Production
Job Production: products are made specifically to order, customized for each
customer. Eg: wedding cakes, made-to-measure suits, films etc.
Advantages:Most suitable for one-off products and personal services
The product meets the exact requirement of the customer
Workers will have more varied jobs as each order is different, improving
morale
very flexible method of production
Disadvantages:Skilled labour will often be required which is expensive
Costs are higher for job production firms because they are usually labour-
intensive
Production often takes a long time
Since they are made to order, any errors may be expensive to fix
Materials may have to be specially purchased for different orders, which is
expensive
Fixed Costs are costs that do not vary with output produced or sold in the short
run. They are incurred even when the output is 0 and will remain the same in the
short run. In the long-run they may change. Also known as overhead costs.
E.g.: rent, even if production has not started, the firm still has to pay the rent.
Variable Costs are costs that directly vary with the output produced or sold.
E.g.: material costs and wage rates that are only paid according to the output
produced.
TOTAL COST = TOTAL FIXED COSTS + TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS
TOTAL COST = AVERAGE COST * OUTPUT
AVERAGE COST (unit cost) = TOTAL COST/ TOTAL OUTPUT
A business can use these cost data to make different decisions. Some examples
are: setting prices (if the average cost of one unit is $3, then the price would be set
at $4 to make a profit of $1 on each unit), deciding whether to stop
production (if the total cost exceeds the total revenue, a loss is being made, and so
the production might be stopped), deciding on the best location (locations with
the cheaper costs will be chosen) etc.
Scale of production
Economies of scale are the factors that lead to a reduction in average costs as a
business increases in size. The five economies of scale are:
Purchasing economies: For large output, a large amount of components have to be
bought. This will give them some bulk-buying discounts that reduce costs
Marketing economies: Larger businesses will be able to afford its own vehicles to
distribute goods and advertise on paper and TV. They can cut down on marketing
labour costs. The advertising rates costs also do not rise as much as the size of the
advertisement ordered by the business. Average costs will thus reduce.
Financial economies: Bank managers will be more willing to lend money to large
businesses as they are more likely to be able to pay off the loan than small
businesses. Thus they will be charged a low rate of interest on their borrowings,
reducing average costs.
Managerial economies: Large businesses may be able to afford to hire specialist
managers who are very efficient and can reduce the business’ costs.
Technical economies: Large businesses can afford to buy large machinery such as
a flow production line that can produce a large output and reduce average costs.
Diseconomies of scale are the factors that lead to an increase the average costs of a
business as it grows beyond a certain size. They are:
Poor communication: as a business grows large, more departments and managers
and employees will be added and communication can get difficult. Messages may
be inaccurate and slow to receive, leading to lower efficiency and higher average
costs in the business.
Low morale: when there are lots of workers in the business and they have non-
contact with their senior managers, the workers may feel unimportant and not
valued by management. This would lead to inefficiency and higher average costs.
Slow decision-making: As a business grows larger, its chain of command will get
longer. Communication will get very slow and so any decision-making will also
take time, since all employees and departments may need to be consulted with.
Businesses are now dividing themselves into small units that can control
themselves and communicate more effectively, to avoid any diseconomies from
arising.
Break-even
Break-even level of output is the output that needs to be produced and sold in order
to start making a profit. So, the break-even output is the output at which total
revenue equals total costs (neither a profit nor loss is made, all costs are covered).
A break-even chart can be drawn, that shows the costs and revenues of a business
across different levels of output and the output needed to break even.
Example:
In the chart below, costs and revenues are being calculated over the output of 2000
units.
The fixed costs is 5000 across all output (since it is fixed!).
The variable cost is $3 per unit so will be $0 at output is 0 and $6000 at output
2000- so you just draw a straight line from $0 to $6000.
The total costs will then start from the point where fixed cost starts and be parallel
to the variable costs (since T.C.= F.C.+V.C. You can manually calculate the total
cost at output 2000: ($6000+$5000=$11000).
The price per unit is $8 so the total revenue is $16000 at output 2000.
Now the break-even point can be calculated at the point where total revenue and
total cost equals– at an output of 1000. (In order to find the sales revenue at output
1000, just do $8*1000= $8000. The business needs to make $8000 in sales revenue
to start making a profit).
Advantages of break-even charts:
Managers can look at the graph to find out the profit or loss at each level of
output
Managers can change the costs and revenues and redraw the graph to see how that
would affect profit and loss, for example, if the selling price is increased or
variable cost is reduced.
The break-even chart can also help calculate the safety margin- the amount by
which sales exceed break-even point. In the above graph, if the business decided to
sell 2000 units, their margin of safety would be 1000 units. In sales terms, the
margin of safety would be 1000*8 = $8000. They are $8000 safe from making a
loss.
Margin of Safety (units) = Units being produced and sold – Break-even output
Limitations of break-even charts:
They are constructed assuming that all units being produced are sold. In practice,
there are always inventory of finished goods. Not everything produced is sold off.
Fixed costs may not always be fixed if the scale of production changes. If more
output is to be produced, an additional factory or machinery may be needed that
increases fixed costs.
Break-even charts assume that costs can always be drawn using straight lines.
Costs may increase or decrease due to various reasons. If more output is produced,
workers may be given an overtime wage that increases the variable cost per unit
and cause the variable cost line to steep upwards.
Break-even can also be calculated without drawing a chart. A formula can be used:
Quality Control
Quality control is the checking for quality at the end of the production process,
whether a good or a service.
Advantages:
Eliminates the fault or defect before the customer receives it, so better customer
satisfaction
Not much training required for conducting this quality check
Disadvantages:
Still expensive to hire employees to check for quality
Quality control may find faults and errors but doesn’t find out why the fault has
occurred, so the it’s difficult to solve the problem
if product has to be replaced and reworked, then it is very expensive for the firm
Quality Assurance
Advantages:
quality is built into every part of the production process and becomes central to the
workers principles
eliminates all faults before the product gets to the final customer
no customer complaints and so improved brand image
products don’t have to be scrapped or reworked, so lesser costs
waste is removed and efficiency is improved
Disadvantages:
Expensive to train employees all employees
Relies on all employees following TQM– how well are they motivated to follow
the procedures?
How can customers be assured of the quality of a product or service?
They can look for a quality mark on the product like ISO (International
Organization for Standardization). The business with these quality marks would
have followed certain quality procedures to keep the quality mark. For services, a
good reputation and positive customer reviews are good indicators of the service’s
quality.
4.4 – Location Decisions
Owners need to decide a location for their firm to operate in, at the time of setting
up, when it needs to expand operations, and when the current location proves
unsatisfactory for some reason. Location is important because it can affect the
firm’s costs, profits, efficiency and the market base it reaches out to.
Short-term finance provides the working capital a business needs for its day-to-
day operations.
Overdrafts: similar to loans, the bank can arrange overdrafts by allowing
businesses to spend more than what is in their bank account. The overdraft will
vary with each month, based on how much extra money the business needs.
Advantages:
Flexible form of borrowing since overdrawn amounts can be varied each month
Interest has to be paid only on the amount overdrawn
Overdrafts are generally cheaper than loans in the long-term
Disadvantages:
Interest rates can vary periodically, unlike loans which have a fixed interest
rate.
The bank can ask for the overdraft to be repaid at a short-notice.
Trade Credits: this is when a business delays paying suppliers for some time,
improving their cash position
Advantage:
No interests, repayments involved
Disadvantage:
If the payments are not made quickly, suppliers may refuse to give discounts in
the future or refuse to supply at all
Debt Factoring: (see above)
Long-term finance is the finance that is available for more than a year.
Loans: from banks or private individuals.
Debentures
Issue of Shares
Hire Purchase: allows the business to buy a fixed asset and pay for it in monthly
instalments that include interest charges. This is not a method to raise capital but
gives the business time to raise the capital.
Advantage:
The firms doesn’t need a large sum of cash to acquire the asset
Disadvantage:
A cash deposit has to be paid in the beginning
Can carry large interest charges.
Leasing: this allows a business to use an asset without purchasing it. Monthly
leasing payments are instead made to the owner of the asset. The business can
decide to buy the asset at the end of the leasing period. Some firms sell their assets
for cash and then lease them back from a leasing company. This is called sale and
leaseback.
Advantages:
The firm doesn’t need a large sum of money to use the asset
The care and maintenance of the asset is done by the leasing company
Disadvantage:
The total costs of leasing the asset could finally end up being more than the cost
of purchasing the asset!
The cash flow of a businesses is its cash inflows and cash outflows over a period
of time.
Cash inflows are the sums of money received by the business over a period of
time. E.g.:
sales revenue from sale of products
payment from debtors– debtors are customers who have already purchased goods
from the business but didn’t pay for them at that time
money borrowed from external sources, like loans
the money from the sale of business assets
investors putting more money into the business
Cash outflows are the sums of money paid out by the business over a period of
time. Eg:
purchasing goods and materials for cash
paying wages, salaries and other expenses in cash
purchasing fixed assets
repaying loans (cash is going out of the business)
by paying creditors of the business- creditors are suppliers who supplied items to
the business but were not paid at the time of supply.
how much cash is available for paying bills, purchasing fixed assets or repaying
loans
how much cash the bank will need to lend to the business to avoid insolvency
(running out of liquid cash)
whether the business has too much cash that can be put to a profitable use in the
business
Example of a cash flow forecast for the four months:
The cash inflows are listed first and then the cash outflows. The total inflows and
outflows have to be calculated after each section.
The opening cash/bank balance is the amount of cash held by the business at the
start of the month
Net Cash Flow = Total Cash Inflow – Total Cash Outflow
The net cash flow is added to opening cash balance to find the closing cash/bank
balance– the amount of cash held by the business at the end of the month.
Remember, the closing cash/bank balance for one month is the opening cash/bank
balance for the next month!
The figures in bracket denote a negative balance, i.e., a net cash outflow (outflows
> inflows)
Increase bank loans: bank loans will inject more cash into the business, but the
firm will have to pay regular interest payments on the loans and it will eventually
have to be repaid, causing future cash outflows
Delay payment to suppliers: asking for more time to pay suppliers will help
decrease cash outflows in the short-run. However, suppliers could refuse to supply
on credit and may reduce discounts for late payment
Ask debtors to pay more quickly: if debtors are asked to pay all the debts they
have to the firm quicker, the firm’s cash inflows would increase in the short-run.
These debtors will include credit customers, who can be asked to make cash sales
as opposed to credit sales for purchases (cash will have to be paid on the spot,
credit will mean they can pay in the future, thus becoming debtors). However,
customers may move to other businesses that still offers them time to pay
Delay or cancel purchases of capital equipment: this will greatly help reduce
cash outflows in the short-run, but at the cost of the efficiency the firm loses out on
not buying new technology and still using old equipment.
In the long-term, to improve cash flow, the business will need to attract more
investors, cut costs by increasing efficiency, develop more products to attract
customers and increase inflows.
Working Capital
Working capital the capital required by the business to pay its short-term day-to-
day expenses. Working capital is all of the liquid assets of the business– the
assets that can be quickly converted to cash to pay off the business’ debts. Working
capital can be in the form of:
cash needed to pay expenses
cash due from debtors – debtors/credit customers can be asked to quickly pay off
what they owe to the business in order for the business to raise cash
cash in the form of inventory – Inventory of finished goods can be quickly sold off
to build cash inflows. Too much inventory results in high costs, too low inventory
may cause production to stop.
5.3 – Income Statements
Accounts are the financial records of a firm’s transactions.
Final Accounts are prepared at the end of the financial year and give details of the
profit or loss made as well as the worth of the business.
Profit
Profit is not the same as cash flow! Profit is the surplus amount after total costs
have been deducted from sales. It includes all income and payments incurred in the
year, whether already received or paid or to not yet received or paid respectfully.
In a cash flow, only those elements paid in cash immediately are considered.
Income Statement
Only a
very small portion of the sales revenue ends up being the retained profit. All costs,
taxes and dividends have to be deducted from sales.
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Gross Profit Margin: this calculates the gross profit (sales – cost of
production) in terms of the sales, or in other words, the % of gross profit made
on each unit of sales revenue. The higher the GPM, the better. The formula is:
Net profit Margin: this calculates the net profit (gross profit-expenses) in
terms of the sales, i.e. the % of net profit generated on each unit of sales
revenue. The higher the NPM, the better. The formula is:
Liquidity Ratios: liquidity is the ability of the company to pay back its short-
term debts. It if it doesn’t have the necessary working capital to do so, it will go
illiquid (forced to pay off its debts by selling assets). In the previous topic, we said
that working capital = current assets – current liabilities. So a business needs
current assets to be able to pay off its current liabilities. The two liquidity ratios
shown below, use this concept.
Current Ratio: this is the basic liquidity ratio that calculates how many current
assets are there in proportion to every current liability, so the higher the current
ratio the better (a value above 1 is favourable). the formula is:
Liquid Ratio/ Acid Test Ratio: this is very similar to current ratio but this
ratio doesn’t consider inventory to be a liquid asset, since it will take time for it
to be sold and made into cash. A high level of inventory in a business can thus
cause a big difference between its current and liquidity ratios. So there is a
slight difference in the formula:
Managers: they will use the accounts to help them keep control over the
performance of each product or each division since they can see which products
are profitably performing and which are not.
This will allow them to take better decisions. If for example, product A has a
good gross profit margin of 35% but its net profit margin is only 5%, this means
that the business has very high expenses that is causing the huge difference
between the two ratios. They will try to reduce expenses in the coming year. In
the case of liquidity, if both ratios are very low, they will try to pay off current
liabilities to improve the ratios.
Ratios can be compared with other firms in the industry/competitors and also
with previous years to see how they’re doing. Businesses will definitely want to
perform better than their rivals to attract shareholders to invest in their business
and to stay competitive in the market. Businesses will also try to improve their
profitability and liquidity positions each year.
Shareholders: since they are the owners of a limited company, it is a legal
requirement that they be presented with the financial accounts of the company.
From the income statements and the profitability ratios, especially the ROCE,
existing shareholders and potential investors can see whether they should invest
in the business by buying shares. A higher profitability, the higher the chance of
getting dividends. They will also compare the ratios with other companies and
with previous years to take the most profitable decision. The balance sheet will
tell shareholders whether the business was worth more at the end of the year than
at the beginning of the year, and the liquidity ratios will be used to ascertain how
risky it will be to invest in the company- they won’t want to invest in businesses
with serious liquidity problems.
Creditors: The balance sheet and liquidity ratios will tell creditors (suppliers) the
cash position and debts of the business. They will only be ready to supply to the
business if they will be able to pay them. If there are liquidity problems, they
won’t supply the business as it is risky for them.
Banks: Similar to how suppliers use accounts, they will look at how risky it is to
lend to the business. They will only lend to profitable and liquid firms.
Government: the government and tax officials will look at the profits of the
company to fix a tax rate and to see if the business is profitable and liquid enough
to continue operations and thus if the worker’s jobs will be protected.
Workers and trade unions: they will want to see if the business’ future is
secure or not. If the business is continuously running a loss and is in risk of
insolvency (not being liquid), it may shut down operations and workers will lose
their jobs!
Other businesses: managers of competing companies may want to compare their
performance too or may want to take over the business and wants to see if the
takeover will be beneficial.
Limitations of using accounts and ratio analysis
Ratios are based on past accounting data and will not indicate how the business
will perform in the future
Managers will have all accounts, but the external users will only have those
published accounts that contain only the data required by law- they may not get the
‘full-picture’ about the business’ performance.
Comparing accounting data over the years can lead to misleading assumptions
since the data will be affected by inflation (rising prices)
Different companies may use different accounting methods and so will have
different ratio results, making comparisons between companies unreliable.
6.1 – Economic Issues
The Business/ Trade Cycle
An economy will not always go through an economic growth; there is usually a
cycle, as shown below.
Economic Objectives
Here, we’ll look at the different economic objectives a government might have and
how their absence/negligence will affect the economy as well as businesses.
Supply-side policies: both the fiscal and monetary policies directly affect demand,
but the policies that influence supply are very different. It can include:
Privatisation: selling government organizations to private individuals- this will
increase efficiency and productivity that increase supply as well encourage
competitors to enter and further increase supply.
Improve training and education: governments can spend more on schools,
colleges and training centres so that people in the economy can become better
skilled and knowledgeable, helping increasing productivity.
Increased competition: by acting against monopolies (firms that restrict
competitors to enter that industry/having full dominance in the market- refer xxx
for more details) and reducing government rules and regulations (often termed
‘deregulation’), the competitive environment can be improved and thus become
more productive.
For more details on government policies, check out our Economics notes.
*EXAM TIP: Remember that economic conditions and policies are all
interconnected; one change will lead to an effect which will lead to another effect
and so on, like a chain reaction in many different ways. In your exams, you should
take care to explain those effects that are relevant and appropriate to the business
or economy in the question*
How might businesses react to policy changes? It will depend varying on how
much impact the policy change will have on the particular
business/industry/economy. Here are a few examples:
6.2 – Environmental and Ethical Issues
Business’ Impact on the Environment
A business’ decisions and actions can have significant effects on its stakeholders.
These effects are termed ‘externalities’. Externalities can be categorized into six
groups given below and we’ll take examples from a scenario where a business
builds a new production factory.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is development that does not put at risk the living
standards of future generations. It means trying to achieve economic growth in a
way that does not harm future generations. Few examples of a sustainable
development are:
using renewable energy- so that resources are conserved for the future
recycle waste
use fewer resources
develop new environment-friendly products and processes- reduce health and
climatic problems for future generations
Environmental Pressures
Ethical Decisions
Ethical decisions are based on a moral code. It means ‘doing the right thing’.
Businesses could be faced with decisions regarding, for example, employment of
children, taking or offering bribes, associate with people/organisations with a bad
reputation etc. In these cases, even if they are legal, they need to take a decision
that they feel is right.
Taking ethical/’right’ decisions can make the business’ products popular among
customers, encourage the government to favour them in any future
disputes/demands and avoid pressure group threats. However, these can end up
being expensive as the business will lose out on using cheaper unethical
opportunities.
Allows businesses to start selling in new foreign markets, increasing sales and
profits
Can open factories and production units in other countries, possibly at a cheaper
rate (cheaper materials and labour can be available in other countries)
Import products from other countries and sell it to customers in the domestic
market- this could be more profitable and producing and selling the good
themselves
Import materials and components for production from foreign countries at a
cheaper rate.
Disadvantages of globalisation
Increasing imports into country from foreign competitors- now that foreign firms
can compete in other countries, it puts up much competition for domestic firms. If
these domestic firms cannot compete with the foreign goods’ cheap prices and
high quality, they may be forced to close down operations.
Increasing investment by multinationals in home country- this could further add to
competition in the domestic market (although small local firms can become
suppliers to the large multinational firms)
Employees may leave domestic firms if they don’t pay as well as the foreign
multinationals in the country- businesses will have to increase pay and conditions
to recruit and retain employees.
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When looking at an economy’s point of view, globalisation brings consumers
more choice and lower prices and forces domestic firms to be more efficient (in
order to remain competitive). However, competition from foreign producers can
force domestic firms to close down and jobs will be lost.
Protectionism
To produce goods with lower costs– cheaper material and labour may be available
in other countries
To extract raw materials for production, available in a few other countries. For
example: crude oil in the Middle East
To produce goods nearer to the markets to avoid transport costs.
To avoid trade barriers on imports. If they produce the goods in foreign
countries, the firms will not have to pay import tariffs or be faced with a quota
restriction
To expand into different markets and spread their risks
To remain competitive with rival firms which may also be expanding abroad
Advantages to a country of a multinational setting up in their country:
The jobs created are often for unskilled tasks. The more skilled jobs will be done
by workers that come from the firm’s home country. The unskilled workers may
also be exploited with very low wages and unhygienic working conditions.
Since multinationals benefit from economies of scale, local firms may be forced
out of business, unable to survive the competition
Multinationals can use up the scarce, non-renewable resources in the country
Repatriation of profit can occur. The profits earned by the multinational could be
sent back to their home country and the government will not be able to levy tax on
it.
As multinationals are large, they can influence the government and economy.
They could threaten the government that they will close down and make workers
unemployed if they are not given financial grants and so on.
Exchange Rates
The exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another currency.
For example, €1= $1.2. To buy one euro, you’ll need 1.2 dollars. The demand and
supply of the currencies determine their exchange rate. In the above example,
if the €’s demand was greater than the $’s, or if the supply of € reduced more than
the $, then the €’s price in terms of $ will increase. It could now be €1= $1.5. Each
€ now buys more $.
A currency appreciates when its value rises. The example above is an
appreciation of the Euro. A European exporting firm will find an appreciation
disadvantageous as their American consumers will now have to pay more $ to buy
a €1 good (exports become expensive). Their competitiveness has reduced. A
European importing firm will find an appreciation of benefit. They can buy
American products for lesser Euros (imports become cheaper).
A currency depreciates when its value falls. In the example above, the Dollar
depreciated. An American exporting firm will find a depreciation advantageous as
their European consumers will now have to pay less € to buy a $1 good (exports
become cheaper). Their competitiveness has increased. An American importing
firm will find a depreciation disadvantageous. They will have to buy European
products for more dollars (imports become expensive).
In summary, an appreciations is good for importers, bad for exporters; a
depreciation is good for exporters, bad for importers; given that the goods are
price elastic (if the price didn’t matter much to consumers, sales and revenue
would not be affected by price- so no worries for producers).
Confused? Don’t worry, it is a confusing topic. Check out our more detailed
Economics notes on exchange rates.
6.2 – Environmental and Ethical Issues
Business’ Impact on the Environment
Externalities
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A business’ decisions and actions can have significant effects on its stakeholders.
These effects are termed ‘externalities’. Externalities can be categorized into six
groups given below and we’ll take examples from a scenario where a business
builds a new production factory.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is development that does not put at risk the living
standards of future generations. It means trying to achieve economic growth in a
way that does not harm future generations. Few examples of a sustainable
development are:
using renewable energy- so that resources are conserved for the future
recycle waste
use fewer resources
develop new environment-friendly products and processes- reduce health and
climatic problems for future generations
Environmental Pressures
Ethical Decisions
Ethical decisions are based on a moral code. It means ‘doing the right thing’.
Businesses could be faced with decisions regarding, for example, employment of
children, taking or offering bribes, associate with people/organisations with a bad
reputation etc. In these cases, even if they are legal, they need to take a decision
that they feel is right.
Taking ethical/’right’ decisions can make the business’ products popular among
customers, encourage the government to favour them in any future
disputes/demands and avoid pressure group threats. However, these can end up
being expensive as the business will lose out on using cheaper unethical
opportunities.
Allows businesses to start selling in new foreign markets, increasing sales and
profits
Can open factories and production units in other countries, possibly at a cheaper
rate (cheaper materials and labour can be available in other countries)
Import products from other countries and sell it to customers in the domestic
market- this could be more profitable and producing and selling the good
themselves
Import materials and components for production from foreign countries at a
cheaper rate.
Disadvantages of globalisation
Increasing imports into country from foreign competitors- now that foreign firms
can compete in other countries, it puts up much competition for domestic firms. If
these domestic firms cannot compete with the foreign goods’ cheap prices and
high quality, they may be forced to close down operations.
Increasing investment by multinationals in home country- this could further add to
competition in the domestic market (although small local firms can become
suppliers to the large multinational firms)
Employees may leave domestic firms if they don’t pay as well as the foreign
multinationals in the country- businesses will have to increase pay and conditions
to recruit and retain employees.
When looking at an economy’s point of view, globalisation brings consumers
more choice and lower prices and forces domestic firms to be more efficient (in
order to remain competitive). However, competition from foreign producers can
force domestic firms to close down and jobs will be lost.
Protectionism
To produce goods with lower costs– cheaper material and labour may be available
in other countries
To extract raw materials for production, available in a few other countries. For
example: crude oil in the Middle East
To produce goods nearer to the markets to avoid transport costs.
To avoid trade barriers on imports. If they produce the goods in foreign
countries, the firms will not have to pay import tariffs or be faced with a quota
restriction
To expand into different markets and spread their risks
To remain competitive with rival firms which may also be expanding abroad
Advantages to a country of a multinational setting up in their country:
The jobs created are often for unskilled tasks. The more skilled jobs will be done
by workers that come from the firm’s home country. The unskilled workers may
also be exploited with very low wages and unhygienic working conditions.
Since multinationals benefit from economies of scale, local firms may be forced
out of business, unable to survive the competition
Multinationals can use up the scarce, non-renewable resources in the country
Repatriation of profit can occur. The profits earned by the multinational could be
sent back to their home country and the government will not be able to levy tax on
it.
As multinationals are large, they can influence the government and economy.
They could threaten the government that they will close down and make workers
unemployed if they are not given financial grants and so on.
Exchange Rates
The exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another currency.
For example, €1= $1.2. To buy one euro, you’ll need 1.2 dollars. The demand and
supply of the currencies determine their exchange rate. In the above example,
if the €’s demand was greater than the $’s, or if the supply of € reduced more than
the $, then the €’s price in terms of $ will increase. It could now be €1= $1.5. Each
€ now buys more $.
A currency appreciates when its value rises. The example above is an
appreciation of the Euro. A European exporting firm will find an appreciation
disadvantageous as their American consumers will now have to pay more $ to buy
a €1 good (exports become expensive). Their competitiveness has reduced. A
European importing firm will find an appreciation of benefit. They can buy
American products for lesser Euros (imports become cheaper).
A currency depreciates when its value falls. In the example above, the Dollar
depreciated. An American exporting firm will find a depreciation advantageous as
their European consumers will now have to pay less € to buy a $1 good (exports
become cheaper). Their competitiveness has increased. An American importing
firm will find a depreciation disadvantageous. They will have to buy European
products for more dollars (imports become expensive).
In summary, an appreciations is good for importers, bad for exporters; a
depreciation is good for exporters, bad for importers; given that the goods are
price elastic (if the price didn’t matter much to consumers, sales and revenue
would not be affected by price- so no worries for producers).
Confused? Don’t worry, it is a confusing topic. Check out our more detailed
Economics notes on exchange rates.
6.2 – Environmental and Ethical Issues
Business’ Impact on the Environment
Externalities
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A business’ decisions and actions can have significant effects on its stakeholders.
These effects are termed ‘externalities’. Externalities can be categorized into six
groups given below and we’ll take examples from a scenario where a business
builds a new production factory.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is development that does not put at risk the living
standards of future generations. It means trying to achieve economic growth in a
way that does not harm future generations. Few examples of a sustainable
development are:
using renewable energy- so that resources are conserved for the future
recycle waste
use fewer resources
develop new environment-friendly products and processes- reduce health and
climatic problems for future generations
Environmental Pressures
Ethical Decisions
Ethical decisions are based on a moral code. It means ‘doing the right thing’.
Businesses could be faced with decisions regarding, for example, employment of
children, taking or offering bribes, associate with people/organisations with a bad
reputation etc. In these cases, even if they are legal, they need to take a decision
that they feel is right.
Taking ethical/’right’ decisions can make the business’ products popular among
customers, encourage the government to favour them in any future
disputes/demands and avoid pressure group threats. However, these can end up
being expensive as the business will lose out on using cheaper unethical
opportunities.
Allows businesses to start selling in new foreign markets, increasing sales and
profits
Can open factories and production units in other countries, possibly at a cheaper
rate (cheaper materials and labour can be available in other countries)
Import products from other countries and sell it to customers in the domestic
market- this could be more profitable and producing and selling the good
themselves
Import materials and components for production from foreign countries at a
cheaper rate.
Disadvantages of globalisation
Increasing imports into country from foreign competitors- now that foreign firms
can compete in other countries, it puts up much competition for domestic firms. If
these domestic firms cannot compete with the foreign goods’ cheap prices and
high quality, they may be forced to close down operations.
Increasing investment by multinationals in home country- this could further add to
competition in the domestic market (although small local firms can become
suppliers to the large multinational firms)
Employees may leave domestic firms if they don’t pay as well as the foreign
multinationals in the country- businesses will have to increase pay and conditions
to recruit and retain employees.
When looking at an economy’s point of view, globalisation brings consumers
more choice and lower prices and forces domestic firms to be more efficient (in
order to remain competitive). However, competition from foreign producers can
force domestic firms to close down and jobs will be lost.
Protectionism
To produce goods with lower costs– cheaper material and labour may be available
in other countries
To extract raw materials for production, available in a few other countries. For
example: crude oil in the Middle East
To produce goods nearer to the markets to avoid transport costs.
To avoid trade barriers on imports. If they produce the goods in foreign
countries, the firms will not have to pay import tariffs or be faced with a quota
restriction
To expand into different markets and spread their risks
To remain competitive with rival firms which may also be expanding abroad
Advantages to a country of a multinational setting up in their country:
The jobs created are often for unskilled tasks. The more skilled jobs will be done
by workers that come from the firm’s home country. The unskilled workers may
also be exploited with very low wages and unhygienic working conditions.
Since multinationals benefit from economies of scale, local firms may be forced
out of business, unable to survive the competition
Multinationals can use up the scarce, non-renewable resources in the country
Repatriation of profit can occur. The profits earned by the multinational could be
sent back to their home country and the government will not be able to levy tax on
it.
As multinationals are large, they can influence the government and economy.
They could threaten the government that they will close down and make workers
unemployed if they are not given financial grants and so on.
Exchange Rates
The exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another currency.
For example, €1= $1.2. To buy one euro, you’ll need 1.2 dollars. The demand and
supply of the currencies determine their exchange rate. In the above example,
if the €’s demand was greater than the $’s, or if the supply of € reduced more than
the $, then the €’s price in terms of $ will increase. It could now be €1= $1.5. Each
€ now buys more $.
A currency appreciates when its value rises. The example above is an
appreciation of the Euro. A European exporting firm will find an appreciation
disadvantageous as their American consumers will now have to pay more $ to buy
a €1 good (exports become expensive). Their competitiveness has reduced. A
European importing firm will find an appreciation of benefit. They can buy
American products for lesser Euros (imports become cheaper).
A currency depreciates when its value falls. In the example above, the Dollar
depreciated. An American exporting firm will find a depreciation advantageous as
their European consumers will now have to pay less € to buy a $1 good (exports
become cheaper). Their competitiveness has increased. An American importing
firm will find a depreciation disadvantageous. They will have to buy European
products for more dollars (imports become expensive).
In summary, an appreciations is good for importers, bad for exporters; a
depreciation is good for exporters, bad for importers; given that the goods are
price elastic (if the price didn’t matter much to consumers, sales and revenue
would not be affected by price- so no worries for producers).
Confused? Don’t worry, it is a confusing topic. Check out our more detailed
Economics notes on exchange rates.