Pressure Vessel Design Lecture Notes Final FF - Copie

Steel storage design structure lecture notes- IUC of Douala - Welding and fabrication Technology- Bachelor of tech- mechanical
eng. Dpt
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN

LECTURES
Mr. LIKANE M. Gabin

M.Sc. / Ph.D. student/ Engineer in Mechanical and Production
Engineering
LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 1

Steel storage design structure lecture notes- IUC of Douala - Welding and fabrication Technology- Bachelor of tech- mechanical eng. Dpt
COURSE SYLLABUS
Chapter 1: Steel storage (tanks) function and nomenclature
Chapter 2: Nature and characteristics of fluids stored in a storage devices
Chapter 3: Materials for tanks design
Chapter 4: Welding construction
Chapter 5: Orthogonal projection of a tank
Chapter 6: Storage capacity and weight of a tank
Chapter 7: dimensioning of a tank with catalogues, strength of material and heat transfer notion
Chapter 8: Inlet and outlet design on a tank
Chapter 9: types of flanges

Chapter 10: Detail representations for the design of a tank

1.1 Introduction
1.2. Classification of pressure vessels
1.3. Types of Steel storage tanks

1.4. Designation and definitions of the elements of a tank.
1.5. Seperation and location of tanks
1.6. Separation distances for ‘large’ tanks
1.7. Separation from other dangerous substances
1.9. Fire safety responsibles

2.1. Definition
2.2. Flash point
2.3. Flash and auto ignition point of some substances
2.4. Hazards
2.4.1. Common causes of incidents
24.2. Incidents involving flammable liquids commonly arising during transfer operations
2.4.3. Flammable vapours
2.4.4. Control measures

Chapter 3: Materials for tanks design and metal forming processes
3.1. Structural steel members
3.1.1. Angle bars
a) Equal wings
b) Unequal wings
3.1.2. H- beam
3.1.3. T-beams
3.1.4. Other materials
3.2. Metal forming processes
3.2.1. Classification of basic bulk forming processes
3.3. Rolling
3.3.1. Important terminologies
3.3.2. Usage
3.3. Manufacturing sequence of a tank
4.1. Welding processes
4.1.1. Definition
4.1.2. Types of welding processes
a) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
b) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
c) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
4.2. Welded joints
4.2.1. Symbolic and graphical representation of a welding
4.2.2. Examples of Welds
4.2.3. Standard weld joints
4.2.4. Weld Ideographs
4.2.5. Fillet Weld Symbol Examples
4.2.6. Others fillets weld joints
i) Welding forming T shape
ii) Welding forming L shape
iii) Welding of brackets

4.2.7. Flanges welding design
4.2.8. Complementary or other welding design
4.3. Weld strength calculus
4.3.1. Simple butt joint loaded in tension or compression
4.3.2. Simple butt joint loaded in shearing
4.3.3. Joint loaded in tension
4.3.4. Principal cases
4.3.5. Characterimcs of welds assimilated to a line (second moment of area)
5.2. Example of horizontal tank
5.3. Example of vertical tanks

5.4. Rules applied in dimensioning tanks
5.5. Dimensioning of a horizontal tank
5.6 Dimensioning of a vertical tank
5.7. Dimensioning of inlet or outlet
5.8. Nomenclature of components used in tank design

5.9. Nomenclature of nozzles
5.10. Disposition of components and nozzles around a tank
5.11. Nozzle orientation
5.12. Construction of the elliptical head of a tank

5.13. Dimensions of the elliptical head of a tank
5.14. Step to follow to construct the head or the bottom of a tank
a) 1st Method
b) 2nd method (GRC: Grand Rayon de Carre)
5.15. Computation of dimensions for a vessel having an elliptical head
a) Method for Elliptical head
b) GRC method
c) PRC method
5.16. Edges preparation for the head and the shell for a pressure vessel

6.1. Design detail for the assembly of reinforced nozzles
6.2. Design details of the assembly of oblique nozzle
6.2. Design details of the assembly of nozzles positioned or intersecting at angle 90
Chapter 7: Flanges
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Flanged Connections versus Welded Connections
7.3. Disadvantages
7.4. Advantages
7.5. Types of flanges
7.5.1. Welding neck flange
7.5.2. Slip On flange
7.5.3. Socket weld flange

7.5.4. Lap Joint Flange
7.5.5. Stub End
7.5.6. Threaded flange
7.5.7. Blind flange
7.6. Flange faces
7.6.1. Raised face (RF)
7.6.2. Flat face (FF)
7.6.3. Ring-type joint (RTJ)
7.6.4. Drawing symbol for flangesthe

8.1. Storage capacity
8.2. Mass of a tank
8.3. Density of fluids and metals
Chapter 9: Dimensioning of a tank with catalogues, strength of material and

heat transfer notion
9.1. Design and dimensions of a tank support with catalogues

9.1.1. Definition
9.1.2. Horizontal tanks support design
a) For diameter D in between 114.3 ≤ D ≤ 600

b) For diameter D in between 650 ≤ D ≤ 1600
c) For diameter D in between 1700≤ D ≤ 2400
d) For diameter D in between 2500≤ D ≤ 3200
e) Support position
9.1.3. Vertical tank support design
a) Angle bars type supports design

b) Skirt type support design
9.2. Heat Transfer notion for the determination of the shell thickness
Introduction
9.2.1. Heat transfer modes

9.2.2. Systems of units
9.2.3. Conduction
9.2.4. Convection
9.2.5. Radiation
9.2.6. Summary
9.2.7. Multiple choice assessment
9.2.8. 9.2.8. One-dimensional steady-state conduction in radial geometries:
10.1. Various methods used in disposing the assembly drawing and details on a drawing sheet
10.2. Usual or important detail represented in a tank design
10.3. Examples
10.4. Manhole opening design
10.4.1. Kinematic diagram of a man hole
10.4.2. Links between the components
10.4.3. Representation of a constructive solution


1.1 Introduction
Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids or compressed gases (gas tank; or in U.S.A
"pressure vessel", which is not typically labeled or regulated as a storage tank) or mediums used, for the
short- or long-term storage of heat or cold. The term can be used for reservoirs (artificial lakes and
ponds), and for manufactured containers. The usage of the word tank for reservoirs is uncommon
in American English but is moderately common in British English. In other countries, the term tends to
refer only to artificial containers. In the USA, storage tanks operate under no (or very little) pressure,
distinguishing them from pressure vessels.
Storage tanks are often cylindrical in shape, perpendicular to the ground with flat bottoms, and a
fixed flangible or floating roof. There are usually many environmental regulations applied to the design
and operation of storage tanks, often depending on the nature of the fluid contained within. Above-ground
storage tanks (ASTs) differ from underground storage tanks (USTs) in the kinds of regulations that are
applied. Above ground storage tanks can be used to hold materials such as petroleum, waste matter,
water, chemicals, and other hazardous materials, all while meeting strict industry standards and
regulations. Reservoirs can be covered, in which case they may be called covered or underground storage
tanks or reservoirs.
Storage tanks are available in many shapes: vertical and horizontal cylindrical; open
top and closed top; flat bottom, cone bottom, slope b o tto m and dish bottom. Large tanks
tend to be vertical cylindrical, or to have rounded corners transition from vertical side
wall to bottom profile, to easily withstand hydraulic hydrostatically induced pressure of
contained liquid. Most container tanks for handling liquids during transportation are designed
to handle varying degree s of pressure.
Since most liquids can spill, evaporate, or seep through even the smallest opening, special
consideration must be made for their safe and secure handling. This usually involves building a
bunding, or containment dike, around the tank, so that any leakage may be safely contained.
Some storage tanks need a floating roof in addition to or in lieu of the fixed roof and structure.
This floating roof rises and falls with the liquid level inside the tank, thereby decreasing the vapor
space above the liquid level. Floating roofs are considered a safety requirement as well as a pollution
prevention measure for many industries including petroleum refining.

In the United States, metal tanks in contact with soil and containing petroleum products must
be protected from corrosion to prevent escape of the product into the environment. The most effective
and common corrosion control techniques for steel in contact with soil is cathodic protection. Outside
the United States and at some locations in the United States, elevated tank support foundations with a
sand bitumen mix finish are often used. These type of foundations keep the tank bottom plates free
from water, hence prevent corrosion.
Fig 1. Pressure vessel or tank been displaced

1.2. Classification of pressure vessels
A pressure vessel is considered as any closed vessel that is capable of storing a pressurized fluid,
either internal or external pressure, regardless of their shape and dimensions. The first step in designing
a container is choosing the best type for the service for which it is intended. The factors influencing
the choice of type are the function of the container, the location, the nature of the fluid that has to be
stored, the temperature and operating pressure and their ability to store the volume needed by the
process.
Pressure vessels can be classified according to their intended service, temperature and pressure,
materials and geometry. Different types of pressure vessels can be classified as follows:
Fig 2. Classification of pressure vessels

1.3. Types of Steel storage tanks

According to the intended use of the pressure vessel, they can be divided into storage containers and
process vessels. The first classes are only used for storing fluids under pressure, and in accordance with
the service are known as storage tanks. Process pressure vessels have multiple and varied uses, among
them we can mention heat exchangers, reactors, fractionating towers, distillation towers, etc. According
to the shape, pressure vessel may be cylindrical or spherical. The former may be horizontal or vertical,
and in some cases may have coils to increase or lower the temperature of the fluid.
Fig 4. Cylindrical pressure vessels
Fig 3. Spherical pressure vessels
Spherical pressure vessels are usually used as storage tanks, and are recommended for storing large
volumes. Since the spherical shape is the "natural" form bodies adopt when subjected to internal
pressure, this would be the most economical way to store pressurized fluids. However, the manufacture
of such containers is much more expensive compared with cylindrical containers.

Fig 6. Floating roof storage tank
Fig 5. Storage tank
Fig 7. Fixed roof storage tank
Fig 8. Horizontal pressure vessel or tank

tank Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- 10
Fig 9. Road storage tank
Fig 10. Underground storage tank
Fig 11. Horizontal pressure vessel with main parts

1.4. Designation and definitions of the elements of a pressure vessel.

Lifting lugs: shaped rings welded to the vessel shell or head that allow the vessel to be raised
and positioned during installation.
Head: The enclosures of a vessel. They can be either semi-ellipsoidal, or spherical.
Manhole hinge: A hinge that creates a pivot point allowing the blind flange attached to the
manhole to be easily removed for worker entrance.
Blind flange: Machined part fastens to close the manhole.
Handle: Attached to the blind flange its main function is to close and open the manhole.
Saddle: U-shaped supports welded on horizontal or vertical vessels and exchangers. Saddles
are bolted to concrete foundations and create a support in which the vessel can rest.
Nozzle: Nozzles are provided in location where a commodity is either introduced or removed
from a vessel or piece of equipment.
Reinforcing pad: A plate contoured to the shape of a vessel shell. It is positioned around
nozzles and provides additional strength in the areas where metal was removed from the shell.
Flange: is a ring-shaped device designed to be used as an alternative to welding or threading
various piping system components used throughout the piping system.
Manhole: Similar to large nozzles that allow workers entry points into a vessel. The generally
are accessible by ladders and platforms. When not in use, the manhole is sealed with a blind
flange.
Base plate: A flat, metal ring welded to the bottom of a vessel’s supporting skirt that rests on
a concrete foundation. Holes around the perimeter of the metal ring make it possible to position
it over anchor bolts and secure it to the foundation.
Shell: is a cylindrical wall of a vessel.
Seal pan: A tray installed below the bottom tray in a vessel to prevent liquids from bypassing
the trays.
Trays: flat metal plates spaced approximately 457.2 mm to 609.6 mm apart inside a vertical
vessel. They can be bolted or welded to the vessel shell. Trays are perforated to allow rising
vapors and falling liquids to pass through with the aid of a valving mechanism called a cap.
Weir: A dam-like plate welded on a tray that allows a fractioned by –product to collect and be
extracted by a nozzle.
Down comers: opening adjacent to a tray that allow liquids flowing over a weir plate to fall to
the tray below and begin the fractionation process over again.
Insulation rings: continuous circular rings welded to the exterior of a vertical vessel that
support a vessel’s insulation.
Nozzle orientation: The angular arrangement of nozzles around the perimeter of a vessel’s
shell.

NOZZLE
LIFTING LUGS
REINFORCING PAD
HEAD
MANHOLE HINGE SADDLE
FLANGE
BLIND FLANGE
MANHOLES
HANDLE Figure 1: Part of a vertical tank SUPPORT
SADDLE BASE PLATE
Fig 12. Vertical pressure vessel with its parts

Fig 13. Vertical pressure vessel with its parts
Fig 14. Horizontal pressure vessel with its parts

1.5. Seperation and location of tanks

Separation
Separation is an important means of providing protection for tanks containing flammable
liquids. Separation has particular advantages because it protects people and property from the
effects of fire at the tank, and protects the tank from fires which may occur elsewhere on site.
Further advice on the recommended separation distances is given in the figure and tables below
Fig 15. Layout of storage tanks showing separation distances

(190) Loading/unloading bays for road tankers should be located in a safe, well-ventilated
position. The minimum recommended distance of a filling point from occupied buildings, the
site boundary and fixed sources of ignition is 10 m.
(213) A fire wall may be used to give additional protection to small tanks. They are not usually
practicable or economic for larger tanks. Where a fire wall is installed, it should be at least the
height of the tank, with a minimum height of 2 m, and should normally be sited between 1 and
3 m from the tank. It may form part of the bund wall or a building wall. A fire wall should
normally be provided on only one side of a tank, to ensure adequate ventilation. The wall should
be long enough to ensure that the distance between the tank and a building, boundary, process
plant or source of ignition is at least the appropriate distance in Table 1 measured around the
ends of the wall.
(214) To be effective, reinforced concrete or masonry construction is recommended and in all

cases the fire wall should:
 have no holes in it;

 have at least half-hour fire resistance;

 be weather-resistant;
 be sufficiently robust to withstand foreseeable accidental damage.
1.6. Separation distances for ‘large’ tanks
The minimum recommended separation distances for ‘large’ tanks are given in
Table 4. The table is based on the Energy Institute’s Model Code of Safe Practice

1.7. Separation from other dangerous substances

Separation may also be used to prevent or delay the spread of fire to and from storage or
process areas where other dangerous substances may be present in quantity. Table 5 shows the
minimum recommended separation distances from LPG storage. Table 1 may be used to
estimate separation distances from other hazardous substances. If published guidance exists for
the particular hazardous substance concerned, the recommended minimum separation distance
is the greater of the distances given in Table 1 and the relevant guidance.
1.8. Work and safety


1.9. Fire safety responsibles


2.1. Definition
A fluid is a substance that can move easily and change shape such as water (liquids),
air (gases), or plasmas. Substance which continuously deforms under an applied shear stress,
including liquids and gases
In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms under an applied shear stress,
or external force. Fluids are a phase of matter and include liquids, gases and plasmas. They are
substances with zero shear modulus, or in simpler terms, substances which cannot resist any
shear force applied to them.
2.2. Flash point

The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which its vapours
ignite if given an ignition source.
The flash point is sometimes confused with the auto ignition temperature, the
temperature that causes spontaneous ignition. The fire point is the lowest temperature at which
the vapors keep burning after the ignition source is removed. It is higher than the flash point,
because at the flash point more vapor may not be produced fast enough to sustain combustion.
Neither flash point nor fire point depends directly on the ignition source temperature, but
ignition source temperature is far higher than either the flash or fire point.
Fig 16. Flaming cocktails with a flash point lower than room temperature.
The flash point is a descriptive characteristic that is used to distinguish between flammable
fuels, such as petrol (gasoline in the US), and combustible fuels, such as diesel. It is also used
to characterize the fire hazards of fuels. Fuels which have a flash point less than 37.8 °C
(100.0 °F) are called flammable, whereas fuels having a flash point above that temperature are
called combustible.

All liquids have a specific vapor pressure, which is a function of that liquid's temperature and
is subject to Boyle's Law. As temperature increases, vapor pressure increases. As vapor
pressure increases, the concentration of vapor of a flammable or combustible liquid in the air
increases. Hence, temperature determines the concentration of vapor of the flammable liquid
in the air. A certain concentration of a flammable or combustible vapor is necessary to sustain
combustion in air, the lower flammable limit, and that concentration is specific to each
flammable or combustible liquid. The flash point is the lowest temperature at which there will
be enough flammable vapor to induce ignition when an ignition source is applied.
2.3. Flash and auto ignition point of some substances
Table 6. Flash and autoignition point of fluids
Gasoline (petrol) is a fuel used in a spark- ignition engine. The fuel is mixed with air within
its flammable limits and heated by compression and subject to Boyle's Law above its flash
point, then ignited by the spark plug. To ignite, the fuel must have a low flash point, but in
order to avoid pre-ignition caused by residual heat in a hot combustion chamber, the fuel must
have a high auto ignition temperature.
Diesel fuel flash points vary between 52 and 96 °C (126 and 205 °F). Diesel is suitable for use
in a compression-ignition engine. Air is compressed until it heats above the auto ignition
temperature of the fuel, which is then injected as a high-pressure spray, keeping the fuel–air
mix within flammable limits. A diesel-fueled engine has no ignition source (such as the spark
plugs in a gasoline engine), so diesel fuel must have a high flash point and a low auto ignition
temperature.

Jet fuel flash points also vary with the composition of the fuel. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have
flash points between 38 and 66 °C (100 and 151 °F).
2.4. Hazards
The main hazards from the use of flammable liquids are fire and explosion, involving
either the liquid or the vapour given off from it. For a fire or explosion to occur it requires three
things to come together:
 Flammable liquid;
 Source of ignition; and
 Air.
Figure 17. The fire triangle

2.4.1. Common causes of incidents
Fires or explosions are likely to occur when vapours or liquids are released from a controlled
environment to areas where there may be an ignition source, or alternatively, when an ignition
source is introduced into a controlled environment.
Common causes of such incidents include:
 lack of awareness of the properties of flammable liquids;
 operator error, due to lack of training;
 hot work on or close to flammable liquid containers;
 inadequate design of equipment;
 inadequate installation or maintenance;
 failure or malfunction of equipment;
 exposure to heat from a nearby fire;
 misuse of flammable liquids, for example, to burn waste materials or brighten fires;
 inadequate control of ignition sources;
 electrostatic discharges;
 heating materials above their auto-ignition temperature;
 Dismantling or disposing of equipment containing flammable liquids.
24.2. Incidents involving flammable liquids commonly arising during transfer operations
 movement from storage;

 decanting or dispensing;
 movement within premises;
 use in processes;
 disposal;
 dealing with spillages.
2.4.3. Flammable vapours
Combustion of liquids occurs when flammable vapours released from the surface of the
liquid ignite. The amount of flammable vapour given off from a liquid, and therefore the extent
of the fire or explosion hazard, depends largely on the temperature of the liquid, its volatility,
how much of the surface area is exposed, how long it is exposed for, and air movement over
the surface. Other physical properties of the liquid, such as flashpoint, auto-ignition
temperature (AIT), viscosity, lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper explosion limit (UEL),
give further information as to how vapour/air mixtures may develop and also on the potential
hazards.
Flashpoint
Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off vapour insufficient
concentration to form a combustible mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. Generally,
a liquid with a flashpoint below ambient temperature will give off a vapour that can mix with
air and be ignited. Liquids with a flashpoint greater than ambient temperature are less likely to
give off flammable concentrations of vapours unless they are heated, mixed with low flashpoint
materials or released under pressure as a mist or spray. However, a material below its flashpoint
can also be ignited when spread out as a thin film over a large area of ground or when spilled
onto clothing.
Explosion limits
The explosion limits define the concentrations (normally by volume) of vapour–air
mixtures at specified temperatures that will propagate a flame. Explosion limits vary greatly
for different substances, but for many they are in the range of 1% to 10%.
Vapours
Some materials, such as water/solvent mixtures or emulsions, only release vapours slowly.
These materials can flash during a flashpoint determination and be assigned a flashpoint, but
may not have the ability to sustain combustion at the temperatures encountered in normal use,
though these may well be in excess of the measured flashpoint. However, flammable vapours
may build up in enclosed spaces above the liquid, and could explode if ignited.

Viscosity
The viscosity of the liquid is significant as it determines how far any spilt material will spread
and therefore the size of any exposed surface. Solvents generally have a low viscosity and when
spilt spread quickly, allowing a rapid buildup of vapours from the surface of the liquid. Some
liquid formulations, such as paints and resins, may have a high viscosity; if they are spilt, they
spread and produce vapours more slowly than would the individual solvent constituents.
Ignition
A flammable vapour–air mix is easily ignited by the external ignition sources Even if there
are no external sources present the mixture may self-ignite if it is heated above its auto-ignition
temperature. The properties of a flammable liquid should therefore be established (for example,
from the relevant data sheet) before the material is used, so that adequate precautions can be
taken.
2.4.4. Control measures
 Containment
Flammable liquids should be stored in tanks or containers and systems constructed to a national
or international standard to ensure their strength and integrity. Further information is given in
chapter ‘Design and construction’.
There should also be means to contain spillage and fire water to prevent it spreading to other
parts of the premises.
 Ventilation
Good ventilation ensures that any flammable vapours given off from a spill, leak or release will
be rapidly dispersed. This may be achieved by locating storage tanks, transfer facilities, vent
pipes etc in the open air, in an unobstructed position. Locating plant and storage facilities in
the open air normally ensures the best possible dispersion of dangerous substances to limit the
formation and extent of hazardous explosive atmospheres. Certain features may affect the ready
dispersal of any releases of dangerous substances, eg buildings, pits, and structures providing
weather protection. Employers should ensure, as appropriate:
these are sufficient distance away; or they are of suitable design to prevent the accumulation
of dangerous substances; and where necessary, the ground is graded to direct vapours away
from occupied buildings and vulnerable populations (eg to provide safe dispersal of
vapourising liquid leaks from fixed liquefied gas vessels).

Chapter 3: Materials for tanks design and metal forming processes

3.1. Structural steel members
As a Steelworker, you will use various structural members manufactured in a wide variety of
cross section shapes and sizes.
3.1.1. Angle bars

a) Equal wings
Table 7. Properties of equal wings angle bar

b) Unequal wings
Table 8. Properties of unequal wings angle bar

3.1.2. H- beam
Table 9. Properties of H- beam

3.1.3. T-beams
Table 9. Properties of T- beam

3.1.4. Other materials

We can as well talk of sheets, square bar, round bars etc…
Fig 18. Round, hexagonal, square, and flat bars
3.2. Metal forming processes

Metal forming: Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed
plastically to take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation are called
die, punch etc. depending on the type of process.
Fig 19. Types of metal forming

3.2.1. Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Fig 19. Bulk forming processes
Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape change. The
surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly done in hot working conditions.
Rolling: In this process, the work piece in the form of slab or plate is compressed between two
rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced. The rotating rolls draw
the slab into the gap and compresses it. The final product is in the form of sheet.
Forging: The work piece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours. The die
shapes are imparted into the final part.
Extrusion: In this, the work piece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to take the
shape of the die hole as its cross section.
Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the work piece is pulled through the
die opening to take the cross-section.
3.2.2. Classification of basic sheet forming processes
Fig 20. Sheet forming

Fig 21. Cold rolling of a sheet
Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting operations performed on
metal sheets, strips, and coils. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is
relatively high. Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the sheets.
Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to give a bend shape (angle shape)
usually in a straight axis.
Deep (or cup) drawing: In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or
concave shape like a cup, is performed by stretching the metal in some regions. A blank-holder
is used to clamp the blank on the die, while the punch pushes into the sheet metal. The sheet is
drawn into the die hole taking the shape of the cavity.
Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing action.
Cold rolling: Rolling classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the
temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature then the process is termed as
hot rolling, if the temperature of metal is below its recrystallization temperature the process is
termed as cold rolling.
3.3. Rolling
Rolling is a metal forming process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two rolls rotating in opposite direction. Flat rolling is shown in
figure. Similarly shape rolling is also possible like a square cross section is formed into a shape
such as an I-beam, L-beam

.
Fig 21. Flat hot rolling Fig 22. Profile hot rolling
3.3.1. Important terminologies

Bloom: It has a square cross section 150 mm x 150 mm or more.
Slab: It is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular cross section of 250 mm width
or more and thickness 40 mm or more.
Billet: It is rolled from a bloom and is square in cross-section with dimensions 40mm on a side
or more.
3.3.2. Usage
Blooms are rolled into structural shapes like rails for railroad tracks.
Billets are rolled into bars, rods. They become raw materials for machining, wire drawing,
forging, extrusion etc.
Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips. Hot rolled plates are generally used in
shipbuilding, bridges, boilers, welded structures for various heavy machines, and many other
products.
Fig 23. Blooms, billet and Slab

3.3. Manufacturing sequence of a tank

The figure below illustrate the fabrication sequences of pressure vessel
Fig 24. Manufacturing sequences of a pressure vessel


4.1. Welding processes
4.1.1. Definition
Welding is a metal-joining process in which coalescence is obtained by heat and pressure. It
may also be defined as a metallurgical bond accomplished by the attracting forces between
atoms. Before these atoms can be bonded together, absorbed vapors and oxides on contacting
surfaces must be overcome.
A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form one piece
when heated to a temperature high enough to cause softening or melting. Filler material is
typically added to strengthen the joint.
Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently joining similar
metals. In other words, you can weld steel to steel or aluminum to aluminum, but you
cannot weld steel to aluminum using traditional welding processes.
4.1.2. Types of welding processes
The number of different welding processes has grown in recent years. These processes differ
greatly in the manner in which heat and pressure (when used) are applied, and in the type of
equipment used. There are currently over 50 different types of welding processes.
The most popular processes are shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
• All of these methods employ an electric power supply to create an arc which melts the base
metal(s) to form a molten pool. The filler wire is then either added automatically (GMAW) or
manually (SMAW & GTAW) and the molten pool is allowed to cool.
• Finally, all of these methods use some type of flux or gas to create an inert environment in
which the molten pool can solidify without oxidizing.

d) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

SMAW is a welding process that uses a flux covered metal electrode to carry an electrical
current.
Fig 25. Shielded Metal Arc Welding post and process
e) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

In the GMAW process, an arc is established between a continuous wire electrode (which is
always being consumed) and the base metal. Under the correct conditions, the wire is fed at a
constant rate to the arc, matching the rate at which the arc melts it. The filler metal is the thin
wire that’s fed automatically into the pool where it melts. Since molten metal is sensitive to
oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free gases is required. This shielding gas
provides a stable, inert environment to protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently,
GMAW is commonly known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding.

Fig 26. Metal inert gas post and welding process
f) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

In the GTAW process, an arc is established between a tungsten electrode and the base metal(s).
Under the correct conditions, the electrode does not melt, although the work does at the point
where the arc contacts and produces a weld pool. The filler metal is thin wire that’s fed
manually into the pool where it melts. Since tungsten is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good
shielding with oxygen-free gas is required. The same inert gas provides a stable, inert
environment to protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GTAW is commonly
known as TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding.
Fig 26. Tungsten inert gas post and welding process

4.2. Welded joints

4.2.1. Symbolic and graphical representation of a welding
Simplified representation Symbolic representation
Reference line
Welding procedure
Concave weld
Type of weld
Size of the weld
Weld all round
Figure 27: symbolic and graphical representation of a welding

4.2.2. Examples of Welds symbol
Fig 28. Weld joints
4.2.3. Standard weld joints
Fig 29. Standard weld joints

4.2.4. Weld Ideographs

The ideograph is the symbol that denotes the type of weld desired, and it generally depicts the
cross section representation of the weld. The following figure shows the ideographs used most
commonly.
Fig 30. Weld Ideographs
4.2.5. Fillet Weld Symbol Examples
Fig 31. Fillet welds

4.2.6. Others fillets weld joints

i) Welding forming T shape
Fig 32. T shape fillet weld

ii) Welding forming L shape
Fig 33. L shape fillet weld

iii) Welding of brackets
Bracket
bracket
Fig 34. Fillet and V welding design for brackets
4.2.7. Flanges welding design
Flange
Fig 35. Flanges welding design

4.2.8. Complementary or other welding design

Table10. Welding of materials of different thickness
ASSEMBLING CHOICE OF ASSEMBLING
Convenient for parts of different

thickness
Used for static loads
Convenient for parts subjected to

fatigue and for parts of unequal
thickness

fatigue

fatigue and for parts of unequal
thickness

fatigue

For parts of unequal thickness
For parts of unequal thickness
4.3. Weld strength calculus

4.3.1. Simple butt joint loaded in tension or compression
 the induced Stress on the figure below is normal stress σ
 Throat h does not include extra reinforcement

 Reinforcement adds some strength for static loaded joints
 Reinforcement adds stress concentration and should be ground off for fatigue loaded
joints

4.3.2. Simple butt joint loaded in shearing

It’s also called average shear stress
4.3.3. Joint loaded in tension
We can consider in this case one side of the joint with half throat since the joint is symmetrical

 Summation of forces
 Appling the Law of sines
 Solving for throat thickness t
 Nominal stresses at angle Ɵ
Exercise
Two fillet welds AB and CD of length 50 mm are loaded under the action of the load F. if we
adopt a stress limit (Rpg) to be 10 daN/mm2 for the filler metal.
1. What type of solicitation the weld is subjected to?
2. Calculate the maximum load F that the assembly can withstand.
Ans. F= 10000 daN

4.3.4. Principal cases

Common cases are summarized in the table below

Table 11. Tension, shearing, torsion and bending formulae for welds stress
Stresses
Cases Examples
s Representation Formulae
Tension
Shearing
Or
Shearing
with
tension Usual approximation
Torsion
Bending
Neutral Plane
Kf is an adjusting coefficient taking into consideration concentration constraints or stresses that

need to be applied in cases of alternated loading and fatigue.
4.3.5. Characterics of welds assimulated to a line (second moment of area)

Table 11. Torsion and bending formulae for welds stress calculation
Welds Torsion Bending

Table 12. Bending formulae for welds stress calculation

Table 13. Torsional formulae for welds stress calculation
Remark
The quadratic moments IuG and IuZ indicated on page 41 do not take into account the throat
thickness, each weld is assimilated to a wire of thickness 1 mm mean while the formulae given
on page 40 are taking into account the thickness by multiplying the values of IuG and IuZ by
“a” or 0.707h.
IG = IuG.a = 0.707h.IuG

IZ = IuZ.a = 0.707h.IuZ
Example
Two fillet weld AB and CD, of length 30mm and of thickness 10 mm, are subjected to a load
F of 1000 daN, crossed and offsetted and subjecting this to shearing and torsion.
Calculate the maximum stress applied in the weld.
Solution
The welds are sustaining in a combine way shearing (stress τ1 due to the shear force T= F=
1000 daN) and torsion around the point O (induce supplementary shear stresses τ2 ). The stress
τ1 is uniform at all point of the two welds and is equal to:
The torsional stress τ2 depends of the distance (V) between the considered point and the
torsional centre O. this value is maximum at point A or C.
With:
From the table of page 41 we have:
The total shear stress at A (τA= 9.7 daN/mm2 ) is obtained by vectorial summation of the two
previous stress vectors (τ1 parallel to F and upward, τ2 (A) perpendicular to OA at the point A)

Exercise
The four fillet weld AB and BC, CD and DA, of length 30mm and of thickness 10 mm, are
subjected to a load F of 1000 daN, crossed and offsetted and subjecting this to shearing and
bending.
Calculate the maximum stress applied in the weld.
Answers: τ1 = 0.83 daN/mm2 ; IuZ= 18000mm3 ; σmaxi= 8.33 daN/mm2 ;
τmaxi = (τ12+ σ2maxi)1/2= 8.37 daN/mm2


Any object has three dimensions, viz., length, width and thickness. A projection is
defined as a representation of an object on a two dimensional plane. The projections of an
object should convey all the three dimensions, along with other details of the object on a sheet
of paper.
5.2. Example of horizontal tank
Fig.42: Orthogonal projection of a horizontal tank

5.3. Example of vertical tanks
Fig 43: orthogonal projection of a vertical

tankLIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 52
5.4. Rules applied in dimensioning tanks

- The diameters of tanks are always external diameters unless particular indications are given.
- Each dimensions should appear on the drawing once. For some dimensions, the thickness of
the sheets for example, should be inside the nomenclature.
- Some simple parts, not drawn must be represented by its dimensions: they should be
represented on the nomenclature (joints of circular plates)
5.5. Dimensioning of a horizontal tank
Fig. 44: Dimensioning of a horizontal tank.
By convention, dimensions are expressed, on the front view, with respect to the tangent line
LT situated at the left. The dimensions of the nozzles from the reference are indicated by an
interrupted dimension line.
The position of the support is defined by its gap and the distance of the holes (used for mounting
the tank on the concrete floor) from the reference line.
We will take only a single reference line. The last nozzle at the right shouldn’t be dimensioned
with respect to the tangent line (LT) of the bottom situated at the right given the fact that is
very near.

5.6 Dimensioning of a vertical tank
Fig.45: Dimensioning of a vertical tank
Just like for horizontal vessels, the reference line is by convention, the tangent line located at
the bottom of the inferior part of the vessel (Fig 45)
5 mm represent the dimensions of the gap of the joints before tightening and each elements has
its own reference (Fig 45)
5.7. Dimensioning of inlet or outlet
Inlet and outlet are dimensioned by indicating the position of the face of the flange and that of
the centre of the tank.
This positions are given, either with respect to normal references: axis and joining plane or LT;
either by overtaking of the normal nozzles( perpendicular to surfaces) with respect to the
exterior of the body, dimensions easy to measure and to control. We admit that tolerances on
the diameters of the body of the tank have no importance on the position of the face of joint of

the flanges. In the contrary, you have to dimension with respect to the axis and indicate that
this dimension is imperative in a limit of tolerance to fix.
Fig. 46: Dimensioning of flanges
The dimensioning of a nozzle on a cone is given in the same manner by overtaking only if the
dimension with respect to the axis is imperative.
The manufacturing dimension of the nozzles should be determined by the foreman in other for
him to regulate the dimensions imposed by the drawing necessary for its realization.
The identification of nozzles and other parts commonly used in pipe drafting brings about an
ease in the understanding of the drawing views.
5.8. Nomenclature of components used in tank design
The constituents of a sheet metal apparatus are identified by Arabic letters surrounded by a
circle (Fig 47).
Fig. 47: Nomenclature of a tank part

We must identify all the separable elements that should be grouped and assembled (parts
manufactured separately, components or accessories taken from the store: fasteners, gasket,
etc...)

5.9. Nomenclature of nozzles

Nozzles are identified by a capital letter in printed character, followed by an Arabic letter
surrounded by a circle (Fig 48).
Remark: the circle used in identifying nozzles are a little bit bigger and thicker than those used
to identify parts.
Fig 48: nomenclature of nozzles

5.10. Disposition of components and nozzles around a tank
Parts identify by numbers must be as much as possible aligned on a line while components
identify by letters are aligned on the other line. The normalized letters and numbers should be
preferably very close to the drawing to avoid that the projection line and the dimension line do
not intersect each other (Fig 49).
Fig 49: nomenclature of components and nozzles around a tank

5.11. Nozzle orientation
This nozzle orientation is done in the clockwise direction. The seam lime is always located
above the nozzle orientation. All the axis of an element mounted on a tank are positioned on
the nozzle orientation, in projecting each axis we find the value of the angle and the reference
of the element.
Example: the nozzle N1 is located at 1350
Fig. 50: orientation of the element N1
In the case of a complicated tank with several elements in its interior part we can divide it in
several sections and locate the nozzle and others equipments after sectioning. For tubes,
openings on the tank you should just indicate only the reference (Fig 51) but for supports it
should be represented graphically (Fig 52).
Fig.52 Fig.51

5.12. Construction of the elliptical head of a tank

A simplified method enables us to construct normalized elliptical head or bottom of tank with
common drawing instruments. The result obtained from this practical construction is not exact
compare to the mathematical expression.
5.13. Dimensions of the elliptical head of a tank
Fig. 53: Dimensions of the head of a tank

5.14. Step to follow to construct the head or the bottom of a tank
a) 1st Method
Fig 54: step for drawing the semi-elliptical head of a vessel

b) 2nd method (GRC: Grand Rayon de Carre)
 1st step  2nd step
Locate and draw the centre line Draw a line linking the point 01
(01 0) of the vessel as well as its and b with 01 being the
tangent line (ab). maximum point of the tank
 3rd step  4th step

With your compass at point O With your compass at 01 draw a
draw an arc having as radius Ob circle having as radius 01 c.
 5th step  6th step

Divide the segment [db] into two With your compass at point e
equal parts and prolong the line to draw a semi-circle having as
meet the centre line 01 0. radius eb to meet the line (ef).

 7th step  8th step
With your compass at the point Erase the construction lines or

O2 draw a semi-circle having as better still keep them print the
radius O2 g to meet the line edges of the elliptical head.
(O1 O2 ).
5.15. Computation of dimensions for a vessel having an elliptical head

d) Method for Elliptical head
The table below gives the value of h1 , h2 , E and De for an elliptical head


e) GRC method

f) PRC method
5.16. Edges preparation for the head and the shell for a pressure vessel
Before the shell and head are assembled by welding as shown in the figure below, their edges
need to be prepared so as to obtain a well-sealed vessel.

Welding line
Fig 11. Horizontal pressure vessel with main parts

Parts whose thickness is more than 6mm must be chamfered. This preparation enables the
welding to penetrate easily in between the joints. The table below show the various edges
preparation
Edges Preparation
Symmetrical joints edges preparation Symmetrical joints edges preparation
for horizontal vessels for vertical vessels
V Edges Half V edges
Double V edges with double Half V edges with double slope

slope
U Edges Half U Edges


Inlet or outlet component or nozzle of a tank are mainly for the introduction or the
removal of fluids from the tank, it’s very important to do a good design of these components
so as to avoid leakage.
6.1. Design detail for the assembly of reinforced nozzles
The table below shows some design detail for the assembly of reinforced nozzles
REINFORCED NOZZLE
NON PENETRATING
PENETRATING

6.2. Design details of the assembly of oblique nozzle

The table below shows the design details of the assembly of oblique nozzle
Non penetrating
Oblique nozzle
With chamfer
Unequal diameters
equal diameters

6.2. Design details of the assembly of nozzles positioned or intersecting at angle 90

The table below shows the design details of the assembly of Nozzles positioned at angle 90
Non penetrating
Nozzles positionned at angle 90 0
With chamfer
Unequal diameters
equal diameters
Chapter 7: Flanges

7.1. Introduction
A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form a piping
system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification. Flanges are
usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two flanges with a
gasket between them to provide a seal.
We distinguish a variety of flanges among which some are mentioned below

• Welding Neck Flange
• Slip on Flange
• Socket Weld Flange
• Lap Joint Flange
• Threaded Flange
• Blind Flange
7.2. Flanged Connections versus Welded Connections
There are no standards that define whether or not flange connections may be used. In a
newly built factory is customary to minimize flange connections, because only one weld is
needed to connect two pieces of pipe. This saves the costs of two flanges, the gasket, the stud
bolts, the second weld, the cost of NDT for the second weld, etc...
7.3. Disadvantages

– Each flange connection can leak (some people claim that a flange connection is never 100
percent leak proof).
– Flanged pipe systems need much more space (just think of a pipe rack).
– Insulation of flanged pipe systems is more expensive (special flange caps).
7.4. Advantages
– A new line can contain multiple pipe spools and can be manufactured in a workshop.
– This pipe spools can be assembled in the plant without the need to be welded.
– NDO (X-ray, Hydro test etc.) in the plant is not necessary, because this has been done in the
workshop.
– Blasting and painting in the plant is not necessary, because even this has been done in a
workshop (only paint damages during installation should be repaired).
– As with many things, everything has its pros and cons.
7.5. Types of flanges
7.5.1. Welding neck flange
Welding Neck Flanges are easy to recognize at the long tapered hub that goes gradually
over to the wall thickness from a pipe or fitting. The long tapered hub provides an important
reinforcement for use in several applications involving high pressure, subzero and / or elevated
temperatures.
These flanges are bored to match the inside diameter of the mating pipe or fitting so
there will be no restriction of product flow. This prevents turbulence at the joint and reduces
erosion. This flange type will be welded to a pipe or fitting with a single full penetration, V
weld (Butt weld).

7.5.2. Slip On flange
• The calculated strength from a Slip On flange under internal pressure is of the order of two-
thirds of that of welding neck flanges, and their life under fatigue is about one-third that of the
latter.
• The connection with the pipe is done with 2 fillet welds, as well at the outside as also at the
inside of the flange.
• A disadvantage of the flange is, that principle always firstly a pipe must be welded and then
just a fitting. A combination of flange and elbow or flange and tee is not possible, because
named fittings have not a straight end, that complete slid in the Slip On flange.

7.5.3. Socket weld flange
• Socket Weld flanges were initially developed for use on small size high pressure piping. Their
static strength is equal to Slip On flanges, but their fatigue strength 50% greater than double-
welded Slip On flanges.
• The connection with the pipe is done with 1 fillet weld, at the outside of the flange. But before
welding, a space must be created between flange or fitting and pipe.
• The purpose for the bottoming clearance in a socket weld is usually to reduce the residual
stress at the root of the weld that could occur during solidification of the weld metal. The image
shows you the X measure for the expansion gap.
7.5.4. Lap Joint Flange
• Lap Joint Flanges have all the same common dimensions as any other flange named on this
page however it does not have a raised face, they used in conjunction with a "Lap Joint Stub
End".
• These flanges are nearly identical to a Slip On flange with the exception of a radius at the
intersection of the flange face and the bore to accommodate the flanged portion of the stub end.
• Their pressure-holding ability is little, if any, better than that of Slip On flanges and the fatigue
life for the assembly is only one tenth that of welding neck flanges.
• They may be used at all pressures and are available in a full size range. These flanges slip
over the pipe, and are not welded or otherwise fastened to it. Bolting pressure is transmitted to
the gasket by the pressure of the flange against the back of the pipe lap (Stub End).

7.5.5. Stub End
• A Stub End always will be used with a Lap Joint flange, as a backing flange.
• This flange connections are applied, in low-pressure and non-critical applications, and is a
cheap method of flanging. In a stainless steel pipe system, for example, a carbon steel flange
can be applied, because they are not come in contact with the product in the pipe.
7.5.6. Threaded flange
• Threaded Flanges are used for special circumstances with their main advantage being that
they can be attached to the pipe without welding. Sometimes a seal weld is also used in
conjunction with the threaded connection.
• Although still available in most sizes and pressure ratings, screwed fittings today are used
almost exclusively in smaller pipe sizes.

• A threaded flange or fitting is not suitable for a pipe system with thin wall thickness, because
cutting thread on a pipe is not possible. Thus, thicker wall thickness must be chosen.
7.5.7. Blind flange
• Blind Flanges are manufactured without a bore and used to blank off the ends of piping,
valves and pressure vessel openings.
• From the standpoint of internal pressure and bolt loading, blind flanges, particularly in the
larger sizes, are the most highly stressed flange types

7.6. Flange faces
Different types of flange faces are used as the contact surfaces to seat the sealing gasket
material. ASME B16.5 and B16.47 define various types of flange facings, including the raised
face, the large male and female facings which have identical dimensions to provide a relatively
large contact area. Other flange facings covered by these standards include the large and small
tongue-and-groove facings, and the ring joint facing specifically for ring joint type metal
gaskets.
7.6.1. Raised face (RF)
The raised face flange face is the most common type used in process plant applications,
and is easily to identify. It is referred to as a raised face because the gasket surfaces are raised
above the bolting circle face This face type allows the use of a wide combination of gasket
designs, including flat ring sheet types and metallic composites such as spiral wound and
double jacketed types. The purpose of a RF flange is to concentrate more pressure on a smaller
gasket area and thereby increase the pressure containment capability of the joint

7.6.2. Flat face (FF)
• The flat face flange has a gasket surface in the same plane as the bolting circle face.
Applications using flat face flanges are frequently those in which the mating flange or flanged
fitting is made from a casting.
• Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange.
7.6.3. Ring-type joint (RTJ)
This type is typically used in the most severe duties, for example, in high-pressure-gas pipe
work. Ring-type metal gaskets must be used on this type of flange facing
• The ring type joint flanges are typically used in high pressure and/or high temperature
services above 800°F (427°C).
• They have grooves cut into their faces which steel ring gaskets. The flanges seal when tighten
bolts compress the gasket between the flanges into the grooves, deforming (or Coining) the
gasket to make intimate contact inside the grooves, creating a metal to metal seal.
7.6.4. Drawing symbol for flangesthe
table below shows the symbolic representation of flanges.


8.1. Storage capacity
The storage capacity of a tank can be define as the quantity of fluid it can contain, the standard
NF E 86-021 defines this capacity. The dimensions L (Length) and D (Diameter) are chosen
somehow such that the real capacity of a tank or a reservoir should always be greater than the
nominal capacity whatever the head shape and the thickness is like. The figure below shows
the length L and the diameter D of a tank that will be used in the table below
The table below shows the different values of the nominal storage capacities with respect to
the external length and the external diameter.
Table 8.1: Nominal storage capacities
External Nominal capacities in m3
length L
in mm External diameters D in mm

Take note:
 Avoid as much as possible capacities of thin character,

 The darken capacities are advisable or recommended for design
8.2. Mass of a tank
After the reading of the volume of tank on the table above it should be noted that the mass of
a tank can be calculated using formula below
This mass is calculated most of the time when the tank is loaded or charged with a fluid, so the
density here will be that of the fluid (the calculations do not take into consideration the empty
tank mass ), but for more precision on the mass value its also important to consider the mass
of the empty tank
8.3. Density of fluids and metals
The tables below give the density of some fluids and metals
Table : Metal density

Table : Typical fluid density
Example
Calculate the mass of a tank of external diameter Ø = 2400 and length (L) = 6400 if the fluid
contained is gasoline of density of 725 kg/m3
Calculate the mass of the empty tank if the thickness is 8mm and assuming the tank has a PRC
head and made up of steel of density 7850 kg/m3 .
Solution

We read from the table above a volume V = 25 m3

Applying the mass formular above
Mass = Density x volume → M= 25 x725= 18125 kg

M = 18125 kg = 18.125 t
Now if the thickness of the tank is 8 mm, then we first calculate the head volume Vhead and the
shell volume Vshell of the tank.
 Volume of the head

Let’s assimilate our head to an ellipsoid
But since our head is half and hollow the following formular will be appropriate for a tank.
Knowing that a= b for a vessel

1 4 2 2 4
Vhead= ( 𝜋𝑎𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑐𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝜋𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 . 𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑡 )
2 3 3
22 2
vhead= 𝜋 (𝑎𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑐𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 . 𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑡 )
3
Now let’s determine the value of aext, c ext, aint and c int
if we use the PRC head just above, we deduce that
ae xt = De/2 = 1200 and aint = 1200-8= 1192

cint = h2
Since our thickness is 8 the value of h1 is taken from the table for GRC head below
h1 = 50; h2 = Ri – H and;
Ri = 3000; rc= 50;
k= (De- 2E)/2= (2400-2x8)/2=1192
H=2720
→ h2 = Ri – H = 3000-2720 =280
Therefore cint = 280 and cext = 280 + 4 = 284
22 2
v= 𝜋 (𝑎𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑐𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 . 𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) applying the formular we have
3
2
Vhe ad= 𝜋 (12002 x284 - 11922 x280) = 23236787mm3
3
 Volume of the shell
The shell is a hollow cylinder as shown below

vshell = 𝝅 H (𝒓𝟐𝒆𝒙𝒕 - 𝒓𝟐𝒊𝒏𝒕 )

rext = 2400/2 = 1200; rint= 1192
H= length (L) – 2cext
H = 6400 – 2 x 284 = 5832
vshell = 𝜋 x 5832 (12002 – 11922)= 350427617 mm3

Vtank = Vhead + Vshell = 23236787 + 350427617 = 373664404 mm3 = 0.37 m3
 The mass(mtank ) of the empty tank
mtank = Vtank x ρsteel → mtank = 0.37 x 7850 = 2904.5 kg

Chapter 9: Dimensioning of a tank with catalogues, strength of material and

heat transfer notion
9.1. Design and dimensions of a tank support with catalogues
9.1.1. Definition
The support of a tank is that component on which the tank is sitted, this supports are often
embedded on the floor with the help of foundation bolts.
9.1.2. Horizontal tanks support design
a) For diameter D in between 114.3 ≤ D ≤ 600
The supports dimensions are determine with respect to the diameter or the capacity since the
diameter is related to this. The dimensions that are to be determine here are L, P, S and e as
shown on the figure below when 114.3 ≤ D ≤ 600. These dimensions are determined using the
table below
Flat 120 x e
ef = cradle thickness
ev = shell thickness

The table below gives the values of L, P, S and e with respect to a given diameter D
Table: Values of dimension L, P, S and e for 114.3 ≤ D ≤ 600

External Cradle
diameter
b) For diameter D in between 650 ≤ D ≤ 1600
Here the design for the supports is not the same as that of the one above. All the necessary
dimensions are found in the table below
e f = cradle thickness
e f = shell thickness

c) For diameter D in between 1700≤ D ≤ 2400
Here also the design for the supports is not the same as the one above. All the necessary
ef = 0.7 ev
d) For diameter D in between 2500≤ D ≤ 3200
Here equally, the design for the supports is not the same as the one above. All the necessary
ef = 0.7 ev

The tables below gives the values of L, L1 , L2, P, S, e and e 1, with respect to a given diameter
D
Table: Values of dimensions L, L1 , P, S, e and e 1, for 650 ≤ D ≤ 2400
External
Cradle
diameter
Table: Values of dimensions L, L1 , L2 , P, S, e and e 1, for 2500 ≤ D ≤ 3200

e) Support position
The value of the distance A in between the supports as shown in the figure below is determined
from the table below
Table: Values of dimension A
Nominal True External External

capacity capacity length diameter
(1) Length L = 4960 for L theoritical = 5000

(2) Length L = 7120 for L theoritical = 7200 reduced because of the sheets format

9.1.3. Vertical tank support design

a) Angle bars type supports design
This type of supports as shown in the 1st figure below are done with equal wings angle bars
and thick sheets as shown in the 2nd figure below, with respect to the diameter of the shell or
the tank. All the necessary dimensions plus the numbers of supports for its design can be
determine with the help of the table below

The table below gives the necessary dimensions values for the design of the supports.
Table: supports dimensions for vertical tanks
Supports Bolts Cradle Maximum

diameter
External
allowable
mass on
Equal wings
Hole the
Number
Angle bar supports

assembly
Shell thickness + 2
(1) Advisable height for convex GRC head

In case of height greater than the adopted values, the supports dimensions need to be calculated

b) Skirt type support design
Here the support is round just like a cylinder with webs all around the basement for
reinforcement as describe on the figures below
 Design assembly detail of the skirt and the head of the tank
It’s important to mention here that the assembly of this two parts is done by welding. The
drawings below show the different possible welding design assembly for the skirt and the tank.

Detail R
 Design dimensions for the skirt type support
The figure below show the necessary

dimension for the design
The dimensions above will be determine from the table below with respect to the diameter of
the vessel

Table: Design dimensions value for a skirt type support
Skirt Reinforcement Base Ring Bolts Maximum

diameter
External
allowable
Ext
Number (3)
path dia
load
Drilling
Threading
Number
Hole T
dia
(mm)
c
(1) Advisable height for convex GRC head ( except particular need s) In case of height greater than the adopted
values, the skirt thickness need to be calculated
(2) Including additional corrosion thickness of 2 mm
(3) The number of reinforcements is double times those of bolted components
 Basement design, number of bolts and bolts diameter
The basement can be define as the base or the bottom of the skirt (part directly in contact with
the foundation the concrete) which have to be stabilize by foundation bolts. The figures and
the table below illustrate the basement types design and their dimensions

 type I and II basement
Other side on the

Skirt external type I basement
diameter
Square plate of side C
P is the Bolt center to

center distance
(measured on the Ø D
of drilling path)
Table: Values of design dimensions for types I, II and II basement
Auto stable apparatus Apparatus subjected to overthrow loads

(1)
External diameter
of the apparatus Type I basement Type II and III basement
(mm)
Minimum number Bolts minimum Minimum number Bolts minimum
of bolts diameter (mm) of bolts diameter (mm)
(1) Compute the effort in the bolts and dimension a resistant cross section according to NF E 03.014

 Type III basement

Square plaquette of length
C, thickness ≥ 0.7 B
Variant
Skirt external plaquette
Table: Values of design dimensions for types I, II and II basement
Bolt G’
diameter Variant
d (mm) (mm)
Type I and II Basement
Type III Basement
- All weld are continuous

- The square plaquettes are welded after the apparatus is put in place

9.2. Heat Transfer notion for the determination of the shell thickness
Introduction
Energy is defined as a capacity of substance to do work. It’s a property of the substance and it
can be transferred by interaction of a system and its surroundings. The student would have
encountered these interactions during the study of thermodynamics. However deals with the
end states of the processes and provides no information on the physical mechanisms that caused
the process to take place. Heat transfer is an example of such a process.
A convenient definition of heat transfer is energy in transition due to temperature differences.
Heat transfer extends the thermodynamic analysis by studying the fundamental processes and
modes of heat transfer through the development of relations used to calculate its rate.
The aim of this chapter is to console existing understanding and to familiarize the students it
the standard of notation and terminology used in this book. It will also introduce the necessary
units
9.2.9. Heat transfer modes
The different types of heat transfer are usually referred to as modes of heat transfer. They are
three of these phases: conduction, convection and radiation
 Conduction: This occurs at molecular level when a temperature gradient exists in a

medium, which can be fluid or fluid. Heat is transferred along that temperature gradient
by conduction.
 Convection: Happens in fluids in one of two mechanisms: random molecular motion
which is termed diffusion or the bulk motion of a fluid carries energy from place to
place. Convection can be either forced through for example pushing the flow along the
surface or natural as that which happens due to buoyancy forces.
 Radiation: occurs where heat energy is transferred by electromagnetic phenomenon of
which the sun is a particularly important source. It happens between surfaces at
different temperatures even if there is no medium between them as long as they face
each other.
In many practical problems, these three mechanism combine to generate the total energy flow,
but its convenient to consider them separately at this introductory stage. We need to describe
each process symbolically in an equation of reasonably simple form, which provides the bases
of subsequent calculations. We must also identify the properties of materials, and other system
characteristics, that influence the transfer of heat
9.2.10. Systems of units
Before looking at the three distinct modes of transfer, it is appropriate to introduce some terms
and units that apply to all of them. It’s worth mentioning that we will be using the SI units
throughout this book
 The rate of heat flow will be denoted by the symbol Q .Its measured in watts (W) and
multiples such as (KW) and (MW).

 It’s often convenient to specify the flow of energy as the heat flow per unit area which
is also known as heat flux. This is denoted by q. Note that q=Q/A where A is the area
through which the heat flows and that the units of heat flux are(w/m2 ).
 Naturally, temperature plays a major part in the study of heat transfer. The symbol T
will be used for temperature. In SI units, temperature is measured in kelvin or Celsius
:( K) and (OC). Sometimes the symbol t is used for temperature, but this is not
appropriate in the context of transient heat transfer where it’s convenient to use that
symbol for time. Temperature difference is denoted in kelvin (K).
The following three subsections describe the above mentioned three modes of heat flow in
more detail. Further details of conductions, convection and radiation will be presented in
chapter 2,3 and 4 respectively. Chapter 5 gives a brief overview of heat exchangers theory
and application which draws on the work from the previous chapter
9.2.11. Conduction
The conductive transfer is of immediate interest through solid materials. However, conduction
within fluids is also important as it is one of the mechanism by which heat reaches and leaves
the surface of a solid. Moreover, the tiny voids within some solids materials contain gases that
conduct heat, albeit not very effectively unless they are replace by liquids, an event which is
not uncommon. Provided that a fluid is still or very slowly moving. The following analysis for
solids is also applicable heat flow through a fluid.
Figure 9.1 shows, in a schematic form, a process of conductive heat transfer and identifies the
key quantities to be considered:
Figure 9.1: One dimensional conduction

Q: The area through which the heat flows in the x-direction (w)
A: The area through which the heat flows, normal to the x-direction
𝒅𝑻
: The temperature gradient in the x- direction (K/m)
𝒅𝑿
The quantities are related by the Fourier’s law, a model proposed as early 1882

A significant feature of this equation is the negative sign. This recognizes that the natural
direction for the flow of heat is from high temperature to low temperature, and hence down the
temperature gradient.
The additional quantity that appears in this relationship is k, the thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Of the material through which the heat flows. This property of the particular heat conducting
substance and, like other properties, depend on the state of material, which is usually specified
by its temperature and pressure.
The dependence on temperature is of particular importance. Moreover some materials such as
those used in building construction are capable of absorbing water, either in finites pores or at
the molecular level, and the moisture content also influences the thermal conductivity. The
units of thermal conductivity have been determined from the requirement that Fourier’s law
must be dimensionally consistent.
Considering the finite slab of material shown in the figure 9.1, we see that for one dimensional
conduction the temperature gradient is:
Table 9.1 gives the values of thermal conductivity of some representative solid materials, for
conduction of normal temperature and pressure. Also shown are values of another property
characterizing the flow of heat through materials, thermal diffusivity, which is related to the
conductivity by:
Where 𝝆 is the density in kg/m3 of the material and C its specific heat capacity in J/kgK
The thermal diffusivity indicates the ability of a material to transfer thermal energy relative to
its ability to store it. The diffusivity plays an important role in unsteady conduction. As was
noted above, the value of thermal conductivity varies significantly with temperature, even over
the range of climatic conditions found around the world, let alone in the more extreme
conditions of cold storage plants, space flight and combustion. For solids, this is illustrated by
the case of mineral wool, for which the thermal conductivity might change from 0.04 to 0.28
W/Mk across the range 35 to – 35°C

Table 9.1
For gases the thermal conductivities can vary significantly with both pressure and temperature.
For liquids, the conductivity is more or less insensitive to pressure. Table 1.2 shows the thermal
conductivities for typical gases and liquids at some given conditions.
Note the very wide range of conductivities encountered in the materials listed in tables 1.1 and
1.2 some part of the variability can ascribed to the density of materials, but this not the whole
story (steel is more dense than aluminum, brick is more dense than water).metals are excellent
conductors of heat as well as electricity as a consequences of the free electrons within their
atomic lattices. Gases are poor conductors, although their conductivity rises with temperature
(the molecules then move about vigorously) and with pressure (there is then a density energy
carrying molecules). Liquids, and notably water, have conductivities of intermediates
magnitude, not very different from those for plastics. The low conductivity of many insulating
materials can be attributed to the trapping small pockets of a gas, often air, within a solid
material which is itself a rather poor conductor.

Example
Calculate the heat conducted through a 0.2 m thick industrial furnace wall made of fireclay
brick. Measurements made during steady state operation showed that the wall temperatures
inside and outside the furnace are 1500 and 1000 K respectively. The length of the wall is 1.2m
and the height is 1m.
Solution
We first need to make an assumption that the heat conduction through the wall is one
dimensional. Then equation 1.2:
The thermal conductivity for a fireclay brick obtained from table 1.1 is 1.7 W/Mk
Comment: note that the direction of heat flow is from the higher temperature inside to the
lower temperature outside.
9.2.12. Convection
Convection heat transfer occurs both due to molecular motion and bulk fluid motion.
Convective heat transfer may be categorized into two forms according to the nature of the flow:
natural convection and forced convection.
In natural of ‘free’ convection, the fluid motion is driven by density differences associated with
temperature changes generated by heating of cooling. In other words fluid flow is induced by
buoyancy forces. Thus the heat transfer itself generates the flow which conveys energy away
from the point at which the transfer occurs
In forced convection, the fluid motion is driven by some external influence. Examples are the
flows of air induced by a fan, by the wind, or by the motion of a vehicle, and the flows of water
within heating, cooling, supply and drainage systems. In all of these processes the moving
fluids conveys energy, whether by design or inadvertently.

The left of figure 1.2 illustrates the process of natural convective heat transfer. Heat flows from
the ’radiator’ to the adjacent air, with then rises, being lighter than the general body of air in
the room. This air is replaced by a cooler, somewhat denser drawn along the floor towards the
radiator. The rising air flows along the ceiling, to which it can transfer heat, and then back to
the lower part of the room to the recirculated through the buoyancy driven ‘cell’ of natural
convection.
The word radiator has been written above in that way because the heat transfer of such devices
is not predominantly through radiation; convection is important as well. In fact, in a typical
central heating radiator approximately half the heat transfer is (free) convection.
The right part of figure 1.1 illustrates a process of forced convection. Air is forced by a fan
carrying with it heat from the wall if the wall temperature is lower or giving heat to the wall if
the wall temperature is lower than the air temperature.
If T1 is the temperature of the surface receiving or giving heat, and T∞ is the average
temperature of the stream of fluid adjacent to the surface, then the convective heat transfer Q
is governed by the newton’s law:
Another empirical quantity has been introduced to characterize the convective transfer
mechanism. This is hc, the convective heat transfer coefficient, which has units W/m2 K
This quantity is also known as the convective conductance and as the film coefficient. The term
film coefficient arises from a simple, but not entirely unrealistic, picture of the process of
convective heat transfer at a surface. Heat is imagined to be conducted through a thin stagnant
film of fluid at the surface, and then to be convected away by the moving fluid beyond. Since
the fluid right against actually be at rest, this is a fairly reasonable model, and it explains why
convective coefficients often depend quite strongly on the conductivity of fluid.

This film coefficient is not a property of the fluid, although it does depend on a number of fluid
properties: thermal conductivity, density, specific heat and viscosity. This single quantity
subsumes a variety of features of the flow, as well as characteristics of the con
vecting fluid. Obviously, the velocity of the flow past the wall is significant, as the fundamental
nature of the motion, that is to say, whether it’s turbulent or laminar. Generally speaking, the
convective coefficient increases as the velocity increases.
A great deal of work has been done in measuring and predicting connective heat transfer
coefficients. Nevertheless, for all but the simplest situations we must rely upon empirical data,
although numerical methods based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are becoming
increasingly used to compute the heat transfer coefficient for complex situations.
Table 1.3 gives some typical values; the cases considered include many of the situations that
arise within buildings and in equipment installed in buildings.
Example
A refrigerator stands in a room where the air temperature is 20°C. The surface temperature on
the outside of the refrigerator is 16°C. The sides are 30mm thick and have an equivalent thermal
conductivity of 0.1 W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient on the outside 9 is 10 W/m2K.
Assuming one dimensional conduction through the sides, calculate the net heat flow and the
surface temperature on the inside.
Solution
Let Ts,j and Ts,o be the inside surface and outside surface temperatures, respectively Tf the fluid
temperature outside.
The rate of heat convection per unit area can be calculated from equation 1.3:

This must be equal to the heat conducted through the sides. Thus we can use equation 1.2 to
calculate the surface temperature:
Comment: This example demonstrates the combination of

conduction and convection heat transfer relations to establish the
desired quantities.
9.2.13. Radiation
With both conductive and convective transfers involve the flow of energy through a solid or
fluid substance, no medium is required to achieve radiative heat transfer. Indeed,
electromagnetic radiation travels most efficiently through a vacuum, though it is able to pass
quite effectively through many gases, liquids and through some solids, in particular, relatively
thin layers of glass and transparent plastics.
Figure 1.3: indicates the names applied to particular sections of the electromagnetic spectrum
where the band of thermal radiation is also shown. This includes:
 The rather narrow band of visible light;
 The wider span of thermal radiation, extending well beyond the visible spectrum.
Our immediate interest is thermal radiation. It is of the same family as visible light and behaves
in the same general fashion, being reflected, refracted and absorbed. These phenomena are of
particular importance in the calculation of solar gains, the heat inputs to buildings from the sun
and radiative heat transfer within combustion chambers.
It is vital to realize that everybody, unless at the absolute zero of temperature, both emits and
absorb energy by radiation.in many circumstances the inwards and outwards transfers nearly
cancel out, because the body is at about the same temperature as its surroundings. This is your
situation as you seat reading these words, continually exchanging energy with the surfaces
surrounding you.
In 1884 Boltzmann put forward an expression for the net transfer of an idealized body (Black
body) with surface area A1 at absolute temperature T1 to surroundings at uniform absolute
temperature T2:
With σ the Stefan- Boltzmann constant, which has the value 5.67× 10 -8 W/m2 K4 and T[𝐾]=
T[°𝐶 ] + 273 is the absolute temperature.
The bodies considered above are idealized, in that they perfectly absorb and emit radiation of
all wave lengths. The situation is also idealized in that each of the bodies that exchange
radiation has uniform surface temperature. A development of Boltzmann’s law which allows
for deviations from this pattern is:
Another property of the surface is implicit in this relationship: its absorptivity. This has been
taken to be equal to the emissivity. This is not always realistic. For example, a surface receiving
short-wave-lengths, for which the emissivity is different from the absorptivity for the wave-
lengths, for which the emissivity is different from the absorptivity for the wave-lengths
received.
The case of solar radiation provides an interesting application of this equation. The view factor
for the sun, as seen from the earth, is very small; despites this, the very high solar temperature
(raised to power 4) ensures that radiative transfer is substantial. Of course, if to surfaces do not
see another (as, for instance, when the sun is on the other side of the earth), the view factor is
zero. Table 1.4 shows values of the emissivity of a variety of materials. Once again we find
that a wide range of characteristics are available to the designer who seeks to control heat
transfers.
The values quoted in the table are averages over a range of radiation wave-lengths. For most
materials. Considerable variations occur across the spectrum. Indeed, the surfaces used in solar
Collectors are chosen because they possess this characteristic to marked degree. The emissivity
depends on the temperature, with the consequence that the radiative heat transfer is not exactly
proportional to T3.
An ideal emitter and absorber is referred to as ‘black body’, while a surface with an emissivity
less than unity is referred to as ‘grey’. These somewhat misleading terms, for our interest here
in the infra-red spectrum rather than the visible part. The appearance of a surface to the eye
may not tell us much about its heat-absorbing characteristics.
Although it depends upon a difference in temperature, Boltzmann’s law(Equations 1.4, 1.5)

does not have the precise form of the laws for conductive and convective transfers.
Nevertheless, we can make the radiations laws look like the others. We introduce a radiative
heat transfer coefficient or radiative conductive conductance through
Comparison with developed form of the Boltzmann equation(1.5), plus a little algebra gives
If the temperature of the energy exchanging bodies are not different, this can be approximated
by
Where Tav is the average of the two temperatures.

Obviously, this simplification is not applicable to the case of solar radiation. However, the
temperatures of the walls, floor and ceiling of a room generally differ by only few degrees.
Hence the approximation given by equation (1.7) is adequate when transfers between are to be
calculated.
Example
Surface A in the figure is coated with white paint and is maintained at temperature of 200°C.
It is located directly opposite to surface B which can be considered a black body and is
maintained at temperature of 800°C. Calculate the amount of heat that needs to be removed
from surface A per unit area to maintain its constant temperature.
Solution
The two surfaces are assumed to be infinite close to each other that they are only exchanging
heat with each other. The view factor can be assumed to be 1
The heat gained by surface A by radiation from surface B can be computed from Equation 1.5
9.2.14. Summary
This chapter introduced some of the basic concepts of heat transfer and indicates their
significance in the context of engineering applications.
We have seen that heat transfer can occur by one of three modes, conduction, convection and
radiation. These often act together. We have also described the heat transfer in the three forms
using basic laws as follows:
Typical values of the relevant material properties and heat transfer coefficients have been
indicated for common used in engineering applications.
9.2.15. Multiple choice assessment
1. The units of heat flux are:
 Watts
 Joules
 Joules/m2
 Watts/m2
 Joules/Kg K
2. The units of thermal conductivity are:
 Watts/m2 K
 Joules
 Joules/m2
 Joules/ second meter K
 Joules/Kg K
3. The heat transfer coefficient is defined by the relationship
4. Which of these materials has the highest thermal conductivity

 Air
 Water
 Mild steel
 Titanium
 aluminum
5. Which of these materials has the lowest thermal conductivity
 Air
 Water
 Mild steel
 Titanium
 Aluminum
6. In which of these is free convection the dominant mechanism of heat transfer?
 Heat transfer to a piston head in a diesel engine combustion chamber
 Heat transfer from the inside of a fan cooled P.C
 Heat transfer to a solar heating panel
 Heat transfer on the inside of a central heating panel radiator
 Heat transfer on the outside of a central heating panel radiator
7. Which of these statements is not true?
 Conduction can occur in liquids
 Conduction only occur in solids
 Thermal radiation can travel through empty space
 Convection cannot occur in solids
 Gases do not absorb thermal radiation
8. What is the heat flow through a brick wall of area 10m2 , thickness 0.2m, k = 0.1W/Mk
with a surface temperature on one side of 20°C and 10°C on the other?
 50 Watts
 50 Joules
 50 Watts/m2
 200 Watts
 200 Watts/m2
9. The governing equations of fluid motion are known as:
 Maxwell’s equation
 C.F.D
 Reynolds - stress equations
 Lame’s equations
 Navier - stokes equations
10. A pipe of surface area 2m2 has a surface temperature of 100°C, the adjacent fluid is at
20°C, and the heat transfer coefficient acting between the two is 20W/m2 K. What is the
heat flow by convection?
 1600 W
 3200 W
 20 W
 40 W
 Zero
11. The value of the Stefan Boltzmann constant is:
 56.7 × 10-6 W/m2 K4
 56.7 × 10-9 W/m2 K4
 56.7 × 10-6 W/m2 K
 56.7 × 10-9 W/m2 K
 56.7 × 10-6 W/mK
12. Which of the following statements is true: Heat transfer by radiation….
 Only occurs in outer space
 Is negligible in free convection
 Is a fluid phenomenon and travels at the speed of fluid
 Is an acoustic phenomenon and travels at the speed of sound
 Is an electromagnetic phenomenon and travels at speed of light
13. Calculate the net thermal radiation heat transfer between two surfaces. Surface A, has
a temperature of 100°C and surface B 200°C. Assume they are sufficiently so that all
the radiation leaving A is intercepted by B and vice versa. Assume also black body
behavior.
 85 W
 85 W/m2
 1740 W
 1740 W/m2
 None of those
14. The different modes of heat transfer are:
 Forced convection, free convection and mixed convection

 Conduction, radiation, and convection
 Laminar and turbulent
 Evaporation, condensation and boiling
 Cryogenic, ambient and high temperature
15. Mixed convection referred to:
 Combined convection and radiation
 Combined convection and conduction
 Combined laminar and turbulent flow
 Combined forced and free convection
 Combined forced convection and conduction
16. The thermal diffusivity, α, is defined as:
9.2.8. One-dimensional steady-state conduction in radial geometries:

Pipes, pressure vessels and annular fins are engineering examples of radial systems. The
governing equation for steady-state one-dimensional conduction in a radial system is
Similarly since the heat flow Q=˗kA(dT/dr ), then for a length L(in the axial or ‘z’ direction)
the heat flow can be found from differentiating equation 2.20.
Write down equations for the heat flow Q (not the flux, q, as in plane systems, since in a radial
system the area is not constant, so q is not constant). For example, the heat flows through a
pipe wall with convection on the outside and convection on the inside:
Example 2.2
The figure below shows a cross section through an insulating heating pipe which is made from
steel (k = 45 W/mK) with an inner radius of 150mm and outer radius 155mm. the pipe is coated
with 100 mm thickness of insulation having thermal conductivity of k = 0.06 W/mk. Air at Ti
= 60°C flows through the pipe and the convective coefficient from the air to the inside of the
pipe has a value of hi = 35Wm2 K. The outside surface of the pipe is surrounded by air which
is 15°C and the convective heat transfer coefficient on this surface has a value of ho = 10
W/m2 K. Calculate the heat loss through 50 m of this pipe.
Solution
Unlike the plane wall, the heat flux is not constant (because the area varies with radius). So we
write down separate equations for the heat flow, Q.
Following the practice established for the plane wall, rewrite in terms of temperatures on the
left hand side and then add to eliminate the unknown values of temperature, giving
Again, the thermal resistance of the insulation is seen to be greater than either the steel or the
resistance due to convection.
Critical insulation radius
Adding more insulation to a pipe does not always guarantee a reduction in the heat loss. Adding
more insulation also increases surface area from which heat escapes. If the area increases more
than the thermal resistance then the heat loss is increased rather than decreased.
The so called critical insulation radius is the largest radius at which adding more insulation will
create an increase in the heat loss
10.1. Various methods used in disposing the assembly drawing and details on a drawing
sheet
The drawing sheets shown below illustrate the possible arrangement of an assembly drawing
and details of a tank.
Tank
Or
assembly Tank
assembly
It’s also possible to separate the details and the assembly drawing by disposing them on
two different sheets as shown below
Tank
And
assembly
10.2. Usual or important detail represented in a tank design

We can see on the drawings below some particular details to represent in tank design.
But it’s good to represent all possible details to ease the manufacturing.
10.3. Examples
This first method of representing details requires a chronological arrangement of the details
following the order of the letters of the alphabets. That is after detail A, detail B should
follow and so on and so forth.
Detail A
Detail A Detail B
Detail C Detail D
Detail E
Detail E Detail F
This second indicates easily the position of the details and helps the technicians to easily
identify the parts of the tank without matching the details to their positions.
10.4. Manhole opening design

The manhole as shown in the figure below with some of its component is a hole through
which the engineer or the technician can pass to enter in vessel for inspection. Must of the
times a manhole is provided on big capacity tanks.
10.4.1. Kinematic diagram of a man hole

The schematic diagram below show a manhole design
Hinge
Nut
Threaded rod
Cover support
Cover
Flange support
Fixed Flange
10.4.2. Links between the components

- Flange support / flange : fixed or embedded link (welding)
- Cover support / cover : fixed or embedded link (welding)
- Flange support / hinge : pivot link
- Hinge/ threaded rod : pivot runner link
- Threaded rod / nut : Helicoidal link
- Threaded rod / Cover support : pivot link
10.4.3. Representation of a constructive solution

The hinge is there to rotate the cover after the dismounting of all the bolts, the technician would not
have to put the cover down since it will systematically maintain by the hinge and other components.
Fixed flange
Bolt axis
Cover
handle
Mobile
cover Nuts
Hinge rotation axis

Hinge

Pressure Vessel Design Lecture Notes Final FF - Copie

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pressure Vessel Design Lecture Notes Final FF - Copie

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Steel storage design structure lecture notes- IUC of Douala - Welding and fabrication Technology- Bachelor of tech- mechanical

PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN

Mr. LIKANE M. Gabin

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 1

Chapter 8: Inlet and outlet design on a tank

Chapter 9: types of flanges

Chapter 1: Steel storage (tanks) function and nomenclature

1.3. Types of Steel storage tanks

Chapter 2: Nature and characteristics of fluids stored in a storage devices

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 2

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 3

5.3. Example of vertical tanks

5.8. Nomenclature of components used in tank design

5.12. Construction of the elliptical head of a tank

Chapter 6: Inlet and outlet design on a tank

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 4

7.2. Flanged Connections versus Welded Connections

7.5. Types of flanges

7.5.1. Welding neck flange

7.5.2. Slip On flange

7.5.3. Socket weld flange

7.5.5. Stub End

7.5.6. Threaded flange

7.5.7. Blind flange

7.6. Flange faces

7.6.1. Raised face (RF)

7.6.2. Flat face (FF)

7.6.3. Ring-type joint (RTJ)

7.6.4. Drawing symbol for flangesthe

Chapter 8: Storage capacity and weight of a tank

8.2. Mass of a tank

8.3. Density of fluids and metals

Chapter 9: Dimensioning of a tank with catalogues, strength of material and

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 5

9.1.2. Horizontal tanks support design

a) For diameter D in between 114.3 ≤ D ≤ 600

c) For diameter D in between 1700≤ D ≤ 2400

d) For diameter D in between 2500≤ D ≤ 3200

9.1.3. Vertical tank support design

a) Angle bars type supports design

9.2.1. Heat transfer modes

Chapter 10: Detail representations for the design of a tank

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 6

Chapter 1: Steel storage (tanks) function and nomenclature

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 7

Fig 1. Pressure vessel or tank been displaced

Fig 2. Classification of pressure vessels

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 8

1.3. Types of Steel storage tanks

Fig 4. Cylindrical pressure vessels

Fig 3. Spherical pressure vessels

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 9

Fig 6. Floating roof storage tank

Fig 5. Storage tank

Fig 7. Fixed roof storage tank

Fig 8. Horizontal pressure vessel or tank

Fig 9. Road storage tank

Fig 10. Underground storage tank

Fig 11. Horizontal pressure vessel with main parts

1.4. Designation and definitions of the elements of a pressure vessel.

LIKANE M. GABIN: Eng.-M.Sc.- Ph.D Student – MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING 12

MANHOLE HINGE SADDLE

HANDLE Figure 1: Part of a vertical tank SUPPORT