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BEST PRACTICES FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING FROM OPEN SURFACES

WITH STORAGE IN STRUCTURES

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BEST PRACTICES FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING FROM
OPEN SURFACES WITH STORAGE IN STRUCTURES

Nile Basin Initiative – NELSAP

Regional Agricultural Trade and Productivity Project (RATP)

Training Manual 2

By:
Bancy M. Mati

2012

i
 Best Practices for Rainwater Harvesting from
Open Surfaces with Storage in Structures

TRAINING MANUAL No. 2

Bancy M. Mati

2012

Citation
Mati, B.M. 2012. Best Practices for Rainwater Harvesting from Open Surfaces with Storage in Structures.
Training Manual 2. NBI/NELSAP - Regional Agricultural and Trade Programme (RATP),
Bujumbura, Burundi.

Illustrations and diagrams drawn by: Munene M. Muverethi

Contacts:
NELSAP/Regional Agricultural Trade and Productivity Project
Quartier Kigobe Sud, Kigobe Main Road, Plot No: 7532/C
P.O Box: 4949
Bujumbura- BURUNDI

i
About this Training Manual
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) is a partnership of the riparian states (Burundi, Democratic Republic
of Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, Eritrea is participating
actively in the NBI as an observer) that seeks to develop the river in a cooperative manner, share
substantial socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security through its shared
vision of “sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit
from, the common Nile Basin water resources”. NBI’s Strategic Action Program is made up of the
Shared Vision Program (SVP) and Subsidiary Action Programs (SAPs). The SAPs are mandated to initiate
concrete investments and action on the ground in the Eastern Nile (ENSAP) and Nile Equatorial Lakes
sub-basins (NELSAP).

NELSAP through its sub basin programs implements pre-investment programs in the areas of
power, trade and development and natural resources management. As part of its pre-investment
framework, the Regional Agricultural Trade and productivity Project (RATP), in concert with the
NELSAP, intends to promote and disseminate best practices on water harvesting and small scale
irrigation development as a contribution towards agricultural development in the NEL Countries.
NELSAP has previously implemented completed a project called Efficient Water Use for Agriculture
Project (EWUAP). One of the recommendations of EWUAP was the need to develop
Training/Dissemination materials on “adoption of low cost technologies for water storage, conveyance,
distribution, treatment and use for agriculture that can be adapted by communities and households of the rural and
peri-urban poor”. This Training Manual is the initiative of NELSAP, for that purpose.

This Training Manual summarizes the major components of water harvesting techniques practiced
using open surfaces as catchment areas, where surface flows are the predominant source of water. It
covers four specific technologies adaptable by smallholder farmers in the Nile Basin countries. These
are (i) roof catchments, (ii) underground tanks, (iii) pans and ponds, and (iv) rock catchments. For
each technology, the salient characteristics of the technology are described, as well as the planning,
design, construction, management operation and maintenance.

This manual is meant to improve the skills of engineers, technicians, extension workers, managers
and practitioners engaged in water harvesting, especially those working in smallholder agriculture in
Africa. It is meant to inform, educate, enhance knowledge and practice targeting smallholder
agricultural livelihoods in the NEL region. The information contained here may not be exhaustive
and thus, readers are encouraged to seek further information from references cited in this publication
and elsewhere.

Acknowledgements
The publication of this booklet was supported by the Nile Basin Initiative’s NELSAP-RATP. RATP
is a technical assistance project financed by the Canadian International Development Agency
(CIDA). The author wishes to thank all the institutions and individuals who provided
data/information for the publication of this manual. Special thanks to Francis Koome, Samuel
Mungai, Reuben Byomuhangi, Mary Kakinda, Jean Jacques Muhinda, Prime Ngabonziza, Maibo
Malesu, Innocent Ntabana and Gabriel Ndikumana. The views expressed here are not necessarily
those of CIDA, as the content is solely the responsibility of the author.

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Table of contents
About this Training Manual ........................................................................................................................................ ii
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Agriculture is constrained by water scarcity ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 What is water harvesting? ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Where to do RWH with storage structures ........................................................................................................... 2
1.4 The need for rainwater storage ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Main categories of RWH and storage systems ..................................................................................................... 3
1.6 Benefits of RWH and storage in structures .......................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Major constraints associated with RWH and storages ......................................................................................... 6
2. PLANNING WATER HARVESTING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS ............................................................. 8
2.1 Basic components of a RWH and storage system ................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 Rainwater harvesting potential ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.2 Types of catchment surfaces ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Determining water storage volume .................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Techniques for determining storage size ............................................................................................................ 12
2.4 Prevention/ control of common problems in storage structures ......................................................................... 13
2.5 Hygiene in Rainwater storages and uses ............................................................................................................ 14
2.5.1 Rainwater- quality standards ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.2 Treatment of stored rainwater ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.6 Operation and maintenance of RWH systems .................................................................................................... 15
2.7 Management of rainwater harvesting systems ................................................................................................... 16
3. ROOF WATER HARVESTING WITH ABOVE GROUND TANK ............................................................ 18
3.1 What is a roof catchment? .................................................................................................................................. 18
3.2 Advantages and limitations of roof water harvesting systems ............................................................................... 19
3.3 Types of surface tanks ........................................................................................................................................ 19
3.3.1 Ferrocement jars and tanks ........................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.2 Brick and block tanks .................................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.4 Metal tanks ................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.3.5 Plastic tanks .................................................................................................................................................. 21
3.3.6 Ready-made tanks ......................................................................................................................................... 21
3.3.7 Other tank types ........................................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Design of roof water harvesting systems .......................................................................................................... 22
3.4.1 Components of roof water harvesting systems .............................................................................................. 22
3.4.2 Design volume of a water tank ...................................................................................................................... 24
3.4.3 Selection of appropriate storage tank designs ................................................................................................ 25
3.4.4 Auxiliary structures ....................................................................................................................................... 28
3.5 Tank construction ............................................................................................................................................... 31
3.6 Hygiene and care of roof water catchment systems ........................................................................................... 35
3.7 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................................... 39
4. UNDERGROUND TANKS ............................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Ground Catchments and underground tanks ...................................................................................................... 40
4.1.1 Ground Catchments ..................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.2 What is an underground tank? ....................................................................................................................... 41
4.1.3 The case for underground tanks .................................................................................................................... 41
4.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of underground tanks .................................................................................... 42
4.2 Types of underground tanks ............................................................................................................................... 43
4.2.2 Rectangular lined tanks ................................................................................................................................. 43
4.2.3 Housed excavated tanks ................................................................................................................................ 44
4.2.4 Concrete (reinforced) underground tank ....................................................................................................... 44
4.2.5 Hemispherical tanks ...................................................................................................................................... 45
4.2.6 Spherical underground tank .......................................................................................................................... 45
4.2.7 Cylindrical tank ............................................................................................................................................. 46
4.2.8 Birkas............................................................................................................................................................ 46
4.2.9 Sausage tank.................................................................................................................................................. 47

iii
 4.2.10 Berkads ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.11 Partially below ground tank ......................................................................................................................... 48
4.3 Design of underground tanks ............................................................................................................................ 49
4.3.1 Major factors considered ............................................................................................................................... 49
4.3.2 Determining harvestable water.................................................................................................................... 51
4.3.3 Determination of storage capacity required ................................................................................................ 52
4.4 Construction of underground tank ...................................................................................................................... 53
4.4.1 Procedure ..................................................................................................................................................... 54
4.4.2 Choice of construction materials ................................................................................................................... 55
4.5 Seepage control methods in underground tanks ................................................................................................. 58
4.6 Water quality ...................................................................................................................................................... 60
4.7 Operation and maintenance ................................................................................................................................ 61
5. WATER PANS AND PONDS ............................................................................................................................... 62
5.1 What is a water storage pond?............................................................................................................................ 62
5.2 Advantages and limitations of ponds ................................................................................................................. 63
5.3 Types of ponds ................................................................................................................................................... 63
5.3.1 Pans .............................................................................................................................................................. 63
5.3.2 Ponds ........................................................................................................................................................... 64
5.3.3 Water holes ................................................................................................................................................... 64
5.3.4 Overnight water storage ponds ..................................................................................................................... 65
5.3.5 Charco Dams ................................................................................................................................................ 65
5.3.6 Percolation ponds ......................................................................................................................................... 67
5.3.7 Fish ponds .................................................................................................................................................... 67
5.3.8 Borrow pits ................................................................................................................................................... 68
5.4 Design of pans and ponds................................................................................................................................... 68
5.4.1 Components of storage ponds ...................................................................................................................... 68
5.4.2 Determining storage volume ......................................................................................................................... 69
5.4.3 Determining spillway dimensions ............................................................................................................... 70
6. ROCK CATCHMENTS ........................................................................................................................................ 72
6.1 What is a rock catchment? ................................................................................................................................. 72
6.2 Advantages of rock catchments .......................................................................................................................... 72
6.3 Limitations of rock catchment systems .............................................................................................................. 73
6.4 Design of rock catchment systems ..................................................................................................................... 73
6.4.1 Reservoir capacity ......................................................................................................................................... 73
6.4.2 Design features of water storage system ........................................................................................................ 74
6.4.3 Rock catchment conveyance systems ............................................................................................................ 74
6.5 Management and maintenance ........................................................................................................................... 75
7. SELECTED REFERENCES................................................................................................................................. 76

iv
Definition of Key Terms

Term Definition/Brief description

Aggregate The gravel or crushed stone normally used for making concrete
Aquaculture The farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and
aquatic plants. It consists of a flexible and adaptable set of technologies,
species and systems ranging from simple ponds receiving no inputs and
only infrequent stocking to massive, high tech, cage or raceway systems.
ASAL Arid and semi-arid lands
Bentonite A clay type that has a high swell to shrink ratio. It is fine-textured colloidal
clay, when wet; absorbs water several times greater than its own weight
and, at complete saturation, swells to as much as 8 to 15 times its original
volume.
Blue water The proportion of rainfall which flows on or beneath soil surface to
accumulate in rivers, streams, springs, swamps, lakes, ground water,
aquifers or into storage structures such as dam, ponds and tanks, and
which is extractable as liquid fresh water.
Cement mortar Binding agent is composed of cement, sand and water used in construction
Cistern A small underground tank of about 10 to 500 m3 capacity that is used to
store water, particularly from rainfall harvesting.
Clay mud A mixture of clay soil and water (thick mud) so that it can be pasted to the
tank wall/surface for lowering seepage.
Concrete A mixture of cement, sand, gravel or crushed stone and water used for
construction.
Curing The action of applying water to structures under construction so that the
cement and concrete works can get strong as it dries.
Evaporation The amount of water that leaves a water surface or land as vapor.
Evaporation can be beneficial or non-beneficial. Non-beneficial
evaporation includes that from open water bodies (tanks, ponds,
reservoirs, canals) and from bare soil.
Excavated tank A structure on or near land surface used to impound water, and of which
part of the storage is below ground level. The term includes other small
water-impounding structures such as farm pond.
Geo-membrane A flexible membrane, polyethylene, vinyl and butyl rubber that can be used
to prevent seepage when properly installed and used in water storage
structures such as dams, pans and tanks.
Green water The proportion of infiltrated rainfall stored in the soil profile that is
available for root water uptake by plants. It includes water expended in
evaporation, interception and transpiration and constitutes the main water
resource used in rainfed agriculture.
Hillside dam An excavated tank or pond constructed on sloping land
Maximum The volume of water held when the water surface is at the top of the dam
impoundment capacity crest.
Non renewable Water which is not renewed by precipitation on a human time scale e.g.

v
resources fossil waters.
Overtopping Water flowing over the crest of a dam due to inadequate spillways.
Percolation Movement of water downward through the pores of the soil.
Percolation ponds Ponds excavated to hold runoff water and increase groundwater recharge.
They may also be used for livestock watering.
Portable water Water which is fit for consumption by humans and other animals. It is also
called drinking water, in a reference to its intended use. Water may be
naturally potable, as is the case with pristine springs, or it may need to be
treated in order to be safe.
Reservoir A large body of water impounded within a constructed retaining structure,
such as a dam, weir, pond or pan.
Rock catchment A rock surface which is used for rainwater harvesting. The term is inclusive
of the rock itself as well as other structures constructed to facilitate water
collection, storage and supply (e.g. dam, tank, pipe)
Roof catchment The surface of a roof used for rainwater harvesting. The term is inclusive
other structures that facilitate water collection, storage and supply from a
roof (e.g. tank, pipes, gutters, taps, filters, flushing gadgets)
Runoff Water that flows away from a catchment after falling on its surface in the
form of rain.
Silt Sediment made up of fine particles carried or laid down by moving water.
Siltation The action of accumulation of soil, gravel and other colloidal matters in
rainwater harvesting structures
Spillway A conduit or channel built on a dam and designed to pass water from the
upstream to the downstream side of a dam. Flood water is drained from a
dam through spillways.
Spillway design flood The largest flow that a given project is designed to pass safely.
Underground tank A tank whose reservoir is below ground.
Vinyl An organic compound that contains a vinyl group and is commonly known
as plastic
Water harvesting Activities where water from rainfall and/or surface runoff is collected,
diverted, stored and utilized.
Water management The regulation, control, conservation, harvesting and use of water for
agriculture. It includes efficient or economical utilization of available water
for agriculture and other purposes.
Water withdrawal The gross amount of water extracted from any source, either permanently
or temporarily, for a given use, including irrigation. It can be either diverted
towards distribution networks or directly used.

vi
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Agriculture is constrained by water scarcity
There are vast areas in Africa with agricultural potential, but crop production is constrained by
unreliable weather and/or limited water resources. These areas are variously known as drylands or
ASALs (arid and semi-arid lands). In these zones, rainfall is low, unreliable and concentrated within a
few days or weeks, with the remaining period tending to be relatively or absolutely dry. High
temperatures cause much of the rainfall to be lost through evaporation, and the intensity of storms
further causes excessive surface runoff or floods. Aridity and variability are two dominant
characteristics of dryland climate and several classifications based on aridity have been developed.
The surface water resources are scattered and highly ephemeral, while ground water may be too
expensive to exploit or of poor quality. Thus, water scarcity and poor quality are common realities.
In addition, crop failures are common, while livestock has been decimated in some areas by drought.

Drylands pose great constraints to crop production. Yields vary enormously from year to year, and
crops frequently fail. Soil fertility, weed infestation and pest incidence fluctuate from place to place.
For the farmers it is extremely difficult to plan ahead, and cropping is very risky. Crops are grown
under rainfed conditions, different traditional forms of water harvesting and flood irrigation, as well
as modern irrigation techniques. The risks of environmental damage are generally larger under crop
farming than under pastoral conditions.

Figure 1.1 (b) Typical flooding during the rainy (b) Crops wither before yielding as the
season in a semi-arid area (Photos by B. Mati) rains disappear and dry spells set in

Generally, efforts towards improving dryland farming can be focused on the following aspects; (i)
Runoff farming techniques (see Training Manual 1), (iii) Irrigation technologies see Training Manual 7), (iii)
water harvesting in rivers and valleys (see Training Manual 3); (iv) Soil and water conservation (see
Training Manual 4); Management of soil water and fertility (see Training Manual 5); (v) Water harvesting
from open surfaces and storage in its portable form to be used for various uses including agriculture
– which is the focus of this Training manual-2.

1
1.2 What is water harvesting?
Water harvesting (WH)) encompasses all activities where water is collected, stored and utilized in
either the blue or green form. It includes harvesting rainfall directly, as well as floodwater
harvesting (see also rainwater harvesting, flood farming). It is achieved in many ways, and the
water can be stored in tanks, ponds, and dams or channeled into the soil profile. Therefore, water
harvesting (WH) is a general term that encompasses rainwater harvesting and/or floodwater
harvesting.

Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the collection of rainfall runoff from various sources such as roofs,
the ground surface, rocks, valleys, water sources or other surfaces and its storage in structures
such as tanks, dams, rock catchments, to provide water for domestic use, livestock, commercial
purposes or supplemental irrigation. The term also includes flood water harvesting as well as water
stored within the soil profile as “green water” (see Training Manual 1).
This Manual is concerned only with the water harvested from open surfaces and stored in structures
or “blue water”, which is the component of rainwater that is harvested and directed into some type
of storage reservoir.

1.3 Where to do RWH with storage structures

Rainwater harvesting techniques can be applicable in all agro climatic zones. However, it is more
suitable in arid and semi-arid areas. These are areas of average annual rainfall of 200-800mm (rarely
exceeding 800 mm) and average temperatures exceed 180C. The rainfall may come in one or two
season. In such an environment, rain fed crop production is usually difficult without some form of
rainwater harvesting. Generally, RWH can be applicable in the following circumstances:
• In ASAL areas, where the potential for crop production is diminishing, due to environmental
degradation. Providing water to these areas through rainwater harvesting can improve the
vegetative cover and enhance resource conservation.
• In the area where other permanent water sources like rivers, springs etc are not available or
uneconomical to develop and use them.
• In dry environment, where low and poorly distributed rainfall normally makes agricultural
production impossible.
• In rain fed areas where crops can be produced, but with low yield and with high risk of failure.
• Where water supply, for domestic and animals is not sufficient.

1.4 The need for rainwater storage

The intended use of harvested water is the most important determinant of whether storage is
necessary or not. RWH and storage is ideal in areas where there is sufficient rain but inadequate
ground water supply and surface water resources are either lacking or are insufficient. In hilly areas,
rainwater can be used by humans, vegetation and animals.

2
The rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the ground water to
improve the quality of ground water and rise in the water levels in wells and bore wells that are
drying up as well as reduce the soil erosion as the surface runoff is reduced.

Storage of rainwater is particularly useful in remote and difficult terrain as it has the ability to operate
independently. The whole process is environment friendly. There are a number of ways in which
water harvesting can benefit a community – water harvesting enables efficient collection and storage
of rainwater, makes it accessible and substitutes for poor quality water.

The type of use where storage is necessary, is in supplemental irrigation of high value crops. Finally,
storage, other than in the soil may be required for arable crops. In most cases, storage outside the
growth medium is not necessary for land conservation, range development, forestry or ground water
recharge. Another determinant of the need for storage is the frequency of rainfall. If the rain is
received over a very short period and rainstorms are interspersed by long dry spells, then storage of
the harvested water becomes important even for trees and arable crops.

Rainwater storage provides water at home or close to households. It reduces the burden, especially
on women and girls, of fetching water from long distances. In some cases, rainwater provides better
quality water - hence improve health (rainwater is usually cleaner, free of pathogens and harmful
minerals). RWH provides opportunity to utilize a “free” resource (rainwater) that is available only at
rare times of the year.

By storing water, there is reduced runoff losses and thus soil erosion is curbed. Storages help to
mitigate against natural disasters such as drought and floods, by storage of rainwater. Rainwater
harvesting at catchment level protects dams from siltation. In general, stored rainwater facilitates
poverty reduction and food security, as it can be used for supplemental irrigation, livestock watering
or other commercial uses.

1.5 Main categories of RWH and storage systems

There are many ways of harvesting water and storing rainwater in various structures as “blue water”,
meaning water that can be retrieved in its liquid form and sued for various uses, including agriculture.
But RWH and storage systems are categorized according to (i) source of runoff, (ii) water storage
methods, (iii) types of storage structures, and (iv) based on the purpose for which the water is used,
and (v) according to regime. These are briefly described as follows:

(i) Based on sources of runoff, RWH systems basically fall under three main categories:
• Surface water collection
• Ground water collection
• Augmentation of ground water recharge

(ii) Based on storage methods, three broad categories of rainwater storage facilities are:
• Surface tanks or above ground tanks;
• Sub-surface tanks or underground tanks; and

3
 • Dammed reservoirs and ponds
The water storage facilities constitute the most expensive component of a RWH system, determining
the extent of the direct use of rainwater. For example surface tanks account for up to 90% of the
costs of roof rain water harvesting systems. It is therefore necessary to pay due attention to the
selection/design and construction of reservoirs, always keeping in mind cost aspects along with other
considerations.

(iii) Based on type of storage structure, several classifications exist and sub-categories. The selection
and design criteria are described in the next chapters, but can be simplified as shown in figure
1.2. Generally, the most commonly used structures for storage of harvested rainwater include
the following:
• Surface/above ground tanks
• Underground tanks
• Ponds and pans
• Earth dams,
• Small weirs
• Subsurface dams
• Sand dams,
• Rock catchments
• RWH for recharging ground water

RAINFALL

Runoff harvesting
Rainwater harvesting

Surface Rock Underground

tank catchment tank
Sand/subsurface Pans, Earth
dams Ponds dams

Supplemental
irrigation

Flood water Spate Runoff

harvesting irrigation farming

Figure 1.2. Overview of types of rainwater harvesting storage systems

4
(iv) RWH systems can be classified according to the purpose for which the water is being collected.
These include domestic use water supplies, water for livestock, and water for crop
production/irrigation, flood control or aesthetic purposes.

(v) Rainwater management systems can be further classified by regime as follows:

• Occasional—Rainwater is stored in small containers for only a few days. Suitable where
rainfall is regular—very few days without rain—and where there is a reliable alternative water
source nearby.
• Intermittent—Used in situations with one long rainy season when all water demands are met
by rainwater. However, during the dry season, water is collected from wells, springs and
streams.
• Partial—In normal seasons, rain is used directly or water is drawn from other source such as
wells, springs and streams.
• Full—Rainwater provides water for all purposes throughout normal seasons.
Usually, there is no alternative source of water. In these cases the available water should be well
managed and enough stored to bridge the dry period.

1.6 Benefits of RWH and storage in structures

RWH has certain merits over surface and ground sources that can make it play a real role in
providing total or partial/complementary water supply for urban/domestic and agricultural
purposes. It provides a long-term solution to the problem of water scarcity.

Rainwater is available nearly everywhere, is relatively clean needing only rudimentary treatment, and
depending upon situations and the technology used it can also be cheaper.

Water harvesting helps smooth out variation in water availability by collecting the rain and storing it
more efficiently in closed stores or in sandy riverbeds. In doing so, water harvesting assures a
continuous and reliable access to water. A water harvesting system collects and stores water within
accessible distance of its place of use. While traditional sources are located away from the community
particularly in peri-urban areas, collecting and storing water close to households, villages or pastures
greatly enhances the accessibility and convenience of water supplies.

Harvested rain water, in most cases, does not need pumping; also, it does not need to be transported
unless the user is located away.

RWH schemes are simple and render themselves easily to individual/decentralized ownership and
management by households and communities.

Water harvesting provides an alternative source for good quality water (rainwater is the cheapest
form of raw water) seasonally or even the year round. This is relevant for areas where ground water
or surface water is contaminated by harmful chemicals or pathogenic bacteria or pesticides and/or in
areas with saline surface water. The rainwater harvesting systems can be both individual and

5
community/utility operated and managed. For poor communities, especially where other water
resources are either scarce or polluted, water harvesting offers an alternative source of water.

The operation and maintenance of domestic RWH systems is also relatively simple. The real
limitation of domestic RWH systems is that the unit costs of water storage tanks per user or per unit
volume of water they produce per season is comparatively high, limiting their capacity to harvest
plentiful rainwater and forcing them to play mostly complementary roles. There are however
ongoing researches aimed at reducing particularly the costs of storage facilities. There has been quite
some progress made in this respect.

Rainwater collected using various methods has less negative environmental impacts compared to
other technologies for water resources development. The physical and chemical properties of
rainwater are usually superior to sources of ground water that may have been subjected to
contamination. Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually acceptable for many purposes
with little or even no treatment.

Rainwater harvesting technologies are flexible and can be built to meet almost any requirements.
Construction, operation, and maintenance are not labour intensive. Predictions regarding global
warming could have a major effect in significantly increasing water demand in many cities. At the
same time increased evaporation from reservoirs and reduced river flows in some areas may decrease
the available surface water supplies. A greater uncertainty regarding yields from major reservoirs and
well fields is likely to make investments in the diversification of water sources, better water
management and water conservation even more prudent in future.

Rainwater systems are decentralised and independent of topography and geology. They deliver water
directly to the household, relieving the burden of water carrying, particularly from women and
children. Implementation is similar to managing the installation of on-site sanitation and once
systems are in-place they are owned by the householders who can then manage their own water
supply.

The role of rainwater harvesting systems as sources of supplementary, back-up, or emergency water
supply will become more important especially in view of increased climate variability and the
possibility of greater frequencies of droughts and floods in many areas. This will particularly be the
case in areas where increasing pressure is put on existing water resources.

1.7 Major constraints associated with RWH and storages

Despite the many advantages of RWH and storage, there are several limitations that hamper the
implementation and management of water harvesting initiatives. These include:

Project scale – RWH projects tend to be small scale in nature which is unattractive where large
quantities of water are needed or in high density population areas.

6
Locality – RWH systems tend to be localized especially surface storage systems e.g. small dams, rock
catchments, as their locality is determined by site suitability, and these can be far from users.

Cost – RWH storage and auxiliary works can be expensive, requiring professional designs by
engineers, purchase of materials and construction costs especially in community scale projects, or
where concrete and other materials have to be purchased. In addition, operating, maintenance and
repair costs of the storage structure, which include labour, spare parts, transport and desilting can be
quite high.

Seepage losses – sometimes pose problems in RWH storage structures. This is particularly problematic
in unlined surface ponds and tanks and earth dams. Seepage control materials and works can be
prohibitively expensive.

Poor workmanship - low quality construction materials and failure to follow the right procedures during
construction is a common problem since many RWH structures are designed and constructed by
technicians or local communities lacking adequate knowledge.

High evaporation losses – affect many RWH storage structures especially open pans, tanks and dams.
This is particularly a problem since most RWH storages are located in hot areas.

Siltation Problems – are common in RWH storages as they collect and store water during and after
intense rainfall events, which tend to carry large volumes of silt.

Limited Technical Capacity – of the personnel, artisans and communities implementing RWH projects.
This hampers proper site selection, construction, operation and maintenance of RWH structures as
well as their maintenance.

Socio-economic constraints - such as land ownership where the storage structure would be best suited,
cultural values and community mobilization issues can hamper the development and/or management
of water harvesting and storage.

7
2. PLANNING WATER HARVESTING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS

2.1 Basic components of a RWH and storage system

Rainwater harvesting systems are orderly schemes in which organized components and techniques
harness and make rainwater available for human consumption and environmental conservation.
Thus, the planning and design of rainwater harvesting and storage in various structures should be
based on water supply for multiple uses. This is because communities in the target areas may use the
water not only to grow crops, but also for domestic use, livestock watering, as well as industrial and
commercial purposes.

Thus, a good quality RWH system is planned to provide communities with access to an on-site water
supply, if possible at home, or near their homesteads, or at locality that is easy to access. Ideally, the
RWH collection system should involve basic construction techniques, be inexpensive to maintain,
and have a long functional life span. If the system is designed well, it should provide a good safe
source of water at a relatively low cost when compared to the conventional methods such as river
diversion or ground water pumping.

In order to determine whether or not rainwater catchment systems are an appropriate choice of
water supply in any given situation it is necessary to estimate the potential rainwater yield to check
that it can meet the required demand. The reliability of the systems along with technical, socio-
economic and environmental considerations must be compared with all alternative forms of supply.

Rainwater catchment system consists of a number of components. These include:

Rainfall potential (in amounts and intensities to generate runoff)

A catchment surface where the rainwater runoff is collected

A storage reservoir where the rainwater is stored until required

A delivery system for transporting the water from the catchment to the storage reservoir e.g.
delivery pipes, gutters or drains, down pipes

Extraction device to take the water from the reservoir e.g. piping, a tap, bucket, or pump.

Other auxiliary structures such as filters, sedimentation basins, foul flush systems, covers,
spillways and safety features.

2.1.1 Rainwater harvesting potential

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater
endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water
harvesting potential. Among the several factors that influence the rainwater harvesting potential of a
site, climatic conditions specially rainfall and the catchment characteristics are considered to be the
most important.

Rainfall Characteristics
The amount of water that can be harvested depends on the rainfall amounts, seasonal patterns and
intensities. Thus rainwater can be harvested in both wet and dry zones, and actually, it should be

8
more cost-effective in the wet areas where structures can be made smaller. In the arid, semi-arid or
sub-humid zones rainfall is characterized by low amounts of up to 700mm per annum. Further, it is
erratic with periodic droughts and unreliable patterns. Inter-annual rainfall varies from 50-100% in
the arid zones with averages of up to 350 mm. In the semi-arid zones, inter-annual rainfall varies
from 20-50% with averages of up to 700 mm. Thus it is necessary to gather rainfall data and its
characteristics.

Rainfall data
In order to determine the potential rainwater supply for a given catchment, reliable rainfall data are
required preferably for a given period of at least 10 years. Ideally if accurate local historic rainfall
data for the past few decades are available a 20 or 30-year rainfall series is preferable especially in
drought prone climates.

Water Demand
Water demand is the volume of water requested by users to satisfy their needs. A simplistic
interpretation considers that water demand equals water consumption. However, conceptually, the
two terms cannot be equated because, in some cases, especially in rural parts of Africa, the
theoretical water demand considerably exceeds actual consumptive water use.

2.1.2 Types of catchment surfaces

A catchment surface is the part of a RWH system that receives rainfall and drains the water into a
storage facility through a conveyance system. The size of a catchment surface varies from simple
roof tops to bigger systems where large catchments drain water to dammed reservoirs from which
water is either gravitated or pumped to treatment plants.

Generally, the desirable characteristics of a good catchment includes impermeability in order to be

able to generate adequate runoff and some slope to direct flow to the storage structure. Another
important requirement of catchments is that they should not contaminate water seriously with
dangerous chemicals or micro organisms.

There are many types of catchment surfaces, such as roofs, rocky areas, hillsides, roads, home
compounds, built up areas, open grasslands and valleys. Generally, water harvesting at household
level makes use of roof catchments, with the storage being a tank located within the home
compound.

Ground catchment system is a general term describing all systems, which use the ground surface as a
catchment area. These include natural, treated and covered surfaces. Cement or tarmac covered
surfaces such as roads, runways, pavements, car parks and courtyards. Ground catchment systems
are cheaper than roof catchments and are normally employed where suitable roof surfaces are not
available. The main advantage of the ground catchment surface is that water can be collected from a
larger area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall. The main disadvantage is that
the water supply can easily become contaminated and since it can only be stored below the surface it
is generally less convenient to withdraw.

9
Roads, paths, railway lines and other paved surfaces provide catchments which can also be used
for RWH. The runoff coefficient for such surfaces is quite high and the water can be diverted and
stored using simple diversion structures directing surface water into underground tanks, pans,
ponds, check-dams and other storages. The water so stored can be used for livestock watering or
supplemental irrigation of crops. There is huge potential for RWH from road surfaces since the
catchments can be relatively large. Catchments for water harvesting can also be created artificially,
such as paved areas, concrete surfaces, plastic sheet coverings or treated ground surfaces. The
material used for paving should not contaminate the water.

Figure 2.1 (a) A rock catchment (b) Paved artificial catchment

with earth dam (Source: Seifu, 2011) with underground tank

Dew, snow and fog collection systems: Rainwater probably accounts for more than 99% of all
precipitation harvested directly for domestic use. Nevertheless, dew fog and snow are also harvested
and in certain arid localities provide essential sources of water.

2.2 Determining water storage volume

The volume of rainwater that can be harvested over a given period depends upon the amount of
rainfall in that period, the catchment area and the runoff coefficient (Figure 2.2). The characteristics
of the catchment area determine the storage conditions. Rainwater yield varies with the size and
texture of the catchment area. All calculations relating to the performance of rainwater catchment
systems involve the use of a runoff coefficient to account for losses due to spillage, leakage,
infiltration, catchment surface wetting and evaporation, which will all, contribute to reducing the
amount of runoff. This is determined as follows:

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Runoff coefficient

or
Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Collection efficiency

10
The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot be
effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. Factors like runoff coefficient.

Figure 2.2 Illustration of water requirement in rainwater harvesting (Source: MoANR-2011)

MoANR

Runoff Coefficient
Runoff coefficient is the factor which accounts for the fact that all the rainfall falling on a catchment
cannot be collected. Some rainfall will be lost from the catchment by evaporation and retention on
the surface itself. The Runoff coefficient (Cr), forr any catchment is the ratio of the volume of water that
runs off a surface to the volume of rainfall that falls on the surface. It is calculated as follows:
Runoff coefficient (Cr) = Volume of runoff/volume of rainfall
The Runoff coefficient accounts for losses associated with leakage, evaporation and overflow for a
roof catchment system. It is normally taken to be 0.8 for metal roofs, but can have higher values if
the roofs and gutters are well constructed. It has lower values for most other types of roofing
material. For natural ground catchments, it is less than 0.3 and actual figures depend on various
characteristics of the catchment. Some typical values are given in table 2.1

Table-2.1
2.1 Runoff Coefficients for Various Catchment Surfaces
Type of Catchment Runoff Coefficient (Cr)
Roof Catchments
Corrugated metal sheets 0.7-0.9
Tiles 0.8-0.9
Ground Surface Covering
Concrete 0.6-0.8
Brick pavement 0.5-0.6
Untreated (Natural) Ground Catchments
Soil on slope less than 10% 0.0-0.3
Rocky natural catchments 0.2-0.5
Green area 0.05-0.1
Source: Source: (Pacey and Cullis 1989
1989)

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2.3 Techniques for determining storage size
Water storage capacity is required to balance out the differences between rainwater supply and
household demand. If rainwater supply exceeds demand in any given month, storage is needed to
allow this water to be carried over and use in a future month when demand exceeds supply.

Dry-season demand versus supply

This is the simplest approach to system design but is relevant only in areas where distinct dry seasons
exist. In this approach the tank is designed to accommodate the necessary water demand throughout
the dry season. The dry season is taken as the period during which there is no rainfall. Thus if the
daily household water demand is 100 litres and the dry season lasts for 120 days a storage structure
with a capacity of at least 12,000 litres would be required. This method is easy to calculate and
provides a rough estimate of storage volume requirements. However, it does not take into account:
(i) variations between different years,
(ii) rainfall input, or
(iii) capacity of the catchment to deliver the runoff necessary to fill the storage structure.

This technique has some advantages. It can be used in the absence of any rainfall data and is easily
understandable by the layperson. These points are especially relevant when designing systems in
remote areas where obtaining reliable rainfall data may be unavailable.

Graphical method
In this approach, the basic steps that have to be followed are:
• Plot a bar graph of mean monthly roof runoff
• Plot a cumulative roof-runoff graph by summing the monthly runoff totals
• Add a dotted line showing cumulative water use.
The storage volume needed is equivalent to the greatest differences between the available rainfall
supply and consumption/water demand.

Statistical methods
A number of statistical methods have been developed which can be used in combination with other
methods such as mass curve analysis to determine the reliability of supply or in other words the
probability of system failure. By applying standard statistical techniques the minimum rainfall with a
given probability can be determined for the various time periods. If the cumulative minimum rainfall
values are plotted against time a mass curve can be derived and mass curve analysis conducted

Computer based methods

The use of computer-based models allows great flexibility when producing output for system design
since the model can be tailored to any particular system under given rainfall conditions. The format
of the output can also be customized to requirements and the performance of specific designs
simulated under various demand scenarios.

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Rainwater Conveyance Systems
Rain water conveyance systems are components of a RWH system that collect water from catchment
surfaces and transport it to the inlets of storage facilities. Each type of rainwater catchment has a
conveyance system that is appropriate to the specific type of RWH system.

2.4 Prevention/ control of common problems in storage structures

Water-borne diseases
Rainwater storages usually hold stagnant water which can attract various pathogen, disease vectors
and pollution. For instance, mosquitoes breed in rainwater storages and they are vectors of serious
diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever and filariasis. Careful use of the water is also
necessary. For instance, reservoirs constructed for storing domestic water should not be used by
livestock unless off-take facilities are provided. The livestock can contaminate the water with
zoonotic diseases and dip chemicals. In addition, if high levels of nitrates e.g. as fertilizer effluents
should not be allowed into reservoirs as the cause pollution.

Several approaches to mosquito control have been tried with some success. These include the
addition of small amounts (5ml per 1000 litres) of domestic kerosene, and various forms of
biological control such as using fish and dragonfly larvae to consume mosquito larvae. Although
insecticides are sometimes sprayed on open water breeding sites, these should not be applied to
rainwater stored for consumption.

Cracking
The development of cracks in any form of water retaining structure can have serious repercussions.
This happens in concrete structures and may be caused by poor concrete mixes, bad workmanship
and incompatibilities between the phases of cement paste, sand and reinforcement, during
construction. It may also be due to fatigue caused by repeated loading, or induced stress caused by
shrinkage.

Evaporation
Large quantities of water are lost from storage structures through evaporation. However, there are
methods for controlling evaporation. They include a good design or site selection for surface
reservoirs, whereby the ratio of storage volume to surface area is optimized. An alternative is to
divide the reservoir into two or more compartments. If the storage is small, it can be covered with a
roofing material or shaded to protect the water surface from wind and direct sun thus reducing
evaporation. It is possible to reduce the rate of evaporation by 50% through a combination of wind
breaking and shading. Bush rafts built using logs, tree branches and twigs are good covers. They are
easy to make and will cost appreciably less as compared to other means such as netting or plastic
films.

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Seepage
Water stored in either surface or sub-surface structures may leak or be subject to seepage. Seepage
through the wall increases the risk of breaking and failure of the wall. The main factors contributing
to this problem are the soil type and the amount of compaction of the embankment. This can be
prevented by careful selection of the site for the structure. Sites with sand or gravel should be
avoided. Seepage can be reduced by compacting the ground prior to filling with heavy equipment.
This is achieved by covering the reservoir bed with a 10 to 20 cm thick clay layer, then compacting it
either manually, with machinery or using animals. Seepage can also be reduced by including an
impervious core in the structure. The reservoir can be lined with concrete, thick plastic film, clay
grouting or other impervious material to reduce seepage.

Siltation
Siltation is caused by various factors including cultivation and poor land use in the catchment. The
design of the structure can also contribute to siltation. It is important to make a good estimate of the
sediment load in the water to be harvested. A factor called sediment trap efficiency of the reservoir
can then be used to predict siltation rate. This data is necessary for designing dead storage and for
estimating the life span of the reservoir. Silt accumulation in a reservoir can be reduced by careful
site selection to avoid highly erodible areas. Also, sediment traps should be constructed at the entry
point of runoff into the structure.

2.5 Hygiene in Rainwater storages and uses

2.5.1 Rainwater- quality standards

It is normally recommended that international standards e.g. WHO standards, should be achievable
for harvested rain water, but the rules are usually made less stringent in tropical regions and
developing countries. Faecal coliform counts are the most appropriate indicator of cistern water
quality and the following three-tier classification is suggested as a useful guide to cistern water quality
originating from rooftop runoff:

Class I 0: faecal coliforms/100ml

Class II 1-10: faecal coliforms/100ml
Class III > 10: faecal coliforms/100ml
In this classification, Class I represents the highest and ideal water quality, Class II represents water
unacceptable for drinking purposes

It has been postulated that another possible cause of adverse health conditions associated with the
exclusive use of rainwater may result from its low mineral content. Although there is some debate
over whether or not all mineral requirements can be met from dietary sources alone. Minerals in
drinking water may make a significant contribution. Russian studies have shown that drinking
distilled or weakly mineralized, desalinated water may result in adverse health conditions. Such as
increased urinary excretion. The possibility of similar effects from prolonged exclusive consumption
of rainwater deserve further investigation.

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2.5.2 Treatment of stored rainwater
While rainwater quality will not always match WHO or national drinking water standards when
compared with most unprotected, traditional water sources rainwater from well-maintained roof
catchments usually represents a considerable improvement and is generally safe to drink without
treatment.
• Rainwater from ground catchment systems is not recommended for drinking unless first boiled
or treated.
• Except in heavily urbanized and industrialized areas or regions adjacent to active volcanoes,
atmospheric rainwater is very pure and any contamination of the water usually occurs after
contact with the catchment.
• The chemical and physical quality of stored rainwater is normally high. Care should be taken to
avoid any possible sources of lead or other heavy metals e.g. from lead-based roof paints.
• A degree of chemical and microbiological contamination of roof rainwater runoff is inevitable,
but this will not generally cause a problem if the roof gutters and storage tank are properly
maintained and regularly cleaned and inspected.
• Reports of disease outbreaks linked to roof water sources are rare. A few cases of gastrointestinal
illness linked to large quantities of bird or animal droppings on the roof have been reported and
appropriate measures should be taken to reduce any risks.
• Rainwater tanks can provide breeding sites for mosquitoes, which in some areas act as vectors
for diseases such as dengue fever, yellow fever and malaria. It is therefore essential that any
openings to the tank are fully screened.
• To protect water quality good system design operation and maintenance are essential. Water
quality will generally improve during storage provided light and living organisms are excluded
from the tank, and fresh inflows do not stir up any sediment.
• The use of filters and foul flush diverts can further improve the rainwater quality. Further
treatment through boiling exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet radiation and chlorination can be
undertaken if there are concerns over the water quality.

2.6 Operation and maintenance of RWH systems

Proper operation and maintenance of RWH infrastructure is an important part for the success of the
system. It affects the efficiency, effectiveness and durability of the structures and ensures water is
available and utilized as planned. Proper maintenance is an important aspect in the management of
RWH systems and needs to include, among others, the following activities.
• Inspection, regular cleaning and minor repair of the whole RWH system: the catchment, the
conveyance, the tank and the various tank components such as tap.
• Removal of branches of trees over hanging on roofs. Not only leaves and debris, but also the
droppings of birds and small animals contaminate rainwater. Dust and other such dirt also
need to be cleaned regularly from the catchment/roof.
• Cleaning and minor repair of the conveyance system (gutters and downpipes/gutters) at least
once a year;

15
 • Inspection of water quality in the tank, testing from time to time and treating/disinfecting
regularly.
• There should be no opening that allows small animals to enter into the storage structure; it is
therefore necessary to inspect, clean and repair/replace screens and filters. Screens and filters
unless cleaned regularly can themselves be a source of water contamination.
• Clean/wash-out accumulated sediment and sludge when necessary; take the opportunity to
clean the tank when it is empty.
• There should be no tree growing within 10 m from the tank to protect the foundation from
damage/crack by roots searching for moisture underneath.
• Dispose of safely runoff and/or ponding water around the tank as this may damage the tank
or bring health risks.
• Inspect regularly the amount of water in the tank, and compare with demand and abstraction
rates.
• Inspect and maintain/repair/replace water taps.

2.7 Management of rainwater harvesting systems

Once a rainwater harvesting system is planned and designed properly, and built with good
construction material and workmanship, it is ready to provide the services expected and aimed at
meeting the objectives set for it in a sustainable manner. This however requires certain arrangement
in terms of putting in place a management system/mechanism that is capable of ensuring the proper
operation, maintenance and repair of the RWH system. This is necessary not only for RWH systems,
but for any development work and infrastructure.

Whenever possible, the management of RWH systems is done by the users themselves, unlike design
and construction which in many cases are initiated and implemented by qualified professionals. The
users of RWH systems could be individual households, institutions such as schools, or communities
for whom the RWH systems are built for communal use. In case where a household individually
owns and uses a RWH system, the management is straight forward; the household itself assumes the
direct individual responsibility. In cases where a system is owned by an institution, usually a work
unit that provides general services or a person/committee is entrusted with the task. In RWH
systems that are built for communal use by a community, a water users committee is elected for the
management with a trained technician/tap attendant assigned for the day to day work.

The communal management of RWH systems is generally more difficult and complicated owing to
the communal nature of ownership. It is therefore important that bylaws are developed for such
systems with clear guidelines for their management. It would also be useful if the management have
links with organizations that are capable and willing to extend support in situations where external
assistance needed. The guidelines/bylaws to be prepared for the management of RWH systems need
to lay out clear duties and responsibilities in respect of the following items.
• The management arrangement/system and responsibilities,
• Physical safety and protection of the RWH system,

16
 • Maintenance and control of water quality,
• Regulation of water abstraction rates, time and appropriate use,
• Operation, maintenance and repair of the system; and
• allocation/collection of water fees/budget for operation maintenance and repair; and the
management of finance and other properties.

Water storage systems operate at a larger scale than runoff farming systems, often on a watershed
scale, and thereby necessitate addressing issues like ownership, local institutions and land tenure.
They require relatively high capital and labor investments (often too high for individual households)
and are relatively complicated systems to design. Service-giving institutions, generally, have very little
capacity to disseminate and assist in design of storage water harvesting systems.

As with any other technology, it is vital when planning and implementation of rainwater harvesting
systems is viewed holistically beyond the technical issues. It is necessary to consider the broader
aspects in terms of economic environmental, health and social factors. A key factor in project
success is community involvement at every stage from inception to long-term maintenance and
operation. Involvement in planning and construction phases will not only help to build skills and a
sense of self reliance within communities but also prepare the community better for any future
maintenance or repair work.

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3. ROOF WATER HARVESTING WITH ABOVE GROUND TANK

3.1 What is a roof catchment?

A roof becomes a catchment when it is used for harvesting rainwater. Then it can be called a “Roof
catchment”. Roofs are the most common types of catchment used for harvesting rainfall. Rainwater
harvesting from impervious roof made of corrugated iron sheets corrugated plastic and clay tiles is a
popular method for providing portable water directly from rainfall. The system provides water at home,
is affordable, easy to practice regardless of physical or climatic conditions and can be designed to suit
different conditions (available finances, roof area, family size, rainfall or roof area).

In most cases, roof catchment systems provide water that can be used for domestic purposes.
However, roof runoff harvesting is also used for agricultural purposes including micro-irrigation of kitchen
gardens, watering livestock, and for bee keeping projects. The tank size is dependent on the rainfall
regime, the water demand and roof area available.

Institutions such as schools, offices, churches and other such buildings have large roofs which can be
used to harvest larger quantities of water (Figure 3.1). They however need good management to
regulate water abstraction rates as the water will be used by many people. Wherever possible, roofs
of individual households are preferable to communal systems.

Figure 3.1 (a) Rainwater harvesting tank (b) RWH tanks for communal use
for household level (photos by Bancy Mati)

Roof water harvesting is particularly attractive where the main alternatives are surface water sources
are unavailable and groundwater is either difficult to secure or has been rendered unusable by
fluoride, salinity or arsenic. Also where management of shared point sources has proved unsuitable
and delivery of water is a particular burden on household members or where householders are
prepared to invest in water convenience.

18
3.2 Advantages and limitations of roof water harvesting systems

Advantages
Roof catchments have some advantages over ground and rock catchments.
• When buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is effectively
available free of charge.
• They have high runoff coefficients (normally 0.7-0.9), since they are built to fully protect
houses from rains;
• They are relatively clean and thus provide safer water,
• Surface tanks are relatively smaller, they are affordable for household water harvesting,
• They normally supply water at the point of consumption, while the water from other
catchments needs to be transported or piped.
• Another benefit of surface tanks (compared to sub-surface tanks) is that water can be extracted
easily through a tap just at the base of the tank. Placing it on a stand or base elevates the tank,
so that the water can be piped by gravity to where it is required. In addition, construction of
such water tanks makes use of locally available materials and local artisans, thus creating
employment.
• The storage provided by a tank provides households with security against short-term failure
of alternative water sources.
• Since the structure is family owned, maintenance is usually very good and no water conflicts
occur.
• Certain tank types such as plastic or canvas are portable, and can be transported to remote
areas where they are fixed at site.

Limitations
Despite its advantages, domestic roof water harvesting remains a niche technology and, when
considered at all, is usually only considered when all other options have been eliminated. This is
because roof water harvesting has a number of limitations. They include:
• Roof water harvesting may be inadequate as a stand-alone water supply solution unless in the
most water-stressed situations.
• The tank capacity necessary to bridge a long dry season would be large and this can be
prohibitively expensive.
• Surface tanks are relatively expensive when compared with subsurface storage tanks; and
• They require space in the home compound, and this may be a problem in urban areas
• Water quality still requires some treatment especially to remove biological pathogens
• Not suited to areas having air pollution e.g. cities.

3.3 Types of surface tanks

Roof water harvesting systems can be typified according to shape, size, construction material, function
and cost. Tanks can be made rectangular, spherical, hemi-spherical, cylindrical or shapeless as in the
case of collapsible canvass or polythene tanks. In terms of construction material, there are many types

19
including ferrocement, metal, plastic, bricks, interlocking blocks, compressed-soil blocks and concrete.
These are described here as follows:

3.3.1 Ferrocement jars and tanks

The term, ferrocement, means “reinforced mortar” because crushed stones and hardcore stones are
not used in ferrocement. The main advantage of wire reinforced mortar (ferrocement) over
conventional reinforced concrete tanks is its ability to resist shrinkage cracking during curing (due to
the woven reinforcement chicken mesh), and its resistance to severe cracking under tensile load. It
also needs only one set of forms for construction when the mortar is applied by hand to one side;
pouring concrete into two closely spaced shutters in the conventional method is a highly skilled and
difficult task. Ferrocement tanks use much less material (figure 3.2) than the conventional concrete
and stone masonry tanks, and when combined with locally available material, they can be quite cost-
effective.

Figure 3.2 (a) Ferrocement tank under (b) Newly constructed ferrocement tank
construction (photo by Bancy Mati) (photo courtesy of ERHA, 2007)

3.3.2 Brick and block tanks

Surface water tanks can be constructed using burnt bricks or blocks made out of compressed soil,
concrete, quarry stone or rubble stone or other locally available materials. There are a range designs
and construction methods developed for brick and block tanks. The tanks are built of bricks or
blocks reinforced with barbed wire, wrapped tightly as spiral around the exterior tank walls. There is
heavier reinforcement at the bottom of the tank as the deeper part of the tank is subjected to higher
water pressure. These tanks, like all other water tanks, are normally cylindrical in shape. They should
be reinforced adequately and plastered well. These are necessary precautions; otherwise the tanks are
liable to cracks that are difficult to repair.

20
Figure 3.3 Water tank being built of (a) burnt bricks, and (b) compressed soil block
(source: Danida, 2007)

3.3.4 Metal tanks

Galvanised metals are widely used for water tanks with some success. Their durability depends upon
the quality and thickness of the metal, protection provided (e.g. protective paint), and the level of
exposure to saline or acidic water or atmospheric moisture. Also, old oil drums can be converted into
RWH tanks albeit they may not have taps, and the water has to be scooped out. The main limitation
with metal tanks is that they are prone to corrosion and thus are not recommended for hot, humid
areas such as near the coast.

3.3.5 Plastic tanks

Moulded plastic tanks are commercially available and since they are designed for drinking water
collection, they offer a quick solution to roof RWH. Plastic tanks are portable hence good for
households that keep moving. Another advantage is that they are light and flexible, and can thus be
easily transported. They are also durable than and relatively reliable, as they do not corrode. Plastic
tanks up to 10 m3 are common, but tanks up to 25 m3 can be produced and transported. However,
plastic tanks are relatively expensive.

3.3.6 Ready-made tanks

Ready-made tanks are factory produced and sold to users commercially. The more common types of
ready-made tanks are made of plastic, metal and ferrocement (figure 3.4). The advantages of ready-
made tanks compared to constructed ones include:
• They can quickly be erected at site within days;
• Since ready-made tanks are centrally produced in large quantities, have economies of scale
and quality control, and thus can make them more durable and cost effective; and
• The tanks do not require skilled labor, nor much of the construction material and equipment
at the site to be installed.
The main disadvantage with ready-made tanks includes the fact that they are more expensive and the
cost of their transport can be high.

21
Fire 3.4 (a) Portable plastic tank (a) Portable collapsible canvas tank
(photos by Bancy Mati)

3.3.7 Other tank types

There are tanks made of fibreglass, but are expensive when compared to tanks built on site. There
are also tanks made of wood, bamboo or sisal fibre. These used to be promoted as appropriate
technology but most of them failed due as the fibres rotted with time. They are mentioned here not
to promote them, but to discourage their replication as they are generally not durable.

3.4 Design of roof water harvesting systems

The design of roof water harvesting systems considers all the components as well as the water
demand, and capacity of the rainfall and roof area to provide this water. The main components of a
roof RWH include the following:

3.4.1 Components of roof water harvesting systems

Roof water harvesting systems comprise six basic components irrespective of the size of the system
(figure 3.5). These are:
(i) Catchment area/roof: The surface upon which the rain falls; the roof has to be appropriately
sloped preferably towards the direction of storage and recharge.
(ii) Gutters and downpipes: The transport channels from catchment surface to storage; these have
to be designed depending on site, rainfall characteristics and roof characteristics.
(iii) Leaf screens and roof washers: The systems that remove contaminants and debris; a first rain
separator has to be put in place to divert and manage the first 2.5 mm of rain.
(iv) Storage tank, cisterns or sumps, where collected rain-water is safely stored or recharging the
ground water through open wells, bore wells or percolation pits,
(v) Water abstraction system by gravity such as tap
(vi) Water treatment: Filters to remove solids and organic material and equipment, and additives to
settle, filter, and disinfect.
(vii) Other technical auxiliary structures such as tank cover, overflow pipe, soak away pit for the
safe disposal of waste water and a manhole that allows entry into the tank for cleaning and
maintenance or repair purposes.

22
Figure 3.5 Components of a roof water harvesting system (adapted from DTU 1998)

Roof surface
Galvanized all make good roof catchment surfaces (Figure xxx). Roof water harvesting systems can be
constructed from a wide range of materials metal, wood, plastic, fiberglass, bricks, interlocking blocks,
compressed-soil, rubble stone blocks, ferrocement and concrete. Flat cement or felt-covered roofs can
also be used provided they are clean. Corrugated iron is now widely used as a roofing material in much
of Africa. Thatched roofs can make good catchments when certain palms are tightly thatched. Most
palms and all grasses, however, do not produce thatch suitable for high quality rainwater collection,
since they discolor the water and make it less palatable and attractive for domestic purposes.

The materials used to make of the roof should be non-toxic in nature. Roof surfaces should be
smooth, hard and dense since they are easier to clean and are less likely to be damaged and release
materials/ fibres into the water. Roof painting is not advisable since most paints contain toxic
substances and may peel off. No overhanging trees should be left near the roof. The nesting of birds
on the roof should be prevented.

All gutter ends should be fitted with a wire mesh screen to keep out leaves, dust and dirt. A first-
flush rainfall capacity, such as detachable down pipe section, should be installed. A hygienic soak
away channel should be built at water outlets and a screened overflow pipe should be provided.

The storage tank should have a tight fitting roof that excludes light, a manhole cover and a flushing
pipe at the base of the tank (for standing tanks). There should be a reliable sanitary extraction device
such as a gravity tap or a hand pump to avoid contamination of the water in the tank. There should
be no possibility of contaminated wastewater flowing into the tank (especially for tanks installed at

23
ground level). Water from other sources, unless it is reliable source, should not be emptied into the
tank through pipe connections or the manhole cover.

3.4.2 Design volume of a water tank

Rooftop water harvesting systems can provide good quality potable water if the design features
outlined below are taken into account.

Water Availability
Since the available roof area is usually limited, the system is used to meet water requirements during
the dry season, which varies with the weather patterns of an area. Rainfall data is used to design a
volume of storage equivalent to a given return period. The more the seasonal rainfall, the larger the
tank volume.

Estimating the Size of the Required Systems

In actual field conditions, the size of the collector and storage system is dictated by the available roof
area and the rainfall. The water harvested from the available roof area, therefore, is more or less fixed
and has to be judiciously used. In rare cases we have the real option of building enough roof area to
meet the predetermined per capita requirement of a given family or community.

The size of the catchment area and tank should be enough to supply sufficient water for the users
during the dry period. It is important to have rainfall data and to know the average length of the dry
season and the average water use. Thus, assuming a full tank at the beginning of the dry season (end
of rainy season), the volume of the tank can be calculated by the following formula:
V = (t × n × q) + et
Where,
V = Volume of tank (litres)
t = Length of the dry season (days)
n = Number of people using the tank
q = Consumption per capita per day (litres)
et = Evaporation loss during the dry period
Since evaporation from a closed storage tank is negligible, the evaporation loss (ET) can be ignored
(=zero).

Experience shows that with the water storage tanks next to their houses, people use between 20 to 40
litres of water per person per day (lpd). However, this may rise in time as people relax their water use
habits because of easy access. This contrasts with a maximum of l0 lpd consumption levels under similar
environments with people fetching water from distant sources. Together with the community/ family, a
decision must be taken on how the water will be used or what affordable service level can be provided.

24
3.4.3 Selection of appropriate storage tank designs
Surface tanks
The rainwater storage tank can be constructed above the ground – called a surface tank or it can be
underground or semi-underground. In this chapter, only above ground tanks are described (see
Chapter 4 for underground tanks). A good RWH tank should be watertight, durable, affordable and
not contaminate the water in any way. Surface tanks are used in elevated catchment surfaces, which
are by and large roofs.

Materials used for tank construction

Surface tanks can be constructed from metal, wood, plastic, fiberglass, brick, interlocking blocks,
compressed-soil or rubble stone blocks, ferrocement, or concrete. The selection of the material
depends on local situations For example; metals are not suited to saline areas, plastic to strong light
areas, and wood to termite areas. The comparative costs of locally available materials should be a key
factor in choosing the most appropriate tank.

Table 3.1. Recommended concrete mix, thickness and reinforcement for RWH tank
s
Tank Reinforcement Mortar/concrete Finishing
component coat/plastering
Ratio Thick. Ratio Thick
Foundation • Weld-mesh 1:3:4 10 cm 1:3 + Nil 2 cm
• Steel bars, 6-12 mm
diameter
Wall of Ferro • Weld mesh gauge 8 1:3:3 5 cm Nil 1 cm
cement • Chicken mesh
• Galvanized wire 3-4
mm diameter
Wall of burnt Chicken mesh 1:3:1/3 lime for 2 cm (mortar 1:3 + Nil 4 cm
bricks mortar joints joints)
Wall of rubble Chicken mesh 1:3 for mortar 2-3 cm 1:3 + Nil 5 cm
stone joints mortar
joints
Wall of Steel bars 8 &10 mm 1:2:3 7 cm 1:3 + Nil 3 cm
reinforced diameter
concrete
N.B: Nil is cement slurry made from mixing cement and water, which can be used as a substitute for waterproof
cement. (source, Nega, H. 2006)

Tank size
Generally, surface tanks may vary in size from 1 m3 to more than 40 m3 for households and up to 200
m3 or more for schools and such institutions. The selection of an actual size depends on various factors
such as the amount and distribution of rainfall over the year, available roof area, household demand,
and the presence of other supply sources.

25
Runoff coefficient of Roofs
As with any catchment, a roof has a runoff coefficient which depends on the material used and its
condition. Roof catchments have runoff coefficients exceeding 90%. This is because water losses from
pitched metal roofs, concrete or asphalt roofs average less than 10% of total rainfall. However, a
smooth, clean, and more impervious roofing material contributes to better water quality and greater
quantity. Losses can also occur in the gutters and in storage. Regardless of roofing material, it is realistic
to assume loss on annual rainfall to be up to 25%. These losses are due to several factors: the roofing
material texture which slows down the flow; evaporation; and inefficiencies in the collection process.

Tank shape
Tanks can be bought or constructed at site. They are available in many shapes and sizes. Rectangular
and square shaped tanks always tend to crack. It is therefore important that tanks are built spherical,
hemispherical or cylindrical in shape. This is because these shapes distribute the load due to internal
and external pressures uniformly on the walls of the tank, reducing uneven tension and thus
possibility of cracking. They also minimize the use of construction material owing to their shape.

Cylindrical tanks are the most popular as they optimize volume per material used, and are relatively
easy to design and construct. But sspherical/hemispherical shapes perform even better than
cylindrical tanks because they are curved both vertically and horizontally obtaining the maximum
strength unlike the cylindrical shaped tanks that are curved only horizontally. However, the
construction of particularly larger spherical surface tanks is very difficult and expensive; and also
requires complex shaped formwork. The compromise regarding shapes is that smaller surface tanks
are built in spherical shapes, with the larger ones made cylindrical. The more popular one is the small
Thai jars (Figure 3.6), which have spherical shapes.

Figure-3.6 (a) Spherical tank (Thai jar) for (b) Water jar for household drinking water
roof RWH (Source: Gould and Peterson, 1999 (photo courtesy of Mary Kakinda)

26
Siting of RWH tanks
Tanks used for roof water harvesting should be located adjacent or as close as possible to the
building/roof. They should be situated at places where they collect rainwater from a large roof area;
this may mean for example placing them between two buildings (figure xxx). Location of tank should
also allow for minimum guttering. For roofs having a single peak guttering is best located at the end
of the house where both gutters can access it. having a single slope with no peak, the tank is located
midway of the roof edge. For tanks utilizing multiple buildings for roof area, the tank can be situated
at the centre (figure 3.7).

Unless there are certain constraints/restrictions on the use of space, tanks are best located where
guttering requirements are minimum. As can be seen in Figure 3.7, if In both cases the tank should
be located as close to the house as practicable, taking into account the damage this may cause to the
foundation of the house and the convenience of tank construction. In this regard, there should be a
minimum of 90 cm between the wall of the house and the tanks. If longer however, downgutters will
need support in the middle as well.

Figure 3.7 (a) Tank located midway at one side (b) Tank located at the confluence of
of the building (Source: Gould and Peterson, 1999) two buildings (photo by Bancy Mati)

Tanks should be located away from toilets/latrines, waste disposal facilities, and other such water
polluting facilities. They should not be placed at locations where their foundation may be damaged
by erosion. They should be situated at sites where they can conveniently be accessed by users; and
finally they should not block walkways.

The tank, in addition to preventing the entry of debris and silt, must also be secure from small
animals such as lizards and insects. It is essential that gutters are fitted properly with a constant
gentle slope to lead water to the tank and prevent blockages. In practice, the efficiency of many roof
RWH systems are greatly reduced because gutters have been poorly installed and only a fraction of
the roof area is utilized.

27
3.4.4 Auxiliary structures
Roof Gutters
A gutter is the conduit that collects water from the roof and directs it, through a down-pipe into the
tank. Thus, the gutter system is necessary for a roof the RWH system to operate efficiently and
effectively. Gutters are reasonably affordable as and can be made locally by folding sheet metal.

Size of gutter
Gutters should neither be too small nor too large. If too large they become expensive; if too small
they cannot be able to accommodate heavy storms and avoid overflow. Gutters are governed by the
principles of open channel hydraulics, and thus their water conveyance capacity depends on gutter
cross sectional area, shape, roughness and slope. Rainfall intensity and roof area also need to be
considered in determining appropriate gutter sizes. As a general guide, at least 1 cm2 gutter cross
sectional area is needed for every 1 m2 roof area.

Gutter shape
Semi-circular gutters are the most efficient at conveying water, as they have the largest cross sectional
area for a given perimeter. Trapezium gutters with all three sides equal, although lower than the
semicircular, also have higher cross sectional area when compared with other gutter shapes. Square
shaped gutters are also used to convey runoff water. For large roofs such as, those of schools V-
shaped gutters, with splash-guard and steeper than 1% gradient, are used to handle the large flows
without losses due to overflow.

Gutter material
There are various material used for gutters. These include galvanized metal sheets, aluminium, and
plastic. However, the use of galvanized metals is recommended due to strength or cost or both
reasons.

Installation of gutters
When installing gutters, they must be placed 3 cm inward from the roof edge in order to catch the
back drop of water from light showers. Placing tanks at the end of long roofed buildings such as
schools, requires large gutters. If instead, they are placed in the middle, they allow smaller gutters
which can be easily and cheaply installed. Gutter brackets must be strong enough so as not to bend
under the added weight of water, and pressure from wind. The distance between brackets should not
normally exceed 100 cm for square and triangular gutters made of gauge 26 or thicker metal sheets.

Causes of gutter failure

The gutter is a very important component of the roof catchment system because its failure could
mean failure to collect any rain water. Reasons for gutter failure include; inadequate capacity hence
poorly intercepting runoff properly, overflows, leaks, sagging, twisted, clogging with debris if not
cleaned, improper sloping of the gutter, covering only part of the roof area, and poor repairs and
maintenance.

28
Splash-guards
A splash-guard is a long strip of sheet metal which is bent at an angle and hung over the edge of the
roof by 2-3 cm to ensure that all runoff enters the gutter. The vertical leap of the splash guard
intercepts the overshooting runoff and directs it straight into the gutter. Figure 3.8 shows how this
works. The splash guard increases runoff coefficient significantly and also solves the problems of
uneven roofs, and roofs with no facial board. It is easy to manufacture and install splash-guards. The
triangular gutter can also function as downpipe, by continuing it from the roof straight to the tank
inlet.

Figure3.8 A sketch showing V shaped gutter system with splash-guard

(Source: Gould and Peterson,1999)

Normally, the splash-guard is first fixed, and then the gutter is fixed above it using a system of wires.
The gutter hangers are made by bending 3 mm GI wire into a triangular or any gutter shape; the
gutter can then be mounted onto these hangers. A triangular shaped gutter, although not as efficient
hydraulically as the other shapes, has the advantage that it is more stable, as it is fitted into the
triangular shaped 3 mm wires that do not buckle easily under the weight of water during heavy
rainfall events. The adjustable wires enable an even gradient of about 1%, by keeping the gutter
suspended in the correct position under the eve.

Downpipes
Downpipes are normally the piping or conduits that bring the water down from the roof into the
tank. In some cases, it is replaced by the gutter channel which is extended to convey water to the
tanks called a downgutter. Both the gutters and downgutters should have similar shapes and
dimensions, although the down gutters have steeper slopes. This arrangement avoids water wastage,
because it does not reduce the speed of the water, and debris are easily flushed away at the slopping
screen cover of the tank without causing blockage. Downpipes may not be truly vertical. They may

29
be designed with a smaller cross sectional area as the water flows faster downward. Typical sizes of
downpipes for various roof catchment areas are shown in table 6.

Table-6 Recommended Downpipe Sizes for Various Roof Areas

Roof area (m2) 13 17 21 25 29 34 40 46 54 66

Downpipe size 20 25 25 32 32 32 40 40 40 40
diameter (mm)
Source: ERHA RWH manual

A downpipe/gutter should normally enter a tank at the highest point of the tank/dome to maximize
volume. To exclude leaves and debris from entering tanks, a coarse 5 mm or smaller wire mesh may
be placed over the top of a downpipe inlet, at the end of the gutter. This should be regularly cleaned
of any debris that accumulates. A better alternative is however, the use of a self cleaning tank inlet or
guttersnipe to be such as a foul flush system. Abstraction devices normally include water taps, pumps
or rope and bucket.

Water Taps
Most surface water tanks utilize taps. Water is delivered to the taps through draw-off pipes laid
through foundations. Where the base of the tank is at ground level, a small pit is excavated to
facilitate gravity flow and the tap can be at the lowest level of the tank. This also allows space for the
water collection container below tap level. Taps should be of good quality, durable and self closing
particularly where used communally. It would also be useful if tap stations are locked. A lockable
manhole can be provided over the tap station to prevent misuse of the water in the tank.

Tank overflow
Tanks may overflow for various reasons, including heavier rains occurring in certain years or due to
the under design of tanks. In such situations the overflowing water needs to be safely disposed of,
with the help of overflow pipes.

Overflow pipes are however sometimes wrongly placed below the top of the tank reducing storage
capacity. It is therefore necessary that they are placed on top of the tank in a manner that maximum
storage is possible. If tank roof is flat and made of reinforced concrete, the overflow pipe can be
concreted in to it. If the roof is dome, it can be kept at the level of the tank inlet, alternatively the
tank inlet can be used as the over flow. The hole for the overflow pipe is cut out of the mortar while
it is still fresh, before it has set. The use of plastic pipes is not suitable, because they are not rigid
enough.

30
Figure 3.9(a) Overflow pipe concreted into a (b) RWH tank with overflow pipe (photo by
flat tank roof slab (source: Gould and Peterson, 1999) Bancy Mati)

An overflow pipe should be placed vertically over the tap stand, for the water to fall on to the
concreted tap stand excavation, from where it is drained/led to the soak away pit, without ponding
on the ground, and causing erosion and damage to the structure. It is also necessary to note that the
opening should be covered by a screen to prevent small animals and insects such as mosquitoes from
entering into the tank. As a matter of fact any opening that leads small animals/debris into the tank
should be provided with screen cover.

Man hole and internal ladder

It is necessary to get into the tank once in a while, in order to be able to clean and maintain/repair it
from the inside. Access into the tank is possible through a manhole which should be kept near the
highest point. Manhole covers can be made of concrete or sheet metals. A tight fit is important to
prevent small animals and insects from entering. It would also be necessary to provide internal
ladders to facilitate access into the tanks. They are included along with the design of the central pillar
supporting the roof of tanks. They can be made of 10 mm PVC packed with concrete and five 50 cm
length, 20 mm reinforcement bars.

3.5 Tank construction

The construction of tank will depend on type of tank, site conditions, materials being used design
considerations presented above. An example of construction of a brick tank is given here below,
with illustrations (Figures 3.9 a-h).

Tanks constructed from bricks

Burnt bricks or blocks may be used to construct tanks. Financial capability, availability of materials to
make bricks, the required durability and strength of the tank and its quality will dictate the type of
bricks to be used. If big tanks are to be constructed then a high expertise is needed. Measurements

31
given in the following instructions are for the 10 m cubic tank which is equal to 10,000 litres. The
following are the illustrated steps to follow:

The tank should be built near the house for easy water collection from the roof. The tank must be
located such that water from different parts of the house (depending on roof design) can be easily
directed into the tank. The chosen site should be free of tree as they can expand and weaken the tank
through development of cracks.

A piece of pipe or a round metal rod measuring 2.5

metres should be installed by hammering in the
middle of the construction site and tied with a long
piece of rope. A wooden peg should be tied to the
rope leaving a length of 160cm. Draw a circle on the
surface by using the peg. The tank foundation is
built within the circle (Figure 3.9a).

Dig and remove the soil in the circle leaving the

pipe/ metal rod in place at the centre.
Dig to a depth of 15cm ensuring that the bottom
is leveled out. In case of swelling clays, dig to
remove problem soil layer (Figure 3.9b).

The foundation must be at least 7cm thick. Wire

mesh and the outlet pipe should be placed on the
foundation as explained under the section on
construction of concrete tanks.
Concrete of the ratio 1:3:4 (cement: sand:
aggregate) should be used to construct the
foundation (Figure 3.c).

Add a 6cm layer of concrete (on the wire

mesh), compact and make sure that the surface
is level by using a piece of flat wood. Leave the
surface rough by scratching it with a wooden
peg or a stick. Cover the foundation concrete
with damp old clothing or sisal bags to
maintain wet (Figure 3.9d).

32
 Next day bricks should be arranged 15cm
from the edge of the foundation. They should
be arranged to achieve uniform spacing before
bonding them with mortar (Figure 3.9e).

Fit a loose wire ring around the pipe at the centre by introducing it from above. It should be such
that it can rotate freely on the pipe. Tie a 160cm long rope on the ring. Make a knot on the rope so
as to get 145cm from the pipe at the centre. By rotating the rope, the knot will show the correct
location of the outer edge of each brick in the tank wall.

Pour water on bricks after they have been properly laid in place. Bricks should be lifted in turn, one
after the other, and mortar placed on the foundation before returning them. Ensure that the bricks
are level both horizontally and vertically by using a builder’s level and adjust if necessary.

Use a knot on the rope so as to a certain the outer edge of each brick in the first course. The space
left between the bricks should be roughly the same size and the pipe at the middle should be straight
all the time.

For the second brick course and others to follow, the space left between the bricks should be at the
centre of the brick below.

When the wall attains a height of 200cm a PVC pipe

with a diameter of 10cm and a height of 185cm should
be inserted to the pipe at the middle of the tank so as
to create a king pin to support the roof. Round iron
rods with a diameter of 12mm should be placed in the
PVC pipe mentioned above (Figure 3.9f).

The PVC pipe should then be filled with a 1:3:3 concrete and then left for some days to harden.
Wetting the concrete within the PVC pipe is important. Nail a barbed wire around the wall of the
tank at 5cm intervals in the lower half and 10cm intervals in the upper half.

Make a circular formwork the size of the inside

diameter the tank on which to pour a concrete mixture
of 1:3:3 after placing long iron rods (10mm diameter)
pieces of same length as outside diameter of the tank
(Figure 3.9g).

33
Plaster the outer tank wall using cement: sand mixture
of 1:4. The plaster should be at least 2cm thick. Inside
the tank, the plaster should be of 1:3 –cement: sand
ratio. Cement slurry should be applied to the plaster
inside the tank before it dries so as to make it water
proof. In order to reduce the costs, a tank roof can be
constructed by using timber and corrugated iron sheet
in the same way as for a house roof (Figure 3.9h).

Concrete mixing and making

When cement based products are made in developing countries they are usually hand mixed. Due to
the problems caused by the high ambient temperature, such as rapid setting due to water loss and in
turn reduced workability there is a tendency to make a relatively wet mix. There is also sometimes a
lack of knowledge about the correct consistency of cement. As stated previously, for the optimum
strength of the cement, a water cement ratio of 0.4 is required. With increased mixing time, the
strength of the cement paste slightly increases. To improve uniformity, all the dry materials are
thoroughly mixed and then wet mixed properly.

Applying and curing

The prepared mortar or concrete should be applied within a maximum of half an hour of mixing.
Cement starts losing its strength half an hour after it has been mixed with water. Curing is done by
covering the tank and the wall with polythene sheet or plastic sacks which must be properly secured
wrapping sisal strings all around (figure 3.10). Water is poured between the tank and the sheets
morning and evening for three weeks. All other concrete and plaster works should also be cured for
a similar period. Cure cements work properly by keeping it moist and under shade for at least three
weeks after its application. If this is not done properly, the strength and water proof properties of the
concrete and mortar are considerably reduced. For example, if the curing process is stopped after
seven days, the cement will have only about 60% of its potential compressive strength.

Figure 3.10 (a) Relationship between compressive strength and curing period of mortar, and
(b) tank is being cured under polythene sheeting for 3 weeks (source: Danida, 2007)

34
The use of lime
A small amount of lime added to mortar helps it to be more workable, and final plaster to be more
water proof. The other advantage of lime is that it is cheaper than cement and thus help in reducing
costs.

3.6 Hygiene and care of roof water catchment systems

When careful construction and maintenance of roof catchment tanks is done, the system can provide
portable rainwater clean enough to drink. The design of the system should incorporate hygiene and
safety features to prevent entry of dirt into the tank (figure 3.11). To achieve this, certain design
features must be incorporated and other criteria met. These include:
• Immediately following heavy rainfall the quality of water in the tank may be lowered due to any
debris washed into the tank or stirred up from the bottom, which may take some time to settle
out. It is appropriate therefore to avoid drinking water directly from the tank for a few days.
• A clean impervious roof made from non-toxic material is essential. Lead roofs should be
avoided, as should any covered with lead-based paint.
• The roof surface should be smooth and any moss, lichen or other vegetation removed including
branches from over-hanging trees since these provide sanctuary for birds and access for rodents
and other animals to the catchment surface where defecation could contaminate the rainwater
runoff.
• Taps or draw-off pipes on roof tanks should be at least 5cm above the tank roof (more if debris
accumulation rates are high); this allows any debris entering the tank to settle on the bottom
where provided it remains undisturbed it should not adversely affect water quality. Alternatively
if available and affordable a floating filter outlet can be used.
• A coarse filter and/or foul-flush device should intercept water before it enters the tank to
remove dart and debris.
• Wire or nylon mesh should cover all inlets to prevent any insects, frogs, toads, snakes, small
mammals or birds entering the tank.
• If birds persist in perching on the catchment bird scaring and other physical measures (or the
services of a cat) may be required
• The tank must be covered and all light must be excluded to prevent the growth of algae and
microorganisms.
• Tanks, gutters, screens and all system components should be inspected and cleaned annually, if
possible. A tank floor sloping towards a sump and washout pipe can greatly aid tank cleaning. A
well-fitting manhole to allow access is essential.
• Water should not, if possible be consumed directly from the tank without treatment for the first
few days following major rainfall.
• Water from other sources should not be mixed with that in the tank.

35
Figure 3.11: Roof RWH system incorporating a separator and filtering mechanisms
(adapted from SWALIM, 2007)

Leaf screening
At the roof catchment level, large organic matter such as leaves deposited on the roof surfaces by
wind can be removed using leaf screens. These are placed at the lower edges of the roofs and
extended over the gutters. During initial rainfall events, runoff water flows into the gutters carrying
with it minute particles. The leaves cannot enter the fine mesh covering the gutters and will thus go
over the gutters and fall to the ground. Leaf screening can also be achieved along down pipes. A
section of the pipe is cut in a slanting manner and a fine mesh placed over it. Runoff flowing on the
pipe will pass through the mesh leaving behind the large organic matter such as leaves, which will
slide to the ground.

Foul-flush and filter systems

Although not absolutely essential for the provision of portable water in most circumstances when
effectively operated and maintained foul flush and filter systems can significantly improve the quality
of roof runoff. If poorly operated and maintained, however, such systems may result in the loss of
rainwater runoff through unnecessary diversion or overflow and even the contamination of the
supply.

Manual foul flush mechanisms

36
This is a plastic by-pass mechanism which is initially positioned to allow foul flush to flow away as
wastewater. After about five minutes of a rainfall event, it is manually changed so that clean water is
re-routed to the tank (figure 3.12). The disadvantage of this system is that the operator has to be
around to re-position the foul flush gadget so that it receives clean water after a rainfall event.

Figure 3.12: Manual foul flush mechanism (photo courtesy of SWALIM, 2007)

Filtration
A number of filtration mechanisms are in use gravity, pressure and sand- based filters. Sand-based
filters remove turbidity (suspended particles), colour and even microorganisms. Depending on
availability of different materials, layers of sand are arranged as shown in figure 3.13.

A more sophisticated filter system can be installed using slotted plastic cover; a separator and
filtering mechanisms (figure 3.14). Before the tank is put into use it should be thoroughly cleaned
and disinfected with high dosage of chlorine. Since the water shall remain stored for quite a long
time, periodical disinfection of stored water is essential to prevent growth of pathogenic bacteria.

37
Figure 3.13: Sand and gravel- based water filters (Adapted from SWALIM, 2007)

Top left Top right

Bottom left Bottom right

Figure 3.14 Use of separator and filtering mechanisms to treat roof runoff water (Source:
SWALIM, 2007)

The alternative to the use of separator extension pipe is the use of a floating ball technique. In this
technique, initial runoff flows into a container with conical ends. The container has a ball that floats
and rises with the filling water. The advantage of this method is that the operator doesn’t have to be
around during a rainstorm. He can remove the foul flush after the rainfall event.

Disinfection
Disinfection consists of boiling water and using chemicals and ultra-violet light. Boiling water for 10
to 20 minutes is sufficient to remove all biological contaminants. Chlorination is done using calcium
hypochlorite (CaOCl2), known as bleaching powder, at a mix of 1 g per 200 litres of water to kill all
types of bacteria. Alternatively, chlorine tablets can be used at a mix of 0.5 g to treat 200 litres of
water.

38
At the collection conveyance stage, physical treatment through leaf screening is done. This is
followed by a physical and biological stage especially when automatic foul flush gadgets are used
together with sand. Finally, at the storage and utilization stage, water must be boiled and chemicals
applied to kill harmful micro-organisms.

3.7 Operation and Maintenance

Roof top catchment tanks, like all water supply systems, demand periodic management and
maintenance to ensure a reliable and high quality water supply. Regular maintenance is critical to any
dependable water harvesting system. If the various components of the system are not regularly
cleaned, water use is not properly managed, problems are not identified or necessary repairs not
performed, the roof catchment system will cease to provide reliable, good quality supplies.
Maintenance and management requirements gives a basis for monitoring checks.
• During the rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment, gutters, pipes, screens, first-flush
and overflow) should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every
dry period exceeding a month.
• At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage
tank should be scrubbed and flushed of all sediment and debris (the tank should be re-filled
afterwards with a few centimetres of clean water to prevent cracking). Ensure timely service
(before the first rains are due) of all tank features, including replacement of all worn screens
and servicing of the outlet tap or hand pump.
• It is important to ensure that the gutters and downpipes are free of debris. This is done
through periodically clean and/or repairs to prevent corrosion.

Water Use Management

Control over the quantity of water abstracted from the tank is important to optimize water use.
Water use should be managed so that the supply is sufficient to last through the dry season. Failure
to do so will mean exhausting all the stored water. On the other hand, underutilization of the water
source due to severe rationing may leave the user dissatisfied with the level of the service provided.

39
4. UNDERGROUND TANKS

4.1 Ground Catchments and underground tanks

4.1.1 Ground Catchments

Ground catchment is a broad term that describes all types of ground surfaces that serve as source of
surface runoff used in water harvesting. These can range from open land surfaces whether paved or
unpaved, including rocky areas, roads, home compounds, pasture lands, forests and other open
areas. The sizes could vary from a few square metres for micro ground catchments to extensive land
areas and whole watersheds used for large storages such as dams.

Most ground surfaces are covered by soil, thus, water harvesting is hampered by losses due to
infiltration, soil moisture storage, deep percolate losses, evaporation and transpiration by plants.
Therefore, the runoff coefficient of ground catchments is low. Furthermore, ground catchments
yield runoff that is laden with sediments, dirt, as well as other pollutants. But due to the vastness of
available runoff, e.g. in watershed, they offer the best option for large scale water harvesting projects.

Small/micro scale ground catchments are used to collect rainwater for domestic use at places where
appropriate roofs are not available. Bigger catchments are used for collecting higher flows in huge
storages, which can be used for large-scale water supplies and irrigation. The runoff coefficients of
small catchments covered with soil can be improved as applicable by:
• Covering them with plastic or metal sheets, tiles or other non-toxic impervious material; and
plastering them with cement. Such improvements are however relatively expensive and thus
limited to situations where water is much needed.
• Treating/adding material to the soil surfaces to seal them and reduce infiltration. Such
material includes cement, lime, clay soil, etc. The durability of such treatments is however
limited due to erosion, weed growth and such other factors, thus need closer follow up and
maintenance.

When compared with roofs, ground catchments in general have the advantage that water is collected
from larger area; this is particularly useful in regions where rainfall amounts are small. Ground
catchments are particularly useful for harvesting water for agricultural uses, such as irrigation and
livestock watering. They have however apparent limitations as follows.
• The water is easily contaminated. If the water is to be used for drinking
• purposes, it has to be boiled, chlorinated, or filtered say with slow sand filter. It may however
be used for other domestic purposes without treatment.
• The water can only be stored below the ground surface such as ponds, dammed reservoirs,
or sub-surface tanks where they normally need some kind of an abstraction device such as
pumps;
• Ground catchments have low runoff coefficients; and
• The water is silt laden, and thus has poor physical qualities such as color, taste and turbidity.
The excess sediment may need to be removed with silt traps.

40
Water collected from ground catchments can be stored in various types of structures such as dams,
weirs, pans, ponds and underground tanks. This Chapter focuses on underground tanks.

4.1.2 What is an underground tank?

An underground tank (or sub-surface tank), is a water storage structure constructed below the
ground. The term also includes structures that are partially below ground. In most cases,
underground tanks collect and store runoff from ground catchments such as open grasslands,
hillsides, home compounds, roads, footpaths, paved and unpaved areas (Figure 4.1). However, in
certain circumstances, roof catchments can also be channeled into underground tanks.

Figure 4.1 (a) Rainwater harvesting from (b) Road runoff harvesting into geo-
home compound with underground tank membrane lined tank (photo by Bancy Mati)

Underground tanks are especially suited to homesteads having thatched roofs and other traditional
structures or for areas where a roof catchment may not be feasible. However, it may be necessary to
pump (lift) water, except where the ground gradient permits and where gravity outlets are
constructed. Underground tanks can be designed as spherical or cylindrical and constructed using
bricks. Since underground tanks get support from the surrounding ground, thus they can be built
with less reinforcing material. Thus, underground tanks have lower construction costs and therefore,
are more suited for storing agricultural water than surface tanks.

4.1.3 The case for underground tanks

Compared with other ground storage structures, underground tanks are generally small, with
volumes ranging 20 to 150 m3. They permit irrigation of small plots of land and livestock watering
and are suited to smallholder irrigation as individual farm storages. A major limitation is the lack
of adequate expertise at village level to design and construct underground tanks. Also, the design
and construction faces more challenges of functionality, safety, water abstraction and possibility of
failure as compared to surface tanks. However, underground tanks share much of the features of
surface tanks regarding construction materials and methods.

Water harvesting from traditional huts

In the case of grass thatched or other traditional houses e.g. “manyatta”, where roof catchment with
surface tank is not feasible, underground tanks can be used to supply domestic water as illustrated in

41
figures 4.2(a) and (b). For grass-thatched houses, circular trenches can be dug and positioned to
receive runoff directly below the roof eves and trench gutters dug around hemispherical traditional
houses. The mitre drain from the trench acts as a gutter and should be positioned on the side or at
the back of the house to be accessible. The mitre drains convey runoff into an underground tank.

Figure 4.2: Illustration of RWH system for (b) Illustration of RWH system for a
grass-thatched house (Source SWALIM, 2007) hemi-spherical house (manyatta)

4.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of underground tanks

Advantages of sub-surface tanks:
• Underground tanks offer a cheaper to install due to its lower cost of reinforcements needed
during construction, as compared to surface tanks. This is due because ground support
provides the strength needed to hold the water
• They are appropriate in places where space above ground is limited; and they can be made larger
than surface tanks
• The water is sometimes cooler
• Larger volumes of water can be stored.

Disadvantages:
• Pump or some kind abstraction device (such as rope and bucket) is required to lift the water.
Except where the ground gradient permits and where gravity outlets are constructed.
• Higher possibility of contamination and sedimentation sediment inflow.
• They cannot be easily drained for cleaning.
• If not well managed e.g. properly covered, they pose danger to children and small animals.
• Leaks or failures are more difficult to detect
• Tree roots can damage the structure from beneath
• Flotation of the tank may occur if groundwater level is high, and
• Heavy vehicles driving over a tank or other weight can damage the structure.

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4.2 Types of underground tanks
There are many types of underground tank, categorized according to shape, size, capacity, lining
material, construction and utilization. The most common types of tanks include the following:

4.2.1 Cisterns
A cistern is a small underground reservoir of about 10 to 500 m3 capacity. The term is sometimes
synonymous with underground tank. Cisterns are indigenous water harvesting systems commonly
found in the Middle East and other dry areas. They are normally used for human and livestock water
consumption, and are mostly located at or near homesteads. In many areas, they are dug into the
rock, or they could be constructed as underground tanks lined with concrete. In this system, runoff
water is collected from catchments such as roofs, home compounds, rocky surfaces, roads or open
areas. Stilling basins are sometimes needed to reduce sediment entry. Since the water is stored below
ground. A lifting device, e.g. pump, bucket and rope is used to bring water to the surface for use.
Other than domestic use, cisterns are also used for irrigation of small gardens. Cisterns require little
or no space above ground, and thus are unobtrusive, which is a safety feature. The main problems
associated with this system include the cost of construction, the cistern’s limited capacity, and
inflows of sediments and pollutants from the catchment.

Figure 4.3 (a) Square cistern with cover (b) Cylindrical cistern for surface RWH
(photo by Bancy Mati) (adapted from Alemu Seifu, 2011)

4.2.2 Rectangular lined tanks

One of the easier ways of constructing underground tanks takes the shape of a rectangle or square.
However, most rectangular tanks have a trapezoidal profile in volume. This shape accords good
storage with easy design and construction features, as builders use straight lines. The tank can be
lined with geo-membrane plastics, concrete, bricks, and other water resistant material. Lined
underground tanks have the advantage of applicability on almost any soil type (Figure 4.4). The
design also makes it easier to roof or cover the tank with galvanized iron sheets, grass, polythene,
wood or other material. The tank is particularly popular for runoff harvesting for agricultural
purposes, especially supplemental irrigation of small plots.

43
Figure 4.4 (a) Open underground tank lined (b) Roofed rectangular underground tank (photo
with geo-membrane (photo by Jean Muhinda) by Bancy Mati)

4.2.3 Housed excavated tanks

In areas prone to high evaporation losses, housed excavated tanks (figure 4.5) and used for rainwater
harvesting from the same roof or compound. Such water tanks can hold enough water to serve as
the main source of water supply to a household or irrigation of small gardens. Excavated earthen
water tanks can be lined to reduce seepage. The lining materials include clay, ferrocement, or plastic
sheeting. Sandy soils/earth can also be excavated and lined with 15 cm concrete and serve as water
tight tanks. The method is good for hot areas, and provides security since the house can be locked.

Figure 4.5 Housed excavated tanks within mud-walled rooms for RWH with
polythene outlet (photos courtesy of MoANRM, 2010)

4.2.4 Concrete (reinforced) underground tank

Underground tanks lined with concrete are used for storage of water for domestic use and
agriculture including irrigation (Figure 4.6). They can store water from harvested rain or from river
diversions and other sources. The tanks are usually rectangular shaped and can vary in size from a
few cubic metres to about 5,000 m3. The larger tanks are built with reinforced concrete. Some of
these tanks are usually covered with a concrete slab which can also serve as a catchment area for
rainwater harvesting. Sometimes the catchment area, ranging about 750 to 1.000 m2 is paved with
concrete to induce more runoff. In the absence of concrete, the catchment area can be graded and
compacted to enhance runoff. These systems are used in areas with as low as 100 mm of annual
rainfall.

44
Figure 4.6 (a) Cylindrical reinforced (b) A rectangular reinforced concrete semi-
concrete tank (photos by Bancy Mati) underground tank for communal use

4.2.5 Hemispherical tanks

Hemispherical tanks can be built almost anywhere since they are usually lined with of ferrocement,
clay or plastic sheeting. The shape is hydraulically efficient, but the construction can be complicated
and requires expertise to achieve the correct curvature. Hemispherical tanks may be roofed and
covered for safety and to reduce evaporation losses. Like with other ground catchment systems,
sedimentation traps are necessary and some system of water abstraction. Hemispherical ground tanks
can also be built of burnt bricks that are reinforced with chicken mesh nailed onto the interior of the
tank (figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7 Hemi-spherical tank under (b) Roofed hemispherical underground

construction (Source, MoANRM, 2009) tank with silt trap (photo by B. Mati)

4.2.6 Spherical underground tank

Spherical tanks take the shape of a ball and are considered the most hydraulically efficient shape for
tank design. They are commonly used as underground tanks but good workmanship is required.
Spherical underground tanks can be fully buried or partially underground (Figure 4.8). They are

45
usually made of concrete, burnt bricks, masonry or other strong material. The main limitation with
spherical underground tanks is the high labour demands and expertise to excavate the site and build
the structure.

Figure 4.8 (a) Spherical underground tank (b) Spherical underground tank-nearing
under construction (photos by R. K. Cherogony) completion

4.2.7 Cylindrical tank

A cylindrical underground tank is made much the same way as in surface tanks. However, it requires
a lot of digging to achieve appreciable storage volume (Figure 4.9). Generally, cylindrical tanks are
made of concrete or bricks and have good hydraulic properties. They are easy to construct using
local labour and the construction material can be minimized as compared to surface tanks.

Fig. 4.9(a) Brick lined, open cylindrical tank (b) Cylindrical tank partially buried (the
(photos by Bancy Mati) visible pipe is for overflow)

4.2.8 Birkas
A “birka” is a small underground tank, about 100 to 200 m2, usually used for water harvesting and
storage (figure 4.10). It is an indigenous water harvesting technology in Ethiopia, and is usually
family-owned and are thus located in home compounds. Birkas are used for animal watering and
irrigation of small vegetable gardens. They are dug in a convenient depression and have walls lined

46
with concrete, stones and mortar or impermeable clay tile. Birkas have different shapes such as
circular, square or oblong. Collected runoff flows into a birka from the roof and surrounding
areas. The main problem is the heavy labor demanded for excavating the foundations. Also, there
is the need to pump (lift) water except where the ground gradient permits gravity outlets. There is
also the higher possibility of contamination and sedimentation, although the latter can be reduced
by providing adequate siltation basins.

Figure 4.10 A birka for RWH with cover (b) Inlet into birka through a buried pipe
(photos by Bancy Mati)

4.2.9 Sausage tank

A sausage tank is another name for a cylindrical tank which is constructed lying horizontal in the
ground (Figure 4.11) and thus it is “sausage-shaped”. This arrangement saves labour since the depth
of excavation is greatly reduced. Construction is also made easier. The length of the tank can be
made longer than would be possible in a birka, whose cylindrical tank is vertical. Also, since the
depth of the tank is shallower, it is possible to design a sausage tank with gravity outflow where land
slope permits. The design is particularly sited for agricultural water since on sloping land, it can
accord gravity fed irrigation.

Figure 4.11 (a)Sausage tank under (b) The completed sausage tank covered with
construction (photos by Bancy Mati) soil with just the opening showing

47
4.2.10 Berkads
A berkad is a cuboid-shaped ground tank, usually lined with masonry and/or concrete, which
collects surface run-off during intense rainfall episodes. They also receive runoff water from
upstream ground catchments via mitre drains or stone bund diversion and silt traps. Berkads are
common in parts of the Horn of Africa and are used mainly for livestock and domestic use. The
average size of berkads is larger than birkas, with volumes ranging 300 to 750 m3.

A berkad consists of an inlet canal, masonry lining and a live fencing (figure 4.12). At the entrance of
the berkad, stairs are constructed to facilitate access inside the tank. Fencing is done as a security
measure for water conservancy or against dangers to livestock and human beings who may fall and
get injured, sometimes fatally. Since berkads collect surface run-off, the risks of contamination is
high. However, in some cases, silt traps are provided to check siltation. Also, many berkads are
exposed and not covered by a roof, thus they have high evaporation losses.

Figure4.12(a) Illustration of a berkad with conveyance (b) A typical berkad with fence
system (Source: SWALIM, 2007) (Source, De Hass, 2010)

4.2.11 Partially below ground tank

The partially below ground tank incorporates the merits of both above and below ground tanks in
one simple, low-cost design. It is built as a hemi-spherical underground tank of ferrocement
extending above ground level with a cylindrical wall made of blocks or stone masonry (Figure xxx). It
is suited for runoff harvesting from roof catchments which are too short to permit constructions of a
surface tank. A partially below ground tank also takes advantage of the support given by the soil, to
do away with the need for a structural component below ground level. At the same time protection is
given against contamination by surface runoff and damage by vehicles is an added advantage. Water
is drawn from the tank by either a hand pump or buckets. If the water is lifted out of the tank, some
wastage may occur, but the tank can also have a tap outlet by excavating the water collection area.

48
Figure 4.13 (a)Partially below ground tank (b) The completed partially below ground
under construction (photos by Bancy Mati) tank (spherical) with roof catchment

4.3 Design of underground tanks

4.3.1 Major factors considered
Planning is the first step and helps identify sites for suitability of water-impounding structure and
other basic characteristics. Given water requirements, catchment/improved catchment run-off/yield,
evaporation and leakage over a design period, calculate structure capacity, shape and dimensions.
The layout of the water storage structure, catchment, inlet, outlet and safe overflow disposal are as
shown in figure 4.14. The major factors considered in the design of underground tanks include:

Figure-4.14 Sketch of an underground tank arrangement (source: Gould and Peterson,1999)

Site characteristics
The first step is to find a suitable site for the underground tank, pan or pond. The site of an
underground tank should be appropriately located in terms of adequate catchment size, some
gradient and positioning of the tank itself. The site should be on soils such as clay that retain water.
Avoid sandy soils unless the pan will be lined to control seepage. The reservoir site should be a
natural depression or small valley so as not to dig too deep to achieve required volume. A good
source of runoff should be identified such as home compound, hillside, road or dry watercourse as
close to the pan/pond as possible. The area from which water flows into the water pan should be
have natural vegetation or grass, to minimize erosion and sediment deposits in the pond.

49
A good site has the following characteristics:
• Close enough to the dwelling to avoid long lengths of guttering and downpipe (some suggest
siting the tank mid way along the length of a building to reduce gutter size– this is fine if
water from one side of the building only will be fed into the tank)
• Reasonably flat where possible – otherwise the ground will have to be
• levelled before marking out
• Away from areas where surface water will gather (i.e. depressions)
• Away from trees – the roots of trees can be problematic
• Away from areas where animals will wander – or else the tank should be fenced off
• Not so close to the dwelling that the foundations of the dwelling are undermined
• Somewhere convenient for extracting water e.g. close to the kitchen area

The ground should be suitable for digging and for siting such a tank. There should be no large
stones, bed rock or sheet rock close to the surface, and one should be sure that the groundwater
table in the area is several meters below the bottom of the tank. This information can often be
gleaned from locals who may have tried digging wells, sinking boreholes or digging garbage pits.

Shape of the tank: Decision whether it will be circular, rectangular or square with consideration to
having the embankment/walls constructed continuously around structure to reduce evaporation,
control inflow and exclude paddock debris generated by severe storms. Consider the use of circular
structures, as this shape has the smallest surface area for evaporation to affect.

Depth of tank: should be adequate for provision of sufficient water supplies allowing for
evaporation loss. Depth should be greater than annual evaporation, or greater than total evaporation
for chosen design period if structure is for drought-proofing.

Side slopes (batter ratio) of the retaining walls - usually, this should be 3:1

Freeboard: should be a minimum of 1 m above maximum water level.

Overflow arrangements: The crest to be set at the maximum water level for the impounding
structure. Where a silt pit is installed, overflow can be set out from the silt pit. Overflow to discharge
clear of walls of structure. Where there is a risk of crest erosion, materials other than earth can be
used — flumes and chutes being potential applications.

Silt traps and inlets:

These are very important as they affect the water quality and storage capacity. Silt traps are necessary
in nearly all types of ground catchment structures including ponds and pans. They are particularly
crucial where catchment to trap debris or other eroded materials.

Many designs of silt traps exist (figure 4.15) either made in the form of drop structures, gravel pits,
grassed or soak pits or by constructing a meandering entry channel into the tank.

50
Figure 4.15 (a) Drop inlet structure for silt (b) Silt trap made of concrete sections
control (photo by Jean Muhinda) (photo by Bancy Mati)

4.3.2 Determining harvestable water

The assessment of harvestable water follows the same procedures as described in Chapter 2.
However, the design capacity or volume of an underground tank can be either supply or demand
based. In a supply-based approach, the equations that predict the discharge from the catchment are
used. A demand-based approach, utilizes the expected water consumption and is matched to the dry
periods for which this water shall be needed as well as the daily water requirements for domestic use,
animal watering and irrigation. Three methods are commonly used as described below.

Water balance method

This is a month-by-month accounting method whereby inputs of rainfall are compared with
consumption (and overflow if it occurs). It is assumed that the balance remains in the tank. Any size
of tank can be considered using this approach. If a tank is too small, some rainfall will be lost as
overflow and the demand may not be met. If it is too big, it may never fill completely.

The choice of appropriate size in a given situation is not easy and the water balance method is not
really as simple as suggested because the probability of getting a certain amount of rain needs
to be considered along with many other factors. Computer modelling can help in decision-making.

Cumulative supply or demand method

This method involves calculating the cumulative supply and cumulative demand on a month-by-
month basis and showing them as lines on a graph. The maximum difference, during a 12-month
period, between the cumulative supply line and the cumulative demand line indicates the optimum
size of the tank.

Dry season storage method

51
This is the simplest and most preferred method for determining tank size for a RWH catchment. In
this method it is necessary to estimate the longest period during the year without rain and estimate
the daily consumption rate. The size of the tank that will be required is the number of dry days
multiplied by the daily water use. However, if the volume of run-off estimated from the roof during
the rainy season is less than the proposed tank size the latter is reduced accordingly.

4.3.3 Determination of storage capacity required

Water Demand
Water demand is the volume of water requested by users to satisfy their needs. A simplistic
interpretation considers that water demand equals water consumption. However, conceptually, the
two terms cannot be equated because, in some cases, especially in rural parts of Africa, the
theoretical water demand considerably exceeds actual consumptive water use.

Calculating Demand
Calculating the water needs of the user is relatively easy and involves a simple formula which
includes the average daily consumption of water from the tank per person (or livestock), the number
of days in the dry season, and the numbers of people using the tank.

Studies have shown that rural people with tanks next to their houses often use about 20 to 40 litres
of water per person per day. This is high compared to people who must walk long distances for
water who may use less than 10 litres per family per day. As an average, assume that each person will
take 20 litres per day if it is a household tank, and 5 litres per day if it is a school or health centre
tank. The formula is;
Demand (litres) = Total dry days x water required per person x total number of consumers
It is good to note that if the consumption is higher than estimated, the tank will run dry before the
next rainy season.

Volume of storage structure

This is calculated differently depending on the shape of the tank. The general formula adopted for all
shapes is the prismoidal formula expressed as follows:
V = (A +4M + B)d/6
where:
V = volume
A = top area of excavation (area of water surface when full)
B = bottom area of excavation (area of floor)
M = area at ½ depth
d = depth
For convenient calculating, the following derivations of the prismoidal formula can be used for each
particular excavation shape:

Circular:

52
 d
V = F[R2 + (R x r) + r2] /3

Rectangular:

d
V = [(L x W)+(lf x wf)+[(L x lf)+(W x wf)]] /6

Square shaped tank:

The design volume is calculated with the following equation:
d
V = [L2 + (L x lf) + lf2] /3
where in all formulae:
V = volume (m3)
R = radius of water surface (m)
r = radius of floor (m)
d = depth (m)
F = Pi or 22÷7 or 3.14159
L = length of water surface (m)
W = width of water surface (m)
lf = length of floor (m)
wf = width of floor (m)
d = depth of water from surface to floor (m).

Treatment of Catchment area

The catchment area can be made to yield more runoff by paving it with various materials. Concrete,
plastic sheeting, butyl rubber and metal foil can also be used to cover the soil for rainwater
harvesting. Gravel may protect the underlying membrane against radiation and wind damage. Also,
wax, latexes, asphalt, bitumen, fiberglass and silicones can be used as sealants on soils which do not
swell with moisture. Plots treated with sun-melted granulated paraffin-wax yielded about 90 percent
of the rainfall as runoff, compared to 30 percent from untreated plots. In some cases, even when the
soil contains a significant amount of clay and fine materials, excessive water losses may still occur
due to well developed soil structure or arrangement of the clay particles. Applying small amounts of
certain chemicals to the porous aggregates may result in rearrangement of the clay particles. The
process is called de-flocculation. This dispersed or dissociated structure reduces soil permeability.
The chemicals used are called dispersing agents.

4.4 Construction of underground tank

Several of the techniques used for building surface tanks can also be used for underground tanks.
For these the tanks are constructed in excavations with the soil being back filled around the outside
of the tank on completion. Where impervious soils exist, such as clay or loess, it is often possible to
construct unlined sub-surface reservoirs. Invariably these suffer from problems of seepage
evaporation and poor water quality.

53
4.4.1 Procedure
Excavation of underground tanks is carried out in two ways i.e. “hollowing out method” and “open
excavation method”. Hollow-out way of excavation is adopted only in areas where the sub-soil is
firm enough and involves digging by starting at the top of the ground and hollow out/making wider
the body of the cellar when gets down . Whereas the open excavation method is adopted in areas
where the sub-soil is relatively weak and more loose, to avoid pit collapse when digging in. Casting
(construction) of the top roof structure in the case of open excavation method will be undertaken
after the construction of the tank is completed.

The tank, constructed in areas with firm sub-soil can be plastered by using clay mud or mud mortar
or cement mortar for seepage control. But if the tank is constructed relatively in area with weak and
looser soil lining by using clay mud or cement mortar (thin wall) is not effective. In places where the
soils are clayey, and impervious, it is possible to build unlined sub-surface tanks, but they suffer from
seepage, evaporation and poor water quality.
The following steps can be followed steps
(i) Prepare site by pegging and referencing corners (square and rectangular shapes) or structure
centre (circular shape). Measure fall across site for calculation of any storage volume above
excavation. Install a temporary bench mark in a protected location.
(ii) Remove topsoil and stockpile clear of embankment location.
(iii) Excavate core trench under embankments (walls) if pervious materials are present under
topsoil. Core trench must extend 1 m into impervious material.
(iv) Build the embankments (walls) by excavating in ‘floors’ and pushing material to correct
location (figure 4.16). Compact embankment with bulldozer weight in 50 to 75 mm layers or
compact 150 mm layers with a sheep’s foot roller. Embankment side slope ratios can be
confirmed by using an electronic builder’s slope finder or battometer. Install inlet and outlet
pipes early in construction of embankments.

Figure 4.16 (a) Stone-pitched trapezoidal (b) Plastic-line tank with trapezoidal
underground tank (photos by Bancy Mati) profile

54
(v) Construct the roof of the tank (figure 4.17)
(vi) Construct the overflow and ‘final trim’ structure.
(vii) Topsoil outside batters and embankment top using stockpiled topsoil. Topsoiling encourages
vegetation and helps retain embankment moisture and resist cracking.

Figure 4.17 (a) Roofing an underground tank (b) A roofed rectangular underground tank
(source: Danida, 2007) (photo courtesy of Tewodros Teshome)

4.4.2 Choice of construction materials

A good control over the quality of construction materials is a first important step in the construction
of successful water tanks. Cost and availability are as well important initial considerations.
Construction materials constitute a considerable proportion of the costs involved. It would thus be
sensible to make use of available local construction material, such as bricks (figure 4.18) to help in
cost saving; these include various types of soils, gravel/pebble, rubble stones and boulders/rocks.

Figure 4.18(a) Cross-sectional of a hemi-spherical (b) Hemispherical underground tank

tank (adapted from Nissen-Peterssen and Lee, 1990) built with bricks Source: Danida, 2007)

55
Cement
Cement is packed in paper bags of about 50 kg and have a volume of 37 liters per bag. Cement
contains principally lime (CaO) and silica (SiO2); it becomes plastic shortly after contact with water.
After a couple of hours, a chemical reaction stiffens or sets cement to stone hard material, which
bonds well with sand, aggregate and iron/steel, provided it is well cured for a minimum of three
weeks., It is necessary to maintain the right proportion while mixing cement with other construction
material.

Water proof cement

Water proof cement helps in sealing tanks; but it dries too quickly in hot and dry climates making
fine cracks in the sealing coat. An alternative to water proof cement in such climates is a material
called Nil. Nil is made by mixing cement with water to form a thin paste (cement slurry). It is applied
to the final layer of plaster with a square steel trowel on the same day the plaster is applied. Nil is a
cheaper option as well.

Sand
Sand is an important ingredient used for making concrete, mortar, blocks, etc. The main requirement
on sand is that it should be free from organic or chemical impurities that would weaken the
mortar/concrete. Sand should always be sieved before mixing, to remove organic materials which rot
in tank walls and other parts of the structure. There should be a reasonable proportion of all grain
sizes, without an excess of both fine or course sand particles. course sand with particle sizes of 1-
4mm is the most suitable for concreting foundations and flat roof slabs; finer sand is useful for
mixing mortar for plaster. Most clean sands are suitable for use in RWH structures.

Aggregates
Another name for aggregate is crushed stone; it is used for making concrete. The size aggregate
should be 8-32 mm; it should be very hard with rough surface for a good bonding with other
material. Porous, soft or easily weathered stone should not be used for aggregate; and as with sand,
aggregate should be free from soil and organic matter.

Water
Although water may not have to be necessarily very clean for mixing with and curing cement, saline
water should never be used for construction. Note as well that considerable amount of water is
needed for construction and curing, and mostly it needs to be transported by women from far places.
When construction is completed, some water should be filled in the tank to help in the curing
process. More will be said in 6.2.2 regarding the ratio of water that should be used while mixing it
with other construction material and for making ferrocement.

Reinforcement
There are different types of steel reinforcement mesh, which consist of thin wires either woven or
welded in to a mesh. The main requirement on meshes is that they are handled easily, and that they
are flexible enough to be bent around sharp corners. The wires should be tied and held firmly in

56
place while the mortar is being applied/trowelled. Generally, various types of reinforcement wire can
be used such as weld mesh. BRC (No. 65), galvanized wire 3mm, barbed wire (guage 12.5), twisted
12 mm iron bar, and chicken mesh (25 mm).

Cement Based Mixtures

The preparation of a high-quality mixture of mortar/concrete from cement, sand aggregate/crushed
stone and water is one of the most important stages in building water tanks. The following the very
basic and crucial rules for mixing and applying mortar and concrete. If neglected, the strength and
water proof properties of tanks are greatly reduced, leading to cracks and leaks.
• Cement, sand, aggregate and water should be mixed thoroughly well, without adding too much
water;
• Mortar/concrete should be applied while fresh, within half an hour after mixing; and
• The cement work should be cured properly by keeping it moist and under shed for at least three
weeks. Please, see Figure-28 for a graph relating compressive strength with curing period.
• Mortar and concrete should be mixed with the right proportions, which varies depending upon
the tank component.

It is necessary to mix cement and sand alone first (for mortar and aggregate as well for concrete),
before adding water. Water should be added to the dry mix when everything else is ready for
mortar/concrete application. This helps in making use of the cement mixture while it is fresh, and
also avoids the extra heavy work of unnecessarily mixing water right at the start with the other
ingredients. Water should be kept to a minimum, just enough to make the mortar/concrete
workable.

The lower the water content the higher the strength of the mortar/concrete. If too dry and stiff
however, it will be difficult to work on to the formwork to achieve full compaction, and is likely to
contain air voids and be imperfectly bonded to the reinforcement. A good mortar should be moist
and never wet, that it spreads out like porridge, but have the consistency of mashed potato, water
should never be visible and should not look shiny in the mixture. Ideally this should be for a 1:3
cement: Most sand mix ratio of mortar, a water to cement weight (not volume) ratio of 0.5:1 will be
satisfactory. Under most conditions, and owing to varying reasons however, workability needs to be
controlled by eye during mixing.

Pumps
Pumps are usually needed to lift water from underground tanks. They can be small motorized or
manual pumps operated by hand or treadle. Pumps however need better management for operation
and maintenance/repair which is generally not easily available, especially in rural areas. Communally
owned tanks are more prone and complicated in this regard, than those individually owned. The
advantage of pumps is however that when they fail/break water is not drained, and the tank emptied
as is generally the case with gravity fed taps. A, rope and bucket can be used to abstract the water
which requires to be cleaned out.

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Fencing
Tanks should be fenced with suitable material, e.g. barbed wire or life-fence. A lockable door should
be provided to exceptionally avoid the reach of domestic and wild animals and small children. Holes
underneath made by burrowing animals, e.g. moles, should also be checked. Water take off from
underground tanks should use low cost water lifting devices e.g. rope and washer pump or other
manual and small motorized pumps.

4.5 Seepage control methods in underground tanks

Lining with cement mortar, mud mortar or clay mud is applied when the sub-soil is firm and dense
enough to keep the tank stable. It is usually thin lining. It can be kept stable in an excavated vertical
section with a height up to 10 m without any support. The underground tank can work with thin
wall. The stability of the structure mainly depends on the soil and role of the thin lining is to prevent
from seepage. Depending on the firmness of the sub soil, the side slope is utilized varying from zero
slope to 1:10 (horizontal to vertical) to stabilize the wall of the tank

To make the seepage control activity more effective leave earth of the last 3-4 cm at the outer
diameter of the tank unexcavated and to be compacted by wooden hammer to increase the density of
the soil by which the cement mortar will be pasted. This is good for improving anti-seepage effect
and strengthens the combination of soil/cement mortar, mud mortar and clay mud.

Lining with clay mud

When cement is not affordable, clay may still be an option, for seepage control. Application of clay
for lining involves (i) Dry up the clay; (ii) Crush the clay into fine particles by screening; (iii) Add
water in proper quantity and mix hard; and (iv) Press the clay mud by hands or feet and squeeze it
into dough-like mix. Cement mortar is common material for lining underground tank. It is more
expensive than the clay mud, however it is less permeable.

Clay grouting
Clay grouting involves applying a clay blanket to cover the entire surface of the tank or pond over
which water is to be impounded. The material for grouting should contain at least 20% clay particles
by weight. The clay material should be at optimum moisture content and spread uniformly in layers
of 15 cm to 20 cm thick, with each layer being thoroughly compacted before the next layer is added.
There should be suitable clay borrow site that is close enough to get clay soil at reasonable cost. The
minimum thickness of the clay blanket should be 30 cm for all depths of water up to 3 m. If the
water depth is greater than 3 m, the thickness of the blanket should also be increased proportionally.
Generally it is recommended to increase this thickness by 5 cm for every 30 cm of water exceeding 3
m depth. Clay blankets may require protection from cracking that may results from drying and from
rupture caused by freezing and thawing. After completion of the clay-sealing, it is recommended to
spread a cover of gravel 30 cm to 45 cm thick over the blanket. The method is suitable for

58
underground tanks and ponds which have high percentage of coarse-grained soils but lacking
sufficient clay to prevent excessive seepage.

Sealing with Bentonite

Bentonite is clay with a high shrink swell ratio. It is fine-textured colloidal clay, when wet; absorbs
water several times greater than its own weight and, at complete saturation, swells to as much as 8 to
15 times its original volume. This action tends to seal soil that lack clay-size particles. Therefore,
adding bentonite is another method of reducing seepage in soils containing high percentage of
coarse-grained particles and not enough clay. Bentonite, like clay blankets, must also be protected
against drying. Since it returns to its original volume when dry, bentonite is not recommended for
sealing ponds with wide fluctuations in water levels. If considerable time elapses between applying
the bentonite and filling the pond, protecting the treated area against drying and cracking may be
necessary. A mulch of straw or hay pinned to the surface gives this protection.

Lining with stone masonry/bricks

Tanks are usually lined with stone masonry, bricks, or concrete. This involves using a concrete
foundation and then building the concrete wall within the excavation. To ensure a water tight
structure, it is very important to lay the masonry in a proper way. A layer of stone/bricks is laid and
mortar is poured on top of the first layer of stones. The mortar should be pressed into all the voids
between the stones to ensure a dense masonry. Then the next layer of stones is laid as before. It is
important to make sure that the joints between stones should be arranged in an alternate manner and
‘straight’ joints in both vertical and horizontal directions should be strictly avoided. Once completed,
soil is squeezed firmly in the space between in the outer space created during construction to ensure
good fit with the ground. The tank can be roofed or covered with grass or canvas (figure 4.18).

Figure 4.19 (a) Underground tank (b) Underground tank lined with stone masonry
lined with concrete (photo by Bancy Mati) and covered with canvas (Source; MoANRM, 2009)

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Plastic geo-membrane linings
Another option is to use plastic geo-membranes (figure 4.20). These are specially made plastic linings
used in dam construction. Normally, a geo-membrane is made to measure in a factory and the tank is
constructed to fit its dimensions. Its cost varies, being cost effective in some countries. The
advantage of plastic geo-membranes is that they can be installed by the user easily. Also, if well
protected, they control seepage quite effectively, and can be used on almost any soil. A major
limitation is the shorter lifespan, which rangers 5-10 years. They can also be easily damaged by
agricultural equipment.

Figure 4.20(a) Plastic geo-membrane lining ready (b) Geo-membrane lining for RWH tank
for sale (photos by Bancy Mati)

Care is needed while installing geo-membrane linings to ensure that there is proper handling and
storage i.e. transporting of the sheet in rolling pattern than sharp folding. Also, the surface of the
pond should be smoothened to remove any piercing materials. Proper anchoring of the geo-
membrane in the trench at the top edges. Fencing of the pond in order to protect it from animals
and children.

Advantages of flexible geomembrane

Compared to other sealing methods flexible geomembranes have the following advantages.
They can be applied to various soil types (i.e. fine, medium and coarse course textured soils). The
cost is getting lower as their popularity grows with more manufacturers and suppliers. Geo-
membrane covers can be transported easily to place of use. If punctured, the membrane can be
easily repaired by farmers themselves or local practitioners (by using used plastic products, heat,
gluing using adhesives of bicycle inner tube maintenance techniques). Also, seepage losses can be
completely reduced.

4.6 Water quality

Although ground catchment systems are sometimes used to collect rainwater for drinking purposes,
it is strongly recommended, where possible, that this water should be treated by e.g. boiling,
chlorinated or passed through a slow sand filter before being consumed. Natural treated soil or
compacted surfaces may form suitable catchment surfaces, although excess sediment may need to be

60
removed from the harvested water. Due to the low runoff coefficients of many natural soil surfaces,
especially where the slopes are small, various techniques have been developed to increase the amount
of rainwater runoff. These basically involve three approaches – covering treating or compacting of
the surface.

The treatment of catchment surfaces should be done so as to reduce infiltration and hence increase
the runoff from natural surfaces. Among the materials added to soil surfaces to try to seal and reduce
infiltration are cement, butyl rubber, lime, paraffin wax oil, bitumen and asphalt. Sodium salts may
also be used to encourage crusting in soils containing clay is of another approached that can be used.
The compaction and shaping of natural soil surfaces using machinery to form catchments made of a
series of cambered roadways known as roaded catchments. These catchments feed parallel drains,
normally leading into a single surface reservoir. Although not generally used to provide community
supplies, due to the poor quality of the water for domestic purposes. The potential for developing
roaded catchments exists wherever road construction and earth-moving machinery are available.

4.7 Operation and maintenance

As with other water harvesting systems, underground tanks require proper operation and regular
maintenance. There should be regular checks on the tank for seepage, cracking and piping and
movement cracks within embankment. Also, the side slopes, inlets and outlets should be inspected
any damages. If present and attended to early, most of these problems can be treated.

Regular cleaning of inlets, silt pits and the tank itself of any of debris and eroded soil material should
be done. Vermin can burrow into inlets, outlets, embankments causing damage. Burrows should be
dug out and repacked with clay. Vermin around the structure should be eradicated. The whole area
around the tank should be fenced to improve safety.

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5. WATER PANS AND PONDS

5.1 What is a water storage pond?

Excavated ponds and pans are small reservoirs, about 1 m to 3 m deep, usually dug of-stream with
raised and compacted banks all around. They are constructed to collect and store runoff water from
various surfaces including from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangeland (figure 5.1). The
difference is that pans receive their water wholly from surface runoff while ponds are constructed
where there is some ground water contribution or a high water table. The capacity of pans and ponds
can range from 500 to 5,000 m3. Structures whose reservoir capacity is less than 500 m3 are called
tanks, while those exceeding 5,000 m3 are called dams.

Pans and ponds are generally built close to settlements, and are located on grazing lands rather than
farmlands, since the latter is more valuable and the former more compact. They are excavated on
gentle sloping lands; less than 2% or 1:50; this simplifies construction and minimizes erosion. The
catchment land above must be gently sloping as well. Catchment size should not be too large or too
small, and should be grassed to help in trapping silt. When properly designed and with good
sedimentation basins, the water collected can be used for livestock watering or to supplement the
irrigation of crops. In this chapter, we adopt the term pond to be inclusive of both pans and ponds
unless otherwise stated.

Figure 5.1: Pictorial depiction of a pan/pond layout (adapted from SWALIM, 2007)

62
5.2 Advantages and limitations of ponds
Advantages
One advantage of pans and ponds is that relatively large volume rainwater can be stored when
compared to that of surface or sub-surface tanks.
• The storage structure is easy to construct and use
• Pans can be used to collect runoff from home compound, where houses are grass-thatched
• They can provide water for domestic/livestock use and for crop irrigation
• Pans can be sited almost anywhere if lined to control seepage.

Limitations of ponds
• The main disadvantage of pans/ponds is that the water is liable to pollution and contamination
due to unprotected catchments.
• Seepage and evaporation losses are also problems owing to the fact that the reservoirs are built
on natural ground and that they are mostly too wide to provide cover.
• For community water supplies, they have relatively small capacities compared to earth dams,
• They can suffer high siltation rates

5.3 Types of ponds

5.3.1 Pans
A pan is a small reservoir created by excavating open ground, to collect and store surface runoff
from uncultivated grounds, from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangelands. Pans rely wholly
on surface runoff and do not receive ground water contribution. As such, they suffer losses of water
easily and are sometimes seasonal. A pan can be made square, rectangular or hemi-spherical in shape.
The hemispherical shape is preferred as it accords better hydraulic efficiency. The main limitation
with water pans include; relatively small capacities; high siltation rates; loss of water through seepage
and, high evaporation losses. Otherwise pans can be excavated almost anywhere and lined with
various materials (as described for underground tanks). They are popular for livestock watering in
dry areas having few watercourses. Pans are particularly useful for runoff harvesting from home
compounds where the houses are grass thatched or other traditional dwellings (figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 (a) Illustration of a water pan (b) Water pan for surface runoff
for collecting runoff from home compound harvesting (source, MoANRM, 2009)

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5.3.2 Ponds
Ponds, like pans, are also excavated depressions (1 m-3 m deep), and holding at least over 100 m3 but
less than 5,000 m3 of water. However, ponds are constructed in areas where some ground-water
recharge is possible, mostly due to high water table. Ponds are also excavated in perennial swamps
and streambeds to increase the volume of water storage and improve inflows from outlaying areas
(Figure 5.3) . Since they get recharged naturally, they have few seepage problems and are preferred to
pans. The main limitation is availability of a site with high water table in arid zones where water is
most scarce.

Figure 5.3 (a) Excavated earthen pond for (b) Excavated pond on high water table
RWH (photos by B. Mati)

5.3.3 Water holes

Water holes are small excavated household ponds for harvesting small amounts of water, usually for
domestic use and livestock drinking and sometimes, irrigation of small gardens. These offer
temporary solution to water availability at home as the water is available for short periods during and
after the rainy season. The size and shape of water hole depends on the catchment characteristics
and the amount of rainfall received. Water holes look like unlined underground tanks (Figure 5.5).

Waterholes are normally excavated by hand, in areas with high water table or where the soils are self-
sealing and thus unlikely to suffer seepage problems. The water hole is usually located at the lower
part of a home compound to benefit from natural drainage and possibility of minimum earth
excavations. The catchment surface should preferably be impermeable. If possible, the catchment
area may be prepared artificially by paving with concrete or soil conditioning. A silt trap is provided
at the inlet point to prevent sediment load from entering the water storage structure. The water
must be cleaned and treated before consumption. Most waterholes have to be desilted at the
beginning of each rainy season.

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 Figure 5.5 (a) Rectangular shaped (b) Circular water hole used for
water hole (photos by Bancy Mati) supplemental irrigation

5.3.4 Overnight water storage ponds

An overnight storage pond (locally known as “diva” in Tanzania) is a small dam or excavated pond
used to store water from both river diversion or rainwater harvesting (Figure 5.7). However, its name
is derived from the fact that the water is allowed into the pond at night, and during the day, farmers
use it for irrigation. This systems is an arrangement to allow the diversion at night from small rivers,
which is used for irrigation then next day, and the river is let to flow to downstream users during the
day (no day-time water abstraction). It is a system used for water sharing in areas with water scarcity.
During the rainy season, the storage pond is used for water harvesting.

Figure 5.7 Overnight storage tank (diva) (b) Overnight storage pond with concrete
with inlet channel (photos by Bancy Mati) retaining wall to increase storage volume

5.3.5 Charco Dams

Although they bear the name “dam”, “Charco” dams are really small excavated pits or ponds, which
are constructed at well-selected sites on a relatively flat topography for livestock watering. Charco
dams receive their runoff mostly from outlaying areas of a rangeland, thus contour bunds are
constructed to divert runoff into the dam. The design is simple and can be implemented at village
level with minimum of engineering requirements (Figure 5.6).

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 (a)-Plan view

(b) side view

( c) photo
Figure 5.6 (a) plan view, (b) side view - note the silt traps and spillway, and (c)
photo of a charco pond/dam (photo by B. Mati)

To achieve higher efficiency in water collection, the charco dam can be situated at the lowest point
of the topography. The excavation, achieving depths of 3 m, can be done by machinery or by hand.
The right site may be selected using contour maps of the area or by observing where water collects
naturally. The main limitations include high evaporation losses, water contamination and siltation.

66
5.3.6 Percolation ponds
Percolation ponds are small ponds dug for the duo purpose of water harvesting and to recharge
ground water. The water may be used for livestock watering. They are constructed by excavating a
depression to form a small reservoir, or by constructing an embankment in a natural ravine or gully
to form an impoundment (figure 5.8). They store water for short periods during and after the rains.
They are used in watershed conservation projects and to improve the overall groundwater hydrology
of an area.

Figure 5.8 (a) Percolation pond excavated (b) Percolation pond constructed using
on open ground (photos by Bancy Mati) packed stones across a gully

5.3.7 Fish ponds

A fish pond, or fishpond, is a controlled, artificial pond or reservoir that is stocked with fish. Rearing
fish in ponds is called aquaculture or fish farming. Water harvesting can be combined with fish
farming to increase the utility of the water. The types of fish ponds commonly used by smallholder
farmers fall into two categories (figure 5.9): (i) Fish ponds are normally excavated within stream beds
so as to have inflow and outflow arrangements. These are the more preferred types as they allow
better aeration of the pond. (ii) Fish ponds can also be situated on open ground where water is
supplied from rainfall harvesting and/or piped water. These types of ponds are sometimes lined with
geo-membrane or concrete. The fish in these ponds are fed using feeds purchased from agro-dealers.
Fish ponds require care to prevent dirt and pollutants entering the pond.

Figure 5.9 (a)Fish pond in valley bottom with (b) Fish pond on farmland without outlet
inflow and outflow (photos by Bancy Mati)

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5.3.8 Borrow pits
Borrow pits are the depressions or ponds created in areas which are earth/soil borrow sites during
the construction of other infrastructure such as roads. The borrow pits, if appropriately located, can
serve as storage ponds for RWH. Although regulations governing road construction require that
borrow pits should be filled, this is not always a common practice. Most borrow pits are left behind
and can be used as storage reservoirs for rainwater. Water stored in borrow pits is used by local
people residing along the highways. The water is used mainly for drinking, for livestock and
sometimes for irrigation. Improvements can be made on the borrow pit so as to increase its capacity
and improve water quality.

5.4 Design of pans and ponds

The design of pans and ponds assumes the same procedure, methods and calculations of storage
volume, as with small earth dams. However, pans function more like underground tanks, while ponds
are more like small earth dams. Since the respective design procedures are the same, they will not be
described here and only the method of calculating storage volume will be described. For more details.
see Chapters 2, 4 and 6 of this Manual.

5.4.1 Components of storage ponds

The components of an pan or pond are quite similar to those of an underground tank. Basically, a pond
must have a catchment area, diversion channel, desitling basins, the reservoir and the water delivery
system, mainly pipes and taps (figure 5.10). A properly designed and constructed pan has an
embankment which is covered with grass sod to prevent collapse or erosion of the banks. Particular
attention is given to the development of seepage areas on the downstream face of the dam. Any
evidence of piping, wave action or damage should have corrective steps taken in time.

Figure 5.10. Illustration of the major components of a pan (adapted from Malesu, 2006)

68
The inlet should be stone pitched to prevent soil erosion. A mesh should be provided at the inlet to
prevent floating material from entering the pond. The slope of the sides shall depend on the soil
condition. In order to prevent seepage losses through sides and bottom, these are lined with plastic
sheeting. This should be embedded properly and the outlet stone-pitched to prevent soil erosion. A
water extraction piping or well is constructed at a suitable point of pond to facilitate withdrawal of
water. The well has to be constructed by raising two masonry wing walls and one front wall. A suitable
platform fitted with iron fixtures for simple pumps is necessary.

A silt trap should be provided at the inlet point to prevent sediment load form entering the pond. The
size of the silt trap should be designed keeping in view the site conditions, duration and intensity of
rainfall. Silt Trap should be cleaned regularly. In sandy soil profiles, the pond volumes are lower
because of need for stabilisation of the sands with grass.

The ponds usually have large surface areas compared to the volume of water stored and heavy losses
occur since evaporation is a function of surface area. On the other hand, seepage increases with the
depth of the stored water. Plastic lining is useful in avoiding seepage losses.

5.4.2 Determining storage volume

Site selection
From an economic view point, the bund should be located where maximum storage volume is
obtained for minimum volume of earthfill, since the major share of the cost goes into the earthfill.
This condition, generally, can be met at a site where the stream/ or drainage channel is narrow,
steep, side slopes are steep and stable, and the stream bed is of consolidated and nearly impervious
formation. Such sites also minimise the pond area.

Characteristics of a Good Pond Site

A good pond site should have the following characteristics:
(i) Be a narrow gorge with a fan shaped valley above: so that a small amount of earthwork gives a
large capacity.
(ii) The capacity catchment area ratio should be such that the pond can fill up in about 2-3 months
of rainfall. The capacity should not be too small to be choked up with sediments very soon.
(iii) The pond should be located where it could serve a major purpose e.g. if for irrigation, it should
be above the irrigated fields.
(iv) Junction of two tributary, depressions and other sites of easily available fill material and
favourable geology should be preferred.
(v) The site should not have excessive seepage losses.
(vi) The catchment area should be put under conservation practices.

Size of pond
The size of a pond/pan for water harvesting is usually dictated by the availability of adequate land or
catchment area, and this includes roads, footpaths, home compounds or open grasslands. In rare
cases do we have the option to design and build a pond of a desired size to meet the water

69
requirements of the community. Where such an option exists, the first step is to work out the water
requirement for various needs. The next step is to determine the catchment area, above the pond
site, from where the monsoon run off would be available to fill the pond. Thereafter the location,
alignment and height of the earthen bund are decided, as also the location and size of the spillway to
evacuate the surplus monsoon discharge.

The storage capacity should be at least double the total water requirement to take care of evaporation
and seepage losses. As a rough guide, 10 per extra storage may be provided for sediment deposition.
For example if the total annual water requirement is 10,000 cum and pond will have only one filling,
its gross capacity should be 22000 cum (2 x 10,000 + 10).

Determining the storage volume

A detailed survey is usually required to estimate the size of the catchment area and the reservoir
storage for different water levels. Where the surveys are likely to be expensive or other wise not
feasible, catchment area can be roughly computed from Survey using toposheets to the scale of
1:25,000 or 1:50,000. However, for calculating the reservoir storage volumes, simple field surveys are
carried out using locally made equipment and ordinary local skills. Since a pond is usually built by
putting a bund (earthen or masonry) across the flow path of a natural drainage, the parameters
required for computing approximate storage volumes, for different pond levels are:
V = (SD2)(B + nD)
2
Where,
V = total storage volume of pan in m3
B = channel width B (meters) at bund site
n = bank slopes e.g. n: 1 (fall of 1 metre in a length of n metres)
S = bed slope of channel – S: 1 (fall of 1 metre in a length of S metres along the channel bed)
D = depth of water above the channel bed (metres).

5.4.3 Determining spillway dimensions

Ponds located in low rainfall areas may have peak discharges during rainy season are too small to
require evacuation through a concrete or masonry spillway. Instead a pipe spillway may be provided.
Normally the pipe should be large enough to pass the peak monsoon discharge without considering
any moderation due to the reservoirs. Storage effect of small ponds of capacity of 0.123 to 0.246 is
usually neglected. However, where the reservoir is large with considerable storage capacity the
moderation effect may be considered using the following formula:
Qo = 1.25 − (1500V − 0.06)1/2
Q RA
Where,
Qo = Rate of outflow when the pipe first flows full in m3
Q = Peak rate of inflow in m3
V = Available storage in ham

70
 R = Runoff in mm, and
A = Drainage area in hectares (same as watershed area)
The above equation provides a rough guide to estimate of the size of the mechanical spillway pipe
required for a pan.

Water quality issues

Due to its open siting and surface water inflows in ponds, the water can become polluted and cause
health hazards. Guinea worm, water hyacinth, mosses, algae may invariably invade the pond in large
quantities. Infectious diseases like guinea worm are associated with the village where surface pond
water is in use.

Operations and maintenance of pans and ponds

The operations and maintenance of pans and ponds is similar to that of underground tanks and small
earth dams (see Chapters 2, 4 and 6).

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6. ROCK CATCHMENTS

6.1 What is a rock catchment?

A rock catchment is a type of ground catchment system whereby a large rocky surface is used as the
source of surface runoff which is channeled and stored in either a tank or a dam. Rock catchments
are, however, considered as a separate category because they are so different from other ground
catchment systems having several distinctive features such as gravity flow supplies. Where suitable
sites exist rock catchment dams are one of the cheapest and most effective types of rainwater storage
system (granite inselbergs in Africa are ideal locations for rock catchments.

The water from a rock catchment can normally be piped by gravity to tap stands or storage tanks at
the base of the outcrops or to nearby villages to improve accessibility (Figure 6.1). The runoff is
channeled along stone and cement gutters constructed on the rock surface into reservoirs contained
by concrete or stone masonry dams. These can yield large quantities of water e.g. 100 mm of rain is
equivalent to 1,000m3 of water per hectare if suitable dam sites can be located.

Figure 6.1 (a) Sketch of a rock (b) Rock catchment with tank storage
catchment system with tank storage (photo by B. Mati)

6.2 Advantages of rock catchments

Rock catchments are suitable in areas with massive unjointed rock outcrops. As indicated earlier,
they are ground catchments themselves, but have the following distinctive features.
• They have high runoff coefficients. the impervious catchment provided by the rock yield
plenty of water from a limited amount of rainfall.
• They provide with relatively cleaner water;
• They allow gravity flow supplies; and
• Where there are suitable sites for rock catchment dams, they are one of the cheapest and
effective means of storing rainwater.
• They are generally constructed for community water supplies.
• They are economical and a reliable source of water in arid, semi-arid and desert areas where the
groundwater is saline, surface water unavailable and rainfall is low.

72
 • The maintenance of rock RWH systems is simple and cheap.
• Maintenance of rock catchments involve only cleaning the catchments before rainy seasons,
and replacement of water taps.
• Rock catchments do not occupy farmland, and they thus provide a solution to water supplies
with few land related conflicts.

6.3 Limitations of rock catchment systems

• Water quality gets easily contaminated from the catchment surface by humans or animals,
especially if the rock is not isolated or fenced.
• As the water stored is stagnant (Figure 6.2), it is prone to disease vectors e.g. mosquitoes and
other aquatic plants and animals posing health risks.
• The large rock area under arid/hot climate means high evaporation losses, which could be as
high as 50%;
• Although rock catchment surfaces can be large, the runoff generated is usually not enough for
irrigation.

Figure 6.2 (a) Rock catchment with water (b) Water from a rock catchment is prone to
storage in reservoir(photos by Bancy Mati) pollution

6.4 Design of rock catchment systems

6.4.1 Reservoir capacity

Since a rock surface resembles an impervious roof, then the volume of water harvestable from a rock
is calculated in the same way as for roof catchments. This is determined as a function of the surface
area of rock contributing its runoff into the storage reservoir, the amount of seasonal rainfall and a
runoff coefficient.
Volume of harvestable water = Effective rock area x rainfall x runoff coefficient
A topographical survey of the rock is usually done to determine the area. As with roof catchments,
the runoff coefficient can be estimated but it can be as high as 0.9. It is important to note the some

73
parts of the rock may be draining in the opposite direction and thus should be excluded from the
calculation of surface area. Short gutters are usually constructed around the rock to direct the flow
into the reservoir.

6.4.2 Design features of water storage system

The storage reservoir can be a surface tank with gravity pipe outlet or a concrete/masonry dam.
Thus the same techniques are used to design the surface tank (see chapter 3) or small dams (see
Training Manual 3). Generally, the capacity of the reservoirs varies from less than 20 m3 for tanks to
several thousands of cu.m of water for dams. In the case of dams, the height of the crest ranges
between 2 to 6 m. Rubble-stone masonry dams that gain free storage capacity from natural rock
pools are quite cost effective to construct and maintain.

Figure 6.3 (a) Rock catchment and tank under construction (photo by b. Mati)

Rock catchment dams have no seepage losses but half of the volume of water might evaporate.
Evaporation can however be prevented by roofing the reservoirs. Water from rock catchments can
also be stored in tanks; but they are very expensive. The reservoirs of rock catchment systems must
be located at a lower level relative to the catchments for gravity flow, and when possible above
settlements. Water can normally be piped and supplied.

6.4.3 Rock catchment conveyance systems

A rock catchments delivery system comprises large flat stones are placed upright and cemented in
lines to form stone gutters approximately 20 cm high (Figure 6.4). These should be carefully aligned
so they rise gently with a gradient of 3 in 100 relative to the contour. The junction between the
stone gutter and the rock surface creates a channel sloping downwards towards the reservoir. These
stone gutters can extend for several hundred meters and even run around to the opposite side of a
rock outcrop or inselberg. The gutters also increase the area of the catchment whose flow is directed
into the storage structure.

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Figure 6.4 (a) Sketch showing guttering around (b) Gutter for runoff diversion on a rock
a rock catchments catchment (Source: Nissen-Peterssen, 2006)

6.5 Management and maintenance

• Due to the likelihood of pollution in water storages from rock catchments, the water must be
treated before drinking.
• The rock surface and surrounding catchment areas should be fenced
• The rock surface should be cleaned at the beginning of the rainy season,
• If the storage structure is small, e.g. a tank or small dam, it should be desilted and cleaned at the
beginning of the rains, or flushed using the first storm water.
• Restricting access by humans and animals, and cleaning of vegetation from time to time also
helps in this regard.

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 7. SELECTED REFERENCES
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Handbook. African Development Bank (AfDB), Tunis, Tunisia.
Ali, A. Oweis, T. Salkini, A.B. and El-Naggar, S. 2009. Rainwater cisterns traditional technologies for dry
areas. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICRADA), Allepo.
Cherogony, K. R. K. 2000. Trial on construction of underground rainwater harvesting tanks for supplemental
irrigation . A consultancy report, RELMA, Nairobi.
Chow, V. T, D. R. Maidment D.R., and L. W. Mays, L.W. 1988. Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
De Haas, S. 2010. Rainwater harvesting and shallow groundwater solutions in Budunbuto, Somalia.
SamSamWater, Netherlands.
ERHA, 2009. Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Supply: A Manual for Training of Trainers. Ethiopian
Rainwater Harvesting Association (ERHA), Addis Ababa
Hudson, N.W. 1975. Field Engineering for agricultural development. Batsford
Keen, M. 2005. Excavated tanks and hillside dams. Conservation Practices for Agricultural Land.
Department of Agriculture, Australia.
Malesu, M. M J. K. Sang, A. R. Oduor, O. J. Odhiambo and Nyabenge, M, 2006. Hydrologic impacts of
ponds on land cover change: Runoff water harvesting in Lare. Kenya. Technical Report No. 32 Nairobi,
Kenya: Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF)
Mati, B. M. 2005. Overview of water and soil nutrient management under smallholder rain-fed agriculture in East
Africa. Working Paper 105. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute
(IWMI). www.iwmi.cgiar.org/pubs/working/WOR105.pdf.
Mati, B.M. 2007. 100 Ways to Manage Water for Smallholder Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa.
SWMnet proceedings 13. Nairobi, Kenya. www.asareca.org/swmnet/imawesa
Nega H, Kimeu PM. 2002. Low-cost methods of rainwater storage: Results from field trials in Ethiopia and
Kenya. RELMA Technical Report Series 28. Nairobi, Kenya: Regional Land Management Unit
(RELMA), Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). 58 p.
Nissen Petersen E. and Lee, M. 1990. Water Harvesting in Semi-Arid Africa. Manual No. 1. Water tanks
with guttering and hand-pump. ASAL Rainwater Harvesting. Nairobi.
Nissen-Petersen, E. 2006. Water from rock outcrops. A handbook for Engineers and technicians on site
investigation, designs, construction, and maintenance of rock catchment tanks and dam. Asal
Consultants, Nairobi
Nissen-Petersen, E., 1982. Rain Catchment and Water Supply in Rural Africa: A Manual. Hodder and
Stoughton, Ltd., London.
Pacey A and Cullis A. 1999. Rainwater harvesting: The collection of rainfall and runoff in rural areas.
Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK.
Reij, C. and Waters-Bayer, A. (eds) 2001 Farmer Innovation in Africa. A source of inspiration for Agricultural
Development. Earthscan, London.
RELMA, 2005. Water from ponds, pans and dams: a manual on planning, design and maintenance. Technical
Handbook no. 32. Regional Land RELMA and World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya.
SWALIM, 2007. Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in Somalia. Somalia Water and Land Information
Management (SWALIM). Technical Report No. W-09. Nairobi.
UN Habitat. 2005. Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization. Blue Drop Series. Book 2.

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