Myrick, Ch.2

Developmental Guidance:
A Comprehensive Approach
In order to build a comprehensive Basic Assumptions

developmental guidance and counsel-
ing program in your school, it is impor- and Needs
tant to know the basic assumptions and Developmental guidance and counsel-
principles behind such an approach. ing assumes human nature moves indi-
Moreover, it is helpful to understand how viduals sequentially and positively toward
school personnel work together to imple- self-enhancement. It recognizes there is
ment the program. Then, attention can be a force within each of us that makes us
given to the skills and strategies that make believe we are special and there is nobody
a counselor's job unique and rewarding. like us. It also assumes our individual po-
tentials are valuable assets to society and
the future of humanity.
But, this innate drive for personal
expression and uniqueness that each of
us possesses often necessitates compro-
mise with external forces. These come
from other individuals who are striving
for their own special destinies. They also
come from a society that represents a col-
lection of attitudes, values, and laws that
are designed to help people live together.
Sometimes these inner and outer forces
clash and conflict results. Sometimes per-
sonal growth and development suffer.
The developmental approach consid-
ers the nature of human development,
including the general stages and tasks
most individuals experience as they
mature from childhood to adulthood.
It centers on positive self-concepts and
acknowledges one's self-concept is formed
and reformed through experience and
Educational Media Corporation® 33

Developmental Guidance and Counseling
education. It further recognizes feelings, The Theory of

ideas, and behaviors are closely linked
and they are learned. Therefore, the most Developmental Guidance
desired conditions for learning and re- In order to build a developmental
learning are important considerations for guidance and counseling program, there
development. The ultimate objective is to are a few concepts about human develop-
help students learn more effectively and ment to acknowledge. It is true you could
efficiently. act professionally and competently in
A developmental program requires the your relationships with others and not
help of all school personnel in order to have any knowledge of psychology, hu-
accomplish its goals, which are organized man development, or counseling skills.
around a guidance curriculum. Coun- We do not stray too far beyond common
selors and teachers, in particular, must sense when we work with people. How-
work closely together to provide appro- ever, increased effectiveness and efficiency
priate guidance and counseling services in our work often take us beyond intu-
to students. There is a need, therefore, to ition, imitation, and habit. Rather, success
identify the roles of school personnel in depends more upon a thoughtful reflec-
comprehensive guidance and counsel- tion of such concepts as why and what
ing programs and to recognize how they we are trying to do and the directions we
complement one another. Further, there is want to go.
a need to specifically define the job func- The term "developmental" is so
tions and basic interventions of school prominent in counseling and guidance,
counselors who are the guardians of the what else can be said about it? First,
program. human development is a lifelong set of
There is a demand for comprehensive physiological, psychological, and social
developmental guidance and counseling processes that begins at birth and contin-
programs that extend from elementary ues until death. Second, this development
through high school. In addition, there is involves an interaction between what a
a need to reorganize guidance curricula, to person is given genetically and the differ-
retrain school counselors and teachers for ent environments in which that person
new guidance and counseling roles, and lives and grows. Human development is a
to be more accountable in meeting the journey from birth to death in which the
developmental needs of young people. It personality unfolds, changes, and changes
does not involve a revolution in educa- again.
tion, but it does advance the evolution of In addition, development is a term
guidance and counseling in the schools. we commonly use when talking about
orderly changes or changes that appear to
have some kind of direction. Of course,
this order and direction can be disrupted
if certain factors are introduced that
thwart natural inclinations. In addition,
the nature of social institutions and cul-
tural dimensions influence life's process
and stages.
34 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Chapter 2 Developmental Guidance: A Comprehensive Approach
Developmental Robert Havighurst, as early as 1948,

Stages and Tasks presented a theory of human develop-
ment that focused on developmental
During the 1960s, increased atten- tasks. "A developmental task arises at or
tion was given to child study. The devel- about a certain period in the life of the in-
opmental needs of children were being dividual, successful achievement of which
recognized. In particular, the growth leads to his happiness and to success with
needs of children were highlighted in the later tasks, while failure leads to unhap-
works of such authors as Benjamin Bloom piness in the individual, disapproval of
(1964), Robert Gesell, Frances Ilg and society, and difficulty with later tasks"
Louise Ames (1946 & 1956), Robert Havi- (Havighurst, 1972, p. 2). Stages of devel-
ghurst (1953), and Jerome Kagan (1962). opment were outlined and developmental
They emphasized how heredity and tasks within these stages were identified
environment together shaped a child's (e.g., see Figure 2.1).
personality. They suggested achievement
of developmental tasks at one stage of Erik Erikson (1963), in his classic
life influenced success with tasks in later book, emphasized everyone experiences
stages. crises or conflicts in development and ad-
justments to conflicts play an important
The work of Jean Piaget (1970) em- part in the development of an individual's
phasized the cognitive development of personality. Most important, the resolu-
children. He and his colleagues concluded tion of conflicts tends to be cumulative
intellectual development appeared to take in that a person's manner of coping and
place in stages and, therefore, no stage adjusting to conflicts at one stage in life
could be eliminated, since each one was influences the ways of handling the next
dependent on the preceding one. The four conflict. All of us, through our everyday
stages identified were: Sensorimotor (0 experiences, with some experiences being
to 2 years); Preoperational (2 to 7 years); more critical than others, develop a set of
Concrete Operations (7 to 12 years); and complex behaviors which influence our
4) Formal Operations (12 years and older). actions throughout our lives.
For example, according to Piaget's the- From Erikson's viewpoint, there are
ory, children starting school are entering a eight stages of human or psychosocial
stage when symbols are used to carry out development. Each stage presents criti-
mental activities. Children are learning cal learning experiences that exert influ-
properties can change in appearance, but ence over one's remaining life span. For
some factors remain the same, objects can example, autonomy needs are especially
be quantified, and reasoning can result important to toddlers (the "me do it" syn-
from examining the whole and parts of an drome), but throughout life, people must
object. Problem solving improves by the continue to test the degree of autonomy
middle school years because thoughts can they can express in each new relationship
be more deductive and can focus on the and stage in life.
future (Keenan & Evans, 2009).

Figure 2.1
Developmental Stages/Tasks
Infancy/Early Childhood (Ages 0-5)

1. Learning to walk 7. Preparing for marriage and family life
2. Learning to take solid foods 8. Developing skills and concepts for civic
3. Learning to talk competence
4. Learning to control elimination of body 9. Desiring and achieving socially responsible
wastes behaviors, taking account values of society
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 10. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical
6. Forming concepts and learning language to system as a guide to behavior
describe social and physical reality 11. Setting realistic goals and making plans for
7. Learning to relate emotionally to parents and reaching these goals
siblings; identifying relationships
8. Getting ready to read
9. Learning to distinguish right and wrong and Early Adulthood (Ages 19-30)
beginning to develop a conscience 1. Selecting a mate-developing intimate
relationships
2. Learning to live with a marriage partner
Middle Childhood (Ages 6-11) 3. Starting a family
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary 4. Raising children
games 5. Managing a home
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself 6. Getting started in an occupation, some-
and a sense of self-concept times neglecting other tasks during this
3. Learning to get along with age mates-mov- period
ing from the family circle to groups outside 7. Taking on civic responsibility
the home 8. Finding a congenial social group
4. Learning the skills of tolerance and patience
5. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine
social roles Middle Age
6. Developing fundamental skills in reading, 1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
writing, and calculating 2. Establishing and maintaining an economic
7. Developing concepts necessary for everyday standard of living
living 3. Assisting teenage children to become
8. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale responsible happy adults
of values 4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
9. Achieving personal independence 5. Relating oneself to one's spouse as a person
10. Developing attitudes toward social groups 6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologi-
and institutions, through experiences and cal changes of middle age
imitation 7. Adjusting to aging parents
Adolescence (Ages 12 to 18)
1. Achieving new and more mature relations
with age mates of both sexes Later Maturity
2. Learning socially approved feminine and 1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength
masculine roles and behaviors and health
3. Accepting one's physique and learning to 2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced in-
use the body effectively come
4. Achieving emotional independence of par- 3. Adjusting to death of spouse
ents and other adults 4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one's
5. Setting vocational goals for economic inde- age group
pendence 5. Meeting social and civic obligations
6. Selecting and preparing for an occupation, Drawn from Havighurst, 79 72.
relating interests to abilities to choices

Erikson's work on development has Preconventional

proven to be a valuable reference point (Based on meeting personal needs)
for many people, as they attempt to con- Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
ceptualize developmental stages and tasks. 11
"I'll do it, so I don't get punished.
Generally, his eight stages of development
included: Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist 1J'll do
1
it, if you do something for me.

11
Stage 1: Trust (birth to 2 years of age)

Conventional
Stage 2: Autonomy (2 to 4 years) (Based on meeting group norms)
Stage 3: Initiative (4 to 6 years) Stage 3: Good boy or girl orientation
Stage 4: Industry (6 to 12 years) 11 11
I'll do it to please you.
Stage 5: Identity (12 to 18 years) Stage 4: Law and order "I'll do it be-
11
Stage 6: Intimacy (18 to 25 years) cause it's my duty.
Stage 7: Generativity (25 to 50 years) Postconventional
(Based on moral principle)
Stage 8: Integrity (SO years and older)
Stage 5: Social-contract "I'll do it be-
Although times and values change cause it's best for the majority.
11
and the marvels of the medical world

have extended the average life span, Stage 6: Universal ethics "I'll do it
Erikson's "ages of man" still seem to be because my conscience tells me it's right."
relevant. He further suggested if the tasks Kohlberg suggested individuals tend
at different ages are not achieved, then to reason at one particular level more
at each stage emotional consequences than half the time, with the rest of the
occur: (1) mistrust; (2) doubt and shame; reasoning at other levels. Typically, they
(3) guilt; (4) inferiority; (5) confusion; (6) do not regress, but remain where they are
isolation; (7) stagnation; and (8) despair. or move slowly toward the next higher
During middle school, there is more level. Conflicts often result when indi-
need for self-exploration and peer rela- viduals do not understand the reasoning
tionships. Discovering one's identity or process, especially when they are made
sense of uniqueness from others becomes up of lower and higher level arguments.
a significant emotional task. An indi- It is evident that moral development in
vidual's level of awareness in this search this case is dependent upon intellectual or
varies, depending upon personal history, cognitive development (Higgins & Power
achievement in preceding stages, anticipa- (1991).
tion of the future, and the interpersonal Don Super (Super & Bohn, 1970; Su-
skills that have been learned (Friedman, per, 2008), of career guidance fame, based
1999). his work on five developmental stages.
Lawrence Kohlberg (Kohlberg & They are: (a) Organizational (birth to
Turiel, 1971) developed a three-level, about age fourteen); (b) Exploration (age
six-stage approach to moral development fifteen to thirty); (c) Realization (thirty
that has helped counselors and teachers to about fifty); (d) Stabilization (fifty to
gain insight to personal development. His sixty-five); and (e) Examination (after
theory attempted to show how there is a sixty-five). While the age limits are gener-
moral element in behavior. In each stage, ally descriptive, they are only approxima-
the orientation and thinking process tions and can vary from one individual to
might be: another. In addition, these ages may be
influenced by new developments in soci-

ety, such as a longer life-span and career Deficits in the concern for others' well
as a consequence of advances in modern being have long been held as hallmarks of
medicine. We also know young people are antisocial personality disorders. By defini-
maturing faster now than they were fifty tion, a disorder has a history of disruptive
years ago and these maturational changes behaviors. Kochanska (1991) found more
can affect development in terms of life disobedient toddlers were less likely, six
stages. to eight years later, to report prosocial
One inevitable conclusion is if stu- responses to vignettes depicting trans-
dents are taught to master certain tasks gressions against others than were less
and skills that coincide with the different disobedient toddlers. She suggested self-
stages, perhaps learning lifelong skills and regulation, as indexed by the frequency of
attitudes, then they are more likely to disobedient behavior, might predict future
feel a sense of control and success in their problems in conscience development
lives. The result is a more positive experi- through either biological or environmen-
ence of life. tal pathways. The lack of concern for
others in many antisocial adolescents has
Human development is complex and been well-documented (Cohen & Strayer,
has been discussed in much greater detail 1996).
elsewhere. In summary, most theorists
see it as a rather patterned, orderly, and Children's lack of concern for others
distinct process. They agree it is affected and aggressive or disruptive behaviors can
by cultural forces and events that take be detected in elementary school (Vitaro,
place in a person's life. Also, human de- Tremblay, Gagnon, & Pelletier, 1994). The
velopment, while following some general empathic deficits of aggressive individuals
expectations at certain stages of life, must emerge over time, either through arrested
take into account individual uniqueness. development of concern at a relatively
Effective developmental guidance and immature stage or by an actual decrease
counseling programs take stages of devel- from earlier levels. In addition, antisocial
opment into consideration. children may not only lack concern, but
also may actively disregard or be callous
toward others in need (Reinke & Herman,
Development of Empathy
2010).
and Concern for Others
Empathic concern for the well-being
It often is assumed human beings of others may be related to a heritable,
have a biological inclination to attend biologically based response system, but
to and recognize the emotional needs some researchers have found parental so-
of others. Empathy functions as a social cialization and child-rearing attitudes and
emotion, bridging the affective states of behaviors to be a more productive ground
one individual with another. This em- (Eisenberg et al., 1998). A person-centered
pathic awareness has allowed humans parent, for example, includes being warm,
to predict each other's behaviors, to be responsive, and supportive while estab-
aware of other's needs and interests to lishing guidelines for behavior and using
forge personal bonds, and to work ~oop reasoning in conjunction with controlled
eratively. Empathy and concern for others discipline. Authoritarian parents, on
is the basis for altruism and the ability to the other hand, center on harsh, restric-
establish effective social groups (Snyder & tive, punitive, and intensely controlling
Lopez, 2002).

actions. In addition, they often display Thousands of journal and newspaper

negative affect within the context of child articles have been written using the word
rearing, which includes showing anger, self-esteem. If we have high self-esteem, it
frustration, and disappointment with means we appreciate our inherent worth
their children. and ourselves. We have a positive attitude
Tremblay (1992) and his colleagues and evaluate ourselves highly. We are
found disruptive six-year-old boys who convinced of our own abilities and we see
also were highly prosocial engaged in ourselves as competent and powerful-in
fewer disruptive behaviors three years control of our own lives and able to do
later than did boys who were disruptive what we want. We also compare ourselves
and less prosocial. Girls show more con- favorably with others.
cern than do boys from the second year If we have low self-esteem, we often
of life through adolescence (Zahn-Waxler, doubt our abilities and are less willing to
2001). Following individuals from middle participate in challenging tasks or activi-
childhood into adulthood, Hamalaimen ties. Classmates seem to be smarter, quick-
and Pulkkinen (1995) found adult men er, and in more favor. Teachers may be
and women who had been more prosocial viewed as adversaries rather than helpers.
as children were less likely to have been When we are put in situations that foster
arrested or convicted of repeat offenses. or reinforce our lack of self-esteem, it is
Criminality was greatest among adults natural to turn to other places and people
who had been high in aggression and low in order to feel valued and competent.
in prosocial behavior as children.
Learning prosocial behaviors can The Concept of Self
reduce the likelihood or the amount of The self-concept is a relatively stable
antisocial behavior in later years. School set of perceptions individuals hold about
counselors and teachers can use guidance themselves. Human development special-
units and activities to help students learn ists agree we do not have a self-concept or
how to care for others, to listen to their self-picture at birth. As infants, we cannot
feelings, and to engage people in positive survive without interaction with other
ways. beings, yet our brains are not developed
Mayer, DiPaolo, and Salovey (1990) enough to process the social atmosphere
defined emotional intelligence as the into which we are born. Thus, an infant
ability to monitor one's own and other's lying in a crib has no notion of selfhood.
feelings and emotions, to discriminate Awareness of one's unique existence
among them, and to use this informa- comes into play only as the brain devel-
tion to guide one's thinking and actions. ops and the growth process evolves.
Goleman (1995) defined emotional intel- Self-concept has been recognized as
ligence as: an important variable in human devel-
• knowing ones emotions opment and learning. Both self-concept
and self-esteem are considered products
• managing emotions
of how people talk and interact with one
• motivating oneself another.
• recognizing emotions in others
• handling relationships

As the self~concept develops, various Developmental

attitudes and personal styles take shape, Theory and Counseling
which in turn become part of the learn-
ing process. It appears significant attitudes Allen Ivey has been a strong pro-
about self, others, school, and society, ponent of developmental therapy and
which affect how we learn and later func- counseling. He has advocated integrating
tion as mature adults, are formed while the work of developmental theorists, such
we are growing up in our families and as Piaget and Erikson, into helping others
attending school. Student achievement in to grow and change. He sees all clients as
school has been directly related to self- having developmental needs and needing
concept (Purkey, 1970; 2006). assistance to move through cognitive and
emotional stages of life. Through devel-
Therefore, to consider developmental opmental therapy, clients can gain new
tasks and stages without giving attention perspectives on their problems and break
to self-concept might be considered folly. out of destructive modes of thinking as
In addition, it seems clear one's self-pic- they learn to trust their feelings and reac-
ture is shaped by interpersonal relation- tions (Ivey & Thomas, 2007).
ships and these relationships are part of
the conditions in which people learn. Life span development, by whatever
theory, is a phenomenon that plays itself
One disturbing report suggested out again and again through the develop-
school climate can damage the self-esteem mental tasks and phases of parents and
of some students. More specifically, when their children (Ivey & Ivey, 1990). This de-
children in kindergarten were asked if velopment occurs holistically, not in strict
they liked themselves, 95 percent said linear sequence, although the two can be
"yes." But, by the time they had reached integrated. Most theorists emphasize the
fourth grade, their responses had dropped importance of relationships. Each stage of
to 60 percent. By eighth grade, their re- development contains all the other stages
sponses were down to 40 percent and by and one must complete developmental
twelfth grade it was 5 percent (Weinhold, tasks successfully or problems will occur
1999). in life. All theorists stress the importance
It is a mistake to assume children who of environment.
are having social problems, especially In a developmental sense, people
those who are aggressive and disruptive, cannot operate apart from their cultural
have "low self-concepts." Teachers have and historical backgrounds. A student
been known to refer a student for counsel- working on a problem or trying to make a
ing and suggest the disorderly behavior decision invariably brings to the situation
was probably related to a lack of self- their cultural and historical self. It is usu-
confidence or maybe low self-esteem. To ally at an unconscious or very low level
the contrary, some unacceptable behavior, of awareness. Likewise, the helper (e.g.,
such as bullying others, can bring higher teacher, counselor, parent) also works out
social status (Prinstein & Cilessen, 2003). of an unconscious and integrated mind
Developmental school counselors recog- set which structures the interaction and
nize antisocial behavior serves a purpose eventually the relationship.
and is a phenomenon associated with
self-concept.

In a fast-paced multi-cultural society Interpersonal relationships can be for

that is ever changing, and one that prizes better or for worse. Carl Rogers (1957)
diversity and uniqueness, developmental and others (e.g., Carkhuff & Berenson,
theory must be cast in a frame of refer- 1967) drew attention to the desired condi-
ence that is practical. Development must tions in a helping relationship, especially
be viewed as continuous, cyclical, progres- for counseling and therapy. These same
sive, and active. It is a difficult process to conditions also hold true for teaching
operationalize, one that has too long been and parenting (Purkey, 1970; Marzano,
acknowledged in principle, but ignored in 2007). Included in a list of such helping
practice. At the heart of personal devel- conditions are caring, understanding,
opment are fundamental learning con- acceptance, respect, and trustworthiness.
ditions that influence either positive or Other conditions sometimes cited include
negative growth. They are the foundation genuineness, warmth, and concreteness.
for learning and relearning. All these are in contrast to such condi-
tions as cold, distant, sarcastic, judgmen-
Developmental tal, superior, inflexible, and unconcerned.
Conditions for Learning Some writers have focused upon the
During the 1960s, interpersonal rela- "affective" and "cognitive" domains (e.g.,
tionships were closely examined. It was Bloom, 1956; Wadsworth, 2003) in an
an era that might have been called the attempt to describe the learning process.
"Search for Intimacy." There was a drive But, it is impossible to learn anything
to learn more about human relationships of meaning or value without personal
and how people relate to each other. It involvement and emotion. Likewise, it is
was a time when close encounters took impossible to make any sense of what one
place and the human relations movement is feeling and experiencing without using
was born. Sensitivity groups of all kinds cognitive ideas. To focus on one domain
sprung up around the nation. at the exclusion of the other is some-
thing that might be done as an academic
It was partly from these groups, as exercise, but it does not work that way
well as from research about interpersonal in practice. Learning happens best when
skills, a renewed interest was taken in both domains are given attention, wheth-
studying the interactions between teacher you are in a classroom or a counseling
ers and students. After all the studies were office.
reviewed, it was easy to conclude the
quality of a teacher-student relationship
affects learning outcomes and students
learn best in environments where people
interact positively with one another.

Developmental Guidance Goal 1: Understanding the School Envi-

ronment
Curriculum and Goals
Goal 2: Understanding Self and Others
There is an organized curriculum
within the developmental approach to Goal 3: Understanding Attitudes and Be-
guidance. Based upon developmental stag- havior
es, tasks, skills, and learning conditions, Goal 4: Decision Making and Problem
the guidance curriculum is a planned ef- Solving
fort to provide each student with a set of Goal 5: Interpersonal and Communica-
skills and experiences that helps enhance tion Skills
all learning. Such an approach embraces
Goal 6: School Success Skills
all the goals of education.
Goal 7: Career Awareness and Educational
More specifically, the goals and
Planning
objectives of a developmental guidance
program are related to facilitating the Goal 8: Community Pride and Involve-
instructional process. Some people may ment
see personal development objectives as Each goal is further delineated by a
supplemental to academic ones, but they set of general objectives that, in turn, can
are an integrated part of the total educa- be described more specifically through
tion program. While the objectives appear expected observable outcomes. In addi-
to focus primarily on personal growth, the tion, each of the eight general goals is
outcomes might be considered desirable applicable to all school levels (K-12). Par-
for any educational program. ticular attention and emphasis to various
There are many guides that have been objectives are usually grade level related,
published by school systems that attempt considering developmental stages and
to describe program goals and objectives. tasks appropriate for each age group.
Some are more extended and detailed Goal 1: Understanding the
than others. Titles, phrases, choices of School Environment enables students
words, and a particular emphasis may be a in whatever school they are attending to
little different from one system to an- become more familiar with facilities, pro-
other, but a thorough review would show cedures, and programs. It includes helping
there are several common themes. students to learn more about guidance
There are eight goals that character- services and the roles of school counselors
ize almost all developmental guidance and teacher-advisors.
and counseling programs. For the most Goal 2: Understanding Self and
part, regardless of school or school sys- Others focuses on such matters as help-
tem, general and specific objectives can be ing students learn more about their abili-
organized around them. They are: ties, interests, and personal characteristics.
Students learn to identify their strengths
and areas in which they want to improve.
They also think about and develop skills
related to their relationships with peers,
teachers, and other adults. This goal
includes self-assessment, self-acceptance,
and the development of self-confidence. It
values positive differences and uniqueness
among people.

Goal 3: Understanding Attitudes awareness, and to do some in-depth ca-

and Behavior continues to address un- reer exploration related to personal skills,
derstanding of self and others, giving par- interests, and abilities. In addition, atten-
ticular attention to how habits, attitudes, tion is given to making educational plans,
and perceptions can affect behavior. Also including selecting courses, preparing for
examined are how feelings and behaviors graduation and future education, develop-
are related to goals and consequences and ing employability skills, and learning how
how behavior can be changed, if desired. to search for a job.
Goal 4: Decision Making and Goal 8: Community Pride and In-
Problem Solving attends to setting volvement stresses community involve-
goals and making responsible decisions. It ment. It emphasizes how students can be
involves an increased awareness of fac- responsible and productive people in their
tors that influence change and decision communities. It also focuses on commu-
making, as well as helpful procedures for nity resources.
problem solving. There is an emphasis on Some school systems have not only
responsibility and individual choice. identified the general goals of a guidance
Goal 5: Interpersonal and Com- program, but have proceeded to specify
munication Skills emphasizes the objectives, related counselor interventions
value of developing positive interpersonal and services, possible counseling and
relationships and how communication guidance activities, expected observable
skills affect the way in which people outcomes or indicators of success, and
interact with one another. Interpersonal methods for measuring results. Hand-
and communication skills are related to books, outlining and cross referencing
friendships and working relationships activities from popular publications, also
with students, teachers, and family. have been assembled in almost every
Goal 6: School Success Skills is de- school system. These books may provide a
signed to help students be more successful rationale and description of the guidance
in school. This includes study skills, learn- program, as well as describe the various
ing behaviors, time management, conflict guidance roles of teachers, counselors,
resolution with peers and teachers, and and administrators.
developing positive attitudes and habits
which enable one to get the most out of Principles of
school. Developmental Guidance
Goal 7: Career Awareness and In addition to program objectives,
Educational Planning is aimed at there are seven principles of developmen-
one of the most traditional aspects of tal guidance programs that provide direc-
school guidance and counseling. There tion as to how a program can be imple-
have been many attempts to integrate or mented and evaluated (see Figure 2.2).
assimilate career information and guid-
ance within academic curricula. This goal,
however, is more broadly focused on help-
ing students to understand more about
the world of work, to increase their career

Figure 2.2
Principles of
Developmental Guidance Programs
7. Developmental guidance is for all students

2. Developmental guidance has an organized and planned curriculum.
3. Developmental guidance is sequential and flexible.
4. Developmental guidance is an integrated part of the total educational process.
5. Developmental guidance involves all school personnel.
6. Developmental guidance helps students learn more effectively and efficiently.
7. Developmental guidance includes counselors who provide specialized counseling ser-
vices and interventions.
1. Developmental guidance is for The guidance curriculum is concerned

all students. with behavior as much as self-concept.
Although some young people have It encourages responsible decision mak-
more problems or are more troublesome ing and individual uniqueness. It also
than others, and while some need spe- acknowledges society and community
cial attention because of their particular expectations, as well as the rights and
needs or circumstances, developmental self-worth of individuals. The curriculum
guidance is directed to all students. There is designed to help students to be sensi-
will be times, of course, when disruptive to others, to cope and adjust, and to
tive incidents happen or when a crisis- be personally assertive, self-confident, and
type intervention may be an appropriate self-directed.
response. However, an effective guidance The curriculum goals and objec-
curriculum provides continuous assis- tives are usually organized into guidance
tance, support, and meaningful growth units. Each unit, with its general and
experiences to all students. specific objectives, is further organized
2. Developmental guidance has an into guidance sessions that are presented
organized and planned curriculum. to students. For example, if the general
objective of a unit is to "develop a posi-
Within this curriculum, there are tive attitude about school," then a more
general and specific objectives to assist specific objective-perhaps addressed in a
students in their development. The cur- particular session-might be "to be able to
riculum is built upon helping students compliment another person." In this case,
with their cognitive, affective, and physi- it is assumed positive attitudes are related
cal growth, giving special attention to to positive relationships with others and
individual appraisal, potential, motiva- the skill of recognizing and compliment-
tion, and achievement. It concentrates on ing others is a valued part of interpersonal
learning conditions and emphasizes the relationships.
human aspect of the educational process.

3. Developmental guidance is se- In addition, teachers and counselors

quential and flexible. must be flexible enough to seize upon
Experience with students at different moments when "timely teaching" is ap-
age levels provides some idea about when propriate. There are special times when
particular guidance units are best pre- students are ready to learn. Sometimes
sented and studied. In this sense, there is something out of the ordinary has hap-
an attempt to provide some continuity to pened and this might provide extra
the program. It is assumed, for example, motivation or student interest. Ideally, it
all students need to be oriented to the is always best to present a guidance activ-
school building and general procedures ity when there is an obvious eagerness to
during the first part of the year. It also is learn. Counselors and teachers can take
assumed that shortly after orientation, advantage of those times when guidance
students will want to assess their goals lessons are particularly appropriate or
and examine their classroom behaviors. It have special meaning.
is not enough to wait until students have 4. Developmental guidance is an
problems in their classes or have misun- integrated part of the total edu-
derstandings with their teachers before cational process.
they receive some guidance. Rather, stu- Although there is an identified cur-
dents can benefit by identifying the kinds riculum that appears to be separate from
of classroom behaviors that are related the academic curriculum, developmental
to achievement and then rating them- guidance permeates the school environ-
selves or comparing ratings with teacher ment. Timely teaching is part of an effec-
ratings. Next, students might identify tive developmental guidance program.
those behaviors upon which they want to Likewise, counselors may create a person-
improve. This unit may then be followed alized guidance lesson which draws upon
by a "study skills unit" in which students and applies something that has been
learn to manage their time and concen- learned in an academic class. For example,
trate on study habits. students learning to write letters in an
The program must be flexible so English class also can apply those skills
guidance units or sessions can be moved to writing for more information about
around to accommodate student and careers or perhaps applying for a summer
teacher readiness. In addition, sometimes job.
new units must be developed and inserted 5. Developmental guidance in-
into the scheduled curriculum to address volves all school personnel.
a particular need or a growing concern.
Teachers, counselors, administrators,
Although each guidance unit might and all support personnel are responsible
be carefully planned and presented at for guidance services in the school. Some
what is considered to be an optimal time guidance units might best be delivered by
of the school year, it also is possible some teachers through their assigned classes or
guidance units need to be repeated, oth- maybe during a special guidance period
ers need to be modified, and still others when they are working as advisors to
introduced at other times than when first students. Other guidance units might
scheduled. best be delivered by guidance specialists,
such as counselors, school psychologists,
resource teachers, or outside consultants
or resource people.

Although school counselors have been Counseling services are not consid-
identified as those who will take the lead ered therapy. The guidance program is not
in organizing and planning a develop- designed to provide psychotherapy for the
mental guidance program, the program psychologically deviant. However, many
cannot be implemented without the full students who have serious personal prob-
support and assistance of teachers and lems still attend regular school. They have
administrators. The guidance program is to cope with the limitations of the school
not something that can be shuffled off to setting and to adjust to classroom condi-
specialists alone. It requires cooperation tions. They often need help in establish-
among all the adults who are working ing working relationships with teachers
with students. and classmates.
6. Developmental guidance helps Some students with serious personal
students learn more effectively problems respond well to guidance units
and efficiently. or brief counseling by school personnel.
While guidance and counseling em- Many teachers and counselors recognize
phasize personal growth and individual the importance of establishing positive
potential, it does not do so at the ex- relationships with troubled students and
pense of academic achievement. In fact, do so effectively. Regardless of what they
everything in the guidance program is do and their effectiveness, the helping
eventually directed at helping students process is not labeled therapy. Assisting
learn more effectively and efficiently. All troubled students to adjust to school not
guidance objectives have an educational only improves their learning and well-be-
base and all services are related to helping ing, but it improves the learning environ-
students get the most out of school. ment for others. If a student is having
problems with a teacher, that student is
7. Developmental guidance in- not learning and is probably distracting
cludes school counselors who others' learning as well.
provide specialized counseling
services and interventions. School counseling is based upon brief-
counseling theory and draws upon coun-
While many guidance objectives can selor interventions that can be delivered
be met within the general framework within six to eight counseling sessions. In
of the instructional program and guid- a developmental guidance program, coun-
ance curriculum, there are occasions seling is focused. General "rap sessions"
when more specialized services, such as in which students talk with counselors in
brief counseling, are needed by students. unstructured meetings are not as common
Counseling is provided by certified school as they once were. High student-counselor
counselors who are knowledgeable about ratios and limited counselor time make
counseling theories and skills. unorganized or meandering kinds of dis-
School counselors are viewed as hu- cussions impractical, although they may
man behavior and relationship specialists be interesting, productive, and desirable
within a school. They have training in in- on occasion.
dividual and group counseling skills. They Littrell, Malia, and Vanderwood
also have more flexible time than teach- (1995) provided research to show solu-
ers. Subsequently, they can give extra tion-focused brief counseling was effective
attention to some students and provide with high school students and concluded
counseling experiences when appropriate. time-limited counseling is a valuable tool
for counselors in school settings.

In addition to individual and small Hawaii, New Mexico, and Texas. In some
group counseling and classroom guid- counties or districts, a single minority
ance, counselors provide other services, group has the largest portion of the total
such as consulting, training peer facilita- population. It must be noted that, even
tors, testing, and coordinating other guid- in these situations, the group most likely
ance activities. These job functions of the to be regarded as the majority is the one
school counselor will be discussed in the whose members have the most resources
remaining chapters of this book. and political clout regardless of popula-
tion size.
Developmental Guidance Our nation's success reflects the con-
and Students at Risk tributions of many people from different
Education has always meant oppor- racial and ethnic groups. However, our
tunity, but there are many young people country also has had a long, bitter history
who are considered "at-risk." They come of race relations. More recently, there is
from families that are less advantaged an increased awareness communities and
and, consequently, are usually less pre- schools are not designed to accommodate
pared to gain the most out of school. the needs, interests, and concerns of mi-
Many quickly fall behind and never reach norities, especially those from the lower
their learning potential. There are others socioeconomic scale.
who are caught in family or environmen- Too often, expectations for student
tal situations that limit their personal achievement for minorities is low and
resources and chances for success. their access to resources is limited.
Tidwell and Garrett (1994) argued The Asian Pacific American (APA)
the term "at-risk" is too general and not population has doubled each decade
well-defined. It is too inclusive, frequently since 1970. By 2020, the number of APAs
focusing on groups that already are in nationwide is projected to be 20 million,
trouble rather than being the element of or six percent of the U.S. population. Of
prediction. The commonality these young these, nearly 40 percent of Laotians and
people share, regardless of race or ethnic Cambodians live below the poverty rate
heritage, is their living conditions, which and over 94 percent of Tongans, Cambo-
put them at-risk in terms of personal and dians, Laotians, and Hmongs do not com-
social development and success in school. plete college. Only 31 percent of Hmongs
Other books and publications have graduate from high school (U.S. Bureau of
documented the need to help at-risk Census, 2000).
students (Lee, 2001; Lee & Walz, 1998). Because of their racial complexity,
These students often are considered a APAs provide a good example of the dan-
prime population for special attention, as ger of lumping groups together in a single
administrators, parents, and teachers refer racial category. By lumping sets of racial
them for counselor assistance. or ethnic groups, significant differences
Minority group populations continue between groups often are overlooked.
to grow and, although they remain un- There are as many as 31 diverse groups
evenly distributed around the U.S., collec- within the APA community, which are
tively they comprise the largest segment not linked by a single language, religion,
of the total population. This is already the social class, or national origin (Okazaki,
case in several states including California, 2000).

APAs often are exposed to bigotry. • More black students are likely to be
Immigrant children face a multitude absent from advanced placement and
of learning and adjustment challenges. honors courses.
Many experience unfriendly school envi- • When compared to their white peers,
ronments and are the targets of racial hos- middle class African Americans on
tility. These same students believe when the average lag significantly behind in
conflicts arise between them and those of grade point average (and on standard-
other backgrounds, administrators tend to ized tests, including the SAT (Scholas-
deal more harshly with them than with tic Aptitude Test).
others. Moreover, there is a widespread
perception of them as belonging to a These bleak figures underscore a
high-achieving "model minority" which complex social crisis for black Americans.
masks a host of serious problems. Discrimination and bigotry contribute to
poverty, crime, use of alcohol and drugs,
African Americans make up about 13.5 and the disintegration of family and
percent of the total U.S. population, or community, and make them feel deliber-
approximately 40.7 million people (2007). ately disregarded. Early interventions and
That number is increasing each year and developmental approaches in the schools
is projected to become 65.7 million by can help bring down the barriers that
2050. It has been estimated 82 percent thwart so many African Americans.
have at least a high school diploma and
19 percent have a bachelor's degree or Hispanics and Latinos also are experi-
higher. In 2007, there were over a million encing escalating problems. In the near
more black students in college than 15 future, they are projected to become the
years earlier. second largest race/ethnic group in the
United States. This growth is largely fu-
However, blacks often fear they are eled by immigration. Thinking all Hispan-
losing ground in the competition for ics belong to one homogeneous group is
resources and the pursuit of their share a serious misconception. Hispanic Ameri-
of the prosperity. The problem is particu- cans come from as many as 20 different
larly dramatic in the nation's inner cities, countries-and some of these countries
where the multiple conditions of crime, share very little in common. Many His-
drugs and alcohol abuse, AIDS, and lack panics feel engulfed by hardships that
of job opportunities take their toll. are associated with limited English speak-
• Black children are three times more ing skills, unemployment, drug-related
likely than whites to live in a sin- crimes, and teenage pregnancies.
gle-parent household and 43.2 per- Latino schooling in the U.S. has long
cent of all African-American children been characterized by high dropout rates
live in poverty. and low college completion rates. Both
• Homicide is the leading cause of death problems have moderated over time, but
for African-American males between a persistent educational attainment gap
the ages of 15 and 34. Nearly half of remains between Hispanics and whites.
all U.S. murder victims are black. When asked why Latinos on average
• Black males are more likely to be clas- do not do as well as other students in
sified as mentally handicapped or suf- school, most respondents in a Pew His-
fering from a learning disability and panic Center survey (Lopez, 2009) blamed
placed in special education. poor parenting and poor English skills
rather than poor teachers. In addition,
the survey found the biggest reason for
the gap between the high value Latinos

place on education and their more mod- When children face misfortune in
est aspirations to finish college appears to their young lives, such as poverty, family
come from financial pressure to support a discord, violence, substance abuse, linger-
family. ing family illnesses, and language barriers,
Multicultural education, guidance and their learning in schools can be disrupted
counseling services, and civil rights can be and limited. Some become so dysfunc-
legislated, but the social forces of segrega- tional they may not be capable of forming
tion and discrimination are larger than helping relationships with others, perhaps
the law. Alienation, isolation, and polar- resistant to counseling and other adult-
ization create doubts and distrust, frustra- assistance. Yet, given the right kinds of
tion and fears, a lack of communication helping conditions and learning climate,
and poor interpersonal relationships. ' many of these same children can bounce
When it happens in communities, regard- back from adversity and become produc-
less of location and size, then it continues tive citizens (Rak & Patterson, 1996).
into the schools. Our schools are a reflec- Promoting resilience among all children,
tion of our nation's past, present, and especially those at-risk, is a high priority
future. in comprehensive developmental guid-
ance programs.
There also are other minorities,
such as Native Americans, East Indians, Schools, especially those that provide
and various religious groups, that are of developmental guidance and counsel-
diverse power and potential. How can ing programs, can be more effective in
we diffuse ethnic tensions and ease the addressing the needs of students and
transition of immigrants into our schools? prevent many problems from becoming
What can be done to provide a better edu- crises. The learning climate of all students
cation to minority and ethnic students is improved when comprehensive guid-
who are "at-risk?" ance programs and services are made
available to all students, helping them
All students might be viewed as "at- learn to respect the value of diversity and
risk," given the changing face of Ameri- rights of others. They also learn to form
can society. Even those who have a stable positive working relationships with peers
and supportive home environment and and adults. This requires educational lead-
who are generally successful in their ership and school personnel who are will-
academic studies must still attend school ing to work cooperatively as a team, each
with those who are less fortunate or who fulfilling their particular role (Lee, 1995).
are temporarily struggling with difficult
problems. Of course, all students have
typical problems and concerns associated
with their developmental stages. Some
experience these problems to a greater
extent than others, including intensity,
severity, frequency, and duration.

A Comprehensive Guidance school, there may be a curriculum special-

ist who helps develop, coordinate, and
and Counseling Program supervise the delivery of courses and their
Herr (2001) described how a young respective content. The guidance program
school counseling profession evolved in also has a school-wide focus and-while
response to prominent national policy everyone in the school might play a part
initiatives, economic trends, pressing so- in the delivery of guidance curriculum-
cial needs, and school reform movements. responsibility for the program usually
However, most of the prevailing advocates rests with school counselors.
for national school reform, by and large, School counselors must provide the
pay little attention to the personal or leadership that is needed to develop
emotional needs and interests of students. a comprehensive guidance program.
Rather, reform advocates talk about rais- Through collaboration and consulta-
ing academic standards, lengthening the tion with other professionals in a school,
school day, implementing state-mandated counselors influence the learning climate.
curricula, holding schools more account- They are advocates for students and seek
able for student achievement based on to enhance student achievement through
standardized tests, and giving school guidance and counseling services.
"report cards."
Comprehensive guidance and coun-
School guidance and counseling seling programs have attempted to trans-
programs are almost never mentioned in form and reinvigorate the roles, duties,
eminent published reports that describe and functions performed by school
the condition of the nation's schools and counselors. The critical need to trans-
the need for reform. Typically, guidance form school counseling from a marginal,
programs are excluded when implications peripheral service to a program central to
for educational excellence are described. the mission of each school has been well-
Guidance programs appear to be an ad- recognized (Brown & Trusty, 2005; Gys-
dendum of teacher and administrative bers, 2001; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000;
efforts, but of no special importance in Dollarhide & Saginak, 2008; Schmidt,
terms of the overall school curriculum 2008).
and services. Counselors are the unknown
helpers. Statewide competency-based testing
results are a high priority in K-12 schools.
Every school has a guidance program. The No Child Left Behind Act (2001)
Some are better organized and more established math and reading testing
comprehensive than others. To begin, the requirements. Funds were authorized for
administrative office of a school is the states to select or develop their own tests.
official source of authority and is respon- Test scores and high school and college
sible for the management and supervision graduation rates highlighted the "achieve-
of a school's general operations. Building ment gap" between minority and majori-
administrators, such as principals and ty students (Clark & Amatea, 2004, Isaacs,
their assistants, typically focus on school 2003).
discipline, public relations, and making
sure school board school policies and
procedures are followed. Support services
consist of various helpers, including at-
tendance officers, nurses, school psychol-
ogists, media specialists, and school coun-
selors. Depending upon the size of the

Paisley (2001) cautioned school Such a model can serve as a template

counselors should remember they cannot for the development of a school counsel-
work in isolation and provide the types ing program. Counselors can adapt the
of services, programs, experiences, and framework to their current programs and
environments that are necessary in a com- interventions. Special consideration can
prehensive school counseling program. be given to school history, demographic
She suggested counselors think in terms make up and needs of a community, fac-
of collaborative school counseling pro- ulty expertise, and district resources.
grams. Additionally, counselor interven- The model is flexible because it seems
tions seemed to be more effective when impossible to develop one ideal program
they are part of a multifaceted yet inte- that could be used throughout the na-
grated program. (Paisley & Hayes, 2000; tion in every school. There is too much
Keys & Lockhart, 2000). At the same time, variance among states, communities,
counselors, with limited time, can feel and schools, as well as student needs
overwhelmed with the challenge of joint and interests across age and grade lev-
planning, goal setting, and organizing a els. However, the ASCA model identifies
collaborative intervention. This is espe- fundamental domains, standards, student
cially true for beginning counselors (Sink competencies, and those responsible for
& Yillik-Downer, 2001). delivering the program, as well as a pro-
When ASCA published the National fessional counselor's role and function.
Standards for School Counseling Programs All comprehensive guidance programs
(Campbell & Dahir, 1997), it emphasized have a written philosophy, a rationale,
a shift from counselor services to pro- and a counseling curriculum. Certified
grams and working closely with teachers professional school counselors provide
and administrators to promote student the leadership for organizing compre-
achievement. This accented the idea hensive developmental school counsel-
counselors were concerned about all stu- ing programs, which offer a full range
dents, but particularly responsive to those of activities and services. The heart of a
who were at-risk. school counselor's work is built around
In 2001, The American School Coun- individual and small group counseling,
selor Association (ASCA) sponsored a large group guidance, peer helper training
national summit meeting of professional and projects, consultation, and program
leaders to review and discuss the most coordination. These also might be viewed
important elements of a model for school as counselor interventions and they can
counseling programs. Special consider- feature a team approach in which all
ation was given to the ASCA National school personnel are involved (Baker,
Standards that were developed in 1997. 2000; Borders & Drury, 1992; Paisley &
After extensive review and synthesis of Borders, 1995; Paisley & McMahon, 2001).
state, district, and site models, ASCA Developmental theory and principles
outlined a national model that provided are evident in all of the components of a
a framework around which school guid- comprehensive school counseling pro-
ance and counseling programs could be gram. The program is proactive and pre-
developed. A developmental approach ventive in nature. The goal is to promote
was embodied in the model with an personal and academic development by
emphasis on providing guidance services assisting students in acquiring knowledge,
for all students in a school, rather than a skills, behaviors, and attitudes necessary
selected few.

for problem solving and decision making The model further consists of four
in order to master developmental tasks interactive program components that
and be successful (Outerbridge, 1999). delineate the major activities and respon-
Herr and Cramer (1996) were among sibilities of personnel involved in the
the first to propose a systems approach guidance program. They are:
that linked desired outcomes to specific • Guidance curriculum, or structured
elements in a comprehensive guidance classroom activities, organized around
and counseling program. It was assumed domains of student competencies;
a program's ability to promote student • Individual planning, including activi-
growth is maximized when the condition- ties to assist students in monitoring
al fit between learners and curricula is im- and understanding their growth and
proved. School counselors were charged development;
with connecting specific resources to
different types of learners, under different • Responsive services, with such as
school conditions, and promoting differ- information seeking, crisis counseling,
ent types of student development. and consultation with teachers and
parents.
Norman C. Gysbers and his associ-
ates have been developing and refining a • System support, with activities geared
comprehensive guidance program model toward program management and
for the past three decades. It features an operations. (Gysbers & Henderson,
organizational plan that has been adopted 2000).
by many school districts throughout the One central theme that connects ear-
nation. The foundation of the model is lier work to the present has been a long-
lodged in self-development of a person's term commitment to define the essential
life span with an emphasis on the knowl- work of the school counselor around ac-
edge, skills, and attitudes needed for tivities that can be shown to bring about
career development. Accordingly, this desired student outcomes. Comprehen-
model emphasizes three domains of hu- sive guidance and counseling programs
man growth and development: have been conceptualized as results-based
• Self-knowledge and interpersonal skills. systems that construct essential coun-
Helping students to develop aware- selor roles around critical outcomes to be
ness and acceptance of themselves achieved by all students (ASCA, 1999b;
and others and to develop personal Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Herr, 2001;
standards and a sense of purpose in Johnson & Johnson, 1982).
life. Johnson and Johnson (1982), several
• Life roles, settings, and events. Empha- years ago, made a strong case for view-
sizing knowledge and understanding ing school guidance and counseling as a
of the interrelatedness of various life results-based program. They believed if
roles. essential desired outcomes can be defined,
then processes to accomplish these goals
• Life career planning. Appraising person- can be identified. Further, counselor roles
al values as they relate to prospective and program elements should evolve and
life career plans and decisions. adapt in order to maximize the eventual
outcomes. Likewise, Vanzandt & Hayslip
(2001) advocated counselors move toward

a program rather than services model and A National Model for

to focus on three different kinds of out-
comes: program, student, and counselor School Counseling
outcomes. No matter whether you work in an
Mitchell and Gysbers (1980) sug- elementary setting, on a college campus,
gested comprehensive guidance and or somewhere in between, the American
counseling programs also have a built-in School Counselor Association works to
self-correcting system. based on four inter- ensure it meets the needs of all profes-
related processes: planning, designing, sional school counselors, regardless of
implementing, and evaluating. setting, experience level, or needs. With a
membership of more than 25,000 school
Defining the essential work of the counselors, ASCA focuses on providing
school counselor requires practitioners professional development, enhancing
and counselor educators to continually school counseling programs, and research-
ask and re-conceptualize answers to sever- ing effective school counseling practices.
al fundamental questions. The continuing ASCA also is a division of the American
development of the profession depends Counseling Association.
upon the ability to improve answers to
such questions as (Ellis, 1991): ASCA approved the development
of a national model for school counsel-
• How can counselor roles, duties, func- ing programs and, at the ASCA Tucson
tions, and interventions be trans- National Summit Meeting for School
formed to be of greater benefit and Counseling Programs (2001), measures
impact for all students? were taken to outline it. The idea was to
• How can counselor time on task be provide a framework to organize school
redistributed to maximize benefits for counseling and guidance programs where
all students? the school counselor served as a program
• How can a program be tailored to bet- leader. It also followed the ASCA National
ter meet the needs of each school? Standards, developed in 1997 (Campbell
& Dahir, 1997; Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga,
• How can the program become cen-
1998), and advocated school counselors
tral to the overriding mission of each
switch their emphasis from service-cen-
school?
tered for some students to program-cen-
• How can better partnerships between tered for every student.
school personnel, parents, and busi-
The standards in this model advocate
ness and community leaders be estab-
a shift from the traditional service/activ-
lished?
ity approach to a programmatic approach
• How can counselors better advocate that is comprehensive and developmen-
for their programs with local, state, tal. It emphasizes measuring program
and national policy makers? effectiveness and student achievement, at-
This book, in subsequent chapters, titudes, skills, and knowledge (Dollarhide
will answer these questions and spell out & Saginak, 2008).
the role of school counselors. In addition,
special attention will be given to various
ways a counselor can intervene to help
accomplish the goals of a comprehensive
developmental guidance program.

School counselors are viewed as lead- Counselor Job Satisfaction

ers in a school. They are proficient in
Despite numerous demands and a
retrieving school data and analyzing it to
changing focus on roles and functions,
improve student success. The data is used
school counselors, in general, are satisfied
to seek educational equity for all students.
with their jobs. For instance, more than
As leaders, they must be action-oriented
90 percent of Virginia elementary school
(Davis, 2005). They must tell and sell their
counselors surveyed in 2001 said they
program and be accountable to others.
were satisfied or mostly satisfied in their
Through collaboration with other pro- positions. However, many reported deep
fessionals in the school building, school concerns regarding mandated statewide
counselors are encouraged to influence accountability testing, cutbacks in per-
systemic change and become an advocate sonnel, school violence, and increasingly
for students (Schwallie-Giddis, ter Maat, & having to take on non-guidance duties.
Pak, 2003). Specifically, 65 percent of surveyed coun-
Since it was not likely one ideal selors reported state-mandated account-
program would fit every school through- ability testing negatively affected their job
out the nation, the ASCA model was satisfaction (DeMato & Curcio, 2004).
designed to be a guide for developing a In a similar study, Baggerly and
comprehensive guidance and counseling Osborn (2006) surveyed Florida counsel-
program. It identified important program ors across elementary, middle, and high
elements such as beliefs and philosophy, schools. A majority of respondents across
mission, and three broad student learning the three levels reported being either
domains: academic, career, and personal/ "very satisfied" in their positions (40%) or
social. "somewhat satisfied" (45%). They also re-
Further, the model emphasizes a ported their positions had become "much
program should assist students to achieve more stressful" or "somewhat more stress-
desired competencies and outcomes. This ful" (87% of elementary school counsel-
would be done by a delivery system that ors, 95% of middle school counselors, and
gives attention to a guidance curriculum 92% of high school counselors), because
(K-12) and a management system that of new mandates for testing and student
is data-driven and identifies counselor achievement.
responsibilities. An accountability plan The researchers also asked respon-
that deals with counselor and program dents to report the frequency with which
evaluation is in place. As school counsel- they performed appropriate and inappro-
ors make efforts to implement the ASCA priate school counselor duties as defined
National Model, they also must comply by ASCA. School counselor respondents
with increasing demands for their time who implemented appropriate duties
and skills (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006). more frequently indicated greater job sat-
They must be able to manage their time. isfaction, while those who implemented
inappropriate duties more frequently
indicated decreased job satisfaction .

The relationships between "matter- Roles of School Personnel

ing to others, " job-related stress, and job
satisfaction was examined in one national in Guidance
study (Rayle, 2006). School counselors It is a mistake to think guidance and
implementing comprehensive guidance counseling services are the function of
programs reported greater perceptions specialists alone. This could lead to a
of mattering to others. This, in turn, was crisis-type approach, as there are not
reflected in higher rates of job satisfaction enough specialists employed in schools to
along with reduced levels of job-related meet the needs of students.
stress. The conclusion was the school Good guidance permeates the school
counseling profession needs to continue environment. Where specific guidance
drawing upon the ASCA National Model and counseling programs are present,
as a means of defining and advocating there also is better school morale among
the role of school counselors, including students and teachers. There is a positive
further delineating appropriate and inap- feeling that can be experienced through-
propriate work activities and functions. out the school. But, effective programs
Bryant and Constantine (2006) take the cooperation and active participa-
studied the relationships between mul- tion of all school personnel.
tiple role balance, job satisfaction, and Schools across the nation are orga-
life satisfaction in a national sample of nized differently. Job titles and assign-
women school counselors. Those who re- ments vary from one school to another
ported role balance in their personal and and some schools have more personnel
professional lives also reported greater job and resources than others. Regardless, a
satisfaction and were more satisfied with comprehensive developmental guidance
their lives overall. Feeling overwhelmed program is built primarily on the work of:
by excessive or imbalanced roles might be (1) administrators; (2) teachers; (3) coun-
predictive of lower overall life satisfaction. selors; and (4) other support personnel.
Specifically, the researchers recom- Listed below are some of their basic job
mended the ongoing development of functions in a guidance program.
counselor role statements that strengthen
and define job roles. School counselors Principal
need to advocate for themselves and take • To provide leadership for the guidance
leadership in shaping their roles within program.
school systems (Clemens, Milsom, &
Cashwell, 2009). • To provide personnel to the school's
guidance committee. This committee
will probably consist of representa-
tives from each teaching team and be
co-chaired by a school counselor and
a teacher.
• To provide administrative support and
encouragement.
• To participate actively in defining and
clarifying the guidance assignments
and roles.
• To provide adequate time, space,
facilities, and materials needed to
implement the program.

• To consult with the guidance commit- School Counselors

tee regarding the organization, moni- • To assume leadership in organizing
toring, and evaluation of the guidance and developing a comprehensive de-
program. velopmental guidance and counseling
• To see guidance services are imple- program.
mented and evaluated. • To provide individual counseling ser-
• To help identify guidance needs in the vices to students.
school and to recommend possible • To provide small group counseling
guidance units or interventions. And, services to students.
on occasion, to co-lead a guidance
activity with a teacher or counselor. • To organize and lead large group guid-
ance units, sessions, and activities.
• To establish supportive and coop-
erative working relationships among • To train and coordinate peer facilita-
administrators, counselors, teachers, tors and related projects.
and other student service specialists. • To consult with parents, teachers, and
• To assist in the establishment of a administrators regarding special con-
comprehensive guidance plan and cerns and needs of students.
structure, including a teacher-advisor • To consult with teachers and adminis-
program that can be implemented trators about guidance and counseling
within the school's schedule. interventions for students.
• To communicate the philosophy and • To develop guidance units that evolve
structure of the program to parents from student needs and assessments.
and the general public. • To help develop and coordinate a
• To consult with the guidance commit- teachers as advisors program (TAP).
tee regarding special issues, concerns, • To co-lead, on occasion, a guidance
or problems that develop among unit or session with a teacher, perhaps
students and school personnel. during TAP.
• To serve as a professional resource to
teacher-advisors about brief counsel-
ing and behavior change.
• To help identify students who have
special needs or problems and to help
find alternative education or guidance
services for them.
• To coordinate faculty and staff devel-
opment programs related to guidance.
• To coordinate other guidance related
services (student assessment, advise-
ment, community resources, special
education, and placement).

Teachers School Registrar

• To help develop and implement a • To coordinate the student record
comprehensive developmental guid- keeping system in a school.
ance program within the school. • To take responsibility for communi-
• To help identify students who need cating new state, district, and school
special attention in learning more ef- policies related to student records and
fectively and efficiently. graduation requirements.
• To work as a teacher-advisor with ap- • To help identify target student popu-
proximately 20 to 25 students, meet- lations who might benefit from guid-
ing them individually and in a group ance and counseling programs and
during TAP time. activities.
• To attempt to know personally each • To maintain all student files pertinent
student who is in the TAP group. to graduation requirements, includ-
• To follow-up with advisees regarding ing: grades, grade-point averages, and
academic progress, grade reports, dis- a check of graduation requirements.
cipline referrals, special concerns, and • To register new students and place
general information. them in appropriate classes.
• To know their advisees' parents/guard- • To coordinate with counselors the
ians and work as a liaison between transition of individual students trans-
home and school, facilitating commu- ferring between schools, with special
nication. attention to those grade-level classes
• To build a group cohesiveness among of students entering and leaving the
an assigned TAP group of students so school.
they might be resources to one an- • To coordinate and maintain the
other. school's computerized record keeping
• To seek assistance for advisees whose system with that of the district office.
needs are beyond the limits of TAP or • To assist counselors, on occasion, in
classroom guidance. the delivery of appropriate large guid-
• To identify student needs and to make ance units that are related to student
recommendations to the Guidance transition, registration, records, and
Committee. graduation.
• To consult with counselors, and other
school personnel, regarding the guid-
ance needs of the advisees.
• To participate in staff-development
programs that will help in providing
guidance activities and "brief counsel-
ing" experiences for students.

Occupation Specialists or School Psychologist

Career Counselors • To diagnose and study individual stu-
• To develop and organize a compre- dents in terms of eligibility for special
hensive Career Resource Center. assistance and services.
• To collect and disseminate national, • To assess academic skills and aptitude
state, and local publications, materi- for learning.
als, and other career resources. • To determine social-emotional devel-
• To provide career development guid- opment and mental health status.
ance units that can be used during • To evaluate various aspects of a
TAP time. student's home and school experi-
• To co-lead TAP advisory groups with ences and to make recommendations
teachers on occasion and when appro- for guidance services and educational
priate. placement.
• To consult with teachers regarding • To provide intensive individual and
career interests, skills, and aptitudes of group counseling or remediation
student advisees. interventions for dysfunctioing stu-
dents.
• To help identify the career interests
and needs of students. • To work as a liaison between school
and community psychological re-
• To work with students and parents in
sources.
terms of career and educational plan-
ning. • To help design educational and
therapeutic strategies for students who
• To create career guidance connections
need special assistance and services.
on the Internet.
• To consult with teachers, counselors,
• To develop organized guidance units
and others in a school regarding the
that help students explore post-sec-
limitations, strengths, and special
ondary career and educational oppor-
needs of students.
tunities.
• To organize, lead, and take an active
role in child study teams, particularly
those staffmgs regarding children with
exceptional needs and their educa-
tional placement.

School Social Worker Other Administrators

• To work with needy families and and Support Staff
coordinate guidance interventions Other support staff and administrators
between school and home. might include: attendance officers, deans
• To serve as a liaison between the or assistant principals, activities directors
school and public health and rehabili- and coordinators, placement specialists,
tation agencies. speech therapists, special education teach-
• To study individual students and ers and aides, guidance technicians, and
their family situations, providing case paraprofessionals. Their roles and func-
information that is relevant to school tions related to developmental guidance
guidance and counseling interven- might consist of the following:
tions. • To work with a TAP group when ap-
• To consult with school and district propriate to reduce the number of
personnel regarding the needs of students assigned to teachers.
families and implications for educat- • To help identify student needs and
ing children in schools. interests.
• To help find outside resources for stu- • To co-lead, on occasion, guidance
dents and families. units or sessions.
• To help teachers follow-up with spe-
cific advisees.
• To lead a guidance unit that has been
specifically designed for the special
needs of some students.
• To lead a special group of advisees
who have been identified as needing
special attention, such as those who
have not been able to adjust to TAP
group settings and activities.
• To assume responsibility for duties
that need attention during TAP time
so teachers and others may make the
most use of TAP.

Summary
These roles are meant to give school
personnel some responsibility and direc-
tion. They revolve around traditional
roles and expectations, but they highlight
job functions as related to a comprehen-
sive developmental guidance program.
There are probably other job assign-
ments, duties, and responsibilities. The
lists are not meant to be all-inclusive.
However, if these roles are ignored or
neglected, then the guidance program
will probably suffer and personnel will
struggle.
School counselors must formulate a
common rationale and perspective for
their role, which is different from other
professionals. The role must be a specialty,
with a core of interventions that gives
them an identity. Clearly, a focus on pre-
vention distinguishes the developmental
counselor from those in clinical practice.
Preventing a problem from occurring may
not be as dramatic as treating a mentally
disordered patient, but it is an essential
contribution to schools and society.
The concept of early intervention
leads counselors and other specialists
to work with normal, healthy students
when they are at risk, but before problems
become severe. Recognizing early warning
signs and providing effective interven-
tions can produce long-lasting positive
results. It is the emphasis on wellness, re-
sponsible citizenship, empowering youth
in positive ways, and increased produc-
tivity that helps distinguish the develop-
mental counselor from others.

Myrick, Ch.2

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Myrick, Ch.2

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Developmental Guidance:

In order to build a comprehensive Basic Assumptions

Educational Media Corporation® 33

education. It further recognizes feelings, The Theory of

34 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Developmental Robert Havighurst, as early as 1948,

Educational Media Corporation® 35

Infancy/Early Childhood (Ages 0-5)

36 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Erikson's work on development has Preconventional

it, if you do something for me.

Stage 1: Trust (birth to 2 years of age)

and the marvels of the medical world

Educational Media Corporation® 37

38 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

actions. In addition, they often display Thousands of journal and newspaper

Educational Media Corporation® 39

As the self~concept develops, various Developmental

40 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

In a fast-paced multi-cultural society Interpersonal relationships can be for

Educational Media Corporation® 41

Developmental Guidance Goal 1: Understanding the School Envi-

42 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Goal 3: Understanding Attitudes awareness, and to do some in-depth ca-

Educational Media Corporation® 43

7. Developmental guidance is for all students

1. Developmental guidance is for The guidance curriculum is concerned

44 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

3. Developmental guidance is se- In addition, teachers and counselors

Educational Media Corporation® 45

46 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® 47

48 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® 49

A Comprehensive Guidance school, there may be a curriculum special-

50 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Paisley (2001) cautioned school Such a model can serve as a template

Educational Media Corporation® 51

52 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

a program rather than services model and A National Model for

Educational Media Corporation® 53

School counselors are viewed as lead- Counselor Job Satisfaction

54 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

The relationships between "matter- Roles of School Personnel

Educational Media Corporation® 55

• To consult with the guidance commit- School Counselors

56 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Teachers School Registrar

Educational Media Corporation® 57

Occupation Specialists or School Psychologist

58 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

School Social Worker Other Administrators

Educational Media Corporation® 59

60 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

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