PAPER-1 Childhood & Growing Up 2022 Eng. Med

Course – I
CHILDHOOD AND GROWING UP
Course Code- 801
Time : 3 Hours Max Marks: 100
(Theory : 80, internal :20)
NOTE FOR PAPER SETTER
i. Paper setter will set 9 questions in all, out of which students will be required to attempt five questions.
ii. Q.No 1 will be compulsory and will carry 16 marks. There will be four short-answer type questions of 4 marks each
to be selected form the entire syllabus.
iii. Two long answer type questions will be set from each of the four units, out of which the students will be required to
attempt one question from each unit. Long-answer type question will carry 16 marks each.
UNIT – I
1. Child Development
➢ Growth and Development – Concepts, Principle, Factors, and Stages.
➢ Characteristics of stages of development with special reference to Childhood and
Adolescence.
➢ Adolescents: Understanding their needs and Problems in Indian context.
UNIT-II
2. Theories of Child Development
➢ Theory of Cognitive Development by Piaget: Concept, Stages and Implications
with special reference to Indian Context.
➢ Theory of Social and Emotional Development by Erickson: Concept, Stages and
Implications with special reference to Indian Context.
➢ Kohlberg theory of Moral Development: Concept, Stages and Implications with
special reference to Indian Context.
UNIT-III
3. Social Contexts of Development
➢ Agencies of Socialization: Family, School, Community and their role in Child
Development.
➢ Social and Cultural Change as factors influencing child development.
➢ Parenting styles – concepts, and its impact on child development.
➢ Play- concept, characteristics, and developmental functions.
UNIT-IV
4. Contemporary Issues
➢ Marginalization and Stereotyping with special reference to Gender, Social Class,
Poverty.
➢ Impact of marginalization and stereotyping on child development and related
outcomes.
➢ Role of media in constructing and deconstructing perceptions and ways of
dealing with above issues.
UNIT-I
LONG NOTES (3-4 Pgs) (8 MARKS) & SHORT NOTES (4 MARKS) (150-200 words/ around 2 Pgs.)
1. Difference between Growth and Development

(KUK 2019,20,21)
INTRODUCTION:- The sole aim of education is to bring an all around development in the personality of educand. Educational
Psychology, being a science and technology of education, should help in the realization of this aim. The constant interaction with
the environment results in the growth and development of the innate capacities, abilities and potentialities of the child. The task of
formal as well as informal education is to help in this path of growth and development. Growth and development is a part of the
developmental psychology which is one of the important areas of pure psychology.
MEANING OF GROWTH: - Growth can be defined as an indicative of increase in bodily dimensions i.e. height and weight and
it is confined to quantitative changes. So, growth means increase in size, height and weight. It implies growth of heart, brain,
muscles and body. It can be easily observed and measured.
DEFINITIONS:-
According to Gassell:- “Growth is the function of the organism rather than of the environment.”
According to Crow and Crow:- “Growth connotes change in particular phase or aspects.”
Hence ‘growth generally relates to biological changes that occur because of physical maturity or aging.
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT:- Development stands for the changes that occur due to environmental influences on learning.
It is the progressive change in the total organism. It refers to change in structural form or shape as well as improvement in
functioning. Development is confined to qualitative changes in the organism. Development refers to those effects upon the person’s
cognitive-emotional system which strengthens or enlarges one or more of them, increases their number or interrelates them in
some different way.
DEFINITIONS:
According to Hurlock:- “Development can be defined as a progressive series of changes in an orderly coherent pattern towards
the goal of maturity.”
According to Stevenson:- “Development is concerned with the study of changes in behaviour through the life span.”
According to Libert, Poulos and Marmor:- “Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability over time, as
function of both maturation and interaction with the environment.”
Hence, development can be defined as the emerging and expanding of capacities of the individual to provide greater
facility in functioning such as development of motor ability. It is achieved through growth.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
1. Growth refers to changes in particular aspect of body, whereas development may imply the organization of various aspects of
the body and behaviour.
2. Growth can be measured, while development can be observed by noting changes in the shape as they occur.
3. Growth stops when maturity has been attained but development does not end.
4. Growth and development are closely related. They go hand in hand.\
5. Development is a wider and comprehensive term. It includes growth.
6. Development can be physical as well as intellectual, emotional or social where as growth is limited to physical aspect.
7. Development is qualitative and growth is quantitative.
The difference between growth and development may be described in the following table:-
Basis Growth Development

Concept Growth is part or in aspect of development Comprehensive term including
process of human being. growth and all changes which take
place within organism.
Process Not continuous, starts with conception but Continuous process, starts with
ends at some particular age mostly. It conception & ends with death of an
stops when a person attain maturity. individual.
Changes Refers to change in a particular aspect of Change as a whole i.e. various parts
body. of body & behaviour modification.
Nature Quantitative in nature i.e. increase in size, Qualitative & quantitative change in
height, weight implying growth of heart, form & structure as well as
brain & body. improvement in functioning.
Improvement Only in structure In both structure and functioning
(behaviour)
Integration Not integrated, refers to change in Integrated process i.e change in size,
structure & physique only. proportion, disappearance of old
features, considered in terms of
individual as a whole in relation with
growth, capacity, experience,
maturity.
Cellular Can be looked upon as cellular Organization of all parts which grow
multiplication & differentiation has produced.
Subject of measurement – May be Subject of assessment- Refer to
quantified change in structure & functioning. So
qualitative changes are difficult to
measure so assessed.
May or may not bring development. For They go hand in hand (in general) but
example- if child grows in terms of development is also possible without
weight, but this may not bring any growth as some person do not gain in
functional change. size but do experience functional
improvement or development in
social, intellectual or social aspects.
CONCLUSION:- Hence, development can be defined as the emerging and expanding of capacities of the individual to provide
greater facility in functioning such as development of motor ability. It is achieved through growth.
2. “Late-Childhood is a unique period of life.” Explain and discuss the chief

characteristics of this period.
Ans: Introduction : The helpless baby of today who is adult of tomorrow, has to cross various stages in the process of his
development. This also involves the development of his physical, intellectual, social and character side of the personality. There
are certain periods in the process of development, where certain characteristic features of behavior stand out more prominently
than other periods of life; they are termed as a “stage”. The behavior of an infant is different from that of an adolescent. It is
therefore desirable that for proper understanding of individuals we may divide their life into various stages. The following division
seems to be satisfactory though not universally acceptable:-
(A) Infancy (0 to5 years)
(B) Late-childhood (5 to 12 years)
(C) Adolescence (12 to 17 or 18 years)
(D) Adulthood (Beyond 17 or 18 years of age)
LATE CHILDHOOD STAGE (PERIOD): Late Childhood is the intervening period between childhood and adolescence. This
period starts at age of 5 and ends at 12 years of age. It begins with the entrance to the school and ends with the onset of puberty.
During this period, many physical, intellectual, emotional and social changes take place. The environment of the child widens
during this period. This period is made rich by varied experience of things and persons.
(1) Physical Development:-
1. Height an weight:- Late childhood is a period of slow, steady and uniform growth. The child at the age of 12 is about 56
inches in height and 85 pounds in weight.
2. Bodily proportions:- Bodily proportions change considerably and change the overall appearance of the child. The nose
becomes larger and the lower jaw also increases in size. Arms, legs and trunk increase in length and the period of thinness
begins. This rather gives “an ugly outlook” to child.
3. Growth and co-ordination of muscles:- There is rapid and greater muscular growth and motor skills.
4. Teeth:- It is during this period that the teeth of childhood start falling and the permanent teeth start growing.
5. Nervous system:- During this period, growth of nervous system proceeds at a relatively slow rate where as during the period
of infancy, the growth of nervous system proceeds at a relatively rapid rate.
6. Sense organs and motor organs:- During this period, the sense organs and motor organs of the child assume complete
development and progress.
7. Digestive system:- Digestive system of a child is very tender and susceptible to be spoiled if not properly taken care of.
8. Sex differences:- It is during this period that sex differences influence the physical growth. A girl is taller on an average by
half an inch and weights more on an average by 3 pounds than a boy.
(2) Intellectual Development:-Late Childhood is the period of intellectual advancement, where new experiences are acquired
and applied and mental horizon is broadened.
i. Language development:- By the time the child is 12, his vocabulary is sufficiently rich. He can speak sentences fully
well. He begins to use simple idioms. The favorite topics of discussion are day to day experiences, sex, girls etc. he
accumulates a large amount of knowledge and information.
ii. Curious questions:- The child tires to put curious questions to his elders and parents and tries to get answers from them.
These questions are more definite than he used to put during his infancy.
iii. Development of power thinking:- During this period, alongwith curiosity power of observation, reasoning,
remembering, recalling, attention and thinking (including abstract thinking) develops. If during the infancy the child
wants to know what is this ?—then in the late childhood he tries to know—why is this so?
His sensory equipment becomes well developed. His power of perception becomes keener and more accurate. His vivid
memory gives place to logical thinking and he can generalize on the basis of his experience.
iv. Import of reality into the world of imagination:- During this period, the child realizes that the world of reality is the
real world for him. He ceases to live in the world of imagination.
v. Development of concepts:- Child develops the concept of time fully. He also develops an idea of length and distance.
vi. Development of interests:- During this period, interests of the child expand. He likes books about travel, biography,
science, adventure, fairy tales, tales of crime, mystery and romance. Interest in collection reaches a peak through this
period. Radio and movies hold a strong appeal for him
(3) Emotional Development:-

i. Stability:- This is a period of stability and control. (1) The child now comes to have a control over his emotions.(2) His
emotional behavior is guided by rational expression. (3) He gets angry but does not let it be exhibited. (4) He gets frightened
but tries to show courage and bravery. He is still jealous, may be of his younger brother or his bright class-fellows , but does not
cry. (5) His expression of joy is expressed by a smile and not by a rollicking laughter. (6) He expresses his affection very
modestly and on limited occasions. (7) He does not like to be kissed at this stage because he thinks that there is sex in it. (8) He
does not like to be nicknamed because it hurts his ego. (9) He learns to pretend at this stage.
ii. Sentiments and complexes:- Generally, it is at this stage that sentiments and complexes are formed.
(4) Social Development:- Considerable charges take place during this period in social behavior. The child gradually becomes
less of an individualist. He acquires certain social qualities:-
i. Group play:- At about 6 or 7, the child tends to play in small groups. He seeks playmates and spends most of his time with
them.
ii. Team games:- By 11 or 12, he likes to take part in team games.
iii. Importance of group:- The group or gang becomes more and more important during the period.
iv. Group adjustment:- The child learns to adjust himself in a group. He learns to co-operate with others. He also learns to
prefer group interest to self-interest.
v. Group loyalties:- Group loyalties grow and the child gets opportunities to obey and command.
vi. Group leadership:- Sometimes, the child may assume the leadership of the gang or group as well.
vii. Sex differences:- At about 8 to 10, sex differences are marked. Boys and girls live in separate gangs. Boys usually take
interest in competitive games like football, hockey and kabaddi. The girls show interest in indoor games; but when given
opportunity, they show interest in badminton etc. each gang has badges and secret pass words. Boys’ gangs are usually larger.
Rules are followed more strictly in this gangs.
viii. Planning:-The child can plan his own activities and organize his own play. Thus the social qualities of initiative, organization
and co-ordination develop in him.
ix. Status consciousness:- Children show consciousness of the socio-economic status of the parents. It result into many
prejudices and differences. A child of low socio-economic status may be seriously handicapped in his social relationships e.g.,
he is ashamed of his clothing and uncertainty of his manners. Parents and teachers should tell the children at this stage that
they should not have these prejudices.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OR SIGNIFICANCE:-

Frankly speaking, this stage of development is a mirror of the whole life. It reflects past, present and future . what the child will
become can be guessed at this stage.
1. For a proper development of the body:- (a) The teacher should provide well-organised games for children. He should see
that every child takes part in these games.
(a) He should report cases of illness among children to the headmaster or to respective parents for care.
2. For intellectual development:- The teacher has very important part to play in the intellectual development of the children.
(a) History and arithmetic should be explained to him as they happen to be related to life.
(b) Education through activity and play way method should be encouraged at this stage. Institutions should try to make
arrangement for scouting, girls guide, students’ union, debating societies, exhibitions, dramas, plays and games etc. with
such a system of education their physical and mental powers continue to be active.
(c) Children should be made to learn abstract concepts like happiness, honesty and truth from concrete life situations.
3. Emotional security:- The atmosphere in the school should be such that it provides emotional security to the child. The
teacher should try his best to sublimate the various emotions of the children because emotional shocks can lead to deformity
of the personality.
4. Social development:- (a) As regards the social development and gang spirit among children the teacher should try his best to
provide a large number of co-curricular activities in the school. Democratic ways should be adopted in the organization of
these activities.
(b) The child at this stage tries to live in a group or gang. Therefore, it should be kept in mind that he should not be
allowed to move in the group of bad persons.
(c) Curriculum should be of such a type that it is of interest to the children and may be useful for their future life.
CONCLUSION:- This stage of development plays very important role in the development of the personality of an individual. In
order to establish an ideal society parents, teachers, psychologists and educationists will have to build up competent and able
children who should have the qualities like truthfulness, co-operation, industriousness, self-control, self-dependence, obedience
and discipline in them. With such children we can dream of having World Society and Fraternity.
3. What is the difference between early childhood and late childhood?

A. Infancy (0 to5 years)

B. Late-childhood (5to 12 years)
C. Adolescence (12 to 17 or 18 years)
D. Adulthood (Beyond 17 or 18 years of age)
(A) INFANCY STAGE (PERIOD)
Age of infancy is marked by an increase of independence on the part of the baby as he is able to sit, stand and walk at his own
will.
• The foundations of physical, mental and personality development are laid in this stage. According to Adler infancy prepares
the style of life. It lays down the entire programme for the future life of the child.
Freud is also of the opinion that within 4 or 5 years the child becomes what he has to grow in the coming life.
• In short, it can be said that infancy occupies a very important place in the life of the child.
• Hurlock calls it a “dangerous age” referring to a large number of deaths of children in this period. She labels this age as an
‘appealing age’ since the helplessness of the child appeals and pleases many adults particularly the poets and the artists.
LATE CHILDHOOD STAGE (PERIOD): Childhood is the intervening period between childhood and adolescence. This period
starts at age of 5 and ends at 12 years of age. It begins with the entrance to the school and ends with the onset of puberty. During
this period, many physical, intellectual, emotional and social changes take place. The environment of the child widens during this
period.
Difference Between Early Childhood And Late Childhood

Early Childhood Later Childhood
1. It is a period from 3 to 6 years of age. 1. It is a period from 6 to 12 years. It begins when the
It is a foundation period for the future development. child enters into primary school.
2. This period refers to the ‘pre-gang age’, the time when the 2. This period refers to the gang age, because children
child is learning the foundations of social 6ehavior. in this period are mostly concerned towards their
peer acceptance and membership in gang.
3. Early childhood period is also known as the “age of 3. Later childhood period also labeled as age of
exploration’, where the child explores the environment conformity, because children are willing to conform
and gains control over it. to their age groups approved standards in terms of
appearance, speech and behaviour.
4. Height: The annual increase in height during late 4. Height: The annual increase in height during late
childhood is 3-4 inches. childhood is 2-3 inches or 5-6 cms.
5. Weight: The annual increase in weight during
5. Weight: The annual increase in weight is 3-4 lbs. school age is 3-5 pounds.
6. Use language as a communication tool.
6. Explosion of vocabulary; learning syntax, grammar; 7. Accurate perception of events; rational, logical
understood by 75% of people by age 3. thought; concrete thinking.
7. Ego-centric, illogical, magical thinking.
8. Late childhood gradually discovers violent
expressions, outbursts of temper, child suffers from
8. Increasing ability to control emotions; less emotional anxiety and feelings of frustration.
outburst, Increased frustration tolerance. 9. In this age, children talk constantly.
9. In this age, communicate easily with other children and

adults. 10. In this age, children use descriptive words and
compound and complex sentences.
10. In this age, children use detailed six to eight-word

sentences.
5. Characteristics of Adolescent stage

(KUK 2018)
MEANING OF ADOLESCENCE:- The word ‘adolescence’ comes from the Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means to grow.
So the essence of word adolescence is growth and it is in this sense that adolescence represents a period of intensive growth, and
change in nearly all aspects of child’s physical, mental, social and emotional life. It is very crucial period of one’s life.
Adolescence refers to period of development and adjustment from childhood to adulthood. This period emerges from childhood
and merges into adulthood. It is markedly a period of growing up, during which the child develops into a man or woman. The
adolescence age lies between 12 to 18 years. It is also called puberty age.
Definitions of Adolescence:-
• According to Jersild - “Adolescence is that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood –
mentally, emotional, socially and physically.”
• According to Blair, Jones and Simpson- “Adolescence is the period of life which begins in the (at the end of) childhood
and ends in the (at the beginning) adulthood.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN ADOLESCENTS:-
A. Rapid physical growth and changes:-

1. Increase in height and weight:- Adolescent’s height increases rapidly also his weight increases due to increase in bones and
muscles. Girls get more rapidly matured than boys.
2. Rapid development of bones and muscles:- The bones and muscles of adolescents develop very rapidly. They reach the
3. final body type by the end of adolescence.
4. Changes in bodily proportions:- Different parts of body grow at different rates for e.g. (i) Arms and legs grow longer (ii)
Hands and feet grow bigger (iii) The trunk also grows to its full length (iv) Facial features also change etc.
5. Change in voice:- There is change in voice among the two sexes. The voice of boy becomes harsh, rough and dry. The girls
voice acquires shrillness and becomes sweet and high pitched in sound.
6. Changes in motor performance:- Physical development leads to increased motor performances both in case of boys and
girls but there are greater differences in motor performance of boys and girls.
7. Increase in size of genital organs:- Adolescence, there is (i) increased growth of external genital organs in boys (ii) Growth
of testicle earlier than growth of Penis.
8. Breast development and growth of pelvis:- (i) Growth of breasts (ii) Increase in size of pelvis in girls is among the notable
changes that can have a very significant effect on the adolescent girls conception of her physical self.
9. Night emissions and menstruation:- (i) In case of boys, seminal glands begin to work, semen is produced and there are night
emissions (discharge of semen during sleep) accompanied by erotic dreams. (ii) The girls begin to menstruate monthly during
in adolescent period. It should be noted that in adolescent period testicles start functioning in case of boys and ovaries starts
functioning in case of girls.
10. Hair growth:- There is growth of hair in under arms, arms, legs, limbs, trunk and thighs. Beard and moustaches in case of
boys, hairs also grow on the chest in case of boys.
11. Physiological system:- During adolescence internal physiological systems of the body undergo rapid changes. The system
includes (i) Digestive system (ii) Respiratory system (iii) Circulatory system (iv) Blood pressure (v) Heart and pulse rate etc.
B. Emotional changes:-
1. Heightening of emotions:- Adolescence is a period of heightened emotionality. Adolescents are emotionally disturbed due
to physical and sexual development. Emotions of adolescents are on extremes.
2. Variations in emotional moods:- Emotional moods of adolescents vary from elation to depression. One minute the young
adolescent is up in the clouds and the next minute he is in the depth of despair. He sometimes thinks of committing suicide.
3. Not under control:- Emotions of the adolescents are not under control. He remains tense and anxious during this period. He
is emotionally unstable.
4. Complexity:- Emotional development of an adolescent becomes complex by the experiences he gets in his environment.
5. Development of inferiority complex:- Many adolescents develop feeling of inferiority complex when they are not provided
proper love, affection and care.
6. Sexual frustration:- Adolescents have greater tendency of having interest in the opposite sex and of developing friendship
with the members of opposite sex.
7. Day dreaming and fantasy:- Almost all adolescents have high hopes and aspirations for their future life. There are some
adolescents who work hard in their life and follow a realistic approach to satisfy their hopes and aspirations.
8. Development of abstract emotions:- Generally children show emotional expression in relation to concrete objects but
adolescents can express their emotional feelings in relation to objects which are abstract.
9. Realism in emotional experiences:- Adolescents enters the period of reality. He can perceive and appreciate people around
him. He recognizes weakness and strength of one’s character.
10. Increased compassion:- Compassionate means fellowship of feeling. To be compassionate means that a person is able to
enter his own feelings and appreciate the emotional feelings of others.
C. Intellectual or mental characteristics of adolescence:-

1. Development of intelligence:- Adolescence is the period of maximum growth and intellectual development. Intellectual
powers like logical thinking, abstract reasoning and concentration are almost developed upto the end of this period.
2. Increase in span of attention:- During adolescence period, the span of attention increases. The adolescent can attend to one
thing for a longer period of time. His power of concentration increases.
3. Development of memory:- Memory is also developed and it tends to function more logically.
4. Development of understanding:- The depth of understanding develops. Consequently adolescents try to see and analyze
essential relationships in situations.
5. Development of abstract thinking:- There is sudden development of abstract thinking and to deal with abstract ideas. They
try to comprehend and communicate things in abstract terms.
6. Development of generalization:- Adolescents have ability to generalize in abstract terms.
7. Development of problem solving ability:- The adolescent try to solve problems on their own whenever they are confronted
with some problematic situation.
8. Ability to make decisions:- Adolescents develop ability to make decisions. They learn to distinguish between actual and
ideal, between reasoning and rationalization.
9. Development of imagination:- Adolescents possess excessive imagination. Writers, artists, musicians, poets, philosophers
and inventors are born in this period.
10. Hero worship:- Hero worship is very prominent in adolescent period. An adolescent begins to worship his ideal man or
woman and tries to model himself on him or her. Hero for adolescents may be a film star, a political or religion leader, a poet,
or an artist etc.
11. Widening of interest:- Interests of young adolescents are numerous and varied i.e. recreational interest, social interest,
personal interests, vocational interest, sex interests etc.
D. Social Characteristics or Changes:

1. Sex consciousness: In adolescent stage, the individual becomes very conscious of his sex. At this stage, boys and
girls want to attract the members of the opposite sex. They want to leave friendship with members of the opposite
sex.
2. Social consciousness: Social consciousness is developed in adolescents at a fast speed. They want to be praised by
their parents, teachers, and friends. They know their status in the society. They want social approval of various modes
of behavior.
3. Group loyalty: Adolescent boys and girls form their groups and discuss their problems freely. They become very
loyal to their groups. Here they learn the qualities of sympathy, competition, co-operation, obedience and leadership.
Sometimes parental demands, are ignored by him in face of demands made on him by his group. He often comes in
clash with his elders who do not approve of his group affiliations.
4. Social service: In adolescent stage, ideals of social service and altruism are formed and cherished. Social service in
public gatherings, fairs, and festivals becomes a passion for the adolescent. He does not mind personal inconvenience
in doing of such service.
Conclusion: To include we can say that adolescence is a period of stress and strain, strife and storm, heightened emotionality and
suggestibility, day dreaming and adventures, intense affections and stirring of the heart. Adolescents have various needs and
problems and hence the teachers have a vital role to play in their lives. Education should be organized in such a way that it may
enable the adolescents to face and solve the problems in life.
Long Questions (16 marks) (6 -7Pgs)

Ques. What is growth and development? Discuss in detail the principles of development
with their educational implications.
(KUK 2019,20,22)
INTRODUCTION:- The sole aim of education is to bring an all around development in the personality of educand. Educational
developmental psychology, which is one of the important areas of pure psychology.
DEFINITIONS:-
• According to Gassell:- “Growth is the function of the organism rather than of the environment.”
• According to Crow and Crow:- “Growth connotes change in particular phase or aspects.”
Hence, 'growth' generally relates to biological changes that occur because of physical maturity or aging.
some different way.
DEFINITIONS:
• According to Hurlock:- “Development can be defined as a progressive series of changes in an orderly coherent pattern
towards the goal of maturity.”
• According to Stevenson:- “Development is concerned with the study of changes in behaviour through the life span.”
• According to Libert, Poulos and Marmor:- “Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability over time,
as function of both maturation and interaction with the environment.”
Hence, development can be defined as the emerging and expanding of capacities of the individual to provide greater facility
in functioning such as development of motor ability. It is achieved through growth.
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
Growth and development tend to follow some well defined principles, as they are guided by certain logical and general principles
of development. Some important principles are being described below-
1. Principle of Sequential Development- Development follows a pattern (sequence)-

a) Every species whether animal or human follows a general or specific pattern of development. In case of human beings, the
process of development follows a definite pattern.
b) It follows cephalo caudal sequence which means control over the body as well as improvement in the structure itself. It means
that we begin to grow from head downwards.
c) Development follows proximodistal sequence i.e. the spinal cord of the individual develops first and then outward
development takes place.
2. Principle of orderly development-First of all, development takes place from general point of view, then it goes to the specific
aspects. The child first learns general things and it is only afterwards that he learns specific or particular things. For example-
in a early period a baby makes general bodily movement, but as he grows, he learns to make specific movements of eyes,
expressions of his face in responding to different stimuli.
3. Principle of Rapid development during early years- Development proceeds more rapidly in the early years of life. Period
of infancy is marked by period of very rapid growth and development. In early years of life, physical, intellectual, emotional
and social development takes place at a very rapid speed. Early years of life are very important because rapid development
takes place during that period, especially the first five years of life are very crucial.
4. Principle of Continuous Development- Growth and development is ongoing process. Growth continues upto maturity where
development takes place throughout lifetime. It takes place from birth to death, from womb to tomb. It begins from the time
of conception and continuous till the end of life. Though physical develop stops after getting maturity, but other aspects of
develop proceeds throughout the life.
5. Principles of constancy of individual differences- Individual differences in the development remain constant. Each child
grows at his own unique rate. Some grow very rapidly while others grow slowly. Those who develop slow at birth will continue
to do so, while those whose development was rapid during early years of life will continue to develop rapidly.
6. Principle of different rates of development- Development occurs at different rates for different parts of the body. Different
aspects of physical & mental traits develop at their own rates and reach maturity at different times. In some areas bodily
growth may be rapid while in others it may be slow.
7. Principle of inter-related development- The most important feature/characteristics of growth and development is that
individual grows and develops as a whole. His physical, intellectual, emotional, social and other types of development are
inter- related and inter – dependent. Development of different aspects of personality is related to each other.
8. Principle of predictability- As the rate of development for each child tends to be fairly constant; we can safely predict the
physical and mental development of the child. It is possible to predict the aptitude or intelligence of a person on the basis of
aptitude or intelligence tests.
9. Principle of cumulative and recapitulatory development- Our behaviour is a result of previous experience and hence it is
cumulative which means to add up. Development is also recapitulatory because characteristics of one stage can be established
in other stages. Development is a cumulative process, in which the child’s behaviour influenced by the experiences of the
past.
10. Principle of interaction of heredity & environment- Individual is a product of both heredity environment which play very
important role in physical, mental, emotional, and social development of the child. Both heredity endowment and
environmental conditions interact for giving shape to the child’s personality.
11. Principle of interaction of maturation and learning- Growth and development occur as a result of both maturation and
learning process. Interaction between the two is necessary. Maturation sets the limits of learning. However, hastening in the
process of learning does not help much to the child in having better development.
12. Principle of integration- Development involves a movement from the whole to the parts and from the parts of the whole. It
is the integration of whole and its part as well as of the specific and general responses that make a child develop satisfactorily
in the various dimensions of his growth and development.
13. Principle of spiral versus linear advancement- The child does not proceed straightly on the path of development with a
constant. He makes advancement during a particular period but takes rest in the text following period, to consolidate his
development. Therefore, he turns back and then moves forward again like a spiral.
EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT-

The knowledge of the principles of growth and development is very important for teachers, parents and educationists. They are
the guidelines as they help to understand children, to know about their developmental tasks. Hence the principles of growth and
development way prove to be beneficial in a manner of ways such as :-
1. Emphasis on individual differences:- There are wide individual differences among children with respect to their rate of
growth and development. Therefore, we must pay attention to their individual pattern & growth rate while planning the course
for their education & development.
2. Important for understanding stages of development: Its knowledge helps us to know what to expect and when to expect
from an individual child with respect to his physical, mental, social development etc, at different stages of development. The
correct knowledge of the growth trend of a child helps the parents and teachers not to under or over-estimate the future
competence or expectancy of their child.
3. Important for identifying abnormalities: It helps us to know the direction as well as the general pattern of development. It
guides us to locate the degree of abnormality in our children and students and to take like-wise remedial steps. The knowledge
that development starts from whole to parts and then from parts to hole helps us to plan the learning procedure and set the
learning methods accordingly.
4. Important for harmonious development: Principles of interrelation and inter-dependence of the various aspects of growth
and development help us t aim for the harmonious growth and development of the personality of the child and warn us not to
develop a particular aspect at the cost of one or the other.
5. Important for understanding need for healthy environment: The knowledge that heredity and environment both play a
joint role in the process of growth and development help us to pay sufficient attention over the environmental conditions in
upbringing the children.
6. Framing educational programmes:- It helps the teachers in adjusting the school programmes and practices on the basis of
developmental level.
7. Giving proper guidance:- It helps in providing the proper guidance programme by having an insight and understanding of
the individual differences of children. Growth and development help us to aim for the harmonious growth & development of
the personality of the child.
8. Important for future planning: The knowledge of the uniformity of pattern with respect to growth and development makes
it possible for the parents and teachers to plan ahead of time for the changes that will take place in their children, Children
will also get benefitted if they can be acquainted with these changes before hand.
CONCLUSION: Thus it can be said that it is only with the knowledge of growth and development of learners & principles of
development; it is possible for the teachers to render proper guidance, arrange the learning situations and plan the instructional
programmes for bringing desirable harmonious development of their personalities.
Ques. What is growth and development? Discuss in detail the factors

influencing/affecting growth and development of the learner.
(KUK 2018,21)
INTRODUCTION: The sole aim of education is to bring an all around development in the personality of educand. Educational
developmental psychology, which is one of the important areas of pure psychology.
DEFINITIONS:-
• According to Gassell:- “Growth is the function of the organism rather than of the environment.”
• According to Crow and Crow:- “Growth connotes change in particular phase or aspects.”
Hence ‘growth generally relates to biological changes that occur because of physical maturity or aging.
some different way.
DEFINITIONS:
• According to Hurlock:- “Development can be defined as a progressive series of changes in an orderly coherent pattern
towards the goal of maturity.”
• According to Stevenson:- “Development is concerned with the study of changes in behaviour through the life span.”
• According to Libert, Poulos and Marmor:- “Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability over time,
as function of both maturation and interaction with the environment.”
Hence, development can be defined as the emerging and expanding of capacities of the individual to provide greater facility in
functioning such as development of motor ability. It is achieved through growth.
FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT-
Both internal and external factors play an important role in influencing growth and development of the individual.
A. INTERNAL FACTORS-
a) Hereditary factors and biological factors- Heredity plays an important role in growth and development of the individual.
Hereditary factors are those that reside in the child from moment of conception. Heredity lies at the roots of all the possibilities
of development environment being a means to the actualization of these possibilities. Some of the hereditary factors which
influence various aspects of development are-
i. Physique- The height, weight, complexion, colour of eyes, physical structure & defects like deafness dumbness and blindness
may develop a feeling of inferiority if other persons tease him. Biologically, physically weak or internally disturbed children
suffer from illness and diseases. They have to face adjust mental problems in social environment. On the other hand, a child
who has good health, strength, energy generally develops emotionally balanced attitude towards life.
ii. Intelligence- It is the ability to adjust, to learn, to make right decision at a right time. Intelligent persons are likely to have
reasonable control over their emotions and they can make better adjustment in home, school and society than those persons
who are less intelligent.
iii. Sex differences- Boys are generally more assertive, tough minded. They generally show interest in machinery & outdoor
activities. But girls are interested in less vigorous games. They have a better sense of tolerance, sympathy, kindness, sense of
honour, sacrifice, cheerfulness, & various other social qualities. Girls attain maturity earlier than boys.
iv. Nervous System- Person’s intellectual ability, motor ability, physical strength and ability to adjust depend upon the structure
and functioning of nervous system. Any injury to nervous system will have negative effect in the development of the person.
Nervous system limits one’s learning capacity.
b) Emotionality- Emotional maturity positively influences physical, intellectual, emotional and social development and various
types of adjustments. Lack of emotional maturity has adverse effect on physical, intellectual, emotional, social and moral
development. If one can’t exercise a reasonable control over his emotions, he is sure to suffer in terms of his growth and
development.
c) Socialization- It is a process in which the person learns to behave acc. To social standards and make social adjustments.
Socialization significantly influences various aspects of growth and development.
B. EXTERNAL FACTORS- External factors influencing growth and development are those factors which are present in the
environment. These factors can be studied under two headings-
1. Pre-natal environment- The baby's pre natal environment is the womb of the mother or mother's body. If the mother is in
good physical condition and eats a well balanced diet, chances are that the baby will grow and develop normally. Some factors
associated with pre natal environment are as under-
a. Physical and mental health of the mother.
b. Single child or multiple children getting nourishment in the womb.
c. Normal or abnormal delivery.
Unfavourable factors in the pre natal environment are-

1. Malnutrition of the mother.
2. Vitamin deficiencies.
3. Excessive use of alcohol.
4. Excessive smoking.
5. Severe and constant stress on the mother.
6. Any damage or accident to the baby in the womb.
2.) Post natal environment- Factors influencing growth and development associated with the post natal environment are ahead:-
a) Food:- It is one of the most important factors for the normal development of the child. Defective teeth, skin diseases and other
health problems can be traced directly to poor diet during infancy and childhood. Balanced diet is required for proper physical
development.
b) Fresh air and sunlight- These are very important as the child must get especially during the early years of life which influence
general health condition size and maturity age of the child.
c) Physical Exercises and activities:- These are very essential for child’s physical development. Sports, drills, games,
gymnastics, dancing, hiking etc should be encouraged.
d) Incidents and accidents:- Good and bad incidents & accidents in life influence growth & development. Growth and
development may be retarded by head injuries and toxic and bacterial poisons. Proper medical care influences growth and
development.
e) Friends and Companions:- Friends and companions exercise a good deal of influence on the development.
CONCLUSION: Thus it can be said that it is only with the knowledge of growth and development of learners & the factors
influencing growth & development; it is possible for the teachers to render proper guidance, arrange the learning situations and
plan the instructional programmes for bringing desirable harmonious development of their personalities.
Ques. Point out in detail the developmental characteristics of Infancy Period & Pre-
childhood stage ?
OR
“The first five years of life of the children are most formative years of life.” Discuss the
statement by mentioning its chief developmental characteristics.
(A)Infancy (0 to5 years)
(B)Late-childhood (5 to 12 years)
(C)Adolescence (12 to 17 or 18 years)
(D)Adulthood (Beyond 17 or 18 years of age)
(A) INFANCY STAGE (PERIOD)
• Age of infancy is marked by an increase of independence on the part of the baby as he is able to sit, stand and walk at his own
will.
• The foundations of physical, mental and personality development are laid in this stage. According to Adler infancy prepares
the style of life. It lays down the entire programme for the future life of the child.
• Freud is also of the opinion that within 4 or 5 years the child becomes what he has to grow in the coming life. In short, it can
be said that infancy occupies a very important place in the life of the child.
• Hurlock calls it a “dangerous age” referring to a large number of deaths of children in this period. She labels this age as an
‘appealing age’ since the helplessness of the child appeals and pleases many adults particularly the poets and the artists.
The following are the important characteristics of infancy stage:-
(1) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:-

1. Size and weight:-
• It is the period of rapid growth in size and weight.
• The average length of a new born child is 19 inches but it varies from 17 to 21 inches.
• The average weight of a new born baby is 7 pounds but it is observed that it varies from 3 to 16 pounds.
• This variability in growth depends on heredity, diet, economic status, order of birth in the family and certain other
environmental factors.
• By the time the child is about 2 years of age, his weight becomes round about 25 pounds and an overall length about 33
inches. At 5 years, the child is five times of his weight than at birth.
2. Changes in proportion:- Changes in the proportion of the body are now visible. Different parts of the body like head and
trunk begin to take proportionate size. The head which seems enormous at birth seems small now as legs and trunk lengthen.
Hands and jaws of the child also develop.
3. Bones and muscles:- There is rapid growth in the bones and muscles. Bones and muscles of the child begin to develop. He
starts using his fingers by holding things, sitting, standing, walking and running.
4. Teeth :- The first tooth that normally appears in a child is at the age of six months. By the time the child grows one year old
4 teeth appear. Approximately 16 teeth out of 20 have erupted before the period is over.
5. Nervous system:- There is a rapid growth of nervous system during this period. The brain grows rapidly. There is rapid
improvement in the function and structure of sensory organs. By the end of this period, the child is able to perform all the
functions of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and feeling pleasure and pain and pressure etc. moreover, the glands begin to
function properly.
6. Digestive system:- Digestive organs of the child are very tender and susceptible to be spoiled if not properly cared.
(2) INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT: By intellectual development, we mean the development of language, interests,
power of memory, imagination, understanding, reasoning, thinking, intelligence, sensation, perception and problem solving.
Some of the characteristics of intellectual development of this stage are:-
1. Development of language:- The child at birth can only cry as an expression of emotion-pleasure or pain. His cries at 6
month’s age, indicate his recognition of some new situation. By the first year. He may utter a few words-As, Baa, Maa, Paa
etc. it is at 18 months, language development becomes more rapid. At the age of 2 or 3 years, he learns to speak very short
sentence which are usually in the form of repetition of what the elders have said. Professor Smith is of the opinion that the
child at the age of 1 year is able to speak 3 words, at the age of 2, he is able to speak 272 words and at the age of 5, he learns
2072 words.
2. Interests:- The child in his infancy is interested in only those things which are in connection with immediate needs such as
hunger and feeding. Slowly his horizon to looking at things widens. He becomes interested in bright jingling and moving
toys.
3. Curious questions:- The child becomes curious and puts such question. As “What is it?” “Why is to so?”
4. Fertile imagination:- The period of infancy is a period of fertile imagination. Day dreaming, fairy tales, fantasy, make-belief
play are important features in the infancy period of the child. The child thinks that his imaginary world is a real world. In
order to satisfy his instincts and tendencies. He roams in the imaginary word. At this stage, it is necessary to give due regard
and recognition to the imagination of the child.
5. Sensory development:- In the first month of the life of the child, sensory development takes place and thus the child learns
to use his senses effectively. The child experiences many types of sensations like hardness, pleasure, pain, sensation of sound
and smell. He can compare various sensations.
6. Concepts, percepts and thoughts:- Development of concepts and percepts begins at this stage. He is able to judge distances
when he runs, walks and climbs. He has very little time sense. He is able to organize his thought and make simple
generalizations though all these are very rudimentary. At the age of 5, he is capable of reasoning and thinking but his reasoning
is vague and inconsistent.
(3) Emotional Development:-Emotions play a tremendous role in the physical, mental and social development of the child.
Some of the characteristics of emotional development during the infancy period are:-
1. Not specific:- The emotions of the child are not specific at birth. They occur in diffused states. He cannot show specific
emotions like hunger, fear and joy as the adults do. It takes time to develop them. As the children grow and reach the age of
2, there is differentiation of emotions.
2. Anger is the most common emotion at this stage. It is aroused when adult’s force is used to restrict the freedom of the child.
It is sometimes used as a device for gaining the attention of the adults.
3. Emotion of joy is also shown by children at this stage. They express it when they see familiar faces.
4. Emotion of affection is also visible. Infants show affection for parents and nurses.
5. Identification:- J.B.Waston believes that three important emotions of fear, anger and love can be identified even in infancy
period.
6. Highly emotional:- From 2 to 5 years, the child is highly emotional and the emotions begin to show themselves up in
differentiated form. If the child is not handled properly he will develop into an emotionally immature person.
7. Spontaneity:- The chief characteristic of emotions in early childhood (2 to 5 ) is that the emotions are spontaneous and the
child cannot control them. There is decline in overt expression of emotions as he reaches later childhood. The child is highly
emotional and his emotions are intense. He often runs into temper-tantrum. His emotions are brief, basic, transitory and
appear frequently.
(4) Social Development:-

1. Not social:- The child is not social at birth. The social behavior is non-existent at birth. He is self-centred. His activities
and interests revolve around himself.
2. Dependence and solitary play:- The child is fully depenent on parents for physiological and psychological needs. Upon 2
years, social relationships of child are strictly restricted to his hime. Hence in this period, family plays an important role in
developing social attitudes and behavior. Before 2 years, he engages in solitary play or parallel play in which the child plays
individually, though at the same place and with similar toys.
3. Social play:- At 3 years, child shows more desire to play with other children. It is known as social play. The size of the
group increases with age from 2 members at 3 years to 3 or 4 members at 6 years. Sometimes, he selects a special friend and
rejects others. He will often change his friends.
4. Fighting:- At four, children talk at length, call names, fight and tattle.
5. Friendship:- At five, friendship is strong and fighting is less. Throughout the period of infancy, including early childhood
(from 0 to 5) the child is self-centred in his social behavior. He likes to boast of is achievements and his family. When he
co-operates, he does so at his own interest.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OR SIGNIFICANCE:-
Since infancy occupies very important place in the life of the child, education for this stage of the child should be a specified and
psychological nature.
1. Special attention:- Parents are first teachers of the child. It is they, who lay the foundation of education of the child.
Therefore, they should pay attention to physical, intellectual, emotional and social development of children and to take care
of their education.
2. Physical education:- A sound mind houses in a sound body. Therefore, physical education should form an essential part of
education of the infants. Children should be suitably fed and given nourishing food. They should be protected from sudden
weather changes and various diseases as they are highly susceptible to diseases such as cold etc.
3. Mother-tongue:- Efforts should be made to use the mother-tongue as the medium of instruction for the education of the child
at this stage because mother-tongue is easily understood by the child. Power of reasoning and thinking should be developed
so that they may keep themselves away from bad deeds. Te instinct of curiosity should be developed. Try to answer as many
questions of children as possible. It would broaden the mental horizon of the child.
4. Social qualities:- Social qualities should be developed in the child through education. In order to develop the social qualities,
the children should be divided into various groups and made to play and work together.
5. Peaceful environment:- Environment in which the education is imparted should be clam and peaceful.
6. Music:- Music should form an essential part of the scheme of education for this stage of the child. Music is able to reform
and improve the beastly tendencies of the child and hence the music should be included in education.
7. Play-way method:- Play is the life of the child. For the education of the child at this stage, the guardians and the teachers
should make arrangement for scientific and good toys and proper environment. Systems of education through play-way
methods occupy very important place in the field of education of the children. The teachers, who use these methods should
be of generous nature and ready to help children.
CONCLUSION:- The development of child during infancy takes place at a very rapid speed. Hence the environment of the child
should be healthy and good for the development of the child and should help him to receive education. It is the duty of the
teachers, the parents, the guardians, the social reformers, the government, the guidance workers and the psychologists to pay
proper attention to the education of the infants.
Que : “Adolescence is the most difficult period of life.” Justify this statement by
throwing light on the needs & problems of Indian adolescences and also
suggest a brief educational programme for adolescents.
(KUK
2019,20,21,22)
Ans: MEANING OF ADOLESCENCE:- The word ‘adolescence’ comes from the Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means to
grow. So the essence of word adolescence is growth and it is in this sense that adolescence represents a period of intensive
growth, and change in nearly all aspects of child’s physical, mental, social and emotional life. It is very crucial period of one’s
life.
Adolescence refers to period of development and adjustment from childhood to adulthood. This period emerges from childhood
and merges into adulthood. It is markedly a period of growing up, during which the child develops into a man or woman. The
adolescence age lies between 12 to 18 years. It is also called puberty age.
Definitions of Adolescence:-
• According to Jersild - “Adolescence is that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood –
mentally, emotional, socially and physically.”
• According to Blair, Jones and Simpson- “Adolescence is the period of life which begins in the (at the end of) childhood
and ends in the (at the beginning) adulthood.”
NEEDS OF INDIAN ADOLESCENTS:-

1. Need of freedom from dependence:- Adolescents consider themselves as full fledged adults. So they do not want to remain
under the control of elders. Hence, they feel the need of independence and want to exercise their own opinion. Parents and
teachers should regard them as full fledged individual’s and should give them freedom and responsibility.
2. Need of association with the opposite sex:- During this period, sex instinct attains maturity and is very forceful. Adolescents
decorate their bodies to attract the opposite sex. They feel the need of association with the opposite sex.
3. Need for self support:- Self support implies what they would like to do and become in life. So this need can be fulfilled by
providing them educational and vocational guidance. So those courses should be selected in which they have special aptitude
and interest.
4. Need for philosophy of life:- Adolescents being mentally mature assume independent outlook regarding every activity of
life. They take interest in the matters of religion. Their topics are not to discuss philosophy but to talk about conduct, religion
and parents to satisfy this need by providing religious teaching and moral training.
5. Need for security:- Adolescents suffer from loss of support from parents. Adolescents should be given sympathetic attitude
and guidance. So that they may not suffer from complexes and frustrations.
6. Need for self recognition:- Adolescence is a period of self decoration and adolescents become self conscious. It is their
intense desire to attract the attention of others. They want to display themselves in every activity. So it is the duty of parents
and teachers to give them full place.
7. Need for success:- Failure disintegrates the whole personality, while success leads to adjustment. Hence every adolescent has
the desire to gain success in all the activities he undertakes. Therefore schools should organize the curricular and co-curricular
activities in such a way that all pupils achieve success in the activities they pursue.
8. Need for better food:- The adolescence is a stage of rapid development. The body develops in height, weight and every other
aspect. Therefore the need for better food in quantity as well as in quality is more in this stage than in any other stage of life.
The teachers, the parents and the educators should see that the children get simple and rich diet in proper quantity and quality
at suitable occasions.
9. Desire for new experience:- An adolescent is never interested in routine. He is interested in new experiences. This desire can
be satisfied by arranging trips, excursions and other co-curricular activities in the schools. “Parents, teachers and educationists
should help the adolescents in satisfaction of their need as far as possible.”
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF INDIAN ADOLESCENTS AND SOLUTIONS:-
Period of adolescence is the most critical period of individual’s life. The problems of the adjustments of the adolescents are
discussed as under:-
1. Adjustment to physical growth:- Because of rapid and unbalanced growth in height, weight and physique the adolescent
feels embarrassment in the group with which he moves. He feels that he is looking odd in the company of his class fellows
and playmates. The teacher or parents should not address him as ‘camel’ and ‘bull’ etc to emphasis his temporary physical
abnormalities. To provide for the rapid physical growth the adolescent should be given sufficient nourishing diet. As
adolescent has excess of physical energy, healthy outlet should be provided for the same in the forms of games, scouting,
social services and other hobbies.
2. Adjustment to mental competition:-Because of mental development, the adolescent becomes critical and fault finder. He
wants to broaden his mental horizon by knowing everything he comes across. To ensure adequate mental development of the
adolescents, curriculum for adolescents should be as broad-based as possible. Co-curricular activities should be organized.
3. Adjustment to emotional disturbances:- Emotional disturbances in the adolescents are due to the rapidly changing physical
structures, abnormal functioning of nervous and glandular systems and his widening social experiences. The adolescent has
got extreme emotions. What is required to help him in emotional control? In dealing with the adolescents we must respect his
individuality. Proper habits and sentiments should be developed in him. Discussion method should be encouraged.
4. Problem of home adjustment:- An adolescents sometimes cannot adjust himself to the conditions of the home. His home
adjustment problems arise due to the fact that his needs increase and his parents may not be able to meet all those needs. The
teacher should not dominate the adolescent unnecessarily and should rather treat him as friend. The child should be given
sufficient opportunities of study and the right to free thinking and independent outlook.
5. Problem of adjustment with friends:- An adolescent stage, boys and girls need some friends in whom they can confide their
secrets and discuss matter freely. Hence friendships at this stage have special significance on the one hand and problem on
the other.
6. Problem of sex adjustment:- In boys, the discharge of semen during sleep accompanied by erotic dreams among the boys
horrify the ignorant adolescents. Similarly the flow of blood during menstruation creates worries among the girls and given
birth to so many fears, anxieties, and complexes in the mind of adolescents. Parents and teachers should impart sex education.
Scientific terms should be used while giving relevant information.
7. Problem of adjustment with society:- Sometimes adolescents have to face the problem of adjustments with society. The
adolescents cannot stand the customs, traditions, and rites that stand on his free will. The demands of the society are too
exacting for him to carry out. The adolescents should be dealt in a sympathetic way. The importance of social values should
be explained, social responsibilities should be assigned, and individualities should be respected. Social security to the
adolescent should be assured.
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING (EDUCATION FOR ADOLESCENTS)
As has already been pointed out that almost every adolescent finds difficulty in adjusting with himself, family and society at large.
Most of the adolescents suffer from frustrations, conflicts, complexes, anxieties and worries. They experience difficulty in physical,
mental, emotional, social and other adjustment. However, whatever is needed is an understanding of the psychology of adolescent
and then do our best to help him in his difficulties. A few concrete things are suggested below:-
1. Physical exercises and activities:- Adolescence being a period of rapid physical development, physical exercises and
activities like sports, drills, games, dancing, hiking, gymnastics, wrestling, football, kabaddi, etc. should be introduced in the
school curriculum. According to Stanley Hall- dancing can serve the best job. He says, “Dancing is one of the best expressions
and pure play and pure motor need of the youth. Perhaps, it is the most liberal of all forms of motor education.”
2. Appropriate lectures and sex education:-
a) Appropriate lectures on physical growth and development should be delivered and the scientific explanation of the sudden
growth and various parts of the body should be given.
b) The school should impart full information to the students regarding proper balanced diet, personal hygiene, cleanliness,
various diseases and the measures to check these etc.
c) Sex education should be given in free, frank, scientific, judicious and impersonal manner to the adolescents so that they may
not pick up wrong information and come under immoral influence. Girls should be educated as regards menstruation and the
boys as regards the involuntary changes brought in the genital organs. Nobody is better suited to this job than parents and
teachers. Realistic and straight answers should be given to questions regarding sex.
3. Discouraging tight and sleeveless dress:-Tight and sleeveless dresses should be discouraged as they excite sex instinct.
4. Sympathetic and affectionate attitude:- The person gets perturbed when he look at various physical and psychological
changes that take place in him. Hence, it is the duty of the parents and the teacher that they should behave in sympathetic and
psychological manner.
5. Respecting individuality:- Individualities of adolescents should be respected and their opinions should be taken by parents
concerning their choice of career or profession and marriage etc.
6. Democratic atmosphere:- There should be democratic atmosphere in the school. There should be chance for leadership
training. There should be provision for various societies, clubs and associations in the school.
7. Co-curricular activities:- Adolescence is a period of intellectual development. So there should be co-curricular activities in
the form of debates, declamation contests, conferences, poetical symposium, literary, art, painting, music and dramatic clubs
and societies, N.C.C, scouting, girl guiding and excursions and trips to various places of historical, geographical, scientific
and cultural importance.
8. Tasks of responsibility:- Tasks of responsibility should be given to them. Self government should be introduced in the school
so that they may accept responsibility, get some social status and exercise their own judgement.
9. High moral and religious education:-
a) Moral and religious education should be given to adolescents. This stresses the importance of value of prayer in morning
assemblies and celebrations of birthdays of great saints of all religions. Parents, teachers and religious leaders should not teach
or propagate for narrow religion but spirit of brotherhood and humanitarianism should be taught, propagated and cultivated.
b) The pupils must be helped in the formation and development of strong moral sentiments and ideals like patriotism, nationalism,
self sacrifice, honesty, truth beauty and goodness.
10. Co-operation of parents:- Co-operation of parents must be sought. Parents should co-operate with the school and college
staff in helping the adolescents in solving their difficulties. They should provide good hygienic conditions to the adolescents
at home. Home atmosphere should be free from tensions and worries. Moreover, the parents should have the knowledge of
psychology of adolescence.
11. School centre of community service:- School should become the centre of community service in which the students are to
take an active part in doing community service etc. dignity of labour should be recognized and social disparities should be
removed by education.
12. Guidance centres:- Guidance centres should be started so that adolescents may get suitable educational, vocational, and
psychological guidance. There should be well-trained and experienced guidance workers and counselors. They should help
the adolescents in solving their problems and making personal, social and psychological adjustments.
CONCLUSION:-
To include we can say that adolescence is a period of stress and strain, strife and storm, heightened emotionality and suggestibility,
day dreaming and adventures, intense affections and stirring of the heart. Adolescents have various needs and problems and hence
the teachers have a vital role to play in their lives. Education should be organized in such a way that it may enable the adolescents
to face and solve the problems in life.
UNIT-II
LONG NOTES (3-4 Pgs) (8 MARKS) & SHORT NOTES (4 MARKS) (150-200 words/
around 2 Pgs.)
➢ Educational implications of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Piaget, an acknowledged international authority in the field of child psychology and education and cognitive development
has made significant contribution to the theory and practice of education. His contributions are briefly summarized as under:-
1. Practical interpretation of intelligence:- Piaget defined and interpreted intelligence in a practical way. Intelligence in
terms of cognitive structure and functioning helps the person in making struggle for survival and seeking adjustment with
the environment. Hence, the intelligence of a person can only be assessed in terms of the nature of adjustment i.e., balance
between him and his environment. It means that one’s intelligence is a dynamic function. It has some purposes or
functions and these functions help us to measure the intelligence of a person. Interpreting intelligence in this way has led
to intelligence tests being devised with emphasis on the mechanism of adaptation on the one hand, and maintenance of
balance between abilities and environmental demands for the development and welfare of the child on the other.
2. Importance of drives and motivation:- Piaget’s theory has highlighted the importance of drives and motivation in the
field of learning and development. It has utilized the concept of equilibration for this prupose by defining it as the
continuous drive towards equilibrium or balance between the organism and its environment.
3. Curriculum planning:- Piaget’s theory provides a suitable framework of the learning experiences in view of the
cognitive development of children and the needs of society. It is helpful in curriculum planning and structuring the
scheme of studies. Since children of a particular region tend to reach a particular stage in their intellectual development
what is to be planned in their curriculum or schemem of studies must always be in accordance with the expected level of
maturation and mental abilities.
4. Acquaintance with thought process:- Piaget’s theory acquaints teachers and parents with the thought processes of
children at a particular level of their maturation or chronological age.
5. Optimal conditions for learning:- The theory emphasise the organization of optional conditions for an individual’s
learning and development in the light of processes of (i) assimilation, (2) accommodation and (3) equilibration.
6. Appropriate and stimulating environment:- As Piagetian theory considers both physical and social experiences as
quite essential for a child’s intellectual development, it has placed an important responsibility on parents and teachers to
arrange for the most appropriate and stimulating environment for their children.
7. Self-Learning:-Cchildren should be encouraged to experiment with materials in order to accommodate new
understanding and to acquire new learning by themselves. For example, to give the idea of the fraction 1/3, it would be
advisable to cut an apple into three equal parts and then show one piece physically to show that the meaning of fraction
1/3 is ‘one out of three parts’. The teacher must try to emphaisse self-learning. He should try to set up environment in
which the students can have a wide variety of experiences for self or discovery learning.
8. Variety of aid material:- The theory emphaises the importance of the variety of aid material in teaching-learning
process. Teaching-learning process should not be confined to the use of verbal communication, but should involve other
symbolic expressions and means for the communication of ideas suited to the circumstances and nature of the learner.
9. Pupil-centred education:- Piaget’s theory emphaises pupil-centred education. It has advocated need for tailoring the
education of a child according to the level of functioning of his cognitive structure.
Concluison-: Thus it can be said that intelligence as the ability to adjust, adapt or deal efficiently, with one’s environment.
Intelligence changes and develops as the organism matures biologically and as it gains from experiences. Thus according
to piaget intelligence may be regarded to represent all those dynamic traits which help an individual to create optimal
conditions for his survival under existing circumstances.
➢ Write down the Stages of Psycho-Social Development theory by Erickson’s

Stages of Psycho- Social The person and Specific age Needs and Expectations
Development
1. Trust vs Mistrust Infant Needs maximum comfort with
(Birth to 1½ years) minimal uncertainty to trust
himself/herself, others, and the
environment.
Works to master physical

2. Autonomy vs Shame and Toddler environment while maintaining self-
Doubt (1½ years to 3 years) esteem.
Begins to initiate, not imitate,

activities; develops conscience and
3. Initiative vs Guilt Pre-Schooler sexual identity.
(3 years to 6 years)
Tries to develop a sense of self worth
by refining skills.
Tries integrating many roles (child,
4. Industry vs Inferiority School age child sibling, student, athlete, worker) into
(6 years to 12 years) a self-image under role model and
5. Identity vs Role confusion peer pressure.
Adolescent
(12 to 20 years) Learns to make personal commitment
to another as spouse, parent or
partner.
Seeks satisfaction through

6. Intimacy vs Isolation productivity in career, family and
Young Adult civic interests.
Reviews life accomplishments, deals
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation with loss and preparation for death.
Middle Age Adult

(45 to 65 years)
8. Integrity vs Despair
Older Adult
(65 years onwards)
➢ Educational Implications of Erickon’s Theory of Psycho-socio Development

As we have seen above that eight stages of psychosocial development suggested by Erickson in his theory spans from our
birth through adulthood. Each stage is characterized with a development crisis and each crisis stage has the potential for
(i) The positive experiences leading to positive outcomes, and

(ii) Negative experiences leading to negative outcomes.
As far as the educational implications of Erickson’s theory of psycho-social development are concerned we can
limit ourselves in discussing the implications of first five stages covering the periods of infancy, childhood and
adolescence of one’s life. During this developmental period, the main implications or utilization of the Erickson’s theory
may be summarized as below:-
• At the beginning stage named as Trust vs. mistrust (ages 0-18 months) the children are almost in the laps of their
mother and care takers and depends upon them entirely for the satisfaction of their basic needs. Adequate care here should
be taken by them for the proper satisfaction of their physical and emotional needs. The children of this age need too much
physical proximity, immediate satisfaction of their physical needs and a sense of all round security. It should be readily
available to them as and when they need so in a consistent and reliable way helping them to build trust in their environment
and learn the basic lesson of life that others can be dependable and reliable. As far as possible, mothers should take care
of the children herself and not leave the task to the hired servants as no body can build in the infants of this age the feeling
of that trust or faith that has been emphasized by Erickson in his theory of development.
• When the children enter the stage 2:- Autonomy vs. shame (ages 18 months – 3 years), they no longer require to be
taken in the laps but need to become a little independent in terms of their actions and behaviors. The parents and family
members should take into consideration the need of the children to become independent in the matters of their liking. For
example, they may need to take their meal or food stuff by their own, walk and climb at the places of their choice and
play in the manner they like. Such autonomy should be provided to them with necessary positive role model and safety
measures. Unnecessary restriction should not be imposed on the toddlers to behave and act in the way as desired by you
in the name of good behavior. It will only cause frustration for the toddler; instead, it is far better for the child to see you
as a support and an aid rather as an obstacle to his or her own developing capabilities and independence.
• When the children enter the stage 3:- Initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-6 years), many of them become students of pre-primary
classes. At this stage now they want to initiate and complete their own actions for serving a purpose and may feel guilt
when their initiative does not produce the desired results. The preschoolers thus should be given a fair chance of engaging
in a number of play and constructive activities of their choice and initiative. But on the other hand it should also be seen
that task chosen should fall in the reasonable limits of their capacities and age related behavior. For this purpose the
initiative for choosing an activity and setting the goals such as constructing a large puzzle should also come from the
children themselves. The parents and teachers should only act as guide and supervisor for this purpose. For avoiding
constant failure and feeling guilty on the part of the preschoolers, it is also wise on the part of parents and teachers to help
them in taking initiative of doing initially simple tasks and then gradually get their level of risk taking behavior increased.
• When the children enter the stage 4:- Industry vs. inferiority (ages 6-12 years), it is their elementary education period.
It is quite crucial for the developing children, as what we say as development of self-confidence, self-esteem and self-
efficacy is almost well decided and perpetuated at this stage. It is here that they can learn the habit of doing hard work,
persistence in getting engaged in a task for a long time and putting work before pleasure. According to Allen and Marotz
(2003):
Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals. They work hard at “being
responsible, being good and doing it right”. They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. At this stage, children
are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values,
recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal need and grooming with
minimal assistance.
If the child is allowed too little success, he or she will develop a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Moreover
too much industry may have an inherent danger to lead to narrow virtuosity (children who are not allowed to be children).
It is therefore quite essential for the parents and teachers to strike a balance and work towards building self-confidence
and nurturing self-esteem among the children. Robert Brooks (2001) has laid down following suggestions for this
purpose:-
➢ Understand and accept children’s learning problems (highlight strengths).
➢ Teach children how to solve problems and make decisions.
➢ Reinforce responsibility by having children contribute.
➢ Learn from rather than feeling defeated by mistakes.
➢ Make the child feel special (create special times alone with them each week)
• When the children enter the stage 5:- Identity vs. role confusion (ages 12-20 years) it is the last phase for many of them
of their schooling. At this stage they are confronted with a significant crisis of the age of adolescence associated with the
search for their own identity. Adolescents are caught between the confronting demands of their parents, elders and
teachers who sometimes say that you have grown up and other times snub them for their independent choices and grown
up behavior. We adults should be reasonable fare in dealing with our adolescents if we want to see them grow as a
responsible adult in their future life. It is also the age of maximum growth and development in their personality. For
Erickson, this is also the stage where values have to be chosen, beliefs understood, the ‘self’ explored and necessary self-
esteem built.
How do we respond to the characteristics of this development stage? In this connection the viewpoints brought
out by Erickson in his theory may be seen to convey the things like below to the teachers and parents.
➢ Try to develop an open and warm relationship with the young adolescent for having useful dialogue with them.
➢ Recognize their phenomenon self and stop treating them as children.
➢ Let them feel as a responsible being and challenge them with realistic goals for achieving a sense of identity
regarding the role they will play as adults.
➢ Help them to shape their personality by providing them appropriate role models.
➢ Help them in their search and adaptation of values and ideals helpful in their well-being.
➢ Help them to seek reasoning for neutralizing the negative influence of the social company, and media.
➢ As a last stage for the school education try to provide them in the schools a wide variety of rich experiences and
choices for actualizing their self and assign them responsibilities for getting trained as a responsible citizen.
➢ Do not hurt their phenomenon self. Provide them due respect and recognition with no discrimination of any kind
whether at home, school or in social gatherings.
Conclusion -: All human have the some basic needs and individual development depends on reaction towards
these basic needs. Everyone wants to achieve his/her basic needs in their life. Therefore Erickson concluded that
human development progresses according to specific stages. He also states that each of those stages has crisis
and those crisis must be dissolved before an individual can function successfully at the next stage.
➢ Educational Implications of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

(KUK 21,22)
The moral development theories provided by Piaget and Kohlberg have enough potential to direct and guide the way of
teachers and parents for helping the children develop morally by highlighting some of the essential facts like below:
• The moral development is essentially a learned phenomenon. As Kohlberg (1968) asserts the stages of moral development
are not the product of maturation. The sequence related to development of moral reasoning do not simply unfold according
to genetic blueprint. It is therefore much needed on the part of we elders that we should never blame heredity for the
child’s level of moral reasoning and moral development.
• The child at his early years of development (infancy and early childhood till the age of 4 or 5 years) is neither moral or
immoral but is essentially non-moral in the sense that he has no moral thinking regarding good or bad of an act. He may
pick up the things belonging to others without feeling any need of asking or informing them about it simply due to the
reason that he feels nothing bad or wrong in doing so. Since no moral sense or reasoning lies with the children of this age,
we elders should behave accordingly without blaming them for their act of disobedience, unsocial or antisocial behavior
as these children are quite ignorant about the goodness or wrongness of their behavior.
• The children belonging to Kohlberg’s first three stage of moral development believes in the eternal nature of the rules
and the authority of the elders. They want to obey their orders and rules without questioning their validity. Accordingly
we elders must be quite cautious in putting rules and regulations before the children belonging to this age span. The rules
once made should not be altered then and there. The children without and discrimination should be made to follow them.
It is essential at this stage because, children have not attained enough mental maturity for deciding at their own that what
is sight or wrong for them. It is in the interest of the children, their peers, parents, teachers and community as a whole
that they should be made to observe the rules and regulation regarding their appropriate individual and social behavior.
• The children prior to their entry into formal operation stage (i.e. beginning of adolescence) can only grasp the concrete
ideas and form related to morality. At this stage, for them examples are always better then precept. In childhood, therefore,
they should be presented with models of appropriate behavior by the elders for being observed and imitated. The
abstraction regarding moral reasoning or concept is out of reach to the children belonging to the development period of
childhood. It is therefore futile to expect from them to talk about the soul, the fruits of Karma, rudiments of religion and
God etc.
• With the development of their intellectual abilities, older children belonging to formal operation stage now no longer
believes in the eternity or non-changing pattern of the rules. They can’t be expected to obey the elders and observe the
set rules silently as happens in childhood. They need reason and satisfactory answer to their question “why”. Therefore,
we should be quite cautious in emphasizing about the rules and moral conduct at this stage. Rather making them follow
the rules and ethical norms blindly, they should be told about the significance of such behavior from the individual as
well as social point of views. They should be allowed to ask questions and remove their doubts about the appropriateness
and inappropriateness of their behavior in practicing morality at home, schools and other social situations. Discussion
and debates on the moral issues should also be encouraged and children need to given opportunities as well as freedom
to reason about the prevalent social and ethical norms for their better adoption in their lives.
• The parents and teachers should also recognize the importance of the principle of reciprocity as believed by the individuals
in their period of childhood. If you do good to others, others also behave with you nicely. Judging the impact of a bad act
or foul saying on one’s self may force the children to behave in a proper way. If one thing is pinching them, it will do the
same to others. Stimulating and encouraging such thinking and feelings on the part of children may help them to imbibe
and practice good things.
• Kohlberg strongly emphasizes that the goal of moral education is to encourage and help the individuals to develop to the
next stage of moral reasoning and morality. According to him the most common tool for doing this is to present a “moral
dilemma” for making the child confronted with a situation involving his moral reasoning and judgement. The child may
adopt view, characterizing his development age but may not be able to resolve the moral dilemma, he may then be forced
to adopt the moral reasoning belonging to the next stage of moral development. Kohlberg’s device of inducing conflict,
resembles equilibration model emphasized by Piaget. When a new thing does not fit into the existing cognitive structure
through assimilation, one has to go for the due enlargement of his cognitive structure for doing away with the state of
disequilibrium. In this way, both the moral development theories (given by Piaget and Kohlberg), urge to adopt a cognitive
conflict inducing approach for helping the child to move further on the higher stages of his moral development. In this
method, teachers are urged to lead discussion groups in which children have a chance to grapple actively with moral
issues. For the proper inducement of cognitive conflict, it is well cared to encourage arguments that belong to one stage
above those of most of the class. Since students do not find sufficient, the level of moral reasoning which they presently
have with them for resolving the confronted moral issue, they will be stimulated and interested in the acquisition of the
moral reasoning belonging to the higher stage of their moral development and this will definitely help them in their pursuit
of higher and higher moral development.
• Kohlberg’s theory of moral development inspire and motivates us that it is quite possible to attain the true morality
characterized with selfless, feelings of doing good to others, adherence to the principles of equity, equality, moral justice
and human rights being preached and practiced by the great men of the history like Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
Students, for this purpose, should be exposed to the lives and works of the great social reformers, freedom fighters, social
revolutionaries, philosophers, and religious figures. They should also be given reasonable freedom to express their
original ideas and views about the prevalent social structure, laws and ethical norms along with their zeal to replace them
with some suitable ones. May be that there may be a quite few to attempt to reach this highest stage of moral reasoning
but surely there are the ones who are responsible for leading the society and humanity to a more illuminated path and
certainly we should make provision for them in our system of education.
Concluison -: Thus it can be said Moral development is invariant, individuals go through the stages one at a time and they
are in a fixed order, but some Individuals may not reach the final stage. He also concluded that the order of stages is universal
across all cultures. Kohlberg’s theory had helped philosophers, academicians, educators and even parents in shaping
and educating children to help them became a better human for the next generations. In addition, Kohlberg’s theory
has contributed in many other areas apart from pedagogy, especially involving rules, laws and regulations of
our world.

Ques: What is Cognitive Development? Explain Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development in detail and bring out its educational implications? (KUK
2018,19,20,21,22)
Ans The child as he grown up not only develops in physical, emotional, social and attitudinal behavior, but side by side, in his
cognitive or intellectual behavior also. Cognitive development includes development of language, intelligence, interests, curious
questions, memory, imagination, concepts. Percepts, thoughts, problem solving, attention, sensation, perception, observation and
such other abilities. The teacher’s duty is to assist the child in the development of his abilities. This development is education.
Education that does not result in development is not worth the name.
SOME GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
(INDICES OF PROPER COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT)
1. mbols.
2. Increasing ability to make plans:- Along with the abilities to utilize past experiences, with the passage of time, the
child acquires increasing abilities to make plans and actions. He plans out for remote goals that do not demand immediate
realization. The child, for example, regulates the time-table of home studies for a remote goal of passing the examination.
Thus person with proper cognitive development shows increasing ability to make plans.
3. Increase in attention:- As the child advances in age, increase in power of attention takes place. The child becomes able
to concentrate upon a project for a longer period of time.
4. Increase in curious questions:- With increase in age the child becomes curious and puts such questions as “What is it”?
Why is it so”? “Who has done it”? These questions are more definite than he used to put during infancy. Person with
proper cognitive development asks curious questions.
5. Increase in sensory development:- In the first month of the life of the child sensory development takes place and thus
the child learns to use his senses effectively. The child experiences many types of sensations like hardness, pleasure,
pain, sensation of sound and smell. With increase in age, his sensory equipment becomes well developed. His power of
perception becomes keener and more accurate. He can compare various sensations. His vivid memory gives place to
logical thinking and he can generalize on the basis of his experience. Thus proper cognitive development is characterized
by increase in sensory development.
6. Increase in import of reality into the world of imagination:- In the early years of life, the child lives in the world of
fertile imagination. Day dreaming, fairy tales, fantasy, make-belief play are important characteristics of cognitive
development of the infancy period. The child thinks that imaginary world is a real world. But as the child advances in
age he realizes that the world of reality is the real world for him. He ceases to live in the world of imagination.
7. Ability to deal with ideas:- The child with normal cognitive development possesses ability to deal with ideas without
immediate personal involvement.
8. Ability to make decisions:- The person with proper cognitive development possesses ability to make decisions. He
gradually learns to distinguish between actual and ideal, between reasoning and rationalization. He learns to shift what
is wished from what is wise.
9. Ability to think in wider perspective:- Person with proper cognitive development shows ability to think in a wider
perspective.
10. Ability to challenge the existing norms:- Proper cognitive development is characterized by ability to challenge the
existing norms and not taking the things for granted.
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT/PIAGET’S THEORY OR CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE
Introduction
Jean Piaget, a Swiss biologist and psychologist developed a keen interest in child and cognitive psychology. His work is primarily
associated with the cognitive development. To understand cognitive or intellectual development in its proper perspective, Piaget’s
theory of development of cognitive ability is perhaps the most important. He defined intelligence as the ability to adjust, adapt or
deal efficiently, with one’s environment. Intelligence changes and develops as the organism matures biologically and as it gains
from experiences. Thus according to piaget intelligence may be regarded to represent all those dynamic traits which help an
individual to create optimal conditions for his survival under existing circumstances.
Piaget concentrated only on the developmental aspect of intelligence. Piaget in his theory mainly starts by analyzing the
existing biotical characteristics and ends it at cognitive results. He calls it genetic epistemology. Thus piaget’s man interest was
in the existence and development of cognition.
According to piaget, the organism is structured due to complimentary activities of adjustment organization. That is why
he called intelligence as an even of biological adjustment. Piaget classified adjustment in two sub-categories:- (i) Assimilation
and (2) Accommodation.
Piaget’s Basic Concepts:-
1. Schemas: Piaget was of the view that every individual has his own pattern of behviour, when he deals with objects,
individuals and situations in life. These are called schemas. The schemas are of two types:-
(i) Behavioural schemas:- Behavioural schemas are generally connected with general human behavior. When
human being performs some physical activity it is a behvaoural type of schema.
(ii) Cognitive (Mental) schemas:- Cognitive schemas are connected with cognitive (mental) development of the
individual. When a human being is solving a problem from his academic side the schema is of cognitive or
mental type.
Piaget believed that schemas exist in a primitive form at conception and develop progressively during the time
in certain systematic ways. They have all the necessary energy for their emergence and development.
2. Assimilation:- This concept of Piaget comes into operation when the child uses his schema already present in his, mind
over a new problem, subject or situation. The child tries to incorporate the new object or event in the existing schema in
his mental make up. Thus assimilation involves adjusting new information in the existing schema in his mental make up.
Assimilation indicates the environmental stuff, i.e. it means the background prepared on the basis of previous
experiences. Thus assimilation means to adjust. Both these activities go together.
3. Accommodation:-It means making changes in the existing schema to fit in new ideas or objects. This generally happens
when the old schema does not work and the child has to adjust or accommodate the new with the old. The child may
imitate others, may suppress his own schema and thus show a tendency towards accommodation.
4. Equilibration:- The word is based on the word ‘equilibrium’ which means a state of ‘even mental balance’. When the
child faces a new problem and his existing schema does not work, this state of affairs brings out disequilibrium in the
mind of the child. At this stage, the child has to focus his attention on the new concept, or situation, he develops new
schemas or modifies his old schema to suit the new situation. This situation, according to Piaget, enables the child to
learn and grow. In the classroom teaching, the process of establishing the equilibrium helps the child in developing his
mental makeup. Such situation arises when new and provocative ideas are presented to the child. These arouse the
curiosity of the child and he tries to establish a better understanding with new ideas.
Effective cognitive development depends on experience and proper co-ordination of existing cognitive structure,
only then the balance is obtained. The complimentary activity of assimilation and co-ordination provides the balance.
The resultant changes due to balance give rise to a sequence of levels : (i) Language, (2) Moral Logic, (3) Problem
solving. (4) Perception and (5) Play.
As the child interacts with the environment; he gradually develops the finer mental abilities. Thus he becomes
capable of doing the activities which are beyond the problem. The logical laws which a child builds for this development,
is the centre point of Piaget’s work.
Thus Piaget highlighted the role of the following factors in one’s cognitive (intellectual) makeup and its functioning:
(i) Reflexes and mental dispositions i.e., the biologically inherited reflexes and mental dispositions as the
fundamental cognitive structure.
(ii) Maturation i.e. the changes and development brought about in the cognitive structure through
maturation (i.e. the process of natural growth).
(iii) Experiences i.e.the changes and development in the cognitive structure brought about through
experiences (interaction with the physical and social environment) involving the process of
assimilation. Accommodation and equilibration.
Stages of Cognitive (Intellectual) Development:-
Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist describes the process of cognitive development from birth to maturity under the
following four stages:-
1. Sensory-motor stage (Birth to 18 months) :- This stage depends pre-dominantly on sensory and body-motor
experience. The infant is dependent on his body for self-expression and communication. Piaget characterizes the new
born baby as active and as an initiator of behavior. The infant quickly learns to distinguish among various features of the
immediate environment and he modifies the behavior in accordance with its demands. Various characteristics of this
period according to Piaget are as under:-
(i) Sensory-motor solution:- Development proceeds from reflex activity to sensory-motor solution to problems.
(ii) Co-ordination of sensory-motor actions:- Sensory experiences-sight, sound, touch and taste become co-
ordinated. Child’s motor actions are well co-ordinated by this period. Co-ordination of ordination of sensory-
motor actions enables the infant to understand the world and its reality in most elementary form.
(iii) Appearance of curiosity:- The first signs of curiosity also appear at this stage. Curiosity is a function of the
relation between the new object and the previous experience.
(iv) Appearance of imitation:- Infant shows tendency to imitate or repeat behavior or actions. But his imitation is
restricted to elementary, vocal or usual movements.
(v) Object permanence:- For the new born baby objects and people have no permanence and hence transitory.
Even for an infant of 6 months objects exist only when they are physically present and perceived by him. But
around the second year of life a child regards objects as having permanence and therefore seeks toys and other
objects that disappeared from view. Object permanence is the first and most essential requirement for and other
objects that disappeared from view. Object permanence is the first and most essential requirement for cognitive
development. It is through this concept that any experience enters the child’s mind.
(vi) Practical intelligence:- The infant has practical intelligence. The infant cannot think as the adults do. He
thinks with his sensory experiences and motor actions. Thus this stage is known as sensory-motor stage.
2. Pre-operational stage (From 18 months to 7 years) :- This stage is called pre-operational stage because the operations
of logical thinking are not yet fully developed. This is pre-logical or partly logical period. During this stage development
proceeds from sensory-motor representations to pre-logical thought and solutions to problems. There are two sub-stages:-
(b) Ego-centric stage (from 18 months to 4 years)
(c) Intuitive stage (from 4 years to 7 years)
Important characteristics of pre-operational period are as under:-
(i) Rapid development of spoken language:- During the first half of this stage extremely rapid development
of spoken language takes place. The child understands a large number of words. All children learn their
native language without any formal instruction.
(ii) Perceptual thought:- The child’s thought is dominated by perception. By the age of 4 years the child
begins to develop symbolic ad preconceptual thought. He starts dealing with the world by means of
ideational representation. He develops way of representing the environment in the absence of perceptual
cues and builds a set of symbolic schemes. He discovers new symbols to use in communication with himself
and others.
(iii) Ego-centric thinking:- Thinking in the pre-operation period is marked by ego-centralism. Ego-centricism
refers the inability for child to look at a problem from the point of view of others. He thinks that everyone
thinks the same way he does, that everyone thinks the same thing he does, and that everything he does is
‘right’.
(iv) Animistic thinking:- Another characteristic of pre-operational stage is what Piaget calls ‘animism’.
Animism implies the belief of the child that things are alive because they move. If a thing moves, it is alive;
if it does not move, then it is not alive.
(v) Realism in thinking: Realism is the tendency of the child to think of even imaginary and dream-like states
as real as their everyday life. However these characteristics of pre-operatioal thought (ego-centralism,
animism and realism) gradually disappear as the child reaches the next stage.
(vi) Concepts as stable generalization:- The child of 4 to 7 years is able to use concepts as stable generalization
of his past and present experience.
(vii) Intuitive thought:- Reasoning of 4 to 7 years child is not logical. It is based on intuition. Intuitive thought
introduces a rudimentary awareness of relationships but such early understandings are related to concrete
events.
(viii) Social interests:- From 4 to 7 years, the child’s social interests in the world around him are widened. He
starts attending to things beyond himself.
3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years) :- At the age of seven, children are able to engage in activities of the mind
which Piaget calls ‘operations’. Operations are cognitive actions closely organized into a strong network or system.
They are actions on objects that can be carried out mentally without being carried out physically. The major change in
the period is that development proceeds from prelogical thoughts to logical solutions to concrete problems. Some of the
main characteristics of this stage are given below:-
(i) Logical thinking of concrete objects:- The child is capable of logical thinking. But his logical thinking is
confined to concrete objects and actions. The child, therefore, has difficulty in applying his logic to abstract
problems, hypothetical problems and problems dealing with future and complex verbal problems.
(ii) Waving of ego-centricism:- The child’s ego-centricism waves and he is able to take others’ view points. He
begins to understand changing points of view. His speech becomes increasingly socialized and communicative.
(iii) Understanding of conservation:- The concrete operational child understands conservation of numerousness,
length, area and ultimately volume.
(iv) Multiple and reversible thoughts:- During this stage, the child is able to think of multiple dimensions of a
single subject. Reversibility is the ability to reverse thought, to carry a thought backward and forward in time.
For example, the concrete operational child can tell the numbers backward from 10 to 1.
(v) Classification and grouping of objects:- another characteristic of this stage is the child’s capacity to classify,
group and arrange objects serially. He is able to understand the relation among actual things and classes of
things. He can also understand changes in the object and the environments.
During concrete operational stage, the child makes rapid progress in developing concepts but his thinking is still confined to
concrete objects and things that can be perceived and manipulated. Thus direct experiences play an important role in forming
concepts.
4. Formal operational stage (from 12 years to adulthood):- Stage of formal operations of cognitive development is
consolidated during adolescence. But in certain cases the period may extend beyond the age of sixteen. During this stage,
the person acquires the ability to think and reason beyond his own immediate world. He solves various problems
systematically and logically. He acquires ideas of social justice and proper modes of social interaction. Important
characteristics of this stage are as under:-
(i) High degree of equilibrium:- The person’s system of mental operations reaches a high degree of equilibrium. It
means that he can deal effectively with the complex problems of reasoning. He can imagine many possibilities of
solving a problem. He can deal with abstract and hypothetical problems.
(ii) Logical thinking to all problems:- The person is able to apply logical thinking to all types of problems whether
concrete or hypothetical.
(iii) Ability to use abstract rules:- During this stage the person is able to use abstract rules to solve a whole class of
problems.
(iv) Relational and systematic thought:- The person develops relational and systematic formal thought.
(v) Transfer of understanding:- The person develops relational and systematic formal thought. Understanding from
one situation to another situation.
Appreciation and Contribution to Education (Educational Implications) of Piaget’s Concept/Theory of Intellectual

Development:-
Piaget, an acknowledged international authority in the field of child psychology and education and cognitive development
has made significant contribution to the theory and practice of education. His contributions are briefly summarized as under:-
1.Practical interpretation of intelligence:- Piaget defined and interpreted intelligence in a practical way. Intelligence in
terms of cognitive structure and functioning helps the person in making struggle for survival and seeking adjustment with the
environment. Hence, the intelligence of a person can only be assessed in terms of the nature of adjustment i.e., balance
between him and his environment. It means that one’s intelligence is a dynamic function. It has some purposes or functions
and these functions help us to measure the intelligence of a person. Interpreting intelligence in this way has led to intelligence
tests being devised with emphasis on the mechanism of adaptation on the one hand, and maintenance of balance between
abilities and environmental demands for the development and welfare of the child on the other.
2.Importance of drives and motivation:- Piaget’s theory has highlighted the importance of drives and motivation in the
field of learning and development. It has utilized the concept of equilibration for this prupose by defining it as the continuous
drive towards equilibrium or balance between the organism and its environment.
3.Curriculum planning:- Piaget’s theory provides a suitable framework of the learning experiences in view of the cognitive
development of children and the needs of society. It is helpful in curriculum planning and structuring the scheme of studies.
Since children of a particular region tend to reach a particular stage in their intellectual development what is to be planned in
their curriculum or schemem of studies must always be in accordance with the expected level of maturation and mental
abilities.
4.Acquaintance with thought process:- Piaget’s theory acquaints teachers and parents with the thought processes of children
at a particular level of their maturation or chronological age.
5.Optimal conditions for learning:- The theory emphasise the organization of optional conditions for an individual’s
learning and development in the light of processes of (i) assimilation, (2) accommodation and (3) equilibration.
6.Appropriate and stimulating environment:- As Piagetian theory considers both physical and social experiences as quite
essential for a child’s intellectual development, it has placed an important responsibility on parents and teachers to arrange
for the most appropriate and stimulating environment for their children.
7.Self-Learning:-Cchildren should be encouraged to experiment with materials in order to accommodate new understanding
and to acquire new learning by themselves. For example, to give the idea of the fraction 1/3, it would be advisable to cut an
apple into three equal parts and then show one piece physically to show that the meaning of fraction 1/3 is ‘one out of three
parts’. The teacher must try to emphaisse self-learning. He should try to set up environment in which the students can have
a wide variety of experiences for self or discovery learning.
8.Variety of aid material:- The theory emphaises the importance of the variety of aid material in teaching-learning process.
Teaching-learning process should not be confined to the use of verbal communication, but should involve other symbolic
expressions and means for the communication of ideas suited to the circumstances and nature of the learner.
9.Pupil-centred education:- Piaget’s theory emphaises pupil-centred education. It has advocated need for tailoring the
education of a child according to the level of functioning of his cognitive structure.
Concluison-: Thus it can be said that intelligence as the ability to adjust, adapt or deal efficiently, with one’s environment.
Intelligence changes and develops as the organism matures biologically and as it gains from experiences. Thus according to
piaget intelligence may be regarded to represent all those dynamic traits which help an individual to create optimal conditions
for his survival under existing circumstances.
Ques:- What is moral development? Explain Kohlberg theory of moral development in

detail and explain its educational implications.
(KUK 2019,20,22)
Ans :- Moral development is one of the most significant aspects of the personality development. It is thus a major task of
society and education. Moral development proceeds along with social development. A person whose social
development has been disturbed due to some, or the other reason, a person who is socially maladjusted develops
immoral behavior.
MEANING OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Hemming, in his book, ‘The Development of Children’s Moral Values’ writes, “Moral development is the process in
which the child acquires the values esteemed by his community acquires a sense of right and wrong in terms of these value. Learns
to regulate his personal desires and compulsions so that, when a situational conflict arises, he does what he ought to do rather than
what he wants to do Moral development is the process by which a community seeks to transfer the egocentricity of the baby into
the social behavior of the mature adult.
Moral development includes moral behavior and moral concepts:-
1. Moral behavior:- Moral behavior means behavior in conformity with the moral code of the social group. The term
‘Moral’ comes form the Latin word ‘mores’ meaning manners, customs and folkways. Moral behavior not only conforms
to social standards but also it is carried out voluntarily. It is always accompanied by a feeling of responsibility for one’s
facts. It involves giving primary consideration to the welfare of the group and considering personal gain or desires as
having secondary importance.
2. Moral concepts:- Moral concepts are the rules of behavior to which the members of a culture become accustomed and
which determine the expected behavior patterns of all group members.
Concept of Morality:- The term ‘Morality’ stands for following the moral code of society or conformity in behavior to the
manners, values and customs of the social group. It also includes a sense of right or wrong. Morality consists of ideals or
rules that govern human conduct. Morality has a social reference. Moral standards vary from group to group depending upon
what has been accepted by the group as the socially approved behavior. True morality comes from within the individual. It
is internal in nature and not imposed by external authority.
It should be noted that a moral code is based on moral concepts which have been learned gradually over a long period.
The fundamental concepts are learned in the home by direct teaching and imitation, motivated by threats of punishment and
promises of reward. Later, these home grown concepts are broadened and reinforced by learning from teachers, from adults
in authority and from peers.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO KOHLBERG:
Kohlberg believes that the child’s moral development proceeds from specificity to generality. Kohlberg mentions six
developmental stages that fall into three fundamentally different levels (pre-conventional level, conventional level and post-
conventional level) of moral orientation.
1. Pre-conventional Level:-
At this level the control, of conduct is external. Required conforming standards of behavior consist of pressures or
commands which come from sources outside the person. For example, the parents set the standards which are to be
conformed. The motive for the moral behavior is also external at this stage. The motive is to avoid external punishment,
to secure awards or to have favours. This level is divided in two stages:-
1. Stage 1 : Punishment and obedience orientation:- Obedience is based on fear of punishment. Children have no real
sense of morality or conscience. They, however, show unquestioning deference to those who have power to punish.
There is no concept of the rights of others. Might is right. At this stage, the child primarily pays attention towards
keeping himself away from difficulty and in this way saves himself from pain, obstruction to his freedom and anxiety.
This is similar to the stage described by Piaget as the stage of objective responsibility.
2. Stage 2. : Instruments-relativist orientation:- The child at this stage also remains attentive to his needs but he
understands now that others too have rights. Because of this sometimes he agrees to compromise on the efforts for
fulfilling the needs of other persons. ‘You scratch my back and I shall scratch yours’ Rules are conformed for the
purpose of gaining favours and rewards from others.
(2) Conventional Level:-
At this level control of the individual’s conduct still remains external. Still rules adhered to are those of others,
but motivation to comply with the conventional social order or the expectation of others.
3. Stage 3 : Nice girl/good boy orientation:- Nice girl/good boy orientation is predominant. Moral behavior is that
which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. Right action is defined by general consensus and the motive
behind the right action is the desire to remain accepted by others. At this stage, the child tries to please others and
obtain their approval. He moulds himself to the traditional patterns of social norms and in arriving at judgments
keeps himself and others intentions in mind. What Piaget calls as personal responsibility that appears at this stage.
4. Stage 4 : Law and order orientation:- The child understands that the social system is dependent on the performance
of their duties by the individuals and on their willingness for respecting the laws. Thus, moral ideals become more
generalized and motivation to live upto them shifts from concern about the reactions of immediate others to a sense
of duty to respect authority and maintain the social order. This stage might be called the ‘law and order’ stage.
(3) post-conventional Level:-
The control of conduct at this level becomes internal. The standards conformed to come from within the
individual and the decision to act is based on an inner process of thought and judgement concerning moral matters.
There is a thrust towards autonomous moral principles. Which have a valid basis and application.
5. Stage 5 : Social contract orientation:- At this stage, a sense of duty still prevails, but morality now is seen more as
a responsibility to honour contractual agreements and the rights of others. Right actions are of fairness and legality
becomes more important than the need to maintain the social order. Laws can be changed when they no longer
express the will of the majority, maximize social welfare, or promote institutional functioning. There is recognition
that all individuals have rights irrespective of their race, sex or social status. Most of the adults are capable of
functioning at this stage.
6. Stage 6 : Universal ethical principle orientation:- At this stage, morality is oriented toward individual principles of
conscience. Conduct is now governed by internalized ideals regardless of others reactions. Morality is distinguished
from legality. Moral decisions take into account intentions, situational factors, mitigating circumstances and other
factors that differentiate superficially similar situations. In other words, the individual not only keeps in mind the
norms of the society but also the limits to which the universal moral principles are applicable. The universal
principles of justice, the reciprocity and quality of human rights and respect for the dignity of mankind as individual
persons form the basis of conscience.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Educational Implications
The moral development theories provided by Piaget and Kohlberg have enough potential to direct and guide the way of
teachers and parents for helping the children develop morally by highlighting some of the essential facts like below:
• The moral development is essentially a learned phenomenon. As Kohlberg (1968) asserts the stages of moral development
are not the product of maturation. The sequence related to development of moral reasoning do not simply unfold according
to genetic blueprint. It is therefore much needed on the part of we elders that we should never blame heredity for the
child’s level of moral reasoning and moral development.
• The child at his early years of development (infancy and early childhood till the age of 4 or 5 years) is neither moral or
immoral but is essentially non-moral in the sense that he has no moral thinking regarding good or bad of an act. He may
pick up the things belonging to others without feeling any need of asking or informing them about it simply due to the
reason that he feels nothing bad or wrong in doing so. Since no moral sense or reasoning lies with the children of this age,
we elders should behave accordingly without blaming them for their act of disobedience, unsocial or antisocial behavior
as these children are quite ignorant about the goodness or wrongness of their behavior.
• The children belonging to Kohlberg’s first three stage of moral development believes in the eternal nature of the rules
and the authority of the elders. They want to obey their orders and rules without questioning their validity. Accordingly
we elders must be quite cautious in putting rules and regulations before the children belonging to this age span. The rules
once made should not be altered then and there. The children without and discrimination should be made to follow them.
It is essential at this stage because, children have not attained enough mental maturity for deciding at their own that what
is sight or wrong for them. It is in the interest of the children, their peers, parents, teachers and community as a whole
that they should be made to observe the rules and regulation regarding their appropriate individual and social behavior.
• The children prior to their entry into formal operation stage (i.e. beginning of adolescence) can only grasp the concrete
ideas and form related to morality. At this stage, for them examples are always better then precept. In childhood, therefore,
they should be presented with models of appropriate behavior by the elders for being observed and imitated. The
abstraction regarding moral reasoning or concept is out of reach to the children belonging to the development period of
childhood. It is therefore futile to expect from them to talk about the soul, the fruits of Karma, rudiments of religion and
God etc.
• With the development of their intellectual abilities, older children belonging to formal operation stage now no longer
believes in the eternity or non-changing pattern of the rules. They can’t be expected to obey the elders and observe the
set rules silently as happens in childhood. They need reason and satisfactory answer to their question “why”. Therefore,
we should be quite cautious in emphasizing about the rules and moral conduct at this stage. Rather making them follow
the rules and ethical norms blindly, they should be told about the significance of such behavior from the individual as
well as social point of views. They should be allowed to ask questions and remove their doubts about the appropriateness
and inappropriateness of their behavior in practicing morality at home, schools and other social situations. Discussion
and debates on the moral issues should also be encouraged and children need to given opportunities as well as freedom
to reason about the prevalent social and ethical norms for their better adoption in their lives.
• The parents and teachers should also recognize the importance of the principle of reciprocity as believed by the individuals
in their period of childhood. If you do good to others, others also behave with you nicely. Judging the impact of a bad act
or foul saying on one’s self may force the children to behave in a proper way. If one thing is pinching them, it will do the
same to others. Stimulating and encouraging such thinking and feelings on the part of children may help them to imbibe
and practice good things.
• Kohlberg strongly emphasizes that the goal of moral education is to encourage and help the individuals to develop to the
next stage of moral reasoning and morality. According to him the most common tool for doing this is to present a “moral
dilemma” for making the child confronted with a situation involving his moral reasoning and judgement. The child may
adopt view, characterizing his development age but may not be able to resolve the moral dilemma, he may then be forced
to adopt the moral reasoning belonging to the next stage of moral development. Kohlberg’s device of inducing conflict,
resembles equilibration model emphasized by Piaget. When a new thing does not fit into the existing cognitive structure
through assimilation, one has to go for the due enlargement of his cognitive structure for doing away with the state of
disequilibrium. In this way, both the moral development theories (given by Piaget and Kohlberg), urge to adopt a cognitive
conflict inducing approach for helping the child to move further on the higher stages of his moral development. In this
method, teachers are urged to lead discussion groups in which children have a chance to grapple actively with moral
issues. For the proper inducement of cognitive conflict, it is well cared to encourage arguments that belong to one stage
above those of most of the class. Since students do not find sufficient, the level of moral reasoning which they presently
have with them for resolving the confronted moral issue, they will be stimulated and interested in the acquisition of the
moral reasoning belonging to the higher stage of their moral development and this will definitely help them in their pursuit
of higher and higher moral development.
• Kohlberg’s theory of moral development inspire and motivates us that it is quite possible to attain the true morality
characterized with selfless, feelings of doing good to others, adherence to the principles of equity, equality, moral justice
and human rights being preached and practiced by the great men of the history like Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
Students, for this purpose, should be exposed to the lives and works of the great social reformers, freedom fighters, social
revolutionaries, philosophers, and religious figures. They should also be given reasonable freedom to express their
original ideas and views about the prevalent social structure, laws and ethical norms along with their zeal to replace them
with some suitable ones. May be that there may be a quite few to attempt to reach this highest stage of moral reasoning
but surely there are the ones who are responsible for leading the society and humanity to a more illuminated path and
certainly we should make provision for them in our system of education.
Concluison -: Thus it can be said Moral development is invariant, individuals go through the stages one at a time and they
are in a fixed order, but some Individuals may not reach the final stage. He also concluded that the order of stages is universal
across all cultures. Kohlberg’s theory had helped philosophers, academicians, educators and even parents in shaping
and educating children to help them became a better human for the next generations. In addition, Kohlberg’s theory
has contributed in many other areas apart from pedagogy, especially involving rules, laws and regulations of
our world.
Ques: Throw light on the psycho-social development theory brought out by Erickson
along with its educational implications. (KUK 2019,21)
Ans:-
Erickson’s Theory of Psycho – Social Development

Concepts and Stages
Erickson postulated that the development of and individual is the result of his interaction with his social environment. Right from
his birth, his social development puts him under specific pressures or conflicts (called crisis) by making specific demands at
different ages or developmental stages of his life. The individual tries to meet these specific demands or resolve the crises by
reacting psychologically in his own way, depending upon his circumstances. The complexity of the demands from society or social
environment goes on increasing as the child advances on the ladder of growth and development. So, at each stage of his
development, the child faces a new crisis, i.e. an issue that needs to be resolved at that particular stage of development. The way
in which the ‘crisis’ of each stage is resolved has a major bearing on the development of one’s personality which in turn is reflected
as the positive and negative aspect of one’s behavior. Erickson discovered eight such issues or crisis of life arising at different ages
or periods of one’s development and linked them with the eight stages of one’s psycho-social development covering one’s entire
life span.
Age Span for the Stages of Psycho-social Development
Stage of psycho-social development Specific age or period

Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to 1½ years
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 1½ years to 3 years
Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 6 years
Industry vs. Inferiority 6 to 12 years
Identity vs. Role Confusion Adolescence (12 to 20 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation Early adulthood (20 to 45 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle adulthood (45 to 65 years)
Ego integrity vs. Despair Later adulthood (65 years onwards)
The above division outlines the types of crises that need to be resolved at particular stages or periods of one’s life. It also
identifies the different stages of psycho-social development. i.e. the personality traits that are likely to develop at a particular stage.
For example, one may go on acquiring positive traits like trust, independence, initiative, industry and identity, etc., to develop into
a meaningful personality. On the other hand, one can develop into a troublesome, confused and doomed personality by failing to
successfully resolve the crisis of one’s age and developing negative traits like mistrust, shame, doubt, guilt feeling, inferiority and
the like. Since these behavior traits, modes of adjustment or psychological build – up are acquired through one’s active interaction
with the social environment, the stages of development are referred to as psycho-social development. These different stages of
psycho-social development should not be considered to begin suddenly or end abruptly. In fact, one stage evolves into another
through the whole life cycle and the crisis of issues not resolved during one stage is supposed to carry over into the stages that
follow in some way or the other as revealed through the following discussion:
Description of Stages (alongwith Significance and Implications)
Stage I: The period of trust vs. mistrust (Birth to 1½ years). In the first one and a half years of life, the infant is confronted
with the crisis termed trust vs. mistrust. During this period the baby is completely dependent upon its mother or caretaker for the
satisfaction of its needs. The way it is nourished, handled, protected and kept safe and comfortable at this stage may provide the
baby with a sense of security or insecurity, a feeling of trust or mistrust in the mother or caretaker and ultimately in its surroundings.
The sense of trust or mistrust with regard to the environment gained in this way at this stage of development may then be carried
over to the stages of development to follow and consequently reflected in the developing personality.
In this way it becomes quite essential for the parents and caretakers to care for the baby in the way he or she feels satisfied
and gains a sense of security and feeling of trust in the caretakers.
Stage II: The period of autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1½ to 3 years). Having gained a primary sense of trust and security
with regard to his environment, in the second and third years of his life, the child now passes through the second stage of psycho-
social development. With the newly developed motor or physical skills and language ability, the child now engages in exploring
his environment and experimenting with his strengths and limitations for achieving a sense of autonomy and independence. The
child now needs proper safety measures against the risks involved in activities like walking, running, pulling, and handling the
objects of his environment or in terms of learning undesirable language but this does not mean that he should be denied as
reasonable degree of freedom to acquire a sense of independence. Within the bounds of safety, he must be provided adequate
opportunities for the acquisition of a sense of autonomy and knowledge about his limitations.
Children who are denied the opportunity to develop a sense of independence by over-protective, harsh or restrictive
parents begin to doubt their ability and ultimately begin to feel embarrassed or ashamed in the presence of others. However, the
development of the sense of doubt and shame within reasonable limits is not harmful. A healthy sense of doubt helps the child to
set his own limits and the development of shame helps him to develop a sense of right and wrong. Therefore, at this stage of
psycho-social development, the child needs to be helped in striking a balance between the conflicting needs of his social
environment to acquire a sense of autonomy and develop a sense of doubt and shame for the adequate development of his
personality.
Stage III: The period of initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years): The third stage of psycho-social development between three to six
years of age is characterized by the crisis of initiative versus guilt. Equipped with the sense of trust and autonomy the child now
begins to take initiative in interacting with his environment. He asks questions about each and everything, explores his environment
ceaselessly, and engages in planning and carrying out activities of various kinds. The extent to which the initiative for carrying out
physical and mental exploration is encouraged or discouraged by the parents and the available social environment, goes a long
way in developing ability in the child to initiate plan and carry out these activities in later life.
In case the child is discouraged from taking the initiative by his parents and guardians not having faith in him, or is pulled
down by unhealthy criticism, punishment or rebuke for minor failures, the child is sure to develop a sense of guilt leading to
hesitation, indecision and lack of initiative in planning and carrying out his life activities. Although in case of failure he feels a
reasonable amount of guilt for having failed to take the initiative at the right time or made mistakes in planning and carrying out
his activities, this enables him to learn from his failures. However, to allow this to develop into a guilty conscience is harmful to
the development of the child’s personality. Therefore, there is a need to resolve the crisis of initiative vs. guilt at this stage of
psycho-social development and it can be properly done it we allow the child to experiment with his initiative by properly
supervising and guiding his activities and encouraging him to develop a habit of self-evaluation of the results of his initiative.
Stage IV: Period of industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years): Generally, by this age children begin to attend to school where they
are made to learn various skills and the teachers as well as the school environment generate pressures on them to work hard in
order to perform well. Parents also now begin to make demands upon the children to lend their hand with household duties or in
some cases saddle them with occupational responsibilities. They have also to compete with their peers in terms of competence and
productivity in school and other social situation. Now, in case the child performs well in school, home or in other social
environments or is admired for his intellectual or motor pursuits he will be likely to develop a sense of industry filled with a sense
of achievement. Such as child will consequently be motivated to work harder and achieve more in terms of competency and
productivity. On the other hand, if his performance remains inferior to that of his peers or he does not satisfy his teachers and
parents with his performance, he may begin to look down upon himself and develop a sense of inferiority.
The teachers and the school environment thus play a very significant role in helping the child out of the industry versus
inferiority crisis. For the child, the school becomes the place where success and failure are defined. Therefore, it is the duty of the
teachers and school authorities to structure their classroom and school environment in such a way as to help the students to maintain
a positive attitude and view themselves as capable and valuable individuals.
Stage V: The period of identity vs. role confusion (12 to 19 years): Stage I: The period of trust vs. mistrust (Birth to 1½
years). This stage, beginning with the advent of puberty, is marked with the crisis of identity vs. role confusion. Equipped with
the sense of trust, autonomy, initiative and industry, adolescents begin to search for their own personal identity. The sudden
changes in their bodies and mental functioning and the altered demands of society compel them to ask questions of themselves
like, who am I? What have I become? Am I the same person I used to be? What am I supposed to do and in which manner am I
to behave?
Erickson asserts that at this stage, the adolescent’s search by questioning and redefining his own socio-psychological
identity established during earlier stages is definitely linked with (a) his sudden and rapid bodily changes, and (b) anxiety and
pressures related to this need to make decisions about his future education and career. Consequently, the adolescent tries to search
for his new role and identity. He experiments with various sexual, occupational and educational roles to understand who he is and
what he can be.
The extent to which an individual is able to develop a sense of identity will depend upon the degree of success he achieves in
resolving the crisis related to all the previous stages. Failure in resolving the crises of those periods would be likely, at this stage,
to result in role confusion and consequently the individual will not be able to find himself. He may then feel completely bewildered,
not knowing what to do and how to behave on his own. He may be unable to make the decision about his educational or professional
career or about making friends. The lack of self-identification and role confusion may also lead to over identification with villains
and clowns, showing a type of childish and impulsive behavior or developing conformity in taste and style and intolerance of
others. On the other hand, if the psycho-social development of the adolescent results in his achieving a sense of identity, it will
result in the individual of the adolescent results in his achieving a sense of identity, it will result in the individual developing the
required confidence in his ability to do things, make him properly balanced in terms of emotional reactions and will place him in
harmony with his environment.
Teachers and parents can play a very constructive role in helping adolescents through this identity versus confusion crisis.
The adolescents, craving for identity must be fully recognized and it should be clearly understood that adolescents want to be
identified as adults and must, therefore, be treated as such and not as children as many teachers and parents tend to do. They should
never be belittled or humiliated in front of their peers or anyone else for that matter. They must be assigned responsibilities
independently or collectively and be trusted for their promises and conduct.
Stage VI: The period of intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 45 years): This is the sixth stage of psycho-social development, and spans
the years of early adulthood. During this stage the individual tends to develop a sense of intimacy or commitment to a close
relationship with another person.
Thus, during this stage, the individual seeks to form close personal attachments by merging his identity with that
of another person. The relationships develop into such a close involvement that he tends to risk even the loss of his ego or image
as is evidenced in the harmonious relationships between husband and wife and intimate friends, and in the ideal relationship
between a teacher and his pupil. The ultimate sense of intimacy is clearly visible in terms of the mutual identity experienced at the
time of simultaneous organs in sexual intercourse with a loved partner of the opposite sex. Another form of such intimacy is seen
in sacrifices made for one’s close friends or for members of one’s family.
The opposite of intimacy is isolation. When one fails to develop an adequate sense of intimacy by merging one’s identity with that
of another person or when relations deteriorate for one reason or another, one tends to develop a sense of isolation – a pulling away
from relationships and breaking off of ties. Alternatives have to be developed for intimate relationships. It is essential to maintain
equilibrium in such cases as the deviation from or denial of intimate relationships is costly in terms of a normal and happy life.
This does not mean, however, that isolation is altogether undesirable or harmful. A certain degree of isolation is crucial to the
maintenance of one’s individuality and the development of one’s personality in the desired direction, but if its exceeds certain
limits, it may become a serious handicap to the establishment and maintenance of close ties and may lead to loneliness and self-
absorption. The crisis of intimacy vs. isolation needs to be resolved by striking a balance between the two contradictory needs –
the need for intimacy and the need to maintain one’s individuality. The degree to which one succeeds in resolving this crisis is
said to secure one’s adjustment with one’s self and the world one lives in.
Stage VII: The period of creativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood – 45 to 65 years): An individual’s life up to this stage is
taken up with trying to establish himself in a professional career. Now, he needs to satisfy his need for generativity, a concern to
establish and guide the next generation. This is realized through nurturing his own children, guiding and directing other young
people and by engaging in some kind of creative, productive or fruitful activity that may prove beneficial to society. Instead of
caring only for himself or for those in his family or friends who are close to him, he participates in the welfare of the future
generation as represented by his own children, pupils, subordinates and young people in general. This is, in fact, an effort at
extension of one’s self and its merger with self or others in society.
As opposed to the sense of generativity, there is a tendency on the part of the individual to become egoistic and selfish.
This leads to stagnation and personal impoverishment. Although it would be quite natural to pause in one’s life’s work to reflect
upon, evaluate and consolidate one’s achievements and to regroup one’s energies for future productivity, and excess of this habit
may result in self- indulgence and psychological invalidism. A balanced adjustment between the extremes of the need for
generativity and the need for inactivity is thus required so that in the time of inactivity one may become more energetic and be
able to put renewed efforts into rendering service to society and future generation.
Stage VIII: The period of ego-integrity vs. despair (old age, about 65 onwards): This stage of psycho-social development is
associated with later adulthood or old age. Although the precise commencement of old age cannot be determined because some
people remain physically and mentally active well into their eighties and nineties, others feel, look and act old even in their fifties,
yet biologically speaking, old age may be said to begin when people cease to reproduce.
During this last stage of psycho-social development one is confronted with the final crisis of one’s life span, termed ego-
integrity vs. despair. Ego-integrity refers to the integration or culmination of the successful resolution of all the seven previous
crises in the course of one’s life. The successful resolution of the previous crises provides a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction to
one’s ego. When one reflects on one’s past and feels satisfied over what has been done, one is sure to develop a positive outlook
about oneself and the world around. A person with a developed sense of ego-integrity is at peace with the life he has lived and has
no major regrets over what could have been on for what should have been done differently. On the other hand, persons who have
not been able to successfully resolve the previous crises of the developmental stages are sure to feel differently. They look back
on their lives with despair and feel dissatisfied with the way they have lived their lives. The thought that they now have no time
left for changing the course of their lives and doing what should have been done, makes them feel miserable and , consequently,
they are doomed to develop a deep sense of despair. These people can become desperately afraid of death. On the other hand,
people who have no regrets for the way their lives have been lived and who have an admiration or love for their ego are easily able
to accept the inevitability of their death and live life as fully as they can till their last breath.
At the same time, despair is not the absolute negative aspect of one’s personality. To feel satisfied or dissatisfied about
one or the other issue is common and natural. One may regret many mistakes and deficiencies of one’s life, but this should not be
stretched to the point where one develops a sense of disaffection with one’s ego and begins to hate oneself and then sink into a
state of utter depression. It is, therefore, essential to strike a balance between the conflicting needs of ego-integrity and despair and
to successfully resolve the final crisis or one’s life resulting in a well- balanced optimistic outlook for oneself and the outside world
in order to live the remaining days of one’s life as gracefully and productively as possible.
In a summarized form, Erickson’s stages of psycho-social development covering entire life span of an individual may be
represented in the manner given ahead.
Erickson’s Stages of Psycho-Social Development alongwith the Needs and Expectations from the individual
Stages of Psycho- Social The person and Specific age Needs and Expectations
Development
1 Trust vs Mistrust Infant Needs maximum comfort with
(Birth to 1½ years) minimal uncertainty to trust
himself/herself, others, and the
environment.
Works to master physical

2 Autonomy vs Shame and Toddler environment while maintaining self-
Doubt (1½ years to 3 years) esteem.
Begins to initiate, not imitate,

activities; develops conscience and
3 Initiative vs Guilt Pre-Schooler sexual identity.
Tries to develop a sense of self worth
by refining skills.
Tries integrating many roles (child,
4 Industry vs Inferiority School age child sibling, student, athlete, worker) into
(6 years to 12 years) a self-image under role model and
5 Identity vs Role confusion peer pressure.
Adolescent
(12 to 20 years) Learns to make personal commitment
to another as spouse, parent or
partner.
Seeks satisfaction through

6 Intimacy vs Isolation productivity in career, family and
Young Adult civic interests.
Reviews life accomplishments, deals
7Generativity vs. Stagnation with loss and preparation for death.
Middle Age Adult

(45 to 65 years)
8 Integrity vs Despair
Older Adult
(65 years onwards)
Educational Implications of Erickon’s Theory of Psycho-socio Development
As we have seen above that eight stages of psychosocial development suggested by Erickson in his theory spans from our
birth through adulthood. Each stage is characterized with a development crisis and each crisis stage has the potential for
(iii) The positive experiences leading to positive outcomes, and

(iv) Negative experiences leading to negative outcomes.
As far as the educational implications of Erickson’s theory of psycho-social development are concerned we can
limit ourselves in discussing the implications of first five stages covering the periods of infancy, childhood and
adolescence of one’s life. During this developmental period, the main implications or utilization of the Erickson’s theory
may be summarized as below:-
• At the beginning stage named as Trust vs. mistrust (ages 0-18 months) the children are almost in the laps of their
mother and care takers and depends upon them entirely for the satisfaction of their basic needs. Adequate care here should
be taken by them for the proper satisfaction of their physical and emotional needs. The children of this age need too much
physical proximity, immediate satisfaction of their physical needs and a sense of all round security. It should be readily
available to them as and when they need so in a consistent and reliable way helping them to build trust in their environment
and learn the basic lesson of life that others can be dependable and reliable. As far as possible, mothers should take care
of the children herself and not leave the task to the hired servants as no body can build in the infants of this age the feeling
of that trust or faith that has been emphasized by Erickson in his theory of development.
• When the children enter the stage 2:- Autonomy vs. shame (ages 18 months – 3 years), they no longer require to be
taken in the laps but need to become a little independent in terms of their actions and behaviors. The parents and family
members should take into consideration the need of the children to become independent in the matters of their liking. For
example, they may need to take their meal or food stuff by their own, walk and climb at the places of their choice and
play in the manner they like. Such autonomy should be provided to them with necessary positive role model and safety
measures. Unnecessary restriction should not be imposed on the toddlers to behave and act in the way as desired by you
in the name of good behavior. It will only cause frustration for the toddler; instead, it is far better for the child to see you
as a support and an aid rather as an obstacle to his or her own developing capabilities and independence.
• When the children enter the stage 3:- Initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-6 years), many of them become students of pre-primary
classes. At this stage now they want to initiate and complete their own actions for serving a purpose and may feel guilt
when their initiative does not produce the desired results. The preschoolers thus should be given a fair chance of engaging
in a number of play and constructive activities of their choice and initiative. But on the other hand it should also be seen
that task chosen should fall in the reasonable limits of their capacities and age related behavior. For this purpose the
initiative for choosing an activity and setting the goals such as constructing a large puzzle should also come from the
children themselves. The parents and teachers should only act as guide and supervisor for this purpose. For avoiding
constant failure and feeling guilty on the part of the preschoolers, it is also wise on the part of parents and teachers to help
them in taking initiative of doing initially simple tasks and then gradually get their level of risk taking behavior increased.
• When the children enter the stage 4:- Industry vs. inferiority (ages 6-12 years), it is their elementary education period.
It is quite crucial for the developing children, as what we say as development of self-confidence, self-esteem and self-
efficacy is almost well decided and perpetuated at this stage. It is here that they can learn the habit of doing hard work,
persistence in getting engaged in a task for a long time and putting work before pleasure. According to Allen and Marotz
(2003):
Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals. They work hard at “being
responsible, being good and doing it right”. They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. At this stage, children
are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values,
recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal need and grooming with
minimal assistance.
If the child is allowed too little success, he or she will develop a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Moreover
too much industry may have an inherent danger to lead to narrow virtuosity (children who are not allowed to be children).
It is therefore quite essential for the parents and teachers to strike a balance and work towards building self-confidence
and nurturing self-esteem among the children. Robert Brooks (2001) has laid down following suggestions for this
purpose:-
➢ Understand and accept children’s learning problems (highlight strengths).
➢ Teach children how to solve problems and make decisions.
➢ Reinforce responsibility by having children contribute.
➢ Learn from rather than feeling defeated by mistakes.
➢ Make the child feel special (create special times alone with them each week)
• When the children enter the stage 5:- Identity vs. role confusion (ages 12-20 years) it is the last phase for many of them
of their schooling. At this stage they are confronted with a significant crisis of the age of adolescence associated with the
search for their own identity. Adolescents are caught between the confronting demands of their parents, elders and
teachers who sometimes say that you have grown up and other times snub them for their independent choices and grown
up behavior. We adults should be reasonable fare in dealing with our adolescents if we want to see them grow as a
responsible adult in their future life. It is also the age of maximum growth and development in their personality. For
Erickson, this is also the stage where values have to be chosen, beliefs understood, the ‘self’ explored and necessary self-
esteem built.
How do we respond to the characteristics of this development stage? In this connection the viewpoints brought
out by Erickson in his theory may be seen to convey the things like below to the teachers and parents.
➢ Try to develop an open and warm relationship with the young adolescent for having useful dialogue with them.
➢ Recognize their phenomenon self and stop treating them as children.
➢ Let them feel as a responsible being and challenge them with realistic goals for achieving a sense of identity
regarding the role they will play as adults.
➢ Help them to shape their personality by providing them appropriate role models.
➢ Help them in their search and adaptation of values and ideals helpful in their well-being.
➢ Help them to seek reasoning for neutralizing the negative influence of the social company, and media.
➢ As a last stage for the school education try to provide them in the schools a wide variety of rich experiences and
choices for actualizing their self and assign them responsibilities for getting trained as a responsible citizen.
➢ Do not hurt their phenomenon self. Provide them due respect and recognition with no discrimination of any kind
whether at home, school or in social gatherings.
Conclusion -: All human have the some basic needs and individual development depends on reaction towards
these basic needs. Everyone wants to achieve his/her basic needs in their life. Therefore Erickson concluded that
human development progresses according to specific stages. He also states that each of those stages has crisis
and those crisis must be dissolved before an individual can function successfully at the next stage.
UNIT-III
around 2 Pgs.)
Meaning and concept of Socialization. (KUK 2020)
➢
Ans: Socialization
Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of
their society and is the most influential learning process one can experience. Unlike many other living species, whose behavior is
biologically set humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Although cultural variability manifests in the
actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups (societies), the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the
individual level.
Meaning of Socialization
Dictionary meaning:
Behave in a way that is acceptable to their society
Or
Organize according to the principles of socialism
Medical point of view:
By which a human being beginning at infancy acquires the habits, beliefs, and accumulated knowledge of society through education
and training for adult status.
Role of Socialization
The role of socialization is to acquaint individuals with the norms of a social group or society. Socialization prepares
future members to participate in a group by teaching them the expectations held by other group members. Socialization is an
important process for children, who are socialized at home and in school. For children, the process teaches what will be expected
of them as they grow up and become full members of society. It is also important for adults who join new social groups.
CONCLUSION: :- It is concluded that Socialization is the process of transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to future
group members.
➢ Agencies of Socialization
(KUK 2020)
Introduction
An agency of education needs a source which transits certain things of education of others. Every society develops some agencies
in order to transmit its cultural & social heritage to the next generation. Agencies are specialized institutions established to carry
out the functions of education. They are directly or indirectly concerned with the education of the child.
Types of Agencies: Agencies of socialization have been classified in different ways:-
1. Formal Agencies of socialization: In a formal type of agency, everything is done in a formal way. It is all pre-planned.
It has some specific objectives & with those motives it functions. There is well defined & clean cut curriculum. Such
agencies are developed by the society to fulfill its needs & requirements some definite rules & regulations are followed
them. Examples are :- School/College, The Museum, The Church etc.
2. Informal Agencies of socialization: The informal agencies of education mostly function in a natural way. There are no
definite rules & regulations. Nothing is preplanned in them. They perform educational functions just incidently or
indirectly. Informal education is that modification of behavior which comes about necessarily and spontaneously without
any conscious efforts for it. Examples are:- The family/the home, the community or the society, peer group, mass media.
Difference between Formal & Informal Agencies of Socialization
Formal Agencies Informal Agencies

1. Here formalities are observed. No formalities are there.
2. They are mostly the creation of man to achieve They are natural and exist at their own.
some definite objectives.
3. They keep formal type of objectives in view. No formal objectives are there.
4. Here formal means are used. Here no formal means are used.
5. There may be mental strain because of serious Being natural they do not cause strain.
efforts.
6. Only qualified teachers work for it. Anybody may import education.
7. Both the teacher and the taught are conscious of Neither the teacher nor the teacher is conscious of the
the efforts they put it. process of education.
8. There is a fixed place for it which may be stored There is no fixed place.
or college or the classroom there in.
9. Here education is completed one day. There is never ending type of education.
10. There is an organizing body behind there. There is no organizing body behind.
11. There is prescribed programme. No prescribed programme is followed there.
➢ Concept of Social Change and characteristics of such changes.

Ans:
Introduction
Change is the law of nature. In this world of ours everything is in the mode of change, i.e. it stands to exhibit some amount of
observable difference in its nature over a period of time. Our society in which we live and the culture we adopt as a mode of our
living and behaving in the society are also in the state of flux. Influenced and Pressurized by a number of factors, they also go
on changing with the passage of time. The changes introduced in the social and cultural fabrics of one’s society cast a considerable
influence on the life style, living, behaving and overall well being of the members of the society. The development and well-being
of the developing children is also greatly influenced and affected by these social and cultural changes.
MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE
In its simple meaning, social changes stand for the changes visible in a society over period of time. These changes may relate to
the structure as well as overall of the society well reflected through the social relationships and interactions existing among its
members. For knowing well about the meaning and nature of the term social change, let us consider a few well-known definitions
of the term social change.
• Morris Ginsberg (1950): By social change, I understand a change in social structure, e.g. the size of the society, the
composition or the balance of its parts or the type of its organization.
• M.D. Jenson: Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people.
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL CHANGES
➢ Structural or organizational changes

Example: Change in the population structure of a society, state or country in relation to : At Macro level: (i)
Change in the age structure of the population – Percentage of children, young people and old generation (ii) Rural and
urban distribution (iii) Distribution of the educational population (iv) Birth rate : rise and fall in population.
At micro level: Change in the structure of the family in terms of size, authority structure, age of marriage, number
of children per women, nuclear or combined family.
➢ Changes in social relationships and interactions
Examples: Change in the concept of neighborhood along with the interaction and l as social institution etc.
➢ Changes in the social behaviorrelationship existing among them, change in employer-employee relationship. Changes
in husband-wife, parent- child, teacher- taught, men-women interactions and relationships, changes in the values and
status of marriage, family and schoo
Changes in the attitudes, beliefs, norms, values, ideals, ideologies, philosophies; mores, stereotypes and
traditions; social and religious rituals and festival celebration; ways of worshiping and religious beliefs; ways of thinking,
feeling and overall behaving; living styles; changes related to scientific, technological, industrial and cultural & literacy
progress, etc.
Characteristics of Social Change
According to Macionis (1996), there are four main characteristics of social change.
➢ It happens everywhere, but the rate of change varies from place to place.
It means that phenomenon of social change is universal. Everywhere on this earth there are changes in the social fabrics
of the societies or communities. But this change does not take place with the same speed and magnitude everywhere.
Some societies may show greater advances in comparison to others. For example we may witness faster changes in the
societies having a high literacy rate and access to technology and information in comparison to the society lagging behind
on these fronts. Similarly we can witness a faster change in a modern urban society in comparison to a traditional rural
society.
➢ Social change is sometimes intentional but often unplanned.
Social changes are brought and adopted by the societies many times with a clear cut intention of bringing progress,
prosperity and wellbeing of the society. However there may be times when the changes introduced remain unintentional
and unplanned but later on may be found to serve very useful functions in the benefit of the society. An invention or
discovery made by an inventor may not have a direct concern with the social changes at the time of its invention but it
may result later on in bringing a considerable change in the structure and functioning of the societies.
➢ Social change often generates controversy.
Changes are not welcome and accepted easily by the society. They are in general opposed in the beginning. It happens
usually with all types of social changes. Remarriage of widow, acceptance and welcome of the girl child in the family,
inter-caste marriages, live in relationships, gay marriages, may be cited as examples of the social changes that have a lot
of controversy from the early stage of their initiation.
➢ Some changes matter more than other do.
All social changes, although have one or the other kinds of impacts or influences on the structure or functioning of the
societies, yet some have more impact than the others. In some cases, the changes affect a very few persons or small group
of the society, they bring no significant change in the attitude and ways of living of the people but in others they may play
a quite significant role in providing new meaning and means for leading their life in a quite different way. The construction
of a road linking the village to the nearby no doubt can play an important role in bringing mentionable social changes,
yet in case their village gets benefit of being developed as an ideal or smart village by the government agency, corporate
house or a leading NGO, then the impact of social changes brought out by such endeavor will be quite greater and
meaningful in many ways.
Factors affecting Social Change
Max waver well said, ”Culture is cause of social change.”
1. Natural or Physical factors:- Nature is also cause of change. It occurs in society when nature shows its bad effects on
society. Man bows his head before the tyranny of nature. He worships it. Religion and poverty develop in that society,
where nature is stable, development can be seen there. Earthquake, epidemic, floods are the opposite aspect of the nature.
2. Demographic factors:- It also plays an important role in society. When population of the country exceeds, food and
other sources become less. It breeds poverty, unemployment and various other problems. Physical health of people falls.
Standard of living of people also falls. It leads family breaks. Nature solves this problem accordingly. The economic
situation of the country falls according to time. When birth rate of the country falls and death rate decreases it makes its
impact on society.
3. Technological Factors:- Science and technology and other equipments play an important role in social change. Radio,
television, car, refrigerators have changed the outlook of society. It changes the life style of people. It makes its impact
on social life and social relations of people.
4. Political Factors:- Political factors also play an important role in social change. Partition of India problem of Bangladesh,
Kashmir problem etc has given birth to various social changes. It has changed the concept of freedom. Many states also
fight with centre government to make its separate country. They want to get independence from country which makes its
effect on Indian Society.
5. Economic Factors:- Poverty and financial difficulties have changed the aspect of society. Social change can be seen in
different area. It makes its effect on their relationship and attitudes.
6. Industrial Factors:- Establishment of new cities, high rate of population and trade union has played an effective role in
social change.
7. Biological Factors:- Biological factors can be seen hereditary. Every child resembles with his parents. It may be related
with physical structure, colour or merits. Equality among people is becoming less day by day. It takes lot of change after
three or four generation. Inter-caste marriage had also changed this concept.
8. Population:- After independence population of the country has increased. It changes the standard of living of people. As
population is increasing fast, production is not increasing. Population explosion is giving birth to unemployment. Joint
family system has been broken due to various misconceptions. Demands have been increasing fast. Population must be
controlled by Government for positive results.
9. New Inventions:- New inventions have affected our society. As well as, the needs of people are increasing, new
inventions are lying. New inventions like T.V., Washing Machine, Mixi, Cinema and mode of transportation have
changed the outlook of society. The techniques of making agriculture have also been changed.
10. Formation of New Laws:- Law has changed the concept of society. Misconceptions can be removed by law. People bind
themselves through law. Various social evils have been removed due to new laws. So it is a great source of social change.
It changes the negative actions into positive.
11. Religion:- Religion is important factor of social change. Arya Samaj, Brahamo Samaj has changed the concept of society.
Various religious movements have changed the concept of society. Indian aukpeople are very devoted towards their
religion. After independence, India became secular state. Each people have right to adopt any religion.
12. War:- It is an important source of social change. War is source of destruction. Economic sources are destroyed by war
/destruction /epidemic etc. for examples, war of Kalinga had changed the heart of Ashoka due to its bad effects on society
was seen at that time. Kargil war has weakened the economic policies of India.
13. Cultural Factors:- Cultural factors are responsible for social change. For example, India is state of different cultures. It
makes impact on society with their different aspects. It helps social change. Due to British rule in India, materialistic and
non-materialistic change can be seen in Indian society. Culture gives birth to new culture. Materialistic or physical culture
gives birth to non-physical culture.
14. Geographical Factor:- Natural structure of country makes its impact of society. Climate changes according to time.
Dress and life style change according to time and place. Various places have different atmosphere due to its climate,
structure and standard of living of people.
15. Due to Army and Police action:- Indian govt. has different position in different states. Terrorism can be removed due
to army and police action forces. It changes the aspects of society. Its negative effect on some states can be seen while
any wrong activities.
16. Secularism:- India is called secular state. Different types of people live in India. They respect other religious people.
Different types of festivals are celebrated in our country. People try to make the society rich through their values and
norms.
17. Modernization:- When society accepts new changes, that process is considered a process of modernization. Today at
each state one gets success through development. Indian society is also changing due to westernization. It changes the
values and life style of people. Social change occurs due to new ideology in modernization. The people have been leaving
orthodox feelings and following new ideas.
18. Psychological Factors:- Behind new inventions, human psychology moves. It is nature of human being; to make changes
every time. New inventions change the outlook of society. Human psychology accepts it according to passage of time.
19. Sanskritazation:- This process change also makes its impact on the traditions, ideals, knowledge. They can lead their
life with appropriate manner. It is well said by Nivason, “Sanskritisation is process of social change.” Sometimes people
use caste symbol as token of respect.
20. Indianization:- Women in catholic churches in South India have started to wear saree. Their devotion towards God can
be seen through their different methods. They used various materials in their worship. Indian atmosphere makes its impact
on Western and European societies. In changes the concept of people so Indianization is the part of social change.
CONCLUSION: The causes of social change are diverse, and the processes of change can be identified as either short-
term trends or long-term developments. Change can be either cyclic or one-directional. The mechanisms of social
change can be varied and interconnected.
➢ Meaning and concept of Cultural Change.

Ans:
Meaning of Culture
Culture is man-made part of human environment. It is related with Sanskrit word which means ‘Refined’. Culture means pure
actions. It is also known as social interactions. All the elements which are needed to make human being social is called culture.
Culture is taken from Latin word cultura, it is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred
Kroelber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of “culture” in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and
Definitions. However, the word “culture” is most commonly used in three basic senses:-
➢ Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture.
➢ An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and
social learning.
➢ The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization, or group.
Definitions of Culture
1. “The culture of a society means a unit of total way of life of the society.”
Ottaway
2. “Culture may be defined as combination of merits, beliefs and behaviors of the members of the society. Besides it, it is
also a combination of signs and symbols which help to express beliefs and merits.”
Radhakamal Mukherjee
Characteristics of Culture
There are various characteristics of culture.
❖ The main aim of Indian culture is to attain salvation.

❖ Culture is a universal truth. It is attained by Indian people.
❖ Indian culture is based on Inclusive of Human Values.
❖ Indian culture is based on qualitative and quantitative concept.
❖ Indian culture shows us art of living.
❖ Indian people believe in the theme of Material and people have supernatural world, they have their own values, norms
and traditions. It makes them Self-Control.
❖ It is helpful in preservation of values.
❖ Indian Culture has an ancient legacy. It has an enrich values. It makes it different from other countries.
❖ Indian Culture had different sources which present the true picture of life.
❖ Culture is social. Product develops by many people interacting in a group. No man is an island; he is always a part of a
group.
❖ Culture is shared and transmitted. Culture is passed on to succeeding generations primarily through
Language/Communication.
❖ Culture is ideational. Culture uses ideas and symbols to give meanings to his environment and experiences. Every
individual sees and approaches his world according to standpoint of his culture.
❖ Culture is learned and acquired. Not all things shared generally by a population are cultural for it to be considered cultural
it must be first learned as well as shared.
❖ Culture gratifies human needs. Human has biological needs such as food, shelter, clothing, protection, love, security and
sex.
❖ Culture is adaptive.
Cultural Changes- Meaning and Concept
In its simple meaning the term cultural change stands for the changes occurring in the culture of a society. By the term culture here
we mean a definite pattern or mode of living and behaving adopted by the members of the society in general from a number of
decades or centuries. It represents the norms, beliefs, values, ideals, ideologies, traditions, stereotypes, mores social and religious
rituals and practice, and ways of interacting and maintaining relationships with each other. It also includes the changes brought
out in the social structure and functioning through the inventions, discoveries, theories and principles, artistic creation and literary
works of the members of the society and also filtered through the process of diffusion.
In the broader sense thus, cultural changes brought out in a particular society may prove quite potent in bringing effective changes
in the structure and functioning of the society and if it happens then there remains hardly any difference in the concepts and
output/impact of the social and cultural changes. It is why many of the scholars and thinkers have advocated for the use of these
terms interchangeably. In support here we would like to put the viewpoints of Gillin & Gillion (1954) and Dawson & Gettys
(1948).
1. According to Gillion and Gillion (1954), “Social changes may be defined as variations from the accepted modes of life.”
(Here variations form the accepted modes of life stand clearly for the term cultural change, hence social changes and
cultural changes area one and the same thing.)
2. According to Dawson and Grettys (1948),”Cultural change is social change, since all culture is social in its origin,
meaning and usage.”
CONCLUSION: Culture refers to the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of any society.
Culture is automatically changing in the society, however, the changing of the culture, values and beliefs with the passage
of time, is important in the society, because in this way the environment can be shaped in the better way, people can get
the understanding about the modernization.
Ques: Discuss the role of family in the overall development of the children in
various aspects or dimensions of their personality.
Ans: (KUK 2019,20,21,22)
Meaning of Family:- Home is the oldest & most important informal active agency of education. It is the foundation of all social
organizations. Home or family plays an important role in the life of a budding child. The child becomes more active, bold,
courageous, strong, social or whatever type we want him to be all in the company of his parents or other members of the family.
Definitions of Home or family:-
1. In the words of Pestalozzi,”Home, a centre of love & affection is the best place for education and the first school of the
child.”
2. Froibel says,”Mothers and the ideal teachers, and the informal education given by home is most effective & natural.”
3. According to Handerson,”A child’s education begins in his home.”
4. In the words of Rousseau,”Mother is the true nurse & father is the true teacher.”
Function/Role of Family in Child Development
1. Helps in physical development:- One of the important functions of family is to provide favourable opportunities for sound
physical development. Home has the responsibility of providing nutritions, food, proper clothing, rest, play, medical aid
etc. parents make the children work at the time of work and then allow them to play. Thus home or parents helps in the
proper physical growth and development of their children.
2. Helps in intellectual development:- Another function of family is to provide opportunities for the intellectual development
of child i.e. for language development, development of healthy interests, etc. If there is rich intellectual environment in
the family, mental development of child is speeded. If family atmosphere is disruptive then intellectual development of
the child will be obstructed.
3. Place of Affection:- Every home fundamentally is a place of affection especially for the younger ones. The head of the
family or the elderly person in the home is a source of affection for others.
4. Make Social:- Every home helps in making the children more & more social. In the home, there is interaction between
the different members of the family. In the street, there is interaction with the different persons of neighbouring homes.
It develops the qualities of mixing with others. It is natural that children learn more from other children. So it is the peer
group that helps the child in becoming more and more social.
5. Recreates:- Recreation is also important for the proper growth and development of the child. At home, there is provision
of recreation. The radio, tv or other instruments of recreation are used in the homes, they provide the required type of
recreation to the child.
6. Imparts education:- The home educates the child directly or indirectly. The educated parents and other members of family
who are educated are able to educate the youngers directly. But incase of uneducated parents, the home helps indirectly
in educated them. Here education means all round development of the child.
7. Makes morally sound:- The home teaches the child many things of morality. The child is able to understand the
importance of truth, honesty etc. All this he is able to learn from the parents or the grand parents. Besides, the company
of good children also helps in this regard. Moral training is the basic function of the family.
8. Satisfies economic needs:- The home satisfies the economic needs of the child. Money is needed by the child for various
activities. It is also needed for giving him right type of diet. A good home makes the child learn the real value of money.
That helps the child earn money rightly and utilize it properly.
9. Helps in emotional development:- Emotional development is very important for the proper growth and development of
the child. The parents at home help a good deal in this regard. The child learns at home about emotional stability. The
home develops in the child healthy and positive emotions like sympathy, affection, courage etc.
10. Helps in religious development:- Religious and religious beliefs refines the personality of the child. The basic foundation
of religion and spiritual faith are laid down at home. Infact, family is the only institution where religious development of
the child can be ensured.
Family Factors in Child Development

The things and factors like below present in one’s home and family environment may play a quite decisive role in setting
the course of child’s cognitive, affective and conative development.
➢ The healthy or unhealthy living conditions, food habits, availability of nutritious and balanced diet, play and healthy
entertainment facilities at home.
➢ Type of bond and relationship existing between parents.
➢ The attitude and behavior of the parents and members of the family towards the child showing over-affection, partiality,
neglect, hatred, prejudices, over-anxiety and over-security, strictness or carelessness etc.
➢ The size of the family and birth order of the child.
➢ Relationships among the members of the family.
➢ Socio-economic status and position of the family in the society.
➢ The traditions, cultural values and ideals of the family.
➢ The education level of the parents, their interest and attention in bringing up of the children and their abilities and capacity
for this purpose.
➢ The organized or broken homes.
➢ The individual behavior, habits, temperament and other personality characteristics of the parents and other members of
the family.
➢ The attitudes and ideals of the parents and members of the family towards social norms, ethical, moral and human values.
➢ The changes introduced in the set up and status of the family on account of the extreme variations of the conditions like
sudden losses in terms of human lives, natural calamites, economic disasters etc. or gain in positive side like increase in
wealth, social status and power equations etc.
CONCLUSION: It is concluded that all of the above things and situations prevalent in the home and family environment cast
a considerable impact in influencing and providing a definite direction to the growth and development of the child including
his personality make-up and behavioural traits.
➢ Ques: What role can be played by the school personnel and environment in the
cognative, affective and conative development of the children?
Ans:
School:- The term school is originated from the Greek word ‘SKOHLE’ which means leisure. The reason of associating leasure
with school is that in the ancient Greece, liberal education was not meant for the masses. It was privilege of members of upp er
class of the society to enjoy liberal education.
The school is an active and formal agency of education. It is a specialized agency which has become quite important in
the growing complexity of cultures and civilizations.
Definitions of school
1. According to Ottaway,”The school may be regarded as a social invention to serve society for the specialized teaching of
young.”
2. According to John Dewey,”School is a special environment where a certain type of activities and occupations are provided
with the object of securing child’s development along desirable lines.”
3. According to Herbert Johnson,”School is an auxiliary of the home called into being by parents to aid them in fulfilling
one of their parental responsibilies.”
The Role of School in Child Development
1. Overall development of the Individual:- The school is meant for the complete development of the individual-physical,
intellectual, emotional, social, aesthetic, moral and spiritual. Through its curricular and co-curricular activities like debate,
declamations, excursions and trips, exhibitions, variety programmes, games and sports the school helps in all round
development of the individual.
2. Transmission and enrichment of culture:- School is the savior of cultural traditions. It transmits the cultural values of the
society to the pupils. Moreover, it helps in the enrichment and modification of culture by constantly organizing different
functions and celebrations of festivals teach them a good deal their culture. Thus it helps in the creation of better and
happier society.
3. Promotion of social efficiency:- School is said to be the fountain head of all social virtues. It is the only mirror of society
but it also puts an ideal for proper functioning of society. It promotes social efficiency by cultivating a balanced sense of
rights and duties and by providing training for effective participation in democratic government.
4. Cultivation of higher values:- Another function of school is to cultivate higher values of life in the pupils. Morality should
be developed so that students may be in a position to filter right from wrong and virtue from vice. A sense of true
appreciation of satyam, shivam and sundaram (truth, goodness and beauty) is to be developed by the schools.
5. Post-school adjustability:- In the words of Brown,”The school has a direct responsibility of preparing the individual child
for post-school adjustment.” The school could produce citizens who are physically fit, intellectually enlightened,
emotionally balanced, vocationally efficient and socially well-adjusted. Post school adjustment is very essential for the
welfare of the individual as well as of the society.”
6. Imparting Vocational Training:- Another function of school is to provide vocational training. According to John Dewey,”
We send children to school to learn in a systematic way the occupations which constitute living.” The school has to impart
vocational training in accordance with needs, abilities and aptitudes of the individual.
7. Developing international understanding:- Another function of the school is to develop international understanding in the
minds of the pupils. International understanding implies respect for human rights and dignity, a sense of the solidarity of
mankind, international co-operation and to live together in piece with one another.
8. Training for leadership:- The school should discharge the function of imparting training for leadership. A country can
make progress only if it has able leaders in the social, economic, cultural, artistic, industrial, moral, religious and political
fields. Educational institutions should provide such leaders.
9. Education of the parents:- Another function of the school is to educate the parents so that they may maintain better homes.
The school’s functions will be incomplete if the home fails to create favourable environment or providing physical,
intellectual, emotional, social and moral development of the child.
10. Inculcation of fellow feelings:- The school provides fellow feelings to all types of students. In the school, the children are
away from their parents and are in search of security and affection. They are able to have the company of their classmates.
The fellow feelings help them to forget the comforts of the home.
11. Co-ordinating various agencies of education:- If a school is to be successful in discharging its functions in the present
age, it must have intimate relationship with the family on the one hand and state or government on the other. Both must
give their whole-hearted support and co-operation.
Factors of School in Child Development
Some of the things, situations and factors inherent in the overall environment of the school which work as the determinants of the
students’ cognitive, affective and conative behavioural development may be named as below:
➢ The educational and professional qualification of the teachers, their teaching experience, personality and behavioural
make-up.
➢ The sweetness or bitterness in the relationships among the teachers and other employees.
➢ The mental and physical health of the teachers.
➢ The sincerity and devotion of the teachers towards their duties and profession.
➢ The abilities and competencies of the head of the institution, his personality and behavioural traits, his relationship with
the fellow teachers, students, employees of the institution and parents of the students.
➢ The nature of the relationship between the teachers and students.
➢ The nature of the relationship existing among the students of a particular class or the school in general.
➢ The nature of the discipline and administrative arrangements prevalent in the school.
➢ The nature of the organization of the academic programmes and the educational standards maintained by the school.
➢ The provision for co-curricular activities and the nature of their organization.
➢ The examination results of the school.
➢ The place, status, name and fame of the school with respect to the achievements in games and other co-curricular
activities.
➢ The nature of the facilities available in the school for the organization of various co-curricular activities, hobbies and
other talents development programmes.
➢ The nature of the facilities regarding library, reading room, museum, laboratories, work places etc. available in the school.
➢ The nature of the arrangement for mid-day meal, canteen, common-room, drinking water, laboratories etc.
➢ The appropriateness or inappropriateness of the things and situations related to the physical environment of the school
like adequacy of the school building, sanitation, pollution free environment, seating arrangement, proper ventilation and
lighting etc.
➢ The provision and adequate arrangement for the education and adjustment of the gifted, the creative, the backward, the
problematic and handicapped children with their special problems.
➢ The nature of the provision and arrangement for guidance and counseling services to the students.
➢ The adequate arrangement with regard to the evaluation of the progress of the children in quite an objective and impartial
way.
CONCLUSION: Education forms the foundation of any society. It is responsible for the economic, social, and political growth
and development of society in general. The thread of the growth of society depends upon the quality of education that
is being imparted. So schools play an important role in moulding a nation’s future by facilitating all round
development of its future citizens.
• Ques: Discuss the role of community in the overall development of the children in
various aspects or dimensions of their personality.
Ans:- Meaning of community:- The word community combines two words – ‘Com’ and ‘Munis’. ‘Com’ signifies togetherness
and ‘Munis’ indicates to serve. Hence, the word community means ‘to serve together’. Generally community indicates a group of
people living together on a geographical piece of land having common ways of working and common ideals to achieve. Thus,
community may be a number of people living together in the neighbourhood sharing common ways of living and common
experiences. The essential ingredients are a piece of land, a group of people living more or less a common life having a common
spirit of work with common spirit of work with common aims and common ideals. A community may be big or small in size.
Generally, the size of the community is related to the cultural, economic and political commonness of its members. In this sense,
a village, a town, a city, a nation and the whole world may be called a community.
Definition of community
To make the meaning of community more clear, we are giving some definitions below:-
1. “A community may be thought of as the total organization of social life within a limited area.”
- Ogburn & Nimkoff
2. “A community is the smallest territorial group that can embrass all aspects of social life.
- K.Davis
Role of community in child development
Each community influences the education of the child formally as well as informally. We are discussing below the
informal influences of community upon children –
1. Influence on physical development:- Though the family and the school exert a potent influence on the physical
development of a child, yet the effect of the community environment also cannot be underestimated. The community
organises local bodies which look after the sanitations of the localities. These local bodies also, often build parks, gardens,
and provide gymnasiums. The children of the community make use of these facilities to the full. They get fresh light and
air and do all sorts of physical exercises to build their physique and to keep them healthy. These local bodies run hospitals
and dispensaries to keep children healthy and free from diseases and also teach them the general rules to health and
sanitation. In this way, the facilities provided by local bodies greatly influence the health and physical development of
children.
2. Influence on mental development:- The enlightened communities, often organise reading rooms and libraries for use
by the children and adults. Some communities organise exhibitions, symposiums and conferences on various subjects
also. This provides healthy entertainment to children and also helps in their mental development.
3. Influence on social development:- The community organises fairs, festivals, social conferences and many other religious
functions. All these activities stimulate children to imbibe social ideas and a spirit of social service more and more with
the result that they learn about the social customs, traditions and beliefs in a natural way and also learn the socially
desirable values namely sympathy, co-operation, tolerance, social service, sacrifice and adjustment. Not only this, through
contacts with the other members of the community children also learn very deeply that duties and rights, freedom and
discipline are greatly essential for the natural and wholesome development of their personality. In this way, we see that
community exerts a great influence on the social development of children.
4. Influence on cultural development:- Each community has its own culture. The children of that community come into
active and lively contact in the community functions, festivals and conferences and learn to respect their culture through
imitation. They act and react as their elders do. We see that rural and urban communities imprint their own special cultural
traits and features upon the minds of their children. This difference can be clearly seen from the language, pronunciations,
manners and behaviour of those children.
5. Influence on character and moral development:- Though family exerts a very powerful influence upon the character
formation and imbibing of moral values by children, yet the community of which the family is a small unit also influences
the character and moral development to a very great extent. If the environment of the community is bad, its effect on
children will be bad and if it is good and wholesome, the influence will be positive and gainful. It may be noted over here
that the influence of community in this connection comes after the influence of family. But there may be cases where the
community casts its evil shadow on the whole family and the result of this influence can be well imagined.
6. Influence of political ideas:- Lectures by political leaders, political meetings and conferences organized by the
community give political lessons to children of the community. They learn about various political parties, their political
philosophies and manifestoes. These all go to form their own political conviction. In this way, the community influences
on the political ideas of children indirectly.
7. Influence on vocational development:- The community influences the vocational development of children. They
carefully observe the vocations followed by the members of their community, learn about the problems and techniques
involved in various vocations, form their own opinions about them and ultimately choose any one of them for their future
life.
8. Influence through other agencies:- The community provides many informal devices and materials to children for their
developed in various aspects of personality. Radio and T.V. broadcast, theatres, picture houses, museums, zoo, magazines,
newspapers, reading rooms and libraries are the various and varied devices of influence the development of children of
the community.
Educational functions of community
The formal influences which a community exerts upon children:-
1. Establishment of schools:- The community establishes various types of schools so that the culture of the community
may be preserved, developed and transmitted to its children. Many communities establish their own communal schools
to train their children for the welfare and advancement of their community interests.
2. Formation of aims and control on education:- The community determines the aims of education. It also supervises and
guides the educational process followed in the schools established by it.
3. Provision of universal education:- The community determines the various stages of education. At the same time it
strives to provide universal education.
4. Construction of curriculum:- For the purpose of achieving the aims of education, suitable curriculum is constructed.
Hence, the community prepares an outline of curriculum to be followed in its school.
5. Provision of vocational and industrial education:- In modern age there is a great demand for vocational and industrial
education. Hence, the community establishes vocational, industrial and technical schools according to its needs.
6. Adult education:- Community welfare and its development needs the adults should also be educated. Thus, the
community makes provision for adult education also.
7. Finance of schools:- To shoulder the responsibility of running the schools smoothly and efficiently arrangement of
required finance is essential. The community makes necessary provision of finance for school buildings, furniture and
salary of teachers.
8. Co-operation between citizens and school leaders:- Close cooperation between citizens and leaders of schools is
necessary. Hence, the community tries to maintain as much close co-operation as possible between the members to the
managing committees and school teachers.
CONCLUSION: It is concluded that: It is concluded that it is clear that the community tries to influence the
education of its children both informally and formally. Crow and crow has rightly remarked – “A community cannot
expect something for nothing. If it wishes its young people to serve their community well, it must provide whatever
educational advantages are needed by the young people, individually and collectively, to prepare themselves for that
service.
Ques: What are Social and Cultural Changes? Discuss the impact of Social Change and
Cultural Change on Child Development.
(KUK 2019,2020,21,22)
Ans:- Introduction
Change is the law of nature. In this world of ours everything is in the mode of change, i.e. it stands to exhibit some amount of
observable difference in its nature over a period of time. Our society in which we live and the culture we adopt as a mode of our
living and behaving in the society are also in the state of flux. Influenced and Pressurized by a number of factors, they also go
on changing with the passage of time. The changes introduced in the social and cultural fabrics of one’s society cast a considerable
influence on the life style, living, behaving and overall well being of the members of the society. The development and well-being
of the developing children is also greatly influenced and affected by these social and cultural changes.
MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE
In its simple meaning, social changes stand for the changes visible in a society over period of time. These changes may relate to
the structure as well as overall of the society well reflected through the social relationships and interactions existing among its
members. For knowing well about the meaning and nature of the term social change, let us consider a few well-known definitions
of the term social change.
• Morris Ginsberg (1950): By social change, I understand a change in social structure, e.g. the size of the society, the
composition or the balance of its parts or the type of its organization.
• M.D. Jenson: Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people.
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL CHANGES
➢ Structural or organizational changes

Example: Change in the population structure of a society, state or country in relation to : At Macro level: (i)
Change in the age structure of the population – Percentage of children, young people and old generation (ii) Rural and
urban distribution (iii) Distribution of the educational population (iv) Birth rate : rise and fall in population.
At micro level: Change in the structure of the family in terms of size, authority structure, age of marriage, number
of children per women, nuclear or combined family.
➢ Changes in social relationships and interactions
Examples: Change in the concept of neighborhood along with the interaction and relationship existing among
them, change in employer-employee relationship. Changes in husband-wife, parent- child, teacher- taught, men-women
interactions and relationships, changes in the values and status of marriage, family and school as social institution etc.
➢ Changes in the social behavior
Changes in the attitudes, beliefs, norms, values, ideals, ideologies, philosophies; mores, stereotypes and
traditions; social and religious rituals and festival celebration; ways of worshiping and religious beliefs; ways of thinking,
feeling and overall behaving; living styles; changes related to scientific, technological, industrial and cultural & literacy
progress, etc.
Characteristics of Social Change
According to Macionis (1996), there are four main characteristics of social change.
➢ It happens everywhere, but the rate of change varies from place to place.
It means that phenomenon of social change is universal. Everywhere on this earth there are changes in the social fabrics
of the societies or communities. But this change does not take place with the same speed and magnitude everywhere.
Some societies may show greater advances in comparison to others. For example we may witness faster changes in the
societies having a high literacy rate and access to technology and information in comparison to the society lagging behind
on these fronts. Similarly we can witness a faster change in a modern urban society in comparison to a traditional rural
society.
➢ Social change is sometimes intentional but often unplanned.
Social changes are brought and adopted by the societies many times with a clear cut intention of bringing progress,
prosperity and wellbeing of the society. However there may be times when the changes introduced remain unintentional
and unplanned but later on may be found to serve very useful functions in the benefit of the society. An invention or
discovery made by an inventor may not have a direct concern with the social changes at the time of its invention but it
may result later on in bringing a considerable change in the structure and functioning of the societies.
➢ Social change often generates controversy.
Changes are not welcome and accepted easily by the society. They are in general opposed in the beginning. It happens
usually with all types of social changes. Remarriage of widow, acceptance and welcome of the girl child in the family,
inter-caste marriages, live in relationships, gay marriages, may be cited as examples of the social changes that have a lot
of controversy from the early stage of their initiation.
➢ Some changes matter more than other do.
All social changes, although have one or the other kinds of impacts or influences on the structure or functioning of the
societies, yet some have more impact than the others. In some cases, the changes affect a very few persons or small group
of the society, they bring no significant change in the attitude and ways of living of the people but in others they may play
a quite significant role in providing new meaning and means for leading their life in a quite different way. The construction
of a road linking the village to the nearby no doubt can play an important role in bringing mentionable social changes,
yet in case their village gets benefit of being developed as an ideal or smart village by the government agency, corporate
house or a leading NGO, then the impact of social changes brought out by such endeavor will be quite greater and
meaningful in many ways.
Cultural Changes- Meaning and Concept
In its simple meaning the term cultural change stands for the changes occurring in the culture of a society. By the term culture here
we mean a definite pattern or mode of living and behaving adopted by the members of the society in general from a number of
decades or centuries. It represents the norms, beliefs, values, ideals, ideologies, traditions, stereotypes, mores social and religious
rituals and practice, and ways of interacting and maintaining relationships with each other. It also includes the changes brought
out in the social structure and functioning through the inventions, discoveries, theories and principles, artistic creation and literary
works of the members of the society and also filtered through the process of diffusion.
In the broader sense thus, cultural changes brought out in a particular society may prove quite potent in bringing effective changes
in the structure and functioning of the society and if it happens then there remains hardly any difference in the concepts and
output/impact of the social and cultural changes. It is why many of the scholars and thinkers have advocated for the use of these
terms interchangeably. In support here we would like to put the viewpoints of Gillin & Gillion (1954) and Dawson & Gettys
(1948).
1. According to Gillion and Gillion (1954), “Social changes may be defined as variations from the accepted modes of life.”
(Here variations form the accepted modes of life stand clearly for the term cultural change, hence social changes and
cultural changes area one and the same thing.)
2. According to Dawson and Grettys (1948),”Cultural change is social change, since all culture is social in its origin,
meaning and usage.”
Impact of Socio-Cultural changes on the Development of Children
The changes introduced in the Socio-cultural structure and functioning of the society affect and influence the growth and
development of the developing children in a variety of ways. We can broadly classify these impacts or influences in to two
categories.
(A) Indirect
(B) Direct
(A) Indirect Impacts or Influences

Socio- cultural changes may bring a lot of alteration in the economy, social life and modes of living and behaving
of the persons who are responsible for the upbringing, care, education and development of the youngsters. Such changes
may be such to influence the growth and development of their children in a variety of ways. For illustration, we may cite
them as below:
i. There has been a lot of change in the family structure of the Indian Society. Today we are drifting towards “nuclear
families” in place of the “Joint family system”. It has affected the living and behaving of the parents, their life style
and interaction with their children and modes of the upbringing and care of their children. The youngsters are unable
to get due attention and care in the way as they were getting in the joint family system. It has affected their
development in adverse way. Specially in the cases where parents are forced to neglect their children on account of
their compulsion of earning livelihood or cultural mode they are adopting for leading their life.
ii. The wave of industrialization and urbanization has introduced a great change in the socio-cultural life of the
societies:-
The parents and families who have settled in the urban belts due to one or the other reasons may be found to provide
their children altogether a new environment and mode of upbringing as they would have been provided them at their
traditional places. There are mixed affects of this change on the development of the children depending upon the
facilities or inconveniences felt on the part of the parents and families. The priviledged ones are providing better
opportunities and facilities for the development of children as they have been properly settled in the changed urban
environment. The others belonging to disadvantaged section are forced to live in the slum areas and deprive their
children with what is needed for them for their proper development.
iii. A striking feature of socio-cultural changes has recently appeared in the Indian society, especially belonging to rural
belt with the policy of taking over the agricultural land with an increasing rate of compensation on the part of the
government or purchase from the private builders. It has been responsible for bringing an altogether rapid
transformation in the socio-cultural life of rural families or community as a whole. Their life and living pattern is
altogether altered and this alternation have brought a drastic change in the way and means of rearing and upbringing
of their children. Both positive and negative impacts now here are visible on account of such socio-cultural change.
The people and families wise enough to invest the compensation amount or land value in a proper way have been in
a quite privileged position of providing better opportunities and care for their developing children. However, many
of them who lost their track by spending money in their own fun making have a sad commentary on their part for
giving proper opportunities and facilities to their children for the upbringing education and development. In this way
the socio-cultural changes coming in the way of the communities have been responsible for providing appropriate or
in appropriate environment for the growth and development of the youngsters. Apart from the economic
consideration, the changes in the mode of living, behaving, attitudes, interests, ideas and values of the parents and
members of the family also have been responsible for providing desirable or undesirable environment and feed back
to the developing children belonging to these families. They learned to behave and develop according to the norms
and values of their parents and family members.
iv. On account of the increased literacy rate, exposure to different cultures, government policies and role of media, there
have been effective changes in the attitudes and ways of living and behaving of the people and communities. They
are coming out of the age old stereo types, superstitions and misbeliefs. Social reforms and government policies and
initiatives are also doing great services in the regard. As a result we are observing two children norms and going
away from the hate campaign against a girl child. The gender, caste and social class stereotypes are slowly
disappearing. It has resulted in providing a quite conducive and favourable environment for the growth and
development of the children earlier suffering from discrimination, marginalization and deprivation on one or the
other accounts. However, the story for the communities and societies who are still in the grip of orthodoxial
tendencies, superstitions, rigidity and stereotypes (e.g. hardcore religious, minorities or groups) is somewhat
different. Quite contrary, here the children find a quite unfavourable and retrogative environment affecting their
growth and development in an adverse way.
(B) Direct Impacts or Influences

The growth and development of the children is also influenced and affected through their direct interaction with the
factors or elements causing socio-cultural changes in their social, educational and work-environment. Let us see how it
happens.
i. The social and cultural changes brought out in a society open the gates of experiences and opportunities to the children
for their needed development and progress. For example if in a society the stereotypes against gender or social class
vanishes to some extent then it may prove helpful for the children to derive necessary benefits denied to them in the past.
As a result the girls may enjoy the same privilege, acceptance and recognition as enjoyed by their brothers. They can be
able to excel in the fields like wrestling, boxing, and other games and sports events that were almost shut down for them.
You can yourself witness the tremendous changes brought out by the subsequent social and cultural changes in the society
in the case of development and progress of the children previously suffered from the evils of discrimination, and
marginalization. The rise of the girls cricket team at Shahbad (Ambala) and Boxing and Wrestling stars in the rural belt
of Bhiwani may clearly tell the story of the affect or influence of socio-cultural changes on the development and progress
of the youngsters.
ii. The Socio- cultural changes have also been successful in remaining the stigma and fears associated with the stereotypes
related to race, caste and social class. These changes have removed the barriers and now the developing children are able
to receive a clear message that they can excel in a field if they have the required ability and will to do a thing related to
that field. They can join any course of study or pick up any line for their future career irrespective of the consideration or
belongingness to a particular gender, race, caste, social or economic status.
iii. From the previous description, it should not be inferred that socio-cultural changes always contributes towards the positive
growth and development of the children. In case socio-cultural changes provide a conductive, free and democratic
environment for the thinking, feeling and acting of the children, arrange for them the needed facilities to grow and develop
and adds to their creative constructive and development friendly output then and only then they are found contributing
positively for the proper development and progress of the children. In other cases contrarily otherwise, they may produce
hurdles on the path of their development or may, produce harmful and damaging affects as illustrated below:
The war torn countries, terrorism or hardcore activists affected regions or victims of natural as well as men made
catastrophies may encounter such socio-cultural changes that can affect the life and development of the children in a quite
adverse way. It is what happening in Afganistan Iraq, Syria and other distributed regions. Naxli movements and terrorism
affected regions of our country are also witnessing the same inability of providing conducive environment for the
development and progress of their children.
The socio-cultural changes brought out through multiculturalism and technical advancement may also provide mixed direction
and opportunities for the appropriate and inappropriate development of the children. It is true that the children can be benefitted
by getting a wide exposure to different types of social interaction and cultural integration. They learn so many things helpful in
their physical, mental, social and emotional development, enrichment of their vocabulary communication and creative output. But
the influence or impact of a foreign cultural may take them away from their own social and cultural values. They may waste their
valuable time in experimenting with the technology loaded devices such as happening with the young generation now a days in
making use of smart phones, facebook and other internet services. They may also imbibe so many socially undesirable and life
spoiling habits and tastes on account of the blind imitation of the foreign culture.
CONCLUSION: In this way, the socio-cultural changes brought out by multi-culturalism, globalization and technological
progress are equipping the children with a double edged sword and it is here that they need to be properly cared and guide by their
elders and teachers.
Ques:- Discuss the concept of parenting style and its impact on child development.
(KUK 2018,20,21,22)
Ans:- Meaning:- A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child
rearing. The quality of parenting is far more essential than the quantity of time spent with the child. For instance, a parent can
spend an entire afternoon with his or her child, yet the parent may be engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating enough
interest towards the child. Parenting styles are the representation of how parents respond and demand to their children.
Parenting are specific behaviors, while parenting styles represent broader patterns of parenting practices.
Children go through different stages in life; therefore parents create their own parenting styles from a combination of factors that
evolve over time as children begin to develop their own personalities. During the stage of infancy, parents try to adjust to a new
lifestyle in terms of adapting and bonding with their new infant. For example, the relationship between the parent and child
is attachment. In the stage of adolescence, parents encounter new challenges, such as adolescents seeking and desiring freedom.
A child's temperament and parents' cultural patterns have an influence on the kind of parenting style a child may receive. The
degree to which a child's education is part of parenting is a further matter of debate.
The Four Parenting Styles
1. Authoritarian Parenting:- In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents.
Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these
rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, "Because I said so." These parents have high demands, but are not
responsive to their children. According to Baumrind, these parents "are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders
to be obeyed without explanation" (1991).
2. Authoritative Parenting:- Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines
that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic. Authoritative parents are
responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are
more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing. Baumrind suggests that these parents "monitor and impart clear standards
for their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive,
rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as
cooperative" (1991).
3. Permissive Parenting:- Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have very few demands to make of
their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and
self-control. According to Baumrind, permissive parents "are more responsive than they are demanding. They are
nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation"
(1991). Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend
more than that of a parent.
4. Uninvolved Parenting:- An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness and little
communication. While these parents fulfill the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life. In
extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of their children.
Other parenting styles
i. Attachment parenting: A parenting style framed around psychological attachment theory. Attachment in psychology is
defined as “a lasting emotional bond between people”. There are four main types of attachment: secure, insecure-
avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized attachment.
ii. Positive parenting: A parenting style overlapping substantially with authoritative parenting and defined by consistent
support and guidance through developmental stages.
iii. Concerted cultivation: A specific form of positive parenting characterized by parents' attempts to foster their child's
talents through organized extracurricular activities such as music lessons, sports/athletics, and academic enrichment.
iv. Narcissistic parenting: A narcissistic parent is a parent affected by narcissism or narcissistic personality disorder.
Typically narcissistic parents are exclusively and possessively close to their children and may be especially envious of,
and threatened by, their child's growing independence. The result may be what has been termed a pattern of
narcissistic attachment, with the child considered to exist solely for the parent's benefit.
v. Nurturant parenting: A family model where children are expected to explore their surroundings with protection from
their parents.
vi. Overparenting: Parents who try to involve themselves in every aspect of their child's life, often attempting to solve all
their problems and stifling the child's ability to act independently or solve his or her own problems. A helicopter parent is
a colloquial early 21st-century term for a parent who pays extremely close attention to his or her children's experiences
and problems, and attempts to sweep all obstacles out of their paths, particularly at educational institutions. Helicopter
parents are so named because, like helicopters, they hover closely overhead, especially during the late adolescence to
early adulthood years during which gradual development of independence and self-sufficiency are essential for future
success. Modern communication technology has promoted this style by enabling parents to keep watch over their kids
through cell phones, emails, and online monitoring of academic grades.
vii. Slow parenting: Encourages parents to plan and organize less for their children, instead allowing them to enjoy their
childhood and explore the world at their own pace. Electronics are limited, simplistic toys are utilized, and the child is
allowed to develop their own interests and to grow into their own person with lots of family time, allowing children to
make their own decisions.
viii. Taking Children Seriously: The central idea of this movement is that it is possible and desirable to raise and educate
children without doing anything to them against their will, or making them do anything against their will.
ix. Toxic parenting: Poor parenting, with a toxic relationship between the parent and child. It results in complete disruption
of the child's ability to identify themselves and reduced self-esteem, neglecting the needs of the child. Abuse is sometimes
seen in this parenting style. Adults who have suffered from toxic parents are mostly unable to recognize toxic parenting
behavior in themselves. Children with toxic parents grow up with damages and pass their damages to their own children.
x. Dolphin parenting: A term used by psychiatrist Shimi Kang and happiness researcher Shawn Achor to represent a
parenting style seen as similar to the nature of dolphins, being "playful, social and intelligent". It has been contrasted
to "tiger" parenting. According to Kang, dolphin parenting provides a balance between the strict approach of tiger
parenting and the lack of rules and expectations that characterizes what she calls "jellyfish parents". Dolphin parents
avoid over scheduling activities for their children, refrain from being overprotective, and take into account the desires
and goals of their children when setting expectations for behavior and academic success.
The Impact of Parenting Styles
What effect do these parenting styles have on child development outcomes? In addition to Baumrind's initial study of 100 preschool
children, researchers have conducted numerous other studies that have led to a number of conclusions about the impact of parenting
styles on children.
• Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness,
social competence and self-esteem.
• Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in children who are happy, capable and successful (Maccoby, 1992).
• Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to
experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.
• Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem
and are less competent than their peers.
Why is it that authoritative parenting provides such advantages over other styles? "First, when children perceive their parents'
requests as fair and reasonable, they are more likely to comply with the requests," explain authors Hockenbury and Hockenbury
in their text Psychology. "Second, the children are more likely to internalize (or accept as their own) the reasons for behaving in a
certain way and thus to achieve greater self-control."
Conclusion :Authoritative parenting is the best parenting style. It is an equal balance between Authoritarian and Permissive.If a
parent has used an authoritative style, the child will be well rounded and be very successful in life.A parent who uses this style
had rules that are applied but both the child and parent can agree and explain these rules.
Ques:- Define the meaning of play, its characteristics and developmental functions?
And:- PLAY
The tendency of play is present in a child as well as in an old man. It is found in many animals also. For man it has become
an integral part of his existence. Literally speaking everybody is familiar with play. All of us played in our childhood. Even in
adulthood we play indoor games or atleast play jokes. Play is universal. Without play there is no charm in life. In the modern
education, play is given a place of importance. Most of the modern systems of education are based on play. In fact, play is an
essential part of the personality of the child.
Meaning of play (KUK,21)
Play is general tendency because in play, a number of tendencies like imitation, constructiveness, acquisition, self
assertion, laughter and combativeness are involved. It is also an innate tendency which is pursuit in the atmosphere of freedom
and spontaneousness for the sake of enjoyment.
i. Sir percy nunn:- “Play is profound manifestation of creative activities.”

ii. Thomson:- “ Play is impulse to carry out certain instinctive actions.”
iii. Ross:- “Play is joyful, spontaneous and creative activity in which man finds fullest self expression.”
On the basis of the above definitions, we find that play has the following characteristics:-
1. Innate and creative tendency:- Play is an innate and creative tendency which is related to a number of instincts and
emotions. Play activities are spontaneous on account of an inner urge.
2. Freedom:- Play activities are characterised by freedom. There is not any external force which impels them to play but
there is a force from within. The child will play whatever he likes, whenever he likes and for whatever period he likes.
3. Joyful and non serious activity:- Play is joyful, sportive and non serious activity, and is pursued for its own sake. Play
does not produce pleasure but is pleasure itself.
4. Interesting and recreating:- The individual has all absorbing interest in his play. Play is always refreshing. It
monopolizes entire attention and interest of the player for time being. One never feels bored in play.
5. Make believe and child fantasy:- Play may be characterised by make believe and fantasy. Make believe play is a play
in which the child may find compensation for the inadequacies of his surroundings or of his own self. A child may absorb
himself in imaginative plays and express his overt behaviour through play.
6. Cathartic:- In words of Ross, ”Play is cathartic in action.” The child expresses his pent up feelings, instincts and emotions
and finds his fullest self expression.
7. End in itself:- Play is not the means to an end, but an end in itself because it is undertaken purely for itself.
8. Mirror of cultural activities:- Play is a mirror of cultural activities. A child anticipates the future adult activities and
recapitulates the activities of the race through his playful activities.
Difference between play and work
Play and work are two different things. They have the following points of difference:-
1. Motive:- Work is something which we have to do; it has some motive behind it. Work is carried out for some end. Play
has no specific end or motive behind it. It is done for its own sake.
2. Voluntary:- Play is voluntary. It is not performed under the pressure of anyone else. But this cannot be said under work
and other activities. Certain works are sometimes done under the pressure of others.
3. Boredom:- While work bores, play refreshes. Whenever we feel bored or tired after work, we play.
4. Recreational activity:- Play is recreational and spontaneous activity. It holds our interest as associated with it. In work,
joy is associated with successful completion of the task. There is no undue strain or pressure on the mind but work is
strenuous.
5. Natural and acquired:- Play is natural activity and work is acquired.
6. Imagination and reality:- Play is connected with the world of imagination, and work has to do with the world of reality.
In other words, in work, the ends are of real world but in play the ends are of make believe world.
7. Age:- With the growth in age, play diminishes. On the other hand burden of work grows.
8. In play only the player gains, while in work the interests of others are also involved.
9. According to Drever, “In play the value and significance of the activity is found in the activity itself, whereas in work the
value and significance of the activity is found in an end beyond the activity.
Inspite of all these differences between work and play, work can be changed into play can be changed into work.
It all depends upon the attitude of the individual towards any activity. The same activity can be played as well as work.
For example, for an artist, painting is work, where as it is play for many of us.
Types of play
Karl groos mentions five types of play:-
1. Experimental plays:- When an object is placed before the child, he tries to touch and handle it through which he gets
sensory experiences.
2. Movement plays:- In the movement plays children run about. One child chases another aimlessly. Later on such
movements take the form of hide and seek etc.
3. Constructive plays:- In the constructive plays the child remains busy in constructing something like constructing a hut,
joining parts of machine and assembling objects. A girl makes doll’s houses, prepares meals, and makes ornament of
various flowers. A boy plays mechano etc.
4. Fighting plays:- Like boxing, wrestling, kabaddi, group competitions and team work. These are mostly organised and
involve feelings of victory of defeat. These help in the development of various mental powers.
5. Intellectual plays:- Karl Gross classifies the intellectual plays into following parts:-
a. Ideational play e.g. chess.
b. Emotional play e.g. to stop laughing where one can laugh or to stop crying where one is likely to cry. The one who
acts against the rules is defeated.
Developmental functions of play
Values of play are numerous and varied. It is through play that children can adjust themselves to environment and fulfil
their physiological and psychological needs. Roger remarked, it is through play that child lives and grows and it is through play
that his intelligence is developed to adjust to the environment completely. Play has great physical, mental, emotional, social,
personality and therapeutic value.
1. Physical value:- Play provides opportunities for the growth of physical development because:
i. All the muscles and parts of the body are developed and exercised in play.
ii. Blood circulation is increased.
iii. Waste products are eliminated.
iv. Digestion is improved.
2. Intellectual value:-in the playfield, children exchange the various things in happy and pleasant mood. Such a situation
leads to intellectual development. In this regard the following advantages are worth mentioning:-
i. New ideas, concepts and thoughts are formed.
ii. Imagination is sharpened.
iii. Thinking and reasoning are enhanced.
iv. Power of judgment is widened.
v. Mental horizon is broadened.
vi. Learning by doing is based on play and children learn effectively when they perform various activities.
3. Emotional value:- Children who are not provided opportunity to play, become shy, over sensitive, moody and very much
irritable. It also leads to day dreaming but play provides emotional values:-
i. It discourages day dreaming.
ii. It overcomes shyness, moodiness, over sensitiveness and withdrawing attitude.
iii. Fatigue is avoided.
iv. Nervousness is removed.
v. Aggressiveness is sublimated.
vi. It overcomes creed, caste and colour differences and all the members share equality in the achievements of the
group.
vii. It helps the child to have a control over the emotions.
4. Social value:- Play has tremendous social value:-
i. Spirit of co-operation is developed. Attitude of give and take is developed.
ii. Attitude of accepting defeat and to be obedient to the leaders is developed.
iii. Quality of self confidence is developed.
iv. Quality of follow feeling and sense of unity is developed.
v. Spirit of law abiding and to observe the rules of game is developed.
vi. It leads to socialization.
vii. It leads to the removal of the feelings of high and low. In other words, it helps to establish classless and casteless
society.
viii. It generates an element of pleasure in life.
5. Personality value:- During infancy and childhood, the personality of the child is very much guided and dependent upon
the play and games. In adolescence, he joins the groups of his friends and starts taking part in new types of play. In short,
play has great value in the development of personality:
i. All the questions like preservance, self control, self confidence, honesty, obedience, truthfulness, co-operation,
industriousness, integrity and objective attitude are developed.
ii. Character is formed.
iii. All the elements of personality like physical, mental, emotional, social and character are integrated into one.
6. Therapeutic value:- Play is one of the important projective techniques with the help of which children can express and
release their emotions, thoughts, feelings, hopes, hidden wishes and desires.
7. Educational value:- Play has a good deal of importance in the field of education as well.
i. It motivates the child to learn and hence provides many opportunities to learn various activities.
ii. Various instincts and emotions are sublimated and modified by play.
iii. Play gives maximum freedom to the child in his learning activities. It is in his free atmosphere, that he develops
power of originality, imagination and reasoning.
iv. Play activities engage the entire personality of the child and hence the play way methods of teaching are always
superior to other methods of teaching.
v. Play way in education has removed drudgery and compulsion. It has brought about an element of joy, freedom
and spontaneity in learning activities.
vi. Play way in education implies the use of democratic methods in school organisation. The children manage the
affairs of the school. They organise their own co-curricular activities. They also elect their own representative
and help the school authorities in the smooth running of the school.
In this way we agree with Nunn when he says that, “It is hardly extravagant to say that in the understanding of play lies
the key of the most of the practical problems of education.”
UNIT-IV
around 2 Pgs.)
➢ Concept Of Marginalization
(KUK 2019,22)
Marginalization –Meaning and Concept
Marginalization in its simple meaning stands for the process or act of marginalizing. In the available dictionaries (Meriam Webster,
Oxford etc.) the action verb “marginalize” has been defined as : to put or keep (someone) in a powerless or unimportant position
within a society or group. Accordingly, the term marginalization may stand for the process or act of a majority community or
group to put or keep an individual or a minority group in deprived state, i.e. making them deprived of the power or privilege
enjoyed by the members of the community in general. Agreeing with such meaning and concept of the term marginalization. The
Encyclopedia of Public Health (2002) has tried to define the term marginalization as: “to be marginalized means to be placed in
the margins and thus get excluded from the privilege and power found at the center.” All over the world, the societies and the
nations suffer from this widespread problem known as marginalization reflecting through the social exclusion of a particular
minority group, locality, community and society from the main stream of the society on one or the other accounts. In its practical
application thus the term marginalization and social exclusion are used interchangeably and thus both of them may stand for the
process in which individuals or entire communities of people are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various
rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of the majority or ruling group.
Types of Forms of Marginalization
Marginalization suffered on the part of individuals in our societies may be visible in two of the main forms:
i. Individual marginalization and

ii. Community marginalization.
Individual Marginalization
It is concerned with the social exclusion of the individuals at their personal or individual level. It results in an individual’s
exclusive marginalization. As a result he or she may be (i) debarred from meaningful participation in society and (ii) denied access
to a number of rights and privileges otherwise available to the members of the society.
As examples of such an marginalization or social exclusion we may name: marginalization of widows, single mothers,
poor, disabled persons, children, senior citizens and persons suffering from Aids, Cancer and Leprosy etc. The state or conditions
of the marginalization suffered by these individuals may be well judged through the instances like below:
➢ A girl child belonging to the same family may fall victim of the marginalization on account of her gender. She may get
less attention, love and affection, incentives and encouragement, opportunity of education, development and progress in
comparison to her male siblings or cousins.
➢ A disabled child may not be allowed to make use of the educational facilities available in his or her neighborhood. He is
debarred from taking parts in the social functions of the family and community.
➢ A youth fails to get employment despite his ability and performance shown in the interview of the State Staff Selection
Board on account of being marginalized and discriminated at the hands of the members of the board dominated by a
particular community/caste.
Community Marginalization
In such marginalization an entire community or a group having minority status may be found to face marginalization at
the hands of the majority group. The marginalization of the blacks in European countries, women, untouchables, and scheduled
caste people in India may be cited exampled of such marginalization. The state or conditions of the marginalization suffered by
the groups or community as a whole may be visualized well through the instances like below:
➢ The people belonging to a socially untouchable, scheduled caste or tribe may be denied or deprived of taking water from
a well, the only source of drinking water in the village. They may also be denied the right of worship by not getting entry
in the temples, and casting their franchise in a democratic way. Their children may also be deprived of educational
opportunities by not getting admission in the village schools since they are considered untouchable by the higher caste
people. If admitted on a legal basis, they suffer from acute humiliation and discrimination on one or the other fronts.
➢ The rural community may feel deprived of many such facilities that are easily available to the urban people. Similarly a
minority community may get victimized at the hands of majority and consequently may feel quite uncomfortable and
unsafe even in their living and enjoying civic rights (e.g. kashmiri Hindu population in the disturbed Kashmir regions).
➢ Many of the district or regions of a particular state or nation may also suffer from seclusion and denied opportunities and
facilities available to other citizens on account of political reasons or exploiting tendencies of the ruling part or
government. The people of Bangladesh remained victims of acute discrimination and exploitation in the hands of the
mighty Pakistan, then rulers who showered undue favor to the progress of the western Pakistan at the cost of the present
Bangladesh.
➢ An acute impact of marginalization was faced by us as a whole at the hands of the British rulers who deprived us of our
rights and privileges in the same way as faced by oppressed and down trodden classes like women, scheduled castes and
tribes (especially in the rural India), poor and have notes etc. in today’s democratic and free india.
CONCLUSION: :- It is concluded that All over the world, the societies and the nations suffer from this widespread
problem known as marginalization reflecting through the social exclusion of a particular minority group, locality,
community and society from the main stream of the society on one or the other accounts.
• Concept Of Stereotyping
(KUK 2020)
Ans:-Stereotyping – Meaning and Concept
As its etymological derivation, the term stereotype has been derived from a combination of two Greek words – “stereos’
(meaning as firm or solid) and “typos’ (meaning impression of opinion). Therefore, it tends to stand for “solid impression” or
“firm opinion”.
The terms stereotype and stereotyping have been variedly defined in the available dictionaries and writings of scholars.
Stereotype – definition
• The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (2005): It defines the term stereotype in the following
two ways (i) A too-simple and therefore distorted image of a group, such as “Football players are stupid” or “The English
are cold and unfriendly people”. (ii) A generalization usually exaggerated or oversimplified and often offensive, that is
used to describe or distinguish a group.
• Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1970: 860): Stereotype is “a standardized mental picture held in
common by members of a group and representing an over simplified opinion, affective attitude or uncritical judgment (as
of a person, a race, an issue, or an event)”.
• McGarty, Craig, et.al (2002): In Social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types
of individuals or certain ways of doing things.
Types or Forms of stereotyping behavior
A stereotype is simply a widely held belief that an individual is a member of a certain group based on its characteristics.
Due to the process of overgeneralization within social perception, stereotyping leads to a great deal of inaccuracy in social
perception. Sex, race, age, sexual orientation, religion and physical ability are various categories which exist in stereotyping.
common types of stereotypes existing in our society:-

A. Sexual or gender stereotypes
➢ Girls like to be dependent, protected and looked after than the boys.
➢ Parents hold an opinion that their daughters need nurturing of passivity and dependency and their sons to be
aggressive and independent. (Therefore they punish independence in daughters and passivity in sons.)
➢ Females are more conforming and more concerned about displaying socially desirable behavior than males are.
➢ “Boys don’t cry” and “Girls don’t fight”.
➢ Girls and females are most fit for doing household job and the boys and males for the outdoor work.
➢ Girls and females are talkative and are not fit for serious and responsible assignments.
➢ Girls are not supposed to study mathematics, sciences, computer, commerce and technical subjects. They are
suitable for the study of humanity and languages.
➢ In work output girls and females are quite inferior and often leg behind their male counterparts.
➢ The girls are not supposed to take part in the games and play activities involving adventure, muscle power and
stamina like wrestling, boxing, shooting, para gliding and trooping, rock climbing, weight lifting etc.
➢ Girls always surpass the boys in the demonstration of communication and social skills, musical and dancing
abilities, aesthetic sense and artistic abilities.
B. Social class or racial stereotypes
➢ Children belonging to lower castes possess inferior cognitive, social and emotional intelligence than those
belonging to higher castes.
➢ Children belonging to low socio class and communities and Blacks (in relation to western countries) are better
in athletes, games particularly in boxing, wrestling and the activities requiring toughness, physical stamina and
adventurism.
➢ Children from urban backgrounds and urban culture are superior in intelligence but leg behind the rural children
in the performances in sports.
➢Children belonging to lower castes, low socio class, rural backgrounds and backward areas leg behind their
studies, create problems in the class and school, and have more chances of becoming delinquents.
C. Poverty related Stereotypes
➢ The children belonging to poor families have a quite low level of aspiration and achievement motivation.
➢ The poverty ridden children easily fall victim to the problematic and delinquent behavior.
➢ The poverty ridden children usually suffer from maladjustment, as well as problems related to poor physical and
mental health.
➢ The poverty ridden children are poor in their school attendance, find little time and face difficulties in doing
their home assignments and project activities.
CONCLUSION: Stereotypes are a big problem in our society. It puts labels about how a person should act or live
according to their sex, race, personality, and other facts. This could affect individuals who perhaps like different things or
do different activities, but feel ashamed of doing so because of stereotypes.
Ques: What is Marginalization? Discuss its types .Throw light on consequences or

impact of Marginalization on the development and well being of the children.
(KUK 2019,20,21,22)
Ans:
Marginalization –Meaning and Concept
Marginalization in its simple meaning stands for the process or act of marginalizing. In the available dictionaries (Meriam Webster,
Oxford etc.) the action verb “marginalize” has been defined as : to put or keep (someone) in a powerless or unimportant position
within a society or group. Accordingly, the term marginalization may stand for the process or act of a majority community or
group to put or keep an individual or a minority group in deprived state, i.e. making them deprived of the power or privilege
enjoyed by the members of the community in general. Agreeing with such meaning and concept of the term marginalization. The
Encyclopedia of Public Health (2002) has tried to define the term marginalization as: “to be marginalized means to be placed in
the margins and thus get excluded from the privilege and power found at the center.” All over the world, the societies and the
nations suffer from this widespread problem known as marginalization reflecting through the social exclusion of a particular
minority group, locality, community and society from the main stream of the society on one or the other accounts. In its practical
application thus the term marginalization and social exclusion are used interchangeably and thus both of them may stand for the
process in which individuals or entire communities of people are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various
rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of the majority or ruling group.
Types of Forms of Marginalization
Marginalization suffered on the part of individuals in our societies may be visible in two of the main forms:
iii. Individual marginalization and

iv. Community marginalization.
Individual Marginalization
It is concerned with the social exclusion of the individuals at their personal or individual level. It results in an individual’s
exclusive marginalization. As a result he or she may be (i) debarred from meaningful participation in society and (ii) denied access
to a number of rights and privileges otherwise available to the members of the society.
As examples of such an marginalization or social exclusion we may name: marginalization of widows, single mothers,
poor, disabled persons, children, senior citizens and persons suffering from Aids, Cancer and Leprosy etc. The state or conditions
of the marginalization suffered by these individuals may be well judged through the instances like below:
➢ A girl child belonging to the same family may fall victim of the marginalization on account of her gender. She may get
less attention, love and affection, incentives and encouragement, opportunity of education, development and progress in
comparison to her male siblings or cousins.
➢ A disabled child may not be allowed to make use of the educational facilities available in his or her neighborhood. He is
debarred from taking parts in the social functions of the family and community.
➢ A youth fails to get employment despite his ability and performance shown in the interview of the State Staff Selection
Board on account of being marginalized and discriminated at the hands of the members of the board dominated by a
particular community/caste.
Community Marginalization
In such marginalization an entire community or a group having minority status may be found to face marginalization at
the hands of the majority group. The marginalization of the blacks in European countries, women, untouchables, and scheduled
caste people in India may be cited exampled of such marginalization. The state or conditions of the marginalization suffered by
the groups or community as a whole may be visualized well through the instances like below:
➢ The people belonging to a socially untouchable, scheduled caste or tribe may be denied or deprived of taking water from
a well, the only source of drinking water in the village. They may also be denied the right of worship by not getting entry
in the temples, and casting their franchise in a democratic way. Their children may also be deprived of educational
opportunities by not getting admission in the village schools since they are considered untouchable by the higher caste
people. If admitted on a legal basis, they suffer from acute humiliation and discrimination on one or the other fronts.
➢ The rural community may feel deprived of many such facilities that are easily available to the urban people. Similarly a
minority community may get victimized at the hands of majority and consequently may feel quite uncomfortable and
unsafe even in their living and enjoying civic rights (e.g. kashmiri Hindu population in the disturbed Kashmir regions).
➢ Many of the district or regions of a particular state or nation may also suffer from seclusion and denied opportunities and
facilities available to other citizens on account of political reasons or exploiting tendencies of the ruling part or
government. The people of Bangladesh remained victims of acute discrimination and exploitation in the hands of the
mighty Pakistan, then rulers who showered undue favor to the progress of the western Pakistan at the cost of the present
Bangladesh.
➢ An acute impact of marginalization was faced by us as a whole at the hands of the British rulers who deprived us of our
rights and privileges in the same way as faced by oppressed and down trodden classes like women, scheduled castes and
tribes (especially in the rural India), poor and have notes etc. in today’s democratic and free india.
The Factors of Contributors to Marginalization
Marginalization (visible on the individual or group/community basis) is resulted on account of the apathy shown and
discriminatory attitude adopted for the individuals and minority groups by the majority, powerful and status enjoying section of
the society. This apathy and discriminatory attitude germinated in the mind and behavior of the majority group is based on the
stereotypes prevailed in the society and negative attitude developed in their mind on one or the other account. The major contributes
in this connection thus may include the factors like below:-
➢ Gender linked factors like negative attitude towards girls and women, bisexuals, prostitutes, transsexuals, third genders
etc.
➢ Economy linked factors like poverty, low socio- economic status and unemployment.
➢ Socio- culturally linked factors like belongingness to different caste, race, colour, creed, religion, language, political
affiliation, possessing radical views quite contrary to society and government, and migrants from other regions, states or
countries.
➢ Exceptionality linked factors (being too much diverse from the norms) like being gifted or genius, backward or slow
learner, suffering from one or the other disabilities or incapacities etc.
The Consequences of Impacts of Marginalization
The outcome or impact of marginalization or social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented
from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. Apart from being excluded,
they often become victims of acute apathy, hate and discrimination on the part of majority and powerful segment of the society.
They are deprived from taking parts in the usual activities of the society and denied access to many essential amenities and
priviledges enjoyed by the majority group. Marginalized individuals or groups thus may have to suffer from a number of
deprivations- socio-cultural, economical, psychological, and educational so much so as to make them suffer badly in terms of their
well-being and progress. Children and students are no exceptions. They also have to suffer badly on account of the ill consequences
and damaging impact of the phenomenon of marginalization.
We should also be quite clear in visualizing that the developing children feel the heat of marginalization on two fronts.
One on account of the marginalization faced by their parents and family and the other on account of the marginalization suffered
by themselves in their home, school and society.
A. The impact of marginalization suffered by their parents and family.

The developing children depend on their parents and family for the support and facilities needed for their
education, adjustment and development. In case where their parents and family get marginalized at the hands of the majority
group or society, the ill consequences suffered by them on account of such marginalization get automatically transferred to
the developing children. In general, the marginalization of the parents and family members by the majority and powerful
section of the society may lead to the family to the following disadvantages:
➢ Affecting the economy of the family in a quite adverse way to the extent of making it suffer from poverty and
lack of essentials for living.
➢ Compelling the family to live in unhygienic conditions.
➢ Non-availability or denial of the essential medical and health facilities.
➢ Non availability or denial of the proper educational facilities to the self and children.
➢ Getting psychological shocks on account of the ill treatment faced at the hands of the majority group.
A marginalized family deprived in the manner given above then fails to contribute appropriately for the growth and
development of its developing children. The children here suffers from mal-nourishment right from their very conception in the
womb of the mother; are forced to drink contaminated water; do not get health and medical assistance in time, suffer from ailments
and diseases; do not get due attention and caring from their parents on account of their struggling to earn livelihood; do not get
help from the parents and family members for the development of language and communication power on account of the
helplessness and illiteracy of their parents and family members; do not get appropriate opportunity to imbibe healthy proper habits
from the peers and neighbors on account of the poor neighborhood and incapable playing mates and peers; fail to get appropriate
educational opportunities in terms of admission in the good schools and discrimination or marginalization suffered in the school
on account of the seclusion and socio-economic status of their families; remain deprived from the company, contacts and
interactions with the members of the community and other social institutions and agencies helpful in their proper social, emotional
and mental development. In this way, the physical and socio-cultural environment available in the marginalized and deprived
families fails to provide the children what is needed for the satisfaction of their physical and socio-psychological needs and age
related wholesome development. On the contrary it leads them to poor physical and mental health and ailments, social and
emotional mal adjustment, socially and morally undesirable habits, delinquent or socially deviant behavior, drug addiction and
alcoholism, communication and language problems, backwardness and learning difficulties, failures and drop outs, shutting up the
doors of higher education, employment and proper settlement in life.
B. The impact of marginalization suffered by the children themselves.

In addition of the ill consequences suffered by the children on account of the side effects and contributions of
the marginalization of their families, the children are bound to suffer badly on account of their own marginalization and
victimization in their families, schools and society. Let us try to think in this direction.
1. Marginalization in family: It is quite possible for the children to suffer from acute marginalization and discrimination
at the hands of their own parents, step mother and father, care taker and family members in a number of ways. The apathy
and antagonistic attitude of the family members towards, the girl child, widow child, or children losing their mother/father
or both, disabled etc. in our society is well known. In such discriminatory and deprived physical and socio-psychological
environment of the family the children fails to get needed love and affection, attention and care, rearing and nourishing
supplements, healthy interactions and timely guidance, incentives and reinforcement for their good behavior and progress.
As a result there arises a big gap in the physical and socio-psychological needs and their satisfaction. It leads them no
where other than the path of painful maladjustment and failure in terms of achieving age related milestones of their whole
some development and progress.
2. Marginalization in school: The environment available in the school to the children for their education, adjustment and
development may be quite defective, discriminatory and marginalized. The student may suffer from acute discrimination
and marginalization in the school on one or the other accounts like belonging to a particular gender, caste, colour, creed,
religion, social status, region, language group and nationality, suffering from one or the other types of disabilities and
incapacities, or may face the wrath and blunt of the personal disliking, negative attitude, jealousy and envy of the teachers
and authorities developed towards them. Inconsequence, they may exclude and prevent a child from taking part in the
regular activities of the school, ridicule or treat him badly in front of others, do injustice in evaluating their performance
and achievements and thus harm him psychologically and educationally in a way as to put a lot of barriers in his adequate
adjustment, development and progress. Such marginalized students then with no fault of them may be seen to be drifting
towards backwardness, failure, truancy, delinquency, drug addiction, and other types of antisocial and morally deviant
behavior.
3. Marginalization in the society: Members of the majority community and the environment also try to display a lot of
marginalization and discrimination towards the developing children by not allowing them to take parts in the activities,
festivals, rituals, worships and functions organized in the community venues from time to time. The discrimination and
prohibition may be on any ground (such as being a women/girl, widow, disabled, lower caste or untouchable, poor,
villager, following other sects, faiths or religion, black color or disliked nationality) but in all its way it casts a quite
negative and damaging influence on the adjustment, and development of the children by snatching the valuable
opportunities of social interaction, community and social learning and outward self-expression.
CONCLUSION: Marginalized individuals or groups thus may have to suffer from a number of depcultural,
economical, psychological, and educational so much so as to make them suffer badly in terms of their well-being and
progress. Children and students are no exceptions. They also have to suffer badly on account of the ill consequences
and damaging impact of the phenomenon of marginalization
Ques: What is Stereotyping? Discuss the concept and Impacts of Stereotyping on the
development and well-being of the children
(KUK 2019,21)
Ans:-Stereotyping – Meaning and Concept
As its etymological derivation, the term stereotype has been derived from a combination of two Greek words – “stereos’
(meaning as firm or solid) and “typos’ (meaning impression of opinion). Therefore, it tends to stand for “solid impression” or
“firm opinion”.
The terms stereotype and stereotyping have been variedly defined in the available dictionaries and writings of scholars.
Stereotype – definition
• The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (2005): It defines the term stereotype in the following
two ways (i) A too-simple and therefore distorted image of a group, such as “Football players are stupid” or “The English
are cold and unfriendly people”. (ii) A generalization usually exaggerated or oversimplified and often offensive, that is
used to describe or distinguish a group.
• Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1970: 860): Stereotype is “a standardized mental picture held in
common by members of a group and representing an over simplified opinion, affective attitude or uncritical judgment (as
of a person, a race, an issue, or an event)”.
• McGarty, Craig, et.al (2002): In Social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types
of individuals or certain ways of doing things.
Types or Forms of stereotyping behavior
A stereotype is simply a widely held belief that an individual is a member of a certain group based on its characteristics.
Due to the process of overgeneralization within social perception, stereotyping leads to a great deal of inaccuracy in social
perception. Sex, race, age, sexual orientation, religion and physical ability are various categories which exist in stereotyping.
common types of stereotypes existing in our society.
D. Sexual or gender stereotypes

➢ Girls like to be dependent, protected and looked after than the boys.
➢ Parents hold an opinion that their daughters need nurturing of passivity and dependency and their sons to be
aggressive and independent. (Therefore they punish independence in daughters and passivity in sons.)
➢ Females are more conforming and more concerned about displaying socially desirable behavior than males are.
➢ “Boys don’t cry” and “Girls don’t fight”.
➢ Girls and females are most fit for doing household job and the boys and males for the outdoor work.
➢ Girls and females are talkative and are not fit for serious and responsible assignments.
➢ Girls are not supposed to study mathematics, sciences, computer, commerce and technical subjects. They are
suitable for the study of humanity and languages.
➢ In work output girls and females are quite inferior and often leg behind their male counterparts.
➢ The girls are not supposed to take part in the games and play activities involving adventure, muscle power and
stamina like wrestling, boxing, shooting, para gliding and trooping, rock climbing, weight lifting etc.
➢ Girls always surpass the boys in the demonstration of communication and social skills, musical and dancing
abilities, aesthetic sense and artistic abilities.
E. Social class or racial stereotypes
➢ Children belonging to lower castes possess inferior cognitive, social and emotional intelligence than those
belonging to higher castes.
➢ Children belonging to low socio class and communities and Blacks (in relation to western countries) are better
in athletes, games particularly in boxing, wrestling and the activities requiring toughness, physical stamina and
adventurism.
➢ Children from urban backgrounds and urban culture are superior in intelligence but leg behind the rural children
in the performances in sports.
➢ Children belonging to lower castes, low socio class, rural backgrounds and backward areas leg behind their
studies, create problems in the class and school, and have more chances of becoming delinquents.
F. Poverty related Stereotypes
➢ The children belonging to poor families have a quite low level of aspiration and achievement motivation.
➢ The poverty ridden children easily fall victim to the problematic and delinquent behavior.
➢ The poverty ridden children usually suffer from maladjustment, as well as problems related to poor physical and
mental health.
➢ The poverty ridden children are poor in their school attendance, find little time and face difficulties in doing
their home assignments and project activities.
Relationship of Stereotypes with Prejudices and Discrimination
Stereotypes, although having their separate identity and existence as the firm beliefs and attitudes of a person, are firmly
attached with the other concepts like prejudices and discrimination. Stereotypes are regarded as the most cognitive component and
often occur without conscious awareness, whereas prejudice is the affective component of stereotyping and discrimination is the
behavioural component of prejudicial reactions. Thus, in this tripartite view of intergroup attitudes.
i. Stereotypes reflect expectations and beliefs about the characteristics of members of groups perceived as different from
one’s own, (cognitive behavior exhibited by the person having stereotype)
ii. Prejudice represents the emotional response exhibited by the person possessing the stereotype (affected behavior
exhibited by the person having stereotype)
iii. Discrimination or marginalization refers to actions (conative behavior exhibited by the person having stereotype)
In this way, a stereotype (unfounded beliefs, expectations, opinions or attitude maintained about members of
groups perceived a different from one’s own) is first responsible for generating the prejudiced feelings and emotions
against the group members and then acting in a prejudiced way showing a lot of discrimination and marginalization. As
a result, a teacher who is under the influence of the gender stereotype, “girls are talkative, and non-serious” and the related
prejudiced feelings will always be found automatically appointing boys as “group leader” and girls as “secretary” for the
project or association activities.
Impacts of Stereotyping on the development and well-being of the children
Stereotypes are a big problem for a society or nation as it creates great hurdles in their smooth and peaceful functioning
as well as needed development and progress of its citizens. In the case of the children, it hampers their welfare and development
in an adverse way. Let us see how it affects the development and well-being of the youngsters.
1. Stereotyping related to gender, race, social class and poverty etc, breeds prejudices in the children against the persons and
groups. It can develop into hatred, enmity, rivalries among the peers and students of the same class and school. It can thus
prove a big danger and obstacles in the cooperative and collaborative environment needed for the effectiveness of the
teaching-leaning or attainment of school ideals and goals.
2. Stereotyping puts labels about how a person should act or live according to their sex, race, personality, and other facts.
This could affect the learning and working of the children who perhaps like different things or do different activities, but
feel ashamed of doing so because of domain related stereotypes (e.g. girls are poor in mathematical and scientific
abilities). Consequently, a girl student may like to study and engage in the activities that are not meant for the girls
according to the stereotypes prevalent in the society, but do not dare and come forward for doing them in spite of her
abilities and capacities for learning and doing them.
3. Stereotypes create a misconception of how people are and how they live in other cultures, religions, or countries. This
misconception may create distances in the minds and hearts of the children studying in the same class and school. It can
prove a big problem for a multi culture and democratic society or nation.
4. Stereotyping of any nature may result into the discrimination and marginalization of the victims. Children may face
discrimination and marginalization on account the stereotypes related to gender, caste, creed, colour, social class and
poverty at their homes, neighbourhood, community, school and other social situations. It affects their adjustment,
education, development and progress in a quite adverse and negative way.
5. The sufferings caused through a combined effect of prejudices, discrimination and denial of opportunities arising out of
the stereotypes may provide a great harm to the victimized children in the form of psychological set back. It may affect
their physical and mental health and also affects their performance in learning and work performance. It has been noted
that children get hurt and act more aggressively when after they’ve faced prejudice and discrimination in a given situation.
They are3 more likely to exhibit a lack of self-control and may feel difficulty in making good, rational decisions as a fall
out of stereotyping.
6. Stereotyping may also be found quite harmful the children in terms of affecting their performance and outcomes in an
adverse way. In this concern, it is quite interesting to note that both negative as well as positive stereotypes (e.g. the
members of some groups will perform more poorly or more appropriately than others) are found to carry the equally
adverse effects on the achievements and performances of the children in the testing and work performance situations.
The reason that performance suffers under stereotype threat is till a matter of some debate. Research has shown that
factors such as anxiety, physiological arousal, and reduced cognitive capacity can all occur under stereotype threat, and
each factor might contribute to lowered performance in the tests and work situations related to mathematics, natural
sciences, and computer engineering with a psychological fear generated through the negative stereotyping against the
girls and females. But at the same his brother or class mate who is also appearing in that mechanical comprehension/
mathematical or scientific ability test may also be found to perform poorly as a consequence of facing a lot of text anxiety
simply for saving the reputation of his group by earning better scores than the female counterparts( justifying the positive
stereotyping in favour of boys/males).
7. Stereotypes are creating problems in children in many other ways. As an accepted ways of believing and behaving in the
society they live, these stereotypes have taken a quite deal shape in the minds and hearts of the children. They can’t thing
beyond them. As a consequence, they are suffering from a number of negatives effects in many areas, personality
development and their overall progress and well-being. You can’t imagine how the false images and ego built up by
these stereotypes and discrimination of mrginalization suffered by the children on their account is making the children
suffer in terms of their achievements, adjustments, development and progress.
CONCLUSION: In this way, a stereotype (unfounded beliefs, expectations, opinions or attitude maintained about
members of groups perceived a different from one’s own) is first responsible for generating the prejudiced feelings and
emotions against the group members and then acting in a prejudiced way showing a lot of discrimination and
marginalization. As a result, a teacher who is under the influence of the gender stereotype, “girls are talkative, and non-
serious” and the related prejudiced feelings will always be found automatically appointing boys as “group leader” and
girls as “secretary” for the project or association activities.
Ques: Discuss the Role of Media in constructing and deconstructing the perception of
children regarding Stereotypes and Marginalization prevalent in their society
and school.
Ans: (KUK 2020,22)
Role of Media in relation to Marginalization and Stereotyping
The meaning of the term Media or Mass Media
In its word meaning, the term mass-media stands for the media (means and mode of communication) for the masses.
It can thus represent all channels means and modes that can be used for conveying information, messages or appeal
simultaneously to a number of people breaking the barrier of location, places, and timings. It can exist in audio, video or
multisensory forms and thus may appeal a number of senses for producing lasting effects or impressions on the minds
and hearts of the individual. The means and modes like below may be properly included in the term mass-media.
1. News papers and magazines

2. Books (printed and e-form)
3. Advertisement
4. Radio Broadcast
5. Telecast
6. Films and movies
7. Internet and Web material
8. The Modern Communication means like messages and audio-video material loaded on smart phones, facebook, blogs
, Twitter etc.
The Role of Mass media
Mass media has emerged a very potent and effective source of moulding attitudes and shaping the behaviour pattern of the masses.
In this age of its rapid revolutionization it has surpassed all other means and methods of influencing opinion and attitudes of the
people in an infinite number and locations simultaneously at a single time. As a result it has been found to cast an immense
influence over constructing and deconstructing people’s perceptions and ways of dealing with the issues of marginalization and
stereotyping in particular society or in a global way in general. In this connection, media may serve as a twin edged sword
contributing on one hand towards the perpetuation of stereotyping and marginalization in the society and providing a good evil
vanishing weapon on the other. Let us try to analyze the role of media on these two fronts.
(A) Role of Media in the promotion or perpetuation of Stereotyping and Marginalization

Media may play a quite negative role by contributing in a variety of ways towards the promotion and perpetuation
of the evils of stereotyping and marginalization in the society. A few of its negative contributions may be cited as below.
1. Media may expose the children to the world of stereotyping and marginalization. As you know children are quite
innocent by nature. They are away from the evils of prejudices, hatred, discriminations and separatism. Exposure
to such evils may make them to know, learn and practice these in their behaviour. No one can match the media
in getting exposed the children with such evils associated with the stereotyping and marginalization prevalent in
a society. When a child reads from a printed media (newspaper, magazine or pamphlet) or listens and views
from an AV media (radio, television, film, smart phone, computer devices etc.) about the prevailing stereotypes
and marginalization, he can pick all about them in terms of their nature, occurrence, practice and impacts.
2. One’s caste, race, gender, or social class is superior or inferior good or bad the considerations and beliefs like
such may be easily germinated and nourished with the magnificent influencing power of the media.
When media exhibits and exposes that girls do not fair well in mathematics, sciences and computers,
they are not fit for adventurism including adventure and stamina related sports, serious tasks and profession, it
is nothing but germination and perpetuation of the stereotypes prevalent in the society against the girls and
females. Discriminations and marginalization against the girls and females may also get germinated and
perpetuated through the news items and exhibits in the media. A T.V. show may emphasize that how a particular
individual or group belonging to a race, religion, caste or class is dangerous to the well being of the society, it
may work as a great reinforcer of the stereotype prevalent in the society about that race, religion, caste okr class.
As a result a person with an outward appearance of Bin Laden may always be taken as a dreaded terrorist. The
following a particular religion or beared people are terrorists, this stereotype thus can take a deep roots in the
minds of the children. It is not strange for the children, thus to keep distance from the children belonging to a
particular religion, caste, race or social class simply for the reason that a negative stereotype about them has
been circulated and repeated in media.
3. When the children are exposed to the fact through media reporting and exhibit, that a certain type of
marginalization or stereotyping exists in the different regions of a country or globally in other countries, he
may form the opinion in favour of the preservation and continuity of that marginalization or stereotyping. The
mass media quickly spreads this negative message to the masses existing on the global basis and its repeatation
on the media get it reinforced and deep rooted in the minds and behaviour of the persons exposed to the media
at a global level. The followers of particular religion are terrorists, this stereotype and the related
marginalization of them on this account on a global basis, may be taken as a glaring example of the role and
contribution of media in the promotion and perpetuation of stereotyping and marginalization.
(B) Role of Media in Saying good bye to Stereotyping and Marginalization
Despite its, negative role as emphasized earlier, media can play a substantial role in getting rid of the evils of stereotyping
and marginalization in our society in the ways and means summarized below:
1. Instead of reporting, viewing and glorifying the things concerning stereotyping and marginalization, it can adopt a positive
approach for addressing these issues in a constructive way. In adopting this role basically the media should try to say
and exhibit that stereotyping and marginalization are the evils and vices and thus need to be sidelined or abolished. It
should provide the news and stories, write ups and experiences videos, serials and films that can contradict the notions
and beliefs held in stereotypes and marginalizations present in the form of gender, race, caste, religion and social class
bases and discriminations.
2. Media through its various platforms must try to portraits the negative outcomes and devastating effects of marginalization
on the individuals and groups subjected such marginalization. We should act as humans and not treat others in a non-
dignified and inhuman ways. The marginalization of dalit and untouchables on the caste basis, girls and women on the
gender ground and widows on merital status basis; the minorities on the religion, language and cultural basis, the
differently abled or disabled on the basis of their disabilities or incapacities is not desirable. Their suffering s and
difficulties on this account may be brought into the notice of the media users and viewers in such a way as to make them
realize the necessity of stopping the evil practices of discriminations and marginalization. There should be a change in
the attitudes, feelings and thinking of the people having negative stereotypes about people, group, communities and
cultures.
3. Media should try to portrait the positive image altogether contradicting the traditionally held stereotyped negative images
of the individuals and groups.
For example it should report and exhibit that:
i. Girls are doing wonders in excelling in various areas and sphere of human life disproving and rejecting various
stereotypes. They are surpassing boys in terms of winning merit positions, higher pass percentage in the subjects
mathematics, sciences, engineering, management and computer applications supposed to be the areas meant for the
boys. They are excelling in the field of games and sports even in the areas specifically reserved for the boys such as
weight lifting, boxing, wrestling, adventurous sporting, rock climbing, mountaineering , navigating etc. They are
thus on the helm of the affairs, and tops of the events in all the walks and spheres of human life, fields and careers.
Whether related to academics or politic, business, administration, literatures and arts, invention and discoveries,
fashions and entertainment etc.
ii. The other types of stereotypes and marginalizations related to caste, races, religion, poverty, social class and
disabilities etc. should also be properly addressed at the hands of media reporting and showing. It should always
lean towards maintaining communal harmony, peace and brotherhood among the different social cultural and
religious groups. It should leave no scope or incident to report and exhibit that how well a particular individual or
group is excelling or contributing towards the welfare of the society, nation and humanity irrespective of the negative
stereotype held by the public about it. How a person, belonging to a particular religion, caste race extremist section
has saved the lives of others by aborting a terrorist act and how it is unfair on our part to brand all the people belonging
to a particular community race or cast as the villains, bad guys or terrorists. The things and events like then should
be highlighted and glorified. Similarly, the excelling of poverty ridden deprived and disadvantaged children should
also be highlighted for removing the notion that the children belonging to lower caste, lower social or economic
status can’t excel in life.
iii. How government and non-government agencies are trying and taking measures of abolishing stereotypes and
marginalization on one or the other basis. What are our responsibilities in this regard? How the efforts in this
direction are bringing positive results? How people are contributing and cooperating for the success of these missions
etc.?
Thus we can say that it is true that many of the stereotypes, ways of behaving in a discriminating and
marginalized fashion are imbibed among the children with the courtesy of media. But media can also play a quite
constructive and positive role by letting the perception of the children altered in relation to the stereotypes and
marginalization prevailed in the society or resting in their minds. Through its valuable efforts it can teach children to
value other people for what they are, not what they appear to be. It can also teach the children to respect each other
regardless of sex, sexual orientation, race, culture, religion, personality and more. It is important to teach them these
values because the children are the future of our society and nation.
CONCLUSION: The media can work well for bringing changes in the perception of prevailing stereotypes and marginalization’s.
It should portrait the picture that all stereotypes are bad (regardless of their being labeled as positive or negative) because they
give birth to prejudgment without any valid rational behind them. The children should be made to respect and understood other
cultures, religion languages, regions and countries. This will help in resolving many issues selected to discriminations, prejudices
and marginalization.

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Course – I

CHILDHOOD AND GROWING UP

Course Code- 801

Time : 3 Hours Max Marks: 100

(Theory : 80, internal :20)

NOTE FOR PAPER SETTER

1. Difference between Growth and Development

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Basis Growth Development

2. “Late-Childhood is a unique period of life.” Explain and discuss the chief

(3) Emotional Development:-

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OR SIGNIFICANCE:-

3. What is the difference between early childhood and late childhood?

A. Infancy (0 to5 years)

(A) INFANCY STAGE (PERIOD)

Difference Between Early Childhood And Late Childhood

9. In this age, communicate easily with other children and

10. In this age, children use detailed six to eight-word

5. Characteristics of Adolescent stage

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN ADOLESCENTS:-

A. Rapid physical growth and changes:-

C. Intellectual or mental characteristics of adolescence:-

D. Social Characteristics or Changes:

Long Questions (16 marks) (6 -7Pgs)

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

1. Principle of Sequential Development- Development follows a pattern (sequence)-

EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT-

Ques. What is growth and development? Discuss in detail the factors

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT-

Unfavourable factors in the pre natal environment are-

The following are the important characteristics of infancy stage:-

(1) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:-

(4) Social Development:-

NEEDS OF INDIAN ADOLESCENTS:-

SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF INDIAN ADOLESCENTS AND SOLUTIONS:-

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING (EDUCATION FOR ADOLESCENTS)

➢ Educational implications of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

➢ Write down the Stages of Psycho-Social Development theory by Erickson’s

Works to master physical

Begins to initiate, not imitate,

Seeks satisfaction through

Middle Age Adult

➢ Educational Implications of Erickon’s Theory of Psycho-socio Development

(i) The positive experiences leading to positive outcomes, and

➢ Educational Implications of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Long Questions (16 marks) (6 -7Pgs)

SOME GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

(INDICES OF PROPER COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT)

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT/PIAGET’S THEORY OR CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE

Piaget’s Basic Concepts:-

Stages of Cognitive (Intellectual) Development:-

Important characteristics of pre-operational period are as under:-

Appreciation and Contribution to Education (Educational Implications) of Piaget’s Concept/Theory of Intellectual

Ques:- What is moral development? Explain Kohlberg theory of moral development in

MEANING OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral development includes moral behavior and moral concepts:-

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO KOHLBERG:

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Erickson’s Theory of Psycho – Social Development

Age Span for the Stages of Psycho-social Development

Stage of psycho-social development Specific age or period

Description of Stages (alongwith Significance and Implications)

Works to master physical

Begins to initiate, not imitate,

PAPER-1 Childhood & Growing Up 2022 Eng. Med

PAPER-1 Childhood & Growing Up 2022 Eng. Med