Knowledge of growth and

development at the various stage is very

ADO
UNIT I
BASIC CONCEPTS
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and
continues through the lifespan.
Development includes growth
positive and negative.
HUMAN GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Growth and development are
inseparable but they differ from each
other.
Growth represents the physical
changes of an individual and
development represents the overall
changes, structure and shape of an
individual.
essential for the teacher. The teacher
has to stimulate the growth and
development of a child. He can do it only
if he has proper knowledge of the growth
and development at various stages.
HUMAN GROWTH VS.
DEVELOPMENT
Human Growth
1. Growth terms represent a purely
physical sense of a person, i.e height,
weight, size and length etc.
2. Growth is quantitative. It starts with
conception but ends at some particular
age.
Development
1. Development implies the overall
change in shape, form, or structure,
along with the function of the organ.
2. Development is both quantitative
and qualitative. It is a continuous
process starting from the Womb and
ending with the tomb.
Maturation - the biological unfolding of
an individual according to plan contained
in the genes.
Learning - the process through which
experience brings about relatively
permanent changes in thoughts, feelings
or behavior.
Environment - refers to the all the
external physical and social conditions
and events that affect us, from crowded
living quarters to stimulating social
interactions.
Aging - the deterioration of organisms
that leads inevitably to death.
 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND dimension which is uniform and
DEVELOPMENT universal concerning the individual
of a species.
1. Principle of Continuity
6. Principle of Proceeding from
- The development follows the
General to Specific
principle of continuity which means
- While developing to any aspect of
that development is a continuous
personality. The child first pickup or
process. It starts with pre-natal and
exhibit a general response and
ends with death.
learn how to show specific and
2. Principle of Integration
goal-directed responses
- Development thus involves a
afterwards.
movement from the whole to parts
7. Principle of Interaction between
and from parts to the whole and
Heredity and Environment
this way it is the integration of the
- The development of a child is a
whole and its parts as well as the
process that cannot be defined
specific and general responses.
wholly based on either heredity or
3. Principle of Lack of Uniformity in
environment. Both have to play an
the Developmental Rate
important role in development.
- Development through the
There are arguments in favor of
continuous process, but does not
both. However, most psychologists
exhibit steadiness and uniformity in
agree that an interplay of these two
terms of the rate of development in
factors leads to development.
various development of personality
- Where heredity decides or set
or the developmental periods and
some limits on development
stage of life.
(mostly physical), environmental
4. Principle of Individual Difference
influences complete the
- Every organism is a distinct
developmental process
creation in itself. One of the most
(qualitative). Environmental
important principles of
influences provide space for
development is that involves
multidimensional development
individual differences. There is no
through interaction with family,
fixed rate of development. That all
peers, society, and so on. Growth
children will learn to walk is
and development is a joint product
universal, but the time at which
of heredity and environment.
each child takes his/her first step
8. Principle of Interrelation
may vary.
- A healthy body tends to develop a
5. Principle of Uniformity Pattern
healthy mind and an emotionally
- Although development does not
stable, physically strong and
proceed at a uniform rate and
socially conscious personality.
shows marked individual
Inadequate physical or mental
differences concerning the process
development may, on the other
and outcome of various stages of
hand, result in a socially or
development, it follows a definite
pattern in one or the other
 emotionally maladjusted
personality.
9. Principle of Cephalocaudal
- Development proceeds in the
direction of the longitudinal axis.
Development from head to foot or
toe. That is why, before it becomes
able to stand, the child first gains
control over his head and arms and
then on his legs.
CEPHALOCAUDAL PATTERN
- During infancy, the greatest growth
always occurs at the top the head
with physical growth in size, weight
and future differentiation gradually
working in its way down from top to
bottom.
10. Principle of Proximodistal
- Development of motor skills to start
at central body parts to outwards.
That is why, in the beginning, the
child is seen to exercise control
over the large fundamental
muscles of the arm and then hand
and only afterwards over the
smaller muscles of the fingers.
BIOLOGICAL PROCESS - involves
changes in the individual’s physical
nature.
COGNITIVE PROCESS - involves
changes in the individual’s thought,
intelligence, and language.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESS -
involves changes in the individual’s
relationships with other people.
11. Principle of Predictability
- Development is predictable, which
means that with the help of the
uniformity of pattern and sequence
of development. We can go to a
great extent, forecast the general
nature and behavior of a child in
one or more aspects or dimensions
at any particular stage of its growth
and development. We can know
the particular age at which children
will learn to walk, speak and so on.
12. Principle of Spiral versus Linear
Advancement
- The child doesn’t proceed straight
or linear on the path of
development at any stage never
takes place at a constant or steady
pace. After the child had developed
to a certain level, there is likely to
be a period of rest for consolidation
of the developmental progress
achieved till then. In advancing
further, therefore, the development
turn back and then moves forward
again in a spiral pattern.
13. Principle of Association of
Maturation and Learning
- Biological growth and development
are known as maturation.
Biological changes involve
changes in the brain and the
nervous system, which provide
new abilities to a child.
Development proceeds from
simple to complex. In the
beginning, a child learns through
concrete objects and gradually
moves to abstract thinking. This
transition happens because of the
maturation.
 APPROACHES TO HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Traditional Approach
• Extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in
adulthood, and decline in late old age.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE SPAN
DEVELOPMENT
• Development is lifelong.
• Development is multidimensional.
• Development is plastic.
• Development is contextual.
• Development involves growth,
maintenance and regulation.
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
1. Development and learning are
dynamic processes that reflect the
complex interplay between a child’s
biological characteristics and the
environment, each shaping the other
as well as future patterns of growth.
2. All domains of child development—
physical development, cognitive
development, social and emotional
development, and linguistic
development (including bilingual or
multilingual development), as well as
approaches to learning—are
important; each domain both supports
and is supported by the others.
3. Play promotes joyful learning that
fosters self-regulation, language,
cognitive and social competencies as
well as content knowledge across
disciplines. Play is essential for all
children, birth through age 8.
4. Although general progressions of
development and learning can be
identified, variations due to cultural
contexts, experiences, and individual
differences must also be considered.
5. Children are active learners from
birth, constantly taking in and
organizing information to create
meaning through their relationships,
their interactions with their
environment, and their overall
experiences.
6. Children’s motivation to learn is
increased when their learning
environment fosters their sense of
belonging, purpose, and agency.
Curricula and teaching methods build
on each child’s assets by connecting
their experiences in the school or
learning environment to their home
and community settings.
7. Children learn in an integrated
fashion that cuts across academic
disciplines or subject areas. Because
the foundations of subject area
knowledge are established in early
childhood, educators need subject-
area knowledge, an understanding of
the learning progressions within each
subject area, and pedagogical
knowledge about teaching each
subject area’s content effectively.
8. Development and learning advance
when children are challenged to
achieve at a level just beyond their
current mastery and when they have
many opportunities to reflect on and
practice newly acquired skills.
9. Used responsibly and intentionally,
technology and interactive media can
be valuable tools for supporting
children’s development and learning.
 THE PROCESSES AND PERIODS IN THE LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVES
DEVELOPMENT
Developed by Paul Baltes
The pattern of child development is
1. Development is a lifelong process.
complex because it is the product of
2. Development is multidirectional.
several processes:
3. Development always involves both
• Biological gain and loss.
• Cognitive 4. Development is characterized by
• Socioemotional lifelong plasticity.
5. Development is shaped by its
historical/cultural context.
Stages 6. Development is multiply influenced.
1. Prenatal → Conception to birth → 7. Understanding development requires
Physical Development multiple disciplines.
2. Infancy → Birth at full terms to about
18 months → Locomotion
established; rudimentary language; ISSUES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
social attachment. 1. ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN
3. Early Childhood → About 18 months DEVELOPMENT
to about 6 years → Language well-
• Original Sin → Inherently Good
established, sex typing; group pay;
→ TABULA RASA
ends with readiness for schooling.
• Original Sin → Thomas Hobbes
4. Late Childhood → About 6 years to
(1588-1679) → Children are
about 13 years → Many cognitive
inherently bad, believing that it
processes become adult except in
was society’s task to control their
speed of operation; and team play.
selfish and aggressive impulses
5. Adolescence → About 13 years to
and to teach them to behave in
20 years → Begins with puberty, ends
positive ways.
at maturity, attainment of highest level
• INHERENTLY GOOD → Jean-
of cognition; independence from
Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
parents; sexual relationships.
→ Children were innately good,
6. Young Adulthood → About 20 years
born with intuitive understanding
to 45 years → Career and family
of right and wrong, and that they
development
would develop in positive
7. Midlife → About 45 years to about 65
directions as long as society did
years → Career reaches highest
not interfere with their natural
level: self-assessment, “emptiness”
tendencies.
crisis; retirement.
• TABULA RASA → John Locke
8. Late Life → About 65 years to death
(1632-1704) → Infant is a tabula
→ Enjoys family achievements;
rasa or a blank slate waiting to be
dependency; widowhood.
written on by his or her own
experiences.
2. NATURE AND NURTURE
• NATURE refers to the behavior
and characteristics manifested
because of the influence of
biological forces
→ heredity
→ biologically-based dispositions
• NURTURE refers to the influences
brought about by the exposure to
the environment
→ Learning experiences
→ Child-rearing methods
→ Social changes
→ Culture
3. ACTIVITY AND PASSIVITY
• ACTIVE creatures who in a real
sense orchestrate their own
development by exploring the
world around them or by shaping
their own environment.
• PASSIVE beings who are largely
products of forces beyond their
control-usually environmental
influences (but possibly strong
biological forces).
4. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY
• DISCONTINUITY theorists picture
the course of development as more
like a series of development as
more like a series of stair steps,
each of which elevates the
individual to a new (and
presumably more evidence) level
of functioning.
• CONTINUITY theorists view
human development as a process
that occurs in small steps, without
sudden changes.
• QUALITATIVE CHANGES are
changes in kind and suggest
discontinuity.
• QUANTITATIVE CHANGES are
changes in degree and indicate
continuity
• UNIVERSAL - common to
everyone universal
• CONTEXT SPECIFIC - different to
person to person
STAGES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson
• born: June 15, 1902, Frankurt,
Hesse, Germany
• Known for his theory on the
Psychological Development of
Human Being
1. Infancy (birth to 2 years )
• We cried, kicked, coughed, sucked,
saw, heard, and tasted.
• Among humans, the period of life
between birth and the acquisition of
language approximately one to two
years later.
• Our development was continuous
creation of complex forms, and our
helpless kind demanded the
meeting of love.
2. Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
• Children are highly influenced by the
environment and the people that
surround them.
• We skipped, played and ran all day
long.
3. Middle and Late Childhood (6-11
years)
• Children gain greater control over
the movement of their bodies
mastering many gross and fine
 motor skills that eluded the younger out what this whole show is about
child. before it is over.
• Our thirst was to know and to
UNIT II
understand.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
4. Adolescence (13 to 18 years)
Sigmund Freud
• We tried on one face after another,
searching for a face of our own. - A very well-known psychologist
• Children gain greater control over because of his very interesting
the movement of their bodies, theory about unconscious and also
mastering many gross and fine about sexual development
motor skills that eluded the younger - Freud’s theory remains to be one
child. of the most influential in
psychology.
5. Early Adulthood (19-29 years)
• Our physical maturation is complete,
although our height and weight may FREUD’S STAGES OF
increase slightly. In early adulthood, PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
our physical abilities are at their
• Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)
peak, including muscle strength,
- Erogenous zone – mouth
reaction time, sensory abilities, and
- The child is focused on oral
cardiac functioning.
pleasures.
• Sex and Love are powerful passions
- Too much or too little satisfaction
in our lives.
can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral
• Finding our place in adult society
Personality.
and committing to a more stable life
- Oral Receptive – have a stronger
take longer than we imagine.
tendency to smoke, drink alcohol,
overeat.
6. Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)
- Oral Aggressive – A tendency to
• We compare our life with what we
bite or her nails or use curse words
vowed to make it
or even gossip.
• Middle age is such a foggy place, a
time when we need to discover what
we are running from and to and why.
• Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
- Erogenous zone – anus
7. Late Adulthood (60 years and
- The child find satisfaction in
above)
eliminating and retaining feces.
• It constitutes the last stage of
- Anal Retentive – an obsession
physical change.
with cleanliness, perfection, and
• We traced the connection control.
between the end and the - Anal expulsive – the person may
beginning of life and try to figure become messy and disorganized.
• Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6) FREUD’S PERSONALITY
- Erogenous zone – genitals COMPONENTS
- Children become interested in
• ID
what make boys and girls different.
- The pleasure principle.
- Oedipus Complex – Boys develop
- Focuses on immediate gratification
unconscious sexual desire for their
or satisfaction of its needs.
mother. Boys see their father as a
- Nothing else matters to the id
rival for his mother’s affection.
except the satisfaction of its own
- Electra Complex – Girls develop
needs.
unconscious sexual attraction
- Instincts
towards their father. Girls see their
mother as a rival to her father’s
• SUPEREGO
affection.
- Embodies a person’s moral
- A fixation at this age could result in
aspect.
sexual deviances and weak or
- This develops from what the
confused sexual identity.
parents, teachers, and other
person who exert influence impart
to be good or moral.
• Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)
- Likened to conscience because it
- Sexual urges remain repressed.
exerts influence on what one
- Children’s focus is the acquisition
considers right and wrong.
of physical and academic skill.
- Morality
- Boys related more with boys, and
girls with girls during this stage.
• EGO
- Operates using the reality
principle.
• Genital Stage (puberty onwards) - It is practical because it knows that
- Fifth stage of psychosexual being impulsive or selfish can
development results to negative consequences
- Erogenous Zone – genitals later.
- Begins at the start of puberty when - The deciding agent of the
sexual urges are once again personality.
awakened. - Reality
- Adolescents focus their sexual
urges towards the opposite sex
peers.
THE THREE COMPONENTS AND
PERSONALITY ADJUSTEMENT
• The Unconscious
- Freud believed that most of what
influence us is our unconscious.
- The Oedipus and Electra Complex,
were both buried down into the
 unconscious, out of our awareness
due to the extreme anxiety they
caused.
- Id
• The Conscious
- Compromises a very small part of
who we are
- All that we are aware is stored in
our conscious mind.
• The Subconscious
- The part of us that we can reach if
prompted, but is not in our active
conscious.
- It’s right below the surface, but still
“hidden” somewhat unless we
search for it.
- Superego
- Edo-ideal
• Nonconscious
- Represented by the water
- All that we are not aware of, have
not experienced, and that has not
been made part of our
personalities.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Jean Piaget
- A Swiss psychologist known for
his work on child development.
- His theory of cognitive
development and epistemological
view that are together called
“genetic epistemology.”
- Placed great importance on the
education of children.
- He became intrigued with the
reasons children gave for their
wrong answers to the questions
that required logical thinking.
- He believed that these incorrect
answers revealed importance
differences between the thinking of
adults and children.
THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT (1936)
- Explains how a child constructs a
mental model of the world.
- Disagreed with the idea that
intelligence was a fixed trait, and
regarded cognitive development
as a process which occurs due to
biological maturation and
interaction with the environment.
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS
• Schema
- Refer to the cognitive structures
by which individuals intellectually
adapt to and organize their
environment.
- The mind has a filing cabinet and
each drawer has folder that
contains files or things he has had
an experience.
• Assimilation
- The process of fitting new
experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive
structure or schema.
• Accommodation
- Changing approaches when an
existing schema doesn’t work in
a particular situation.

• Equilibration
- The driving force that moves all
development forward.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
1. Sensori-motor Stage (birth 18-24
months old)
- Differentiate self from objects
- Recognizes self as an agent of
action and begins to act
intentionally.
- Object permanence – the ability
of the child to know that an object
still exist when out of sight.
Attained in the sensory motor
stage.
Piaget divided the sensori-motor stage
into six sub-stage:
a. Simple Reflexes (Birth – 6 weeks)
- Coordination of sensation and
action through reflexive behavior.
- Three primary reflexes: seeking,
following, closing of the hand.
- Over the 6 weeks of life these
reflexes begin to become voluntary
action.
b. First habits and primary circular
reactions phase (6 weeks – 4
months)
- Coordination of sensation and
two types of schemes: Habits
(reflex) and primary circular
reaction.
- Primary reaction – action is
focused on the infant’s body.
- Circular reaction – a repetition of
an action that initially occurred by
chance.
c. Secondary circular reactions
phase (4 months to 8 months)
- Associated primarily with the
development of coordination
between vision and prehension.
- Three new abilities: International
grasping/Secondary circular
reactions/Differentiations between
ends and means.
d. Coordination of reaction stage
secondary circular (8 – 12 months)
- Coordination of vision and
touch: hand-eye coordination of
schemes and intentionality.
- “first proper intelligence”
- Associated primarily with the
development of logic and
coordination between means and
ends.
e. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty
and curiosity (12 – 18 months)
- “young scientist”
- Become intrigued by the many
properties of objects by many
things that can make to object.
- Associated primarily with the
discovery of new means to meet
goals.
f. Internalization of Schemes
(Invention of New Means Through
Mental Combination) (18 – 24
months)
- Ability to use primitive symbols
and forms enduring mental
representations.
 - Associated primarily with the
beginnings of insight, or trough
creativity.
2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)
- Intelligence at this stage is
intuitive in nature.
- The child can now make mental
representations and able to
pretend.
- The child is now even closer to
the use of symbols
Symbolic Function
- The ability to represent objects
and events
- Symbol – a thing that represents
something else
- Drawing – a written word, or a
spoken word comes to be
understood a representing a real
object.
- Develops in the period between 2
to 7 years
- By the age of 6 or 7, the child can
pretend play with objects.
Egocentrism
- The tendency of the child to only
see his point of view.
- Assume that everyone also has his
same point of view.
- The child cannot take the
perspective of others.
Centration
- Refers to the tendency of the
child to only focus on one
aspects of a thing or event and
exclude other aspects.
Irreversibility
- The inability to reverse their
thinking
Animism
- The tendency of children to
attribute human like traits or
characteristics to inanimate
objects.
Transductive Reasoning
- Refers to the pre-operations child’s
type of reasoning that is neither
inductive nor deductive.
3. Concrete-Operational Stage (7-11
years)
- The ability of the child to think
logically but not only in terms of
concrete objects.
Decentering
- Refers to the ability of the child to
perceive the different features of
objects and situations
Reversibility
- The child can now follow that
certain operations can be done in
reverse.
Conservation
- The ability to know that certain
properties of objects like number,
mass, volume, or area do not
change even if there is a change
in appearance.
 Seriation
- The ability to order of arrange
things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume,
or size.
4. Formal Operational Stage
(Adolescents to Adulthood)
- Final stage of formal operations.
- Thinking becomes more logical.
- They can not solve abstract
problems and can hypothesize.
Hypothetical Reasoning
- The ability to come up with
different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final
decision or judgement.
- The individuals can now deal with
“what if questions”
Deductive Reasoning
- The ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a
particular instance situation.
Analogical Reasoning
- The ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance then
use that relationship to narrow
down possible answer in another
similar situation or problem.
- The individual can make an
analogy.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF
INFANTS AND TODDLERS
Learning ang Remembering
- All of us experience infantile
amnesia, the inability to recall
events that happened when we
were very young (Spear, 1979).
Language Development
- Infants clearly have remarkably
acute language learning abilities
even from an early age.
Stages in Producing Language
1. Cooling
2. Babbling
3. One-word utterances
4. Two-word utterances and
telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure
Holophrases
- The infant uses these one-word
utterances to convey intentions,
desires and demands.
- 8 months old of children typically
have vocabularies of 3 to 100
words (Siegler, 1896)
Overextension Error (Linguistic)
- The child overextends the meaning
of words in his/her existing lexicon
to cover things and ideas for which
a new word is lacking.
Telegraphic Speech
- Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5
years of age, children start
combining single words to produce
two-word utterances.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE
• Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972)
- Claims that humans have innate
language acquisition device (LAD).
- a metaphorical organ that is
responsible for language
learning.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
Erik Erikson
- Born on June 15, 1902, in
Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany.
- He was a student of Sigmund
Freud.
- Was greatly influenced by the
latter’s theories of personality
development.
- Gave a great deal of importance to
social environment in a person.
- Personality developed in a
series of stages.
EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE
- Suggests that people grow in a
sequence that occurs over time
and in the context of a larger
community.
- Life is a continuous process
involving learning and trials which
helps us grow.
CONFLICT DURING EACH STAGE
- people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in
development.
- Conflicts are centered on either
developing a psychological quality
or failing to develop that quality.
- A sense of competence
motivates behaviors and actions.
- Each stage is concerned with
becoming competent in an area of
life.
- If the stage is handled well, the
person will feel a sense of
mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego
quality.
- If the stage is managed poorly, the
person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy in that aspect of
development.
8 STAGES OF PSYCHO-SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
- Infancy: Birth – 2 years
- Maladaption: Sensory mal-
adjustment
- Malignancy: Withdrawal
- Virtue: Hope
- The goal is to develop trust without
completely eliminating the capacity
of mistrust.
- If the proper balance is achieved,
the child will develop the virtue of
HOPE.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Early Childhood: 2-4 years
- Maladaption: Impulsiveness
- Malignancy: Compulsiveness
- Virtue: Will power/Determination
- commonly known as the 'terrible
twos’.
- “firm but tolerant”.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
- Preschool: 4-6 years
- Maladaption: Ruthlessness
- Malignancy: Inhibition
- Virtue: Courage
- beginning to make decisions, and
carry them out, primarily through
play activities.
- Imagination is the key mover.
- A sense of purpose develops.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
- School Aged: 6-12 years
- Maladaption: Narrow Virtousity
- Malignancy: Inertia
- Virtue: Competency
- begin to work hard academically
and gain competence in various
areas of activity.
- Children begin to develop a sense
of pride.
- Success leads to a sense of
competence.
- Failure results in feelings of
inferiority.
5. Ego Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Adolescence: 12-19 years
- Maladaption: Fanaticism
- Malignancy: Repudiation
- Virtue: Fidelity
- Plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal
identity.
- Teens need to develop a sense of
self and personal identity.
- Success leads to an ability to stay
true to yourself.
- Failure leads to role confusion and
a weak sense of self.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Young adulthood
- Maladaption: Promiscuity
- Malignancy: Exclusion
- Virtue: Love
- Success leads to strong
relationships.
- Failure results in loneliness and
isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Middle Adulthood
- Maladaption: Over Extension
- Malignancy: Rejectivity
- Virtue: Capacity for caring
- Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment.
- Failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
- “ middle crisis”.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
- Maturity
- Maladaption: Presumption
- Malignancy: Disdain
- Virtue: Wisdom
- final psychosocial stage occurs
during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.
- Older adults need to look back on
life and feel a sense of fulfillment.
- Success at this stage leads to
feelings of wisdom.
- Failure results in regret, bitterness,
and despair.
 MORAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Lawrence Kohlberg
- Moral reasoning is based on the
- Born in New York City in 1927. conventions or “norms” of society.
- Born wealthy, but chose to be a This may include approval of other,
sailor and began to be interested law and order.
in moral reasoning. c. Stage 3: Social Approval
- Known for his Theory of Moral ➢ one is motivated by what other
Development expect in behavior. The person
- He believed that people acts because he/she values
progressed in the ability to reason how he/she will appear to
morality through six stages, with others. he/she give importance
three levels, largely by social on what people will think or
interaction say.
d. Stage 4: Law and Order
➢ One is motivated to act in order
3 Levels of Moral Stages to uphold law and order. The
person follow the because it is
1. Preconventional Level the law.
2. Conventional Level
3. Post-Conventional Level
POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL - Moral reasoning is based on

enduring or consistent principles. It
- Moral reasoning is based on the is not just recognizing the law, but
consequence/result of the act not the principle behind the law.
on the whether the act itself is good e. Stage 5: Social Contract
or bad ➢ Law that are wrong can be
a. Stage 1: Punishment/ changed. One will act based
Obedience on social justice and common
➢ One is motivated by fear of good.
punishment. f. Stage 6: Universal Principle
➢ He will act in order to avoid ➢ this is associated with the
punishment. development of one’s
b. Stage 2: Mutual Benefit conscience.
➢ One is motivated to act by the ➢ Having a set of standard that
benefit that one may obtain drives one to possess moral
later. responsibility to make societal
change regardless of
consequences to oneself.

THE BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL
Urie Bronfenbrenner
- An American psychologist; critical
of previous theories of child
development.
- claimed most earlier studies were
‘unidirectional’
- He recognized there are multiple
aspects of a developing child’s life
that interacts with and affects the
child.
- He proposed the ‘Ecological
Systems Theory’ based on these
dynamic interactions that the
environments have on the
developing child.
THE FIVE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
1. The Microsystem
- The first level of Bronfenbrenner's
theory
- If a child has a strong nurturing
relationship with their parents, this
is said to have a positive effect on
the child.
- The reactions of the child to
individuals can influence how they
treat them in return.
- Relationships are bi-directional,
meaning the child can be
influenced by other people in their
environment.
2. The Mesosystem
- if the child’s parents and teachers
get along and have a good
relationship, this should have
positive effects on the child’s
development.
- Interactions between the child’s
parents and teachers, or between
school peers and siblings.
- where a person's individual
microsystems do not function
independently, but are
interconnected and assert
influence upon one another.
3. The Exosystem
- The parent may come home and
have a short temper with the child
as a result of something which
happened in the workplace,
resulting in a negative effect on
development.
- Examples are the neighborhood,
parent’s workplaces, parent’s
friends and the mass media.
- It incorporates other formal and
informal social structures, which do
not themselves contain the child,
but indirectly influence them as
they affect one of the
microsystems.
4. The Macrosystem
- This can also include the
socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
geographic location and ideologies
of the culture.
- Focuses on how cultural elements
affect a child's development.
5. The Chronosystem
- Consists of all of the environmental
changes that occur over the
lifetime which influence
development.