COURSE CODE 8610

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND

LEARNING

UNIT–1
INTRODUCTION TO
GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
 At the end of the unit, trainee students will be
able to:
1. Differentiate between growth and
development
2. Explain different domains and stages of
development
OBJECT
IVES 3. Articulate the principles of a life-span
developmental approach
4. Discuss the basic issues involved in child
development
5. Identify the factors that influence child
development
 Growth
• A biological processes that
naturally occur over a period of
time is called Growth
• The increase in the bodily aspects
OVERVIEW OF that can be measured, for example,
GROWTH ANDN height, weight, size, muscles and
DEVELOPMENT length (Woolfolk, 2014).
• The natural, spontaneous, specific,
genetically programmed and
measurable quantitative gains in a
human body
 • It is process of function and
physical maturation of an
individual it is progressive
increase in skill and capacity or
function
• Most of these changes are
Development qualitative in nature and
influenced by context, for
example, changes in behavioral,
social, moral and intellectual
aspects of an individual. Overall,
these changes result in better,
adaptive, organized and complex
human behaviors
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT

The term is used in purely physical Development implies overall change in

sense. It generally refers to increase in shape, form or structure resulting in
size, length. improved working or functioning.

Changes in the quantitative aspects come Changes in the quality or character rather
into the domain of Growth. than the quantitative aspects comes in
this domain.
It is a part of developmental process. It is a comprehensive and wider term and
Development in its quantitative aspect is refers to overall changes in the
termed as growth. individual.

Growth does not continue throughout It continues throughout life and is

life. It stops when maturity has been progressive.
attained.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH
Growth involves body changes.
The changes produced by growth are
the subject of measurement. They
may be quantified.
Growth is cellular . It takes place due
to the multiplication of cells.
Growth may or may not bring
development.
DEVELOPMENT
Development involves changes of an
orderly, coherent type tending
towards the goal of maturity.
Development implies improvement in
functioning and behavior and hence
bring qualitative changes which are
difficult to be measured directly.
Development is organizational. It is
organization of all the parts which
growth and differentiation have
produced.
Development is also possible without
growth.
 Domains of development

• Physical development is defined as the

Physical biological changes that occur in the body and
Domain brain, including changes in size and strength,
integration of sensory and motor activities.
• Cognitive development is defined as the
Cognitive changes in the way we think, understand,
Domain and reason about the world.
• Social-emotional development is defined as
the changes in the ways we connect to other
Social- individuals and express and understand
emotional emotions.
Domain
Core Features of Emotional Development

• The core features of emotional development include

the ability of a child to;
• Identify and understand their own feelings,
• Accurately read and comprehend emotional
states of others,
• Manage strong emotions and their expression in
a beneficial manner,
• Regulate their own behavior
• Develop empathy for others
• Establish and maintain relationships
 Stages of Development
Stage Age period Characteristics
Prenatal Conception till • Rapid changes
period birth • Transformation of a single cell
into a human body
Infancy and Birth up to 2 • Extreme dependency
toddlerhood years • Beginning of intense physical,
cognitive and socio-emotional
development (e.g., symbolic
thought, language development
and social learning)
Early 2 to 6 years • Self-sufficient
childhood / • Psychological and moral
Preschool development
years • Considerable expansion in
thought and language
 Stages of Development
Stage Age period Characteristics
Middle 6 to 11 years • Increased responsibility 
childhood / Improved thought processes and
Elementary athletic abilities  Mastery of
school years reading, writing and
mathematical skills  Increased
self and social awareness
Adolescence 11 to 18 years • Adolescence
• Transition to adulthood
• Rapid physical changes
• Increased autonomy, abstract
thinking and reasoning
• Development of a strong belief
system
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Development is life-long

Development is both multidimensional and multidirectional

Development involves both gains and losses

Development is plastic

Development is situated in context and history

Development is multidisciplinary
 ISSUES/CONTROVERSIES IN CHILD
DEVELOPMENT

Continuous or discontinuous
• Development is a smooth, continuous process
• Knowledge, skills and behaviors are gradually
accumulated.
• This implies that the process of development
proceeds in an organized and orderly way.
• Newer and complex behaviors are formed on the
basis of previous abilities.
 Cont…
Single or multiple courses
• Development is a discontinuous process in which
new skills and behaviors emerge in rather abrupt
and disconnected ways.
• From this perspective, development takes place in
stages
• Mostly involves a qualitative reorganization of
knowledge, behaviors, skills and functioning.
 Single or multiple courses

• The development occurs in a series of universal stages.

• Specific features of individuals and the distinct contextual
factors in which they are brought up are also effect.
• Child development is influenced by unique combinations of
personal (e.g., heredity and biological factors) and
environmental (e.g., home, school and community settings)
circumstances,
• It follows multiple and varied tracks.
 Nature or Nurture (stability vs. plasticity
Nature Nurture
nature refers to an It refers to personal
What is it? individual's innate experiences (i.e. empiricism
qualities (nativism).) or behaviorism
Example Nature is your genes. The Nurture refers to your
physical and personality childhood, or how you were
traits determined by your brought up. Someone could be
genes stay the same born with genes to give them a
irrespective of where you normal height, but be
were born and raised. malnourished in childhood,
resulting in stunted growth
and a failure to develop as
expected
Factors Biological and family Social and environmental
factors factors
Factors Affecting Growth &
Development
 Factors Affecting Growth &
Development

Large variation among individuals

• A number of factors affect growth and development,
including:
A. Biological factors
B. Interpersonal relationships
C. Environmental factors
D. Early environment and experiences
 Biological factors
• Biological factors refer to the genetic features that individuals
receive from their parents.
• These include gender, as well as general, physical and mental
health, inherited traits etc.
• Boys and girls tend to develop differently.
• Similarly, general health of the child, for example, birth
weight, and medical condition influence his/her development
over time.
• Besides, maternal age, health, stress, and nutrition are likely to
influence a child's development.
Interpersonal relationships

• Interpersonal relationships are critical

for a child' learning and well-being.
• Healthy interpersonal relationships are
characterized by
– attachment,
– positive parenting style
– parental interactions with children
– supportive social networks.
 Environmental factors
• Environmental influences
including parenting, nutrition,
housing, education, culture,
income, employment, health
services, safety etc. affect a child's
development.
• It is important that children are
brought up in a safe, healthy and
nurturing environment to positively
influence their development.
 Early Environment and Experiences
• The most important early environment
for an infant is provided by his/her
primary caregiver.
• A child's relationship with his/her
caregiver, and mutual effects on each
other, lay the foundation for
development.
• Consequently, a child's development of
social, physical, emotional, language, and
cognitive skills is largely influenced by
• Early environment and experiences
• Gained through reciprocal social
interactions with adults and caregivers
 UNIT # 2
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
 OBJECTIVES
• At the end of the unit, trainee students will
be able to:
1. Understand the genetic Foundations which affect child
development.
2. Aware of prenatal development and relevant issues
3. Describe the developmental course of physical growth
4. Familiar with the physical characteristics of learners
5. Develop appropriate physical activities for pre and
elementary school children
 OVERVIEW
• What is Physical Development?
– “Physical development is the physical growth from birth
to adulthood and the development of both gross (e.g.
Walking) and fine motor (e.g. Finger movement)
control of the body.

– Physical development means the progress of a child's

control over his body. This includes control over
muscles, physical coordination, ability to sit and stand.
 The ABCs of Genetics
• Human body consists of
numerous cells.
• Each cell has it’s a core called
nucleus. Its contains of
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are
responsible for the storage
and transmission of genetic
information from one
generation to another.
 Genetic Inheritance
– Genes are the basic units of hereditary
transmission.
– Heredity is the transmission of physical
characteristics from parents to children.
– It influences all aspects of physical
appearance such as height, weight, body
structure, the colour of the eye, the texture of
the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes.
– Diseases and conditions such as heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be
passed through genes.
– Thereby affecting the growth and
development of the child adversely 
– Environmental factors and nurturing can
bring the best out of the already present
qualities in the genes.
 Genes and Environments
• The environment plays a critical role in the development of
children
• It represents the sum total of physical and psychological
stimulation the child receives.
• Some of the environmental factors influencing early childhood
development are physical surroundings and geographical
conditions of the place the child lives in.
• As well child’s social environment and relationships with family
and peers are also influential.
• A well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one.
• A good school and a loving family builds in children strong social
and interpersonal skills
 Cont…
• Enable them to excel in other areas such as academics
and extracurricular activities
• This will be different for children who are raised in stressful
environments
• Genes and Environment work together to form behaviors
and patterns of development.
• These influences are unique to each individual,
– Caused by multiple factors
– Lead to multiple directions
• So is the identical twins living in the same context may
develop some dissimilar traits.
Life Before Birth – Prenatal Development

• Time period between conception and birth is referred

to as prenatal development.
• It has considerable influences on the well being of the
child in later life.
• Prenatal development comprises Nine Months which
are further characterized by three periods including;
– Zygote
– Embryo and
– Fetus
(Keenan & Evans, 2009)
 Duration of Each Periods
• Zygote
– Lasts for first two weeks of life before birth
• Characteristics:
– It involves rapid multiplication of cells to form a complex
being.
• Embryo
– Beginning of the third week and lasts until the end of the
second month of pregnancy
• Characteristics:
– It is characterized by the most rapid changes during prenatal
period
– It sets the stage for the development of body parts, structures
and systems.
 Cont…

• Fetus
– The longest prenatal period which starts from the ninth
week and lasts till birth
• Characteristics:
– It is characterized by immense physical growth and
finishing.
– Brain's growth is at its peak at this stage.
Environmental Risks-Teratogens
• Despite minimal contact with the outer world,
• A number of environmental factors may affect and
cause damage to the development of embryo or fetus
during this period, referred as teratogen (Berk, 2013).
• These possible effects of teratogens include;
– Physical damages
– Psychological consequences
– Developmental delays
– Even death
 Cont…
–The most critical teratogens for the expecting mothers
are consumption of;
– Tobacco, alcohol or caffeine
• Which may result of;
– Pre-mature birth,
– Low birth weight and
– other physical defects
• Maternal health, diseases, age, exercise, nutrition,
and emotional stress create prenatal complications.
• It may have long-term negative consequences for the
unborn child.
 Cont…
• Environmental pollution and exposure to
radiations and toxins etc. can cause
considerable harm to the developing fetus.
• It may result in physical deformities, brain
damage, and cognitive deficits.
• It is important for the expecting parents to
minimize the possible exposure to teratogens in
order to ensure the safety of their unborn child.
Physical Development in Childhood

The course of Physical Growth

1. Changes in body size
• Physical growth refers to an increase in body size (length or
height and weight) and in the size of organs.
• From birth to about age 1 or 2 years, children grow rapidly.
• After this time, growth slows.
• A sharp increase in growth is again observed in early
adolescence (10 to 14 years) followed by a sudden decline
when the adult growth is achieved.
 Cont…

2. Changes in Body Proportions

– Changes in the size and shape of the body parts are caused by
different segments.
– The first trend in the growth of the child highlights the 'head
to toe' pattern.
• For example, a baby would learn to hold up his head way before he
could walk.
• The next pattern follows the 'inside to outside' or 'centre to
outside' path.
– For example, the muscles around the trunk of the body grow stronger
before the muscles in the hands, feet etc.
 Cont…
3. Changes in Muscle-Fat Makeup
– Body fat increases at a faster rate in infancy
– It is considerably reduced during early and middle
childhood
– Muscles build up at a much slower rate during infancy and
childhood
 Cont…

4. Skeletal growth

– Physical maturity is estimated by skeletal growth or age which

specifies a measure of the development of body bones.
– This measure helps to understand the causes and consequences of
individual differences in physical development.
 Cont…
5. Changes in Gross and Fine Motor Skills
– Gross motor skills are larger movements.
– Baby makes with arms, legs, feet, or entire body.
– For example;
• Crawling, running, and jumping 

• Fine motor skills are smaller

actions.
• Baby can control his arms before his
hands, and control his hands before
his fingers.
• For example;
• Drawing, writing, and cutting
with scissors
Environmental Factors in Physical Development

• Physical growth and development is dependent on

both biological and environmental factors.
• Whereas biological structure and hormonal
influences play a central role in manipulating
physical development.
• Some of the Environmental influences are also
critical such as;
– nutritional intake
– emotional well-being
– cultural practices
 Nutritional intake

Cultural Practices
 Physical Characteristics of Learners

• Children need to move

– Children at the pre and
elementary school level have an
inherent need to move their
bodies.
 Cont…
• Improved Eye-Hand Coordination
– Also referred to as visual motor
integration skills,
– Begin to develop during infancy.
– It controls the hand movement of a
child guided by his/her vision.
– This coordination is not sophisticated
during infancy.
– It reaches to the point of near
independence during the pre-school
years.
– It continues to improve through
middle childhood.
 Cont…

• Improved Body Coordination

– Balance and coordination are critical physical
attributes, help to maintain a controlled body
position.
– Pre and Elementary school children show
increased body coordination in activities like;
running, climbing etc.
– They can still fall easily.
– It is, thus, important to remain vigilant and
ensure safety and injury prevention measures.
 Cont…

• Improved Perceptual Abilities

– The ability to be able to deal with and
give meaning to sensory stimuli.
– Although the five basic senses are well-developed
at birth
– The child continues to develop perceptual
abilities during Pre and Elementary school years.
– It helps the child to interact with the physical and
social world in an effective way.
 Cont…

• Improved Gross and Fine Motor Skills

– Pre and elementary school children
develop better upper body mobility and
coordination.
– They continue to develop improved gross
motor skills through age 7 and beyond.
– This results in refined fine motor skills for
children with greater precision.
– The development of fine motor skills is
crucial for other activities which require
increased physical controls and skills such
as writing, painting, etc.
 Activities in Schools

• Physical activities play a critical role in developing the

basic movement skills of children.
• It is difficult for children to work on sedentary activities for
longer duration of time.
• So it is necessary to engage them into some physical activities.
 Preschool and Kindergarten

• At this level students have sufficient control over their fine

motor skills.
• It help them to draw, write and engage in activities that
require precise control of hand and body movement.
• Some of the traditional physical activities for this age level
involve;
• Running,
• Jumping/Skipping, Hopping
• Drawing, coloring, painting, cutting, pasting, gluing,
using play dough, rollers, and shape cutters etc.
 Elementary Level

• At this age children continue to develop their gross and fine

motor skills.
• They become expert in activities which require precise hand and
body control.
• Daily physical activities should be incorporated into the school
routine to maintain active physical development.
• This can be done in different ways,
– For example;
– Introducing health and physical education classes
– Integrating physical activities into other areas of curriculum