ABSTRACT

This study examined the impact of floods on women and girls of Chikwawa and Nsanje Districts
of Malawi. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The study had
discussions with key Stakeholders at district and Community levels as well as randomly sampled
households. Quantitative Household Questionnaires and Qualitative Key Informant Interviews
were used to collect the data. The study established that floods impacted on women’s critical
aspects such as agriculture, health, education, security, housing, water and sanitation and
property and assets. The study identified that the coping strategies employed by female headed
households were majorly a function of four factors namely: cultivating on small portions on
higher grounds, temporal migration to higher grounds, doing manual work in cane fields and
raising the floor of the house.

From the results, it has been concluded that women and girls suffer most during disasters. It was
observed that women depend much on their husbands for decisions. This is mainly due to
inadequate education, lack of access to resources and traditional gender roles in our societies. It
also observed that effects of floods in one sector can affect other sectors of society.

The following are the key recommendations:-

 Government and key Stakeholders should engage communities in order for them to move
permanently to higher grounds as they have expressed willingness to relocate. The relocating
should go with the provision of all the necessary social amenities such as schools, hospitals,
infrastructure, water and agriculture support for a period of three (3) years to enable the
households settle. Consideration should also be made to introduce alternative livelihood
strategies in the new area of settlement.
 There is need for government to be more proactive than reactive by considering giving out
small grants for community’s pre-disaster project activities in order to reduce disaster losses.
 Flood resistant crops and the distribution of these seeds in flood prone areas can be
introduced with special emphasis on women’s home-based crop cultivation.

Keywords: Flood disaster, Female headed households, Food security, Vulnerability, Resilience,
Coping strategies

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration...................................................................................................................................................i
Dedication...................................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................................iii
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................iv
Table of Contents.........................................................................................................................................v
List of Figures...........................................................................................................................................viii
List of Tables..............................................................................................................................................ix
List of Acronyms/Abbreviations..................................................................................................................x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................1
Research Overview......................................................................................................................................1
Background of the study..............................................................................................................................1
Statement of the problem.............................................................................................................................3
Research Questions.....................................................................................................................................4
Overall Objective of the Study....................................................................................................................4
Specific Objectives......................................................................................................................................4
Significance of the Study.............................................................................................................................5
Layout of the Paper.....................................................................................................................................5
Chapter Summary........................................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................6
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................6
Types of Floods...........................................................................................................................................7
Causes of Floods.........................................................................................................................................7
Flood Risk...................................................................................................................................................8
Mortality......................................................................................................................................................8
Livelihoods................................................................................................................................................10
Education and Participation.......................................................................................................................11
Poverty and Vulnerability..........................................................................................................................11
Flood Damage and Losses.........................................................................................................................12
Women’s family and property responsibility.............................................................................................14
Violence against women............................................................................................................................15
Food Security............................................................................................................................................15

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Impacts of floods on health.......................................................................................................................17
Early Warning and Mitigation...................................................................................................................18
Coping Strategies......................................................................................................................................19
Conceptual Framework..............................................................................................................................20
Chapter Summary......................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................................................23
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................23
Research Approach....................................................................................................................................23
Research Strategy......................................................................................................................................23
Source of Data...........................................................................................................................................23
Sample Selection and Size.........................................................................................................................23
Data collection Procedure..........................................................................................................................24
Data Analysis and Presentation.................................................................................................................25
Scope of the Study Area............................................................................................................................25
Ethical Considerations...............................................................................................................................27
Limitations of the study.............................................................................................................................27
Chapter Summary......................................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 4: SURVEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION...................................................................29
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................29
Findings from Primary Data......................................................................................................................29
Household Demographics..........................................................................................................................29
Sources of Household Income...................................................................................................................30
Impact of floods on Crop production.........................................................................................................32
Impact of floods on Food and Nutrition.....................................................................................................33
Impact of floods on General Health...........................................................................................................34
Impact of floods on Water and Sanitation.................................................................................................35
Impact of Floods on Education..................................................................................................................37
Impact of Floods on Protection and Access to Justice...............................................................................38
Ways of Accessing Flood Information......................................................................................................40
Underlying Causes of Women Vulnerability.............................................................................................41
Coping Strategies......................................................................................................................................42
Findings from Secondary Data..................................................................................................................43
Response Rate...........................................................................................................................................43

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Chapter Summary......................................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................45
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................45
Conclusions...............................................................................................................................................45
Recommendations.....................................................................................................................................47
Consideration for further research.............................................................................................................48
Practical Contribution................................................................................................................................48
Chapter Summary......................................................................................................................................49
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................50
APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................................55

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Figure 2.1…………………………………………………………………………………. 21
Figure 3.1…………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Figure 4.1…………………………………………………………………………………. 30
Figure 4.2………………………………………………………………………………….. 30
Figure 4.3………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
Figure 4.4…………………………………………………………………………………. 32
Figure 4.5………………………………………………………………………………….. 33
Figure 4.6………………………………………………………………………………….. 34
Figure 4.7………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
Figure 4.8…………………………………………………………………………………... 36
Figure 4.9………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
Figure 4.10………………………………………………………………………………… 38
Figure 4.11………………………………………………………………………………… 38
Figure 4.12………………………………………………………………………………… 40
Figure 4.13………………………………………………………………………………… 41
Figure 4.14………………………………………………………………………………… 42

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1…………………………………………………………………………………… 25
Table 4.1………………………………………………………………………………….... 29
Table 4.2…………………………………………………………………………………… 33
Table 4.3…………………………………………………………………………………… 39

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LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
% Percentage
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
CSOs Civil Society Organization
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
FGD Focus Group Discussion
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GoM Government of Malawi
HIV Human Immune Virus
ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
LDC Least Developed Countries
MDS Master of Arts in Development Studies
MSF Medicines San Frontiers
NGO Non-Government Organisation
NSO National Statistical Office
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
SADD Sex and Age Disaggregated Data
SDC Social Development Commission
STDs Sexually Transmitted Diseases
TV Television
UK United Kingdom
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International Children‘s Fund
WEDO Women’s Environment & Development Organisation
WHO World Health Organisation

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.0. Research Overview

This study falls into the programme of Master of Arts in Development studies (MDS). It
explored the impact of floods on women and girls in the Lower Shire in Southern Malawi.
Regular floods are part of people’s lives in various regions of the world, recurring with varying
magnitudes and frequencies to which people have adapted for centuries. These floods are
generally expected and welcomed in many parts of the world, since they enrich the soil and
provide both water and livelihoods. Usually a flood is an overflow of water that submerges land,
low-lying villages and towns or an unusual condition affected by inflow of the tide. Flooding
may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, or sea or large
natural water basins, or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in
an aerial flood.

1.1. Background of the study

The frequency of natural disasters has been increasing over the years, resulting in loss of life,
damage to property and destruction of the environment (Living with Risk 2006). Flooding is
among the most significant issues affecting sustainable development in many countries. It affects
many hundreds of thousands of households annually causing recurrent losses of material goods,
endangered lives, thereby affecting progress towards sustainable human development. Hazards
can become disasters and worsen when particular groups are precluded from obtaining access to
social, political, economic, and physical resources (Mwape, 2009).

Malawi is affected by floods each and every year. One of the areas highly affected is the Shire
Valley, which has seen extreme conditions including heavy rains that result in floods. The most
serious have been intense rainfall, riverine floods and flush floods in 2012 and 2015. Malawi
Post Disaster Needs Assessment Report 2015 indicates that the January 2015 rainfall was the
highest on record for Malawi and constitutes a 1 in 500 year event, and caused significant
flooding – predominantly in the Southern Region, exacerbating an already precarious situation
for rural households in this region. It is estimated that the floods affected 1,101,364 people,
displaced 230,000 and killed 106 people (GoM, 2015). As a result, on January 13, 2015, the
President declared a state of disaster for the following 15 districts: Nsanje, Chikwawa,

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Phalombe, Zomba, Blantyre, Chiradzulu, Thyolo, Mulanje, Balaka, Machinga, Mangochi,
Ntcheu, Salima, Rumphi and Karonga. Several of these affected districts represent the poorest
areas of the country. Based on the recent Integrated Malawi Household Survey, the most highly
affected districts – Nsanje, Chikwawa, Phalombe and Zomba – have poverty incidences above
the national average of 50.7 percent, ranging from 55 to 80 percent (NSO, 2008). The sheer lack
of household data and information such as Sex and Age Disaggregated Data (SADD) of the
people affected by floods limits the capability to undertake gender analysis to guide the
emergency response and is yet another reminder of the urgent need of a national registration
mechanism.

According to GoM (2015), the 2015 floods have caused substantial damage and losses in the
productive, public infrastructure and social service sectors, including private and community
assets. The floods washed away livestock, destroyed thousands of buildings, houses and assets,
and damaged roads, bridges, irrigation infrastructure and school and health facilities. To
compound the disaster, the onset of the rains this 2014/15 season was delayed by more than 30
days in most parts of the Southern Region. This late start of the rainy season and the shortened
growing season that followed further impeded crop production and recovery in a country that
heavily relies on agriculture for economic growth and subsistence. These have adversely
impacted on food and water security, water quality, energy and the sustainable livelihoods of
rural communities.

Figure 1.1: Crops washed away by floods in Lower shire in 2015

Source: Internet
The findings by World Bank show that the regions mostly affected by the flood have per capita
poverty rates of 75 percent or more (measured as US$1.25 per day). The average rate in Malawi

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is around 40 percent. These trends suggest that populations in flood-prone areas tend to be
poorer. Grunfest (1995) argues that due to high poverty levels, people have become more
vulnerable because they live in hazardous areas including flood plains and steep hills. They have
fewer resources which makes them more susceptible to disasters. The poverty level affects the
resilience and process of recovery from disasters.

Women’s vulnerabilities to natural disasters are different from the male population. Women
suffer greater vulnerability in times of floods. Vulnerability to social and economic threats and
stress create livelihood insecurity. The root causes of this vulnerability lie with the lack of access
to the resources that allow people to cope with hazardous events – such as income, education,
health and social networks. This access may be gendered, in that women and girls in general tend
to have less access to, or control over, assets than men and boys. Vulnerability may also be
related to the roles women and men play in society. Gender-biased attitudes and stereotypes also
complicate and prolong women’s recovery from disasters (Bradshaw and Fordham, 2013).

The researcher commissioned this study to better understand the the impact of flood on women
in the Lower shire. Investigation into how these disparities operate during and after disasters was
required to learn important lessons which can be positively fed into DRR preparedness plans and
post-disaster responses. Vulnerability and its underlying causes play important roles in
determining the severity of impact on a particular social group; therefore it was essential to have
a greater understanding of the dynamics of the vulnerability of women in the Malawian context,
in terms of disaster risk.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Lower Shire has suffered floods for a number of rainfall seasons and the 2014/15 season has
been described by Malawi government and international organizations as the worst in terms of
the amount of rainfall received and level of impact. For being in a low-lying area, the
community has limited capacity to control the hydrological events ensuing from Shire river.
As a result, the community experiences floods in every rainy season. The floods cause
displacement of people from their usual dwelling places resulting into varying impacts on
infrastructure, crops, health, education, environment as well as damage to property (Malawi
Government’s need Assessment Report, 2015).

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Disaster impact shows that the vulnerability of men and women to disaster, their capacities, and
the options available to them differ in character and scale to their gender (Ariyabandu and
Wickramasinghe, 2005). Women are most present in areas of employment within the agricultural
and informal sectors, which are often the worst affected by disasters; thus the rates of
unemployment among women after a disaster are high. In general, women are the most likely to
be affected by floods, but their concerns are least likely to be addressed. Women are typically
absent from the forum where Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) decisions/ planning are made, so
when priorities are established, the interests of women are often poorly represented.

It is also worth noting that studies undertaken in the past have not looked at the impact on
women and girls in depth and the response therefore has remained adhoc, focusing on short-term
measures.

1.3. Research Questions

The study sought to answer the following questions:

1.3.1 What is the impact of floods on women and girls in Lower Shire?
1.3.2 What are the causes of vulnerability of floods to women and girls?
1.3.2 What coping strategies can mitigate the effects of floods?

1.4. Overall Objective of the Study

The overall objective of the study was to assess the impact of floods on women and girls in
Lower Shire Districts of Malawi.

1.4.1. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

i. To identify the impact which floods have had on the women and girls in Lower Shire,
ii. To establish and analyze the underlying causes of vulnerability of the women and girls; and
iii. To identify coping mechanisms employed by the community during floods and strengthen
positive coping strategies.

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1.5. Significance of the Study

The study was important because it assessed and estimated the effects of floods on the women
and floods. The study has established the underlying causes of vulnerability of women in Lower
Shire. More importantly, it is envisaged that the outputs of the study will be key inputs in the
designing of sustainable mitigation measures to minimize the impact of floods and the associated
risks of women and vulnerable groups.

1.6. Layout of the Paper

The chapters in this study shall be presented as follows: Chapter 1 is introducing the research.
This will outline the rationale for the chosen topic, problem statement, objectives, purpose and
motivation of the research and significance of the study. Furthermore, this chapter will highlight
the history and description of the study area. This chapter also highlights the issues of the
community in terms of social economics factors of the study area. Chapter 2 will look at
literature on the disasters and women and the floods in Chikwawa and Nsanje which will be
reviewed in order to develop a conceptual framework of the study. Chapter 3 will examine the
methodology the researcher will use to gather data. Chapter 4 shares the concept of the findings.
Chapter 5 will present conclusions and recommendations.

1.7. Chapter Summary

This chapter introduced the study on the floods and its impact on women and girls: a case study
of Lower shire floods in Southern Malawi. It also outlined the general overview of the research
topic, scope of the study area, the research problem, research questions, research objectives, and
significance of the study.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

Floods are one of the most common hazards which cause death, injuries, property damage, and
contamination of drinking water and disruption of electrical services. Flood disaster affects more

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people on annual basis than any other form of natural disaster but studies (e.g. (Foa and Kozak,
1986) have shown that men and women are not affected in an equal magnitude. Women are
made more vulnerable than men because women have reduced access to education and are often
excluded from disaster prevention and preparedness, including in emergency intervention
programme (Young, 2008). The unequal impact of floods on women, compared to men, is not
limited to natural disasters alone; rather, it also permeates in everyday life and opportunities.

The gender inequality resulted from the socially constructed norms, expectancies, values, roles
and relations, which till today guide our attitude and perceptions of gender roles. Men’s
stereotypical belief that women should continue to take charge of the domestic chores in the
home domain, even in the face of overwhelming evidence that women have joined the workforce
in thousands, has not ameliorated their sufferings. Symke (1991) reported that in the normal
situation, women, on average, work one to three hours per day longer than men in the society,
whatever the number of hours men put in. Howard (1992) asserts that more women than men
hold multiplicity of roles. In addition, women in formal employment are still expected to perform
their roles as mothers, wives, and health and child care providers within the family, which
cumulatively put them under immense psychological stress. Performing reproductive
responsibilities in the flood disaster camps and keeping a continual vigilant eye on young
children, even as they cry for food in such helpless situations, are emotion- provoking and stress-
laden.

In Europe, Pistrika and Tsakiris (2007) allude that the scale and frequency of floods are likely to
increase in the future because of climate change, inappropriate river management and
infrastructure development in the areas where they are always flooded. Climate change causes
new developments on flood plains, which increase pressures on the urban system. This leaves
less potential water storage space when there is an event of flooding (Gill 2004).

2.1 Types of Floods

Smith (1999) believes that floods are the most common type of disaster worldwide and he also
mentions the three major types being categorized as river floods, flash floods and coastal floods.
According to UNESCO (2004), river floods or seasonal floods are caused by seasonal

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precipitation over large catchment areas, melting of snow or a combination of these. Flash floods
or tropical storm floods are associated with violence and are accompanied by heavy rainfalls
which become too much for the streams and rivers to handle, and they overflow and produce
floods. They have short duration, and are measured in minutes not hours. Lastly, the coastal
floods which include storms, winds and other events cause ocean water to overflow and lead to
onshore flooding.

2.2 Causes of Floods

According to Nott (2006), the causes of floods can be broadly divided into physical, such as
climatological forces, and human influences such as vegetation clearing and urban development.
The most common causes of floods are climate related, most notably rainfall. Prolonged rainfall
events are the most common cause of flooding worldwide. These events are usually associated
with several days, weeks or months of continuous rainfall. Some of the floods are not directly
caused by climatology, for example from excessive high tides associated with storm-surge
effects caused by a combination of very low barometer pressure and high wind speeds; others are
caused by earthquakes, landslides or failure of dams and other control works (Ward 1978).
Human impacts on river catchments influence flood behavior. Land use changes in particular
have a direct impact on the magnitude and behavior of floods. Deforestation results in increased
run-off and often a decrease in channel capacity due to increased sedimentation rates.

There are two key elements that cause floods – rainfall intensity and duration. The rate of rainfall
explains the intensity, and the duration is how long the rain continues. Flash floods take a few
minutes or hours to develop after an intense rainfall or failure of a dam or levee, or sudden
release of water held by ice or debris jam. These floods can catch people unprepared (Master’s in
Disaster 2007).

Flooding can be caused by eruptions of water that are let loose by the bursting of man-made
dams. Dams are subjected to pressure and the volume of water impounded behind them is
enormous. Because water itself is extremely heavy, a well-designed, properly located and
soundly constructed dam may only remain safe for hundreds of years and could not forever
withstand wear, exposure and hydrostatic pressures that build up within the reservoir. To avoid

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disasters, dams must regularly be inspected and repaired. Floods can cause calamities and be
taken as agents of death and destruction, but they also bring measureless bounties of blessings
(Champ 1983).

Barredo (2009) in his article argues that there is evidence that societal change and economic
development are the principal factors responsible for the increasing losses from natural disaster
to date. He assessed normalized flood losses in Europe from 1970 to 2006. In his discussion after
using relevant data, he says there is no evidence of a clear positive trend in normalized flood
losses in Europe. Again based on a hypothetical scenario without climate change, he says flood
losses would continue to increase as a consequence of societal and economic factors.

2.3 Flood Risk

Flood risk is the likelihood of a flood event to cause damage to human health and life, the
environment and economic activity. In quantifying the flood risk, the results are either in
monetary units or loss of life units if the losses are measurable or are in qualitative terms in the
case of intangible damages which are social, environmental or cultural (Pistrika & Tsakiris
2007).

2.4 Mortality

Disasters affect men and women in different ways, with greater impacts on women and children
(Dasgupta, Siriner, & Partha, 2010). Across the globe, women are at greater risk in disasters than
men (Phillips, Jenkins, & Enarson, 2009), with a higher disaster mortality rate for women than
men in developing countries (Domeisen, 1998; Neumayera & Plümperb, 2007). Phillips, et al.
(2009) wrote that the common factor in recent tsunamis, earthquakes, and hurricanes has been
that, overwhelmingly, most victims are women, children and other vulnerable groups.

Historically, too, the figures are stacked against women’s and children’s survival. For example,
‘Considerable excess mortality occurred amongst adult females’ in both the 1948 and 1966
Russian earthquakes. In one, the Ashkabad earthquake, of the 33,000 who died, only 18 per cent

xviii
were men: 47 per cent were women and 35 percent were children. In the second, in Tashkent, 20
per cent more women died than men (Beinin, 1981 cited in Rivers, 1982).

Such differential mortality rates are most probably the result of gender determined roles with
their separate expectations and exposures to risk (Molin Valdés, 2009; Rivers, 1982). One
explanation offered was women’s responsibility for children hampering their escape, but Rivers
(1982) goes further to state that choices made during various disasters impact on who dies. Her
example questions the veracity of the notion of ‘women and children first’. Forty per cent of
survivors of the sinking of the Titanic in 1912 were men, including over half the crew, leaving
30 per cent of the women and children on board to go down with the ship.

Women died in significantly larger numbers in the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone, the 1993
Maharashtra earthquake, the 1995 Kobe earthquake, as well as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in
Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka. Specifically, women accounted for 90% of the 140,000 people
killed in Bangladesh in the 1991 cyclone disaster, 61% of the deaths in Cyclone Nargis in
Myanmar, 55–70% of Banda Aceh tsunami deaths, including in Kuala Cangkoy, which was one
of the worst affected districts in the North Aceh, Indonesia, with an 80% female fatality rate
(WEDO, 2008).

Although the effect of disaster on women is easier to observe and document in under-developed
countries, the differential effect is evident in the developed world too. For example, there is some
evidence from the US to suggest the situation is reversed and that more men than women are
killed in disasters caused by severe weather events (Fothergill, 1998). While Fothergill (1998)
listed lightning, thunderstorms, flash floods and hurricanes, this is equally true for bushfires in
Australia, where the Black Saturday bushfires killed 100 males and 73 females. One explanation
is that men take greater risks than women, and are more likely to be involved in outdoor
activities (Neumayera & Plümperb, 2007).

Although men are also affected by flood disaster, most of them do not stay at the camp all day
unlike women. Consequently, men do not face the emotional trauma of watching their children
cry for food as do women. Furthermore, while disasters create hardships for everyone,
irrespective of gender, flood disasters on average, kill more women than men in developing

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countries, where women have very low social, economic and political status. Duncan (2007)
reported that in general, more women than men were killed by flood disasters, partly because
they were less physically able to run, and partly because many of them were drowned trying to
save their children.

2.5 Livelihoods

Men’s livelihoods are often more visible as women tend to engage in the informal sector and in
lower-skilled occupations, earning on average less than men. In Vietnam, almost half of working
women are self-employed in agriculture, compared to a third of working men, and around 26 %
of working women are self-employed outside of agriculture compared to 19% of men (World
Bank, 2008). In Cambodia around 53% of economically active women, compared to 32% of
men, work in the unpaid labor category, such as housework or self-employment (World Bank
2008). While women’s paid and unpaid labor account for a large part of countries’ economies,
women’s assets such as jewelry, tools, and supplies, are less likely to be accounted in damage
and loss assessments.

As a result, after disasters, compensation schemes and lost asset and livelihood restoration tend
to focus solely on men’s needs, leaving women in a more vulnerable position. For instance in the
aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, assistance was available in the form of replacing
fishing boats but there was scarce support to help replace women’s fish processing tools and
marketing vehicles(Trohanis, Svetlosakova, and Carlsson-Rex; 2012). Lacking resources
consequently impedes or slows down the ability to recover.

Women’s roles during physical reconstruction are often considered marginal, while their
contributions to the social side of reconstruction are often unappreciated—including childcare,
household maintenance and care of the elderly. There is evidence that gender blind relief efforts
leave women marginalized in their efforts to access support if they rely on existing structures of
resource distribution that reflects the patriarchal structure of society (Neumayer and Pluemper,
2007).

2.6 Education and Participation

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The institutions making decisions related to disaster risk management policy and legislation are
invariably male dominated. Often, women are seen as vulnerable ‘victims’ rather than as active
change agents. While they carry a disproportionate burden of a disaster, women’s voices are
often excluded from decision making processes about how to manage disaster risks and the
recovery process, and their particular needs are often overlooked (Trohanis, Svetlosakova, and
Carlsson-Rex, 2012).

Unequal educational outcomes, such as the ability to read, heighten the vulnerability of women
and girls and limit their ability to benefit from information campaigns and early warning
systems. Information, coordination and allocation of responsibility are vital in effective
emergency response and recovery. In addition, school dropout rates for women and girls are
higher than for boys (Trohanis, Svetlosakova, and Carlsson-Rex, 2012).

2.7 Poverty and Vulnerability

Poverty does not equal vulnerability but being poor makes people more vulnerable to disasters
because poor people lack the resources (physical, social and knowledge based) to prepare for and
respond to such threats and shocks as natural hazards. Conditions of vulnerability are a
combination of factors that include poor living conditions, lack of power, exposure to risk and
the lack of capacity to cope with shocks and adverse situations. Poor people often get locked in a
cycle of vulnerability. Because they are poor, they become vulnerable. Because they are
vulnerable, they are at great risk in the face of a natural hazard, leading to disaster. Close
analysis of disaster impact shows that the vulnerability of men and women to disaster, their
capacities, and the options available to them differ in character and scale to their gender
(Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe 2005).

A study carried out in 2005 in Southeast Bangladesh confirms the positive relationship between
environmental risk, poverty and vulnerability. Poorer segments of society live closer to the river
and therefore face a higher risk of flooding and are thus more vulnerable. Environmental risk
exposure also goes hand in hand with income inequality and access to natural resources

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(Brouwer, et al.2007). Families living nearer to the river seem to have fewer opportunities to
engage in multiple economic activities which make them more vulnerable to natural disasters
and may keep them trapped in a poverty cycle (Brouwer, et al.2007).

Dixit (2003) points out that vulnerability is the condition of a person or group in terms of their
capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard. Even in
normal times people live in vulnerable conditions. Vulnerable conditions and families find it
hardest to reconstruct their livelihood following a disaster. Families do not live in conditions that
are vulnerable to disasters out of ignorance about the hazards or their erroneous perceptions of
risk. Instead, most have little freedom to choose how and where they live. Vulnerability therefore
is not static but a dynamic process that depends upon the social, economic and political contexts
that change overtime, which will consequently affect the probability of loss. On the other hand,
he suggests that strengthening social resilience capacity would reduce vulnerability. These
social, political and economic conditions and their interrelationships during normal “times”
determine why certain sections of the societies are more vulnerable to disasters than others.

Vulnerability to disaster occurs also as a result of women’s poverty. For example, as women are
poorer than men across the globe, they are more likely to live in areas that are more susceptible
to disaster and housing that is poorly constructed (Dasgupta, et al., 2010; Scanlon, 1998). They
are less likely to have the resources to escape if a disaster threatens (Henrici, Helmuth, & Braun,
2010).

2.8 Flood Damage and Losses

Borrows and De Bruin (2006) indicated that among natural catastrophes, flooding has claimed
more lives than any other single natural hazard. In the decade 1986 to 1995, flooding accounted
for 31% of the global economic loss from natural catastrophes and 55% of the casualties. The
damaging effects of flooding are likely to become more frequent, more prevalent and more
serious in the future.

Smith and Ward (1998) argued that direct losses to floods occur immediately after the event as a
result of the physical contact of the flood waters with humans and with damageable property.

xxii
However, indirect losses which are less easily connected to the flood disaster and often operate
on-long time scales, may be equally, or even more important. Depending on whether or not
losses are capable of assessment in monetary values, they are termed tangible and intangible.
Some of the most important direct consequences of flooding such as loss of human life or the
consequent ill health of the survivors are intangible. Indirect and intangible consequences of
flooding are probably greatest in Least Developed Countries (LDCs), especially where frequent
and devastating floods create special impacts for the survivors.

Primarily losses can be high in rural areas where most of the damage is sustained by crops,
livestock and the agriculture infrastructure, such as irrigation system, levees, walls and fences.
In other words primary losses relate mainly to the disruption of economic and social activities,
especially in urban areas, immediately after a flood (Smith and Ward 1998).

According to Lind, et al. (2008), the loss in case of flooding has many dimensions. In addition to
economic loss and loss of life and injury, there may be irreversible loss of land, of historical for
cultural valuables and loss of nature or ecological valuables.

For thousands of years, people have settled in flood plains attracted by the fertile soils, the flat
terrain appropriate for settlements, and they have access to safe water. They further observed that
floods are natural phenomenon that has always existed and people have tried to use them for
their advantage to the extent possible. However, increased population density, urbanization and
agricultural expansion in flood prone areas have steadily increased society’s vulnerability to the
negative effects of floods. As a consequence, floods have become more and more disastrous to
human settlements (Kundzewicz, et al., 2002). They further argue that economic development of
flood prone areas is a factor that increases flood risk. Population pressure and shortages of land
cause encroachment into flood plains.

According to OCHA (2008), the cumulative number of people affected by rains and floods in
2007 in Southern Africa was more than 194,103 persons. This included 60,995 in Malawi
(mostly damage to property and crops), 94,760 people in Mozambique (all were evacuated into
resettlement camps); more than 16,680 in Zambia (1,890 persons in temporary accommodation,

xxiii
the rest in host families); and 15,168 in Zimbabwe. An estimated additional 4,000 people had
been affected in Lesotho and another 2,500 persons in Swaziland.

Adamson (1983) states that extreme events such as floods over Southern Africa have resulted in
loss of life, massive damage to property, crops and livestock and disrupted communications.
The risk of such events at any point in the sub-continent may be small but their occurrence
within the total sub-continental space has been historically quite frequent.

2.9. Women’s family and property responsibility

In many cases women rely on the knowledge of their partners. If household members with more
flood knowledge and experience are away at the time of the flooding, women are left to face the
incident not knowing what to do (Goodman, & Rowe, 2003). Gendered vulnerability in the
Australian bushfire context is, perhaps, most recognisable when women are left alone or with
dependents in the home. Valent (1984) documented his personal observations in two
communities over a seven week period immediately after Ash Wednesday in 1983, and wrote
that people felt guilty and ashamed at not living up to roles expected of them. Many people,
including women alone, thought they were going to die, and '...as fear set in among those at
home, intense longing was felt for the absent protectors, which led to frantic telephone calls and
more direct calls through tears and screams' (Valent, 1984).

Often women were left with the sole responsibility for the family and property because socially
determined roles mean that women are likely to be separated from a male in a disaster
(Honeycombe, 1994). A male partner is often fighting fires while a woman cares for dependents.
The tendency of women to evacuate with dependents may put them at greater risk according to a
2007 report which stated that most women perish while sheltering in the house or attempting to
flee and those late evacuations still accounted for most deaths. The same report noted that the
deaths of women from bushfires have increased over the past 30 years (Haynes, 2007, cited in
DeLaine, et al., 2003).

In her consideration of female mortality in disasters worldwide, Fothergill (1998) provides

explanations from the literature for their higher mortality than men. Her question as to whether

xxiv
more women died because 'their husbands had the decision-making powers and they did not dare
leave without their husband's permission’ and that ‘women were left responsible for property and
[could have been] afraid of blame and punishment’ could perhaps equally apply to the Australian
bushfire context (Fothergill, 1998).

2.10. Violence against women

Some researchers report that violence against women increases following disasters (Elaine
Enarson, 2000; Molin Valdés, 2009; Palinkas, Downs, Petterson, & Russell, 1993) and that the
evidence to support this is growing (Phillips & Morrow, 2008).

A 1998 review of approximately 100 studies found several studies that indicated an increase in
domestic violence following disaster. For example, after Hurricane Andrew, analysis of domestic
violence helpline statistics showed a 50 per cent increase (Fothergill, 1998). There was an
increase in demand for refuge accommodation, and court cases for injunctions increased by 98
per cent (Wilson, et al., 1998). In the first four months following the earthquake in Dale County,
reports of domestic violence increased by 600 per cent (Wilson, et al., 1998). In Haiti, gender
based violence ‘dramatically escalated’ after the earthquake, with an estimated 230 rapes of
women and girls in 15 of the camps in Port-au-Prince, and with Doctors Without Borders
treating 68 rape survivors in one facility in the month of April (Bookey, 2010).

However, Phillips et al. (2009) assert that some violence, including domestic violence, is
unrecognized and un-recorded in the context of disaster.

2.11. Food Security

Climate-extreme events such as floods may lead to food insecurity and malnutrition in
households, with different human capital impacts for men, women, and children. Because
women are the main providers of food and meals for their families, women may bear a greater
burden to fulfill this task when climate events occur. Jungehülsing (2010) assesses the impacts of
hurricanes Mitch and Stan leading to flooding in Chiapas, Mexico, and found that while men lost
income from remunerated work on farms, women lost the fruits, vegetables, chickens, and ducks
from their home yards. These losses seriously affected women’s ability to feed their families
since they previously obtained a significant portion of their daily food from their own yards.

xxv
Similarly, Angula (2010) finds in Namibia that during droughts, out of their submissiveness to
their husbands, women first explore other means of ensuring food security before discussing the
matters of food shortage with their husbands. Women were also first to diversify their
livelihoods through basketry, processing nuts and oil, or through sales of their livestock such as
chickens, pigs, or goats to raise money to buy food.

In Burkina Faso, Roncoli, Ingram, and Kirshen (2001) find that heads of household (gender not
explicitly stated) take diverse measures to cope with food shortages due to severe drought. These
include supervising women more strictly in how they handle grain for cooking, using a smaller
container to measure grain or extending the time between grain allocations to women, and
relying on women’s contributions of grain from their own fields or bought with their own
money. When households had exhausted all resources and strategies to obtain food, they pawned
their crops, borrowed money, and women resorted to selling cloth, utensils, and jewelry that they
had set aside for their daughters’ weddings. Goats and sheep belonging to women were sold in
distress sales. In some cases women volunteered these sales and in others the heads of household
seized the animals and sold them. It is not apparent in this study if men specifically parted with
their own assets or households sold off jointly owned assets to cope with the drought.

Examined together, these examples show that climate change may affect the food security of
men, women, and children in different ways, but women and children often suffer more in terms
of health and in terms of growth and development, both which form part of human capital.
During times of climate stress, women in particular are more hard-pressed to provide meals for
their families since they are primarily responsible for household food security and, as evident
here, reduce their food intake so others may eat more, or part with assets such as jewelry and
small livestock or take on additional work to smooth consumption during climate shocks.

2.12. Impacts of floods on health

Few studies have empirically tested the differential impacts of climate change on women’s and
men’s physical health. Studies reviewed by the World Health Organization (2009) on the effect
of heat waves show that women in Europe are more at risk of dying, in both relative and absolute

xxvi
terms, (Kovats and Hajats 2008), with an increased risk for elderly women owing to
physiological reasons (Havenith 1998).

Reyes (2002) examines the effects of the 1997–98 El Nino phenomenon in Peru and explains
that gender inequalities in food distribution and consumption within households were common.
Even during periods where households appeared to have sufficient food, women and children
seemed to have a lesser share of the food. Widespread malnutrition during the El Nino floods
and landslides further exposed these women and children to epidemics such as acute respiratory
and diarrheal infections, malaria, dengue, and cholera. Pregnant women were also recorded to
have a higher risk of contracting malaria, which causes serious complications during pregnancy.

Coêlho (2004) finds that women in a drought affected area are more anxious and emotionally
distressed than men in general. This may be due to difficulties women face to execute their roles
as producers and providers. Mitchell, Tanner, and Lussier (2007) come across similar findings in
the Ganga river basin in India, where psychosocial effects of a flood were more pronounced for
women who, in addition to their distress and losing their support networks, had to look after
other family members.

World Health Organization (WHO) (2002) supports the effects of floods by saying there are
direct and indirect health effects caused by floods. Direct effects are mortality from drowning,
heart attacks and injuries and indirect health effects include infectious diseases, poisoning and
post traumatic stress disorders.

Women may also experience specific health vulnerabilities. Malaria, cholera, impaired
psychosocial health and other health-related impacts in the aftermath of a disaster not only affect
women’s health but also increase burdens on their care responsibility. Increased conflicts driven
by disasters can also increase women’s vulnerability to violence. These and other vulnerabilities
should be assessed and taken into consideration into disaster risk management strategies, since
men and women have different needs and priorities. For example, women tend to prioritize their
health, safety and resource needs at the household and community levels (Trohanis,
Svetlosakova, and Carlsson-Rex, 2012).

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2.13. Early Warning and Mitigation

Floodplains are important locations for settlements almost everywhere in the world and Africa is
no exception. He clearly points out that while regional settlements may have avoided the flood
prone areas; subsequent settlement growth has led to floodplain development. For example, in
Egypt the river Nile floodplain is the most densely populated region of the country and by
comparison the remainder of Egypt is virtually uninhabited. In Mozambique at least twenty
urban centers are at risk of flooding including major settlements along the Zambezi and six
coastal locations.

Douben (2006) states that since ancient times people have settled in flood prone areas due to
favorable geographic conditions which facilitate economic growth, such as accessibility
(transportation) and food production (fertile land). This fact forces societies all over the world to
protect vulnerable assets against flooding. Nevertheless, flooding is still the most damaging of all
natural disasters and more than half of all victims are flood related. Flood mitigation policies and
measures should therefore be implemented in order to enable societies to increase their resilience
to flood hazards.

Sinclair and Pegram (2003) stated that floods cannot be prevented but their devastating effects
can be minimized if advance warning of the event is available. With large increase in population
and increasing urbanization (mainly driven by poverty) there are more people living in informal
settlements, which are often on flood plains as this is the only undeveloped land available near
cities. The people living in these settlements are those who are most at risk, not only due to their
geographical location in the flood plain but also because they do not have the financial resources
to recover from the damage caused by flooding. Early warning information can, therefore, allow
the disaster managers to take steps which may significantly reduce loss of life and damage to
property.

Flood risk posses a significant threat to many communities. Whereas measures can be taken to
reduce the likelihood of flooding, the risk can never be eliminated altogether (Crossman, et al.
2006). They point out that in the UK; flood risk represents a significant threat to many
communities. Around 1.8 million households and 140,000 commercial properties in England and

xxviii
Wales are located in floodplain areas, affecting at least 4-5 million people. They further point out
that a range of flood risk management activities are undertaken by operating authorities. These
include emergency planning, awareness raising, provision of flood warning and creation of flood
storage areas as well as the construction and maintenance of both conventional and innovative
flood defenses. Crossman, et al (2006) suggests that in the face of such increases in risk, the
provision of reliable information and public awareness is essential. There is a clear need for a
continental and deepening partnership between the public and private sectors in managing flood
risk and the potential to extend to it to other areas.

2.14. Coping Strategies

Mirza, et al. (2003) states that flood disaster has different impact on individuals, households and
communities. People cope in different ways. Those who have the capacity after being hit by a
disaster emerge faster while those without such capacity sink deeper into the spiral of
impoverishment. Coping strategies include actions such as migration from floods affected areas,
flood forecasting, flood insurance of animals and crops, food stockpiling, providing emergency
health services and building flood shelters. They have, however, not been woven systematically
into the approach to achieve security from flooding.

If the approaches build on coping strategies and seek to identify new ones, they could address the
social impacts of flood problems affectively at a lower social, economic and environmental cost
than approaches that attempt to manage or control the resource base itself (Mirza, et al. 2003).

In Nepal, every year floods cause death, destroy cultivated fields, irrigation equipment, bridges
and rural infrastructure. He argues that policy makers, donors and relief and development
agencies treat flood disaster as isolated events that break the continuity of the normal way of life.
Most interventions to mitigate disasters are adhoc responses made under the assumption that an
emergency support in the form of relief will help overcome the situation of hardship. Such
support aims at restoring the situation to what it was before the disaster. Even when a flood
disaster affects the same community every year, government, donors and Non-governmental
organizations respond by providing the same relief and rehabilitation measures each time. This
approach does not consider the situation of a society during normal times between the

xxix
occurrences of two hazard events. Disasters are considered as a coincidence when a hazard
interferes with society.

Ariyabandu and Wickramasighe (2005) suggest that although women are often more vulnerable
to disasters than men (owing to conventional gender responsibilities and relations) they are not
just helpless victims as often represented. Women have valuable knowledge and experience in
coping with disasters. Yet these strengths and capabilities of women are often ignored in policy
decisions and in mitigation, thereby, allowing these valuable resources to go to waste and
sometimes creating dependency situations. Thus ignorance of gender differences has led to
insensitive and ineffective relief operations that largely bypass women’s needs and their potential
to assist in mitigation and relief work.

2.15. Conceptual Framework

The Conceptual Framework identified to guide this study is Disaster Risk Reduction. Disaster
Risk Reduction is the systematic development and application of policies, strategies and
practices to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid
(prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards within the
broad context of sustainable development. As indicated in the introduction, natural disasters and
floods in particular have become frequent and are likely to occur in future due to climate
variability. It may therefore, not be feasible to remove the flood risk .What is important therefore
is to fully understand the flood risk and the associated effects within the framework of Disaster
Risk Reduction. DRR initiatives may include efforts to reduce hazards (land use zonation,
structural measures), reduce the vulnerability (better housing, diversified livelihoods) and/or
enhance the capacity to deal with them (savings, access to credit, insurance). Non-structural
measures, such as community based risk assessment, awareness building, early warning systems,
livelihood diversification and strengthening are important elements of DRR.

xxx
 Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework for Climate and DRR Check
Source: Social Development Commission, (2011)

Through the Disaster Risk Reduction framework, this study identified three factors which were
used – Preparedness, Response and Recovery. These factors work together to eliminate the
disaster risk. These call for countries and organizations to manage and mitigate disaster risk
through preparedness measures and pre-disaster recovery planning. Particular focus is placed on
ensuring that systems for emergency relief, response and recovery are in place. Reducing disaster
risk includes advocating for governments and organizations to allocate resources to preventing
and responding to disasters, as well as providing support to draft and amend policies, laws, and
governance arrangements for emergencies caused by natural hazards. Figure 1.3 shows factors
that were used in the study to reduce the risk of disaster occurring such as early warning systems,
land use planning (migrating to uplands), resource planning, putting in place rescue team,
damage mitigation and financing of community organization to manage the risk.

2.16. Chapter Summary

In this chapter, the Climate and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) model and the concept of
sustainable livelihood were used to explain the multiple impacts of floods on all women and
vulnerable people. From the literature on the impact on global level, impact on Africa, direct and

xxxi
indirect impacts, and impact on the household, impact on children, impact on the elderly and
impact on governance it is clear that floods have considerable negative impacts on the population
and some sectoral economic activities. Floods have direct and negative effects on households’
production and exchange entitlements by decreasing the quantity, quality, and income earning
activities. This study‘s review of existing literature highlights the diversity of ways in which
floods affect livelihoods as well as the devastating ways in which women are impacted and how
they respond to the disaster. To mitigate the impact of floods on the vulnerable members of the
society such as women as indicated in the literature review, calls for good governance and
workable policies that benefit the poor.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

xxxii
3.0. Introduction

This chapter focuses on field research. The methodology used in this study will be described as
well as the rationale for the study design. In conclusion, the ethical considerations and limitations
regarding the study are explained.

3.1. Research Approach

For the purpose of this study inductive approach was adopted. This was because the survey
method allowed a group of respondents to be selected from the larger population through
probability sampling. This enhanced accurate inference about the larger population from a small
sample. The survey method also enabled many respondents to be reached within a short space of
time considering the size of the study area.

3.2 Research Strategy

The study strategy was based on a case study of Lower shire districts of Chikwawa and Nsanje.
The main criteria for research site selection were flood exposure, resettlement patterns, land use
change and embankments.

3.3. Source of Data

The data sources for the study were both primary and secondary. The primary source included
observations, interviews and questionnaire administration. The secondary source included
newspapers, existing books, institutional documents, internet sources and other related
documents.

3.4. Sample Selection and Size

To get the individual respondents, a multi-stage sampling technique was used. Given the large
size of the study area, the first stage involved selecting six major areas affected by the annual
floods. This was then followed by using random sampling procedure to select households from
each of the six major areas. Thirdly, a maximum of one respondent was selected from each
household and given a questionnaire to answer or be interviewed where necessary using

xxxiii
interview guide. The adoption of the simple random procedure was based on the fact that the
population is homogeneous in which all members are identical and therefore a sample of one will
be a representative of the population regardless of the size of the population. The Disaster
Preparedness and Management Officer, the chief, an Environmental Officer, heads of Basic
Schools and other opinion leaders were purposively selected and interviewed.

The sample size of one hundred and eighteen (150) was drawn from Chikwawa and Nsanje
districts which are located in Lower Shire. This represents a (11.76 %) of the affected population
of 1275. The sample size is supported by Babbie, (2005). He is of the opinion that for a
population of 1000 and above, a sample size of 10-20% is acceptable. Women and School going
girls were the main target. A total of five (5) and one (1) Key Informant Interviews were
conducted at community and district levels respectively.

3.5. Data collection Procedure

Structured questionnaires, interview schedule and personal observations were used to collect the
primary data. The questionnaire was made up of both close and open-ended questions. The
questionnaires for the individual households were grouped into four sections, namely,
demographic characteristics, impacts of floods on women and girls, causes of vulnerability and
copying strategies.

The researcher, before administering the questionnaire first sought official permission from the
appropriate stakeholders. The next was to make the respondents aware of the objectives of the
study.

The survey method was supported with direct observation. The interview schedule was also used
to seek information from the assemblyman, chiefs and other opinion leaders. The questionnaire
and the interview schedule for the study was also pre-tested in one of the selected communities.
This helped in the identification of problems to be encountered and remedies were provided.
3.6. Data Analysis and Presentation

xxxiv
The field data was first processed by editing and checking to ensure that everything is complete.
These were then fed into a computer to get cross tabulation using Microsoft Excel.
Analysis of the output/data involved describing, summarizing and interpreting the data obtained
from each unit. The data was presented using tables and charts.

3.7. Scope of the Study Area

Lower Shire is located in southern end of Malawi. Lower Shire has two districts; Chikwawa and
Nsanje. They are all in the low-flat land. As a result, they are prone to natural disasters. Floods
in Malawi are mainly due to lakes flooding and rivers overflowing, increasing sediment deposit
in river channels, reservoirs and floodplains, originating from catchment degradation. The
consequences are loss of arable land, and damage to irrigation infrastructure and destruction of

public infrastructure. The economy also gets affected as can be seen in table 1 below.

Table 3.1: Estimated losses per sector and in annual GDP in 2015
loss (Million Kwacha) Loss (%)
Agriculture 5 901.0 1.02
Crop and Animal Production 5 862.0 1.51
Fishing and Aquaculture 39.0 0.24
Electricity & water supply 338.2 1.61
Commerce 3 603.7 1.47
Health 134.2 0.33
Total loss 15 878.2 0.55
Source: GoM, 2015

Although severe floods occur mainly in six river basin systems, the highest flood frequency is in
the Lower Shire Valley, mainly in Chikwawa and Nsanje districts, due to flooding of the Shire
River which joins the Zambezi River in Mozambique. Flooding is exacerbated by high rainfall
due to La Niña events (cold ocean temperatures affecting atmospheric circulation), and to
tropical depressions/cyclones originating in the Mozambique Channel or the Indian Ocean,

xxxv
causing widespread, torrential rainfall and flooding.

Nsanje is one of the poorest districts in Malawi and is virtually dependent on government and
NGO aide organizations. Major income comes from small holder farming. Maize, millet,
sorghum, rice, and cotton are all grown using almost entirely rain fed agriculture. The district
covers an area of 1,942 square kilometres (750 sq mi) and has a population of 194,924 (NSO,
2008)

In 2014/15 floods most areas of Nsanje and East Bank in Chikwawa were submerged under two
to three meters of water, which transformed these vast plains into a giant lake engulfing houses
and bridges,” said Amaury Gregoire, MSF’s mission head in Malawi’s south (Daily Times;
February 27, 2015).

Chikwawa district which is part of Lower Shire covers an area of 4,755 km² and has a
population of 356,682 (NSO, 2008). The district reported secondary flooding which occurred
following rains of 26 and 27 February, 2015. A total of 191 households (approx. 1000 people)
were displaced and were being housed at Bereu and Sekeni in the district. Tents were provided to
the displaced population at the sites. Some people were reported to have died from the floods
while others were missing.

Figure 3.1: Displaced people at Sekeni in Chikwawa

Source: Internet

At the end of 2014 and into January and February of 2015 over one million people were affected
countrywide. 336,000 people displaced, 645 injured, 172 missing and 104 confirmed dead

xxxvi
(UNICEF, 2015).The government had had to divert resources from critical developmental
programmes in order to mitigate the negative effects of the floods.

Despite the increase in frequency and magnitude of floods, no impact assessment study of the
women and girls has been undertaken to establish the underlying causes of their vulnerability.
The study, therefore, came up with recommendations and mitigation measures that will assist in
dealing with the impacts of floods on women in the long term and sustainable manner, given the
problem outlined in above.

3.7 Ethical Considerations

Smith (1988:28), highlights that the integrity of research, whether scientific or humanistic, refers
to the extent to which researchers adhere to the standards or rules of scientific research. The
standards of conducting research include appropriate methods of collecting and analysing data
and generally agreed upon ethical guidelines for collecting, analysing and publicizing research.

Ethical considerations for this study included gaining permission from the District Disaster
Preparedness and Management Officer in Nsanje and Chikwawa to conduct a study at their
councils and were assured that they would be given feedback on the findings of the research after
completion. The aim of the study was explained to the participants. Prior to the interview,
participants were informed that participation was voluntary, and that they had the right to
withdraw from the study at any time, should they feel like doing so. The reason was because
flooding is a sensitive issue. The required consent letter developed for the research contained
information explaining the participants’ rights to anonymity and confidentiality (see Appendix
1).

3.8 Limitations of the study

In order to conduct and complete this study in a meaningful and manageable way with the
available funds, time and resources, some limitations have been identified, especially in
methodology. The recognized limitations are as follows:
1. The data collection was restricted to six areas in the Nsanje and Chikwawa districts in
Malawi, which may fail to represent the actual scenario of the whole country as people

xxxvii
 develop their livelihood strategies and flood coping measures according to the concrete
situation they face.
2. Accessibility was also a challenge as the data collection was done during the rainy season.
3. Due to limitations of time and other resources, it was not possible to work with a larger
sample and the respondents were limited in terms of size and composition. Only 140 rural
women were considered for the study from a population of 1275 women.

3.9. Chapter Summary

In conclusion, both quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed for the study.
Structured and open-ended questionnaires were used to collect primary data. However, the
analysis took into account both primary and secondary data especially for January 2015 floods
data.

CHAPTER 4: SURVEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.0. Introduction

xxxviii
This chapter presents how the gathered data was organized, presented and analyzed. It also gives
the interpretation of results. The findings relate to the research questions that guided the study.
The findings were presented in a clear and concise form, most which used graphs and tables.

The researcher’s final respondents were lowered into one hundred and five (150) from the
expected number of one hundred and ten (140) due to the absence of some respondents upon data
gathering.

4.1. Findings from Primary Data

This data collected from targeted women the study area through questionnaire. The findings are
as below.

4.1.1. Household Demographics

The demographic distributions are such that out of the one hundred and forty (140) households
sampled 70.8% were married, 16.4% were widowed, 5.7% were separated, 5% divorced and
2.1% were single as can been shown in table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Marital Status of the sampled women and girls

Marital Status Total Number of Percentage
participants
Single 3 2.1
Married 99 70.8
Widowed 23 16.4
Separated 8 5.7
Divorced 7 5

In terms of the ages of the heads of households, the survey findings show that most of them were
aged between 30 – 39 years and as shown in figure 4.1 below.

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 Figure 4.1: Age Groups of Household Heads

Furthermore, the research also revealed that household size of the sampled households was
mostly between 3 to 6 persons (63%).

4.1.2. Sources of Household Income

The research revealed that the first most important source of income for the assessed
communities in Lower Shire were crop production (79.4%) followed by livestock (12%) and
Casual labour (3.8%) before the floods. After the floods the first most important income sources
for the assessed communities in Lower Shire was casual labour (35%) followed by crop
production (31%) and livestock (15%) (See figure 4.2. below).

Figure 4.2: Comparative Analysis on the Sources of Income of the Sampled Households

xl
Discussions at district and community levels established that the main source of income for most
households was crop production followed by casual labour in sugarcane fields and small
businesses. The main sources of food were found to be own production, followed by casual
labour and small businesses. The implication is such that since crop production is the main
source of livelihood and food, increased exposure to floods will exacerbate their vulnerabilities
by compromising their households’ food security.

Figure 4.3: Comparative analysis of livelihood diversity in terms of marital status

It was observed the marital status of household head played an important role in determining the
livelihood strategy. Those who were married had a diversity of livelihoods (crop production,
trading, beer brewing, fishing and livestock) as opposed to the single, divorced, separated and
widowed household heads (see figure 4.3 above). Furthermore, only a small percentage of the
sampled households do not depend on crop production as a livelihood source.

4.1.3 Impact of floods on Crop production

xli
Most of the sampled households (90%) indicated that their crop fields were damaged by floods.
It was also evident that of the crops which were damaged by floods, most of it (96%) was the
main staple crop (maize). This was followed by Sorghum at 29%. Although no data on area
planted was collected, it was evident that there was impact on agriculture which is the main
source of livelihood and income as discussed under the source of income patterns section.

Figure 4.4: Households that Experienced Crop Damage due to Floods by Marital Status

Furthermore, the marital status of households who experienced much of the crop damage due to
floods were found to be married (71.3%) and widowed (14.3%) (See figure 4.4 above). The
implications are such that there will be reduced staple crop production which will result into
reduced food availability. This finding has provided better understanding of the vulnerability of
the households due to the over dependency on crop production as their main livelihood source.

Furthermore, of the 16% household heads whose marital status is widowed and had experienced
reduced production due to flood damage did not have alternative livelihood options other than
crop production to mitigate the food insecurity as can be seen in figure 4.4 above. Out of the 140
sampled households, 30% indicated having experienced food stock losses due to floods. The
research also revealed that within the households whose crops and food stocks were damaged by
the floods, 93% resided in the flood prone areas.

xlii
4.1.4 Impact of floods on Food and Nutrition

Table 4.2: Information about capacity for buying food during disaster
Capacity Frequency Percentage
Sufficient capacity 16 11.43
Insufficient capacity 42 30
No capacity 82 58.57
Total 140 100

Table 4.2 shows that most of the respondents (58.57%) had no capacity for buying food. 30
percent had insufficient capacity and only 11.43 percent has the capacity to buy food during and
after disaster. They become vulnerable due to loss of their food, assets, livestock, agricultural
production and loss of job.

Figure 4.5: Comparative analysis of number of meals per day before and after floods

Figure 4.5 presents the number of meals per day for sampled women respondents. It illustrates
that majority of the respondents used to eat three times a day before the floods (53%) but they
reported that after the floods they were eating once per day (57%) due to shortage of food. Food
scarcity was identified as an acute problem after flood and shortage of food led to malnutrition
among the flood-affected women. Approximately 87 percent of the women surveyed faced
widespread food scarcity during and after floods. During times of food scarcity, 92% of sampled
households indicated that only children were given food at the expense of everybody.

xliii
Women complained that government and organizations reacted with vigor only on the onset of
floods. They distributed food stuffs in assisting them to recover. However, the food given was
not enough for most of the families which could only take them few days before it last. They also
stopped assisting them way before their recovery. This resulted in most of them accumulating
huge amount of debts which they were failing to pay back.

4.1.5. Impact of floods on General Health

The research revealed that most of the sampled households (96%) indicated that health facilities
were available in their communities. Furthermore, very few households (2%) had indicated that
health facilities had been damaged by flooding in their communities. The study further revealed
that 32% of the sampled households experienced disruption in access to health services due to
damaged roads and bridges as well as lack of drugs in health centres as a result of floods.

Figure 4.6: Diseases women and girls suffered during and after floods

The study revealed that 40% of the respondents said women and girls were suffering from
malaria followed by diarrhea (35%). 8% of women complained of skin diseases such as scabies.
6% said elder women were suffering high blood pressure related conditions. There were no
respondents reporting STDs or HIV/AIDS. The government, medical relief workers and
volunteering doctors had so far staved off outbreaks of cholera. About 80% of women

xliv
complained that there were little to no drugs in the health centres/hospitals and hospitals on the
other hand were overburdened and struggled to accept referrals.

A quarter of respondents reported distance as being the biggest impediment to accessing

healthcare, and less than ten per cent gave other reasons such as being unable to afford
associated costs, lack of transportation, lack of female staff or security concerns.

4.1.6 Impact of floods on Water and Sanitation

The sampled women showed a lot of diversity on the type of drinking water sources they had. It
was evident that rainy water, rivers, boreholes and shallow wells were the most common water
sources that communities used for drinking (see figure 4.7 below).

Figure 4.7: Common sources of water for sampled households

The survey established that 69% of the households indicated that their main source of drinking
water was the unprotected wells followed by borehole and river at 11% and 8% respectively.
Furthermore, among the sampled households, 80% indicated that their common water sources for
drinking were affected by floods.

The survey further established that 74% of households whose main source of drinking water was
the unprotected wells had household members falling ill followed by 14% of households who

xlv
indicated borehole as their main source of water. This means that households will continue to be
vulnerable to increased disease outbreak as long as unprotected wells continue to be their main
source of drinking water. This is as a result of increased contamination that occurs during
flooding.

Despite borehole being the safest water source for drinking, past vulnerability assessments
undertaken within the districts have shown that handling of the water by households due to
distance to the source has led to increased disease burden such as diarrhea and cholera.

Figure 4.8: Sanitary facilities of the sampled households

In terms of sanitary facilities, 66% of the sampled households had no sanitary facilities (i.e. using
bush and rivers as alternatives). Furthermore, 34% of the households indicated having traditional
pit latrines as their main sanitary facilities (see figure 4.8 above). Within the households that
indicated having sanitary facilities, 31% had indicated that their facilities were damaged by
floods.

4.1.7. Impact of Floods on Education

xlvi
Education is one of the most important indicators for socio-economic development and
educations also improve the occupational structure of the societies. Level of education
determines the level of occupation and level of income.

All the sampled households indicated availability of education facilities in their communities.
Furthermore, 17% of the sampled households indicated that school infrastructure was damaged
due to floods in one way or another. The study showed that 38% of the sampled households
indicated that school going children experienced disruption due to floods.

Figure 4.9: Factors that affected class attendance of school going children

The disruption was attributed to various reasons such as blown off roofs (32%), school being
occupied by the displaced (31%) and school being submerged (17%).

xlvii
 Figure 4.10: School Dropout Rate for School Going Children

73% of the sampled households indicated that school dropout rates for girls were higher than for
boys. This would result in more women failing to read and write which in the long run, heighten
the vulnerability of women and girls and limit their ability to benefit from information
campaigns and early warning systems. This therefore results in more women failing to take
challenging leadership positions so that they can make their own decisions for their wellbeing.

4.1.8. Impact of Floods on Protection and Access to Justice

Figure 4.11: Security and safety of sampled households with adolescent girls

xlviii
Figure 4.11 presents the level of protection and access to justice. It illustrates that majority of the
women experience domestic violence (42%) followed by increased number of early marriages
(33%) for girls after the floods.

During FGD, it was found out that in of flood, both husband and wife were not able to produce
or earn more as they could, and therefore it was easy for them to have some tensions among
themselves. Moreover, drinking alcohol contributed to such violence as emphasized by the
farmers. Women groups claimed that their spouses drank more during flood citing that they did
not have much thing to do. Women claimed that the levels of violence increased due to the
frustration felt by men who were unable to fulfil their socially constructed gendered roles of
protector and provider.

xlix
Girls expressed their specific challenges in the context of disasters as including forced child
marriage and teenage pregnancy. In some cases they said that they were forced by their parents
to get married to reduce the stress on the family to provide food and other necessities during
times of disaster. Other girls stated they choose to get married early so that they have a husband
who can provide for them. A girl from Bereu reiterates this:

“Men do entice us with money that can meet our daily needs, and you can never say “NO” when
you see the money at hand whilst you have nothing, not even parental support.”

Table 4.3: Information about getting warning signal of disaster

Getting signal Frequency Percentage
Yes 23 16.4
No 117 83.6
Total 140 100
Source: Field work

The above table shows that 117 respondents (83.6%) do not get any signal of floods. Only 16.4
percent respondents get signal of floods. It means that most of the women do not get warning
signal of floods due to lack of modern weather forecasting technologies such as radio, T.V and
so on. Most of the inhabitants of Lower Shire areas depend on the indigenous technology for
getting the signal of floods. Cloud cover, wind direction and speed, fog, water color and
temperature, rising water level bear the signs of flood, rainfall and drought. Movement and
behavior of insects and animals bear the signal of the disaster, as ants with eggs in the mouth
start climbing up for shelter before flood; grasshoppers fly unitedly before heavy rain and storm;
if dog cries in pathetic voice flood will come and/or food crisis will prevail; if fox calls in day
time, crow calls at night flood or a storm will soon take place. Still today, the Lower Shire
people, excluded from modern information system, do apply indigenous techniques to face any
disaster.

4.1.9. Ways of Accessing Flood Information

l
 Figure 4.12: How women access flood/relief information before, during and after floods

Figure 4.12 reveals that women know of the impending event or relief news using the following
means: by listening to village messenger (37%), by listening to the radio (20%), by being told by
their friends (14%) while CSOs has contribution of (3%) in informing the women of impending
floods or food relief in their areas. Furthermore, women also hear about impending disasters
from village meetings called by the chief, district committees, chiefs’ counselors and agriculture
extension workers.

The study has also shown that key stakeholders are concerned only when the disaster occurs.
They are more reactive when they were supposed to be proactive to floods so that people are able
to get the required information before it is distorted.

4.1.10 Underlying Causes of Women Vulnerability

li
 Figure 4.13: Main causes of women vulnerability in time of floods

There were varying underlying causes of vulnerability to floods for most people in Chikwawa
and Nsanje. Women identified following fertile soils in flood prone areas and lack of alternative
livelihood as the main underlying causes of vulnerability (29%) followed by lack of decision
making power (17%) as can be seen in figure 4.13 above.

According to FGD, women said that they had no powers to decide where to live, which to some
extent it is a contributing factor to their vulnerability. Their husbands decide for them. They also
said that the situation is further complicated by the village heads that turn down any suggestion
to relocate to upper lands fearing that they will lose their chieftainship. Households said that the
main reason why relocation is failing is because when they move to the upper land, they are only
given land for constructing houses without land for agricultural activities. Village heads and their
subjects do not surrender part of their productive land to flood victims. Ownership of land and
size of land holding are the important socio-economic determinant for rural societies. Size of
land holding reduces the level of poverty and provides self employment opportunities.

4.1.11. Coping Strategies

lii
 Figure 4.14: Security and safety of sampled households with adolescent girls

The survey established that sampled households employed a range of coping strategies due to the
floods. The most important coping strategies were cultivating on small portions on higher
grounds (56%), migrating to higher grounds (23%) and raising the floor of the house (12%). (See
figure 4.14 above).

The survey established that households whose coping strategies were cultivating on small
portions on higher grounds and migrating to higher grounds had small business and casual labour
in Illovo sugarcane fields as their main livelihood. The implication is such that these households
would employ other livelihood options to cushion the impact of the floods.

4.2. Findings from Secondary Data

On average 80% of different sources sampled, indicated the impact of floods on women and girls
as early/forced marriages, increased violence against women, sexual harassment, loss of
education for girls, poor health and sanitation, loss of lives, lack of security especially in camps,
loss of food and increased debt burden. Women were not allowed to leave their homes or camps
without the permission from their husbands. However, they had literally nothing to give their

liii
kids and families to eat. Pregnant and lactating mothers had been fighting against quite a lot of
problems at flood relief camps.

The various data sources showed varied causes of vulnerability of women but common among
them were poverty, residing in flood prone areas, lack of alternative livelihood(s), following
fertile soils in flood plains, lack of decision making power, lack of dikes, lack of land for
resettlement upland. It was further found out that the coping strategies of women and girls during
floods included: migration from floods affected areas, cultivating on small portions on higher
ground, raising the floor of the house, flood forecasting, flood insurance of animals and crops,
food stockpiling, building flood shelters in advance, living with relatives during floods, working
in fields of the host community.

4.3. Response Rate

The sample size of the survey was 150 respondents. However, due to accessibility factors, only
140 respondents participated in the exercise representing the response rate of 93.3%.

4.4. Chapter Summary

The study established that floods impacted on women’s critical aspects such as agriculture,
health, education, housing, security, water and sanitation and property and assets. The paper
identified, following fertile soils in flood prone areas and lack of alternative livelihood as the
main underlying causes of vulnerability (29%), followed by lack of decision making power
(17%). The study further found out that the coping strategies employed by female headed
households were majorly a function of four factors namely: cultivating on small portions on
higher grounds, temporal migration to higher grounds, doing manual work in cane fields and
raising the floor of the house.

liv
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0. Introduction

This chapter presents the conclusion and recommendations that arose from the study. The
research reviewed a wide range of secondary literature and collected primary data on which the
conclusion and recommendations are based. The study was conducted within the Disaster Risk
Reduction conceptual framework which emphasizes a proactive approach to disaster

lv
management. It is imperative that communities adopt a risk reduction approach to effects of
floods. The research endeavored to answer the following questions:

 What is the impact of floods on women and girls in Lower Shire?

 What are the causes of vulnerability of floods to women and girls?
 What coping strategies can mitigate the effects of floods?

The conclusion and recommendations are outlined below:-

5.1 Conclusions

Lower Shire is frequently affected by disasters, of which floods are the most common. Women
are more affected by flood-induced vulnerabilities, experiencing deficits in food, clothing,
communications, fuel wood, and increases in disease exposure, water quality problems, and
sexual harassment. During floods women face various difficulties and challenges. Particularly,
women have to go through hardships for want of fuel and food for their regular activities. They
also suffer from increased incidence of disease, including eye infection, cholera, dysentery, skin
diseases and diarrhea. Apart from these difficulties, women experience specific types of
economic crisis, poverty, and insecurity.

The study revealed that various categories of female headed households exist in the community
and it was clear that floods had adverse impact on the livelihoods mainly during the 2014/15
floods. The staple crops were destroyed and this affected household food security. The flood
coping strategies adopted by the households range from forced temporary migration from the
flood plains to changing means of livelihood to another. To a large extent, the study has
established that flood sustainability and depth have a vital role on livelihood patterns. It is also
evident that there are varying underlying causes of women’s vulnerability in flood and this poses
a challenge for reducing or minimizing vulnerability. Following fertile soils, lack of alternative
livelihoods, lack of decision making power and poverty are identified as being the main
underlying causes of vulnerability for the women in Lower Shire. The analysis of variance
indicated that there is significant difference among households in terms of their coping strategies
to flood. A principal component analysis identified three major factors that influence flood
coping strategies as poverty level, vulnerability of farm lands/properties to flood disaster and

lvi
lack of alternative livelihood. Chief among the coping strategies included cultivating on small
portions on higher grounds (56%), migrating to higher grounds and raising the floor of the house.

It is noteworthy that although there are some current floods coping strategies being practiced by
female headed households in the community, there are not very effective. Discussion with them
established the fact that the coping strategies were not sustainable especially forced temporary
migration and borrowing of funds. The local community’s coping strategies/capacities should not
be under estimated but rather built upon. The major focus must be on improving the livelihood
condition of female headed households especially during and after the floods.

The study has further demonstrated that effects of floods in one sector can affect other sectors of
society. For example, under the health section, the outbreak of different diseases (malaria,
diarrhoea and coughing) was attributed to the impact of floods on water sources and sanitation
facilities. The issue of water contamination of the river at the pick of floods and the handling of
water from the borehole increase the health risk. Furthermore, although some health facilities
were not damaged, accessibility to health services was a problem due to infrastructure (roads and
bridges) damage.

Overall the objective of the study as outlined in chapter one (1) have to a large extent been
realized. Government and key co-operating partners should implement the recommendations
proposed in this study.

5.2. Recommendations

Therefore we can approach to some ways or solutions in this chapter to highlight some policy
considerations, practical orientations and as well as awareness building which, if implemented,
could play an important role in flood risk management. The following considerations are
recommended from this study:

lvii
 There is need to review the land ownership to empower those in flood plains of the river
Shire to relocate to the upper lands in the community or government should identify land
where village heads should be able to maintain their status and households have land for
farming.

 Assistance to flood victims should be extended beyond just the period of flood.
Programmes to assist their rehabilitation/recovery long after the flood is to be established
both at the level of the government, community and kindred.

 There is need for government to be more proactive than reactive by considering giving
out small grants for community’s pre-disaster project activities in order to reduce disaster
losses.

 Community based flood warning systems that will aid livelihood sustenance should be
developed. Flood forecasting and warning system should be adequately planned and
implemented, and preparedness programs should be developed for disaster management.

 Gender-friendly toilet facilities such as separate toilets at shelter centers and portable
toilets should be made available at the shelters or flood refuges, or temporarily
constructed during flood periods.

 Flood resistant crops and the distribution of these seeds in flood prone areas can be
introduced with special emphasis on women’s home-based crop cultivation.

 For maintaining livelihoods women can be provided with financial supports to rear cattle
and engage them in other income-generating activities. Improvement of the functioning
of various community committees, including the sanitation and nutrition committee,
family planning committee, protecting from violence and early marriage committee, and
school managing committee should be ensured. Each committee should include women
and consider women’s resilient

lviii
  The social, economic, psychological, and health related problems faced by women can be
reduced by taking several steps. Laws should be implemented with legal support to
prevent violence against women.

 Construction of dams should be considered to trap the excess water. This could be used
for irrigation.

5.3. Consideration for further research

 There is clearly a need for more research into the human adjustment to the flood hazard,
particularly in terms of the perception and behavioral responses to floods. The aspect of
early warning and how the information is utilized (what action is taken by the community
when the warning is issued) should be investigated.
 There is need for further investigation (environmental impact assessment) on the proposal
to construct canals in the flood affected area especially that floods are a natural
phenomenon.

5.4. Practical Contribution

This research paper will be used as a reference material for scholars in assignments and research.
The study has also offered solutions to problems associated to flood occurrence that can be
initiated and implemented by local people. The paper also calls upon government and NGOs to
assist by giving out small grants direct to community organizations in supporting activities that
require funding such as Construction of river walls, water detention and retention structures,
Construction of evacuation centre, Planting of trees/vertiver grass along the rivers, streams and
around houses, Training communities in (1) information sharing, (2) evacuation planning, (3)
applying sandbags or water pumps for flood protection, and (4) volunteering to help
communities in flood mitigation or response, Training people especially women to establish
Village Savings and Loans (VSL) groups so that they can venture into small businesses to ably
reduce the sufferings in times of floods and drought and Covering all open wells with concrete.
These activities will build capacity of local people to prepare, mitigate and recover from disasters
especially floods and drought.

lix
5.5. Chapter Summary

In this chapter, major conclusions and recommendations for the paper were made, followed by
the practical contributions of the study.

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Whittaker, J., Handmer, J. and Mercer, D. (2012). Vulnerability to bushfires in rural Australia: A
case study from East Gippsland, Victoria 2012 Journal of Rural Studies, 28 (2), 161–173

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Letter of Approval

PERMISSION LETTER TO THE VILLAGE HEADMAN

For the Administration of Research Questionnaire

From: Lickson Mchepa

To: The Village headman/Camp leader, ____________________

Date: 17th December, 2015

lxv
Dear Sir/Madam,

The undersigned is currently conducting a study on the “An Assessment of Impact of Floods on
Women and Girls in Lower Shire Area in Southern Malawi” as a requirement for the completion
of Master of Arts in Development Studies.

The respondents of this study are the people of your village/camp. I would like to give the
questionnaire to those who will be randomly chosen to be the respondents of this study which are
women and girls only.

In connection with this, I would like to request your approval to allow me to schedule the
administration of the research. I look forward for your much needed approval on this request.

Respectfully yours,

The Researcher

Appendix 2: Letter for the Respondents

LETTER FOR THE RESPONDENTS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE IN IMPACTS OF

FLOODS ON WOMEN AND GIRLS

December 17, 2015

Dear Respondents:

The researcher, a student of Pentecostal Life University, I am presently conducting a research

study entitled “An Assessment of Impact of Floods on Women and Girls in Lower Shire Area in
Southern Malawi” as a requirement for the completion of Master of Arts in Development
Studies.

lxvi
In this connection, I would like to request you to be one of my respondents in our study. I hope
you can help me by answering the questions sincerely and truthfully. Rest assured that all your
responses will be kept confidential.

However, participation in this study is voluntary, and that you have the right to withdraw from
the study at any time, should you feel like doing so.

Thank you very much for your cooperation.

Very truly yours,

The Researcher

Appendix 3: Household Questionnaire

IMPACT OF FLOODS ON WOMEN AND GIRLS IN LOWER SHIRE AREA IN SOUTHERN MALAWI
Questionnaire No. _________________________________
Community Name _________________________________
District Name _____________________________________
Date of Interview __________________________________

1. Household Demographics
1 = Single
1. Age of Head of Household 2 = Married
1 = Below 15yrs 3 = Divorced
2 = 16 – 19 yrs 4 = Separated
3 = 20 – 39 yrs 5 = Widowed
4 = 40 – 59 yrs
5 = Above 60 yrs 3. Household Size – How many people eat
and stay in the household permanently?
2. Marital Status of household head 3a: Male: ____ 3b : Female:____

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 2. Socio-economic Livelihood strategy

1. Which are the two most important 3. Livestock

sources of the HH income before the 4. Labour work
flood? 5. Govt. service
1. Crop Production 6. Private employee
2. Fishery 7. Private business
3. Livestock 8. Vendors
4. Labour work 9. Beer brewing
5. Govt. service 10. Charcoal burning
6. Private employee 11. Support from families
7. Private business 12. Other, specify:
8. Vendors
9. Beer brewing 3. Who is the primary income earner in
10. Charcoal burning your house?
11. Support from families 1. Head of household
12. Other, specify: 2. Spouse of HH
3. Son
2. Which are the two most important 4. Daughter
sources of the HH income after the 5. Male elder
flood? 6. Female elder
1. Crop Production 7. Other, specify:
2. Fishery 8. Don’t know

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3. Flood Impact

3.1. General Loss

 1.Was your property/assets lost or
destroyed due to the flood? 3.2 What effect have you felt on HH
1. Yes expenditures compared to before
2. No and after the flood?
1. Food: increased, decreased, same
If yes list property lost/destroyed: 2. Water: increased, decreased, same
1. Bed 3. General health: increased,
2. Fishing Net decreased, same
3. Boat/ Canoe 4. Maternal health; increased,
4. Bicycle decreased, same
5. Radio 5. Health related to disabled members:
6. Plough increased, decreased, same
7. Hoe 6. Clothes: increased, decreased, same
8. Ox – Cart 7. Reconstruction: increased,
9. Television decreased, same
10. Chairs 8. Education: increased, decreased,
11. House same
12. Others; specify:______________

3.2 Health

1. What are women and girls’ primary 2. No

health problems at present? (Can
select 5 options)? 4. What are the two most significant
1. No Disease obstacles to women’s ability to access
2. Anaemia and other nutrition related ill health care in the present scenario?
health 1. Distance to nearest health care facility is
3. Diarrhoea too far
4. Fever 2. Security reasons
5. Physical injuries 3. No female health staff
4. Personal health issues (disabilities,
6. Disabilities
injured, etc)
7. Bleeding 5. No transportation
8. Miscarriage 6. Can’t take time off work
9. Delivery related problem 7. Can’t take time away from home and
10. Respiratory problem child-care responsibilities
11. Skin infection 8. Can’t afford it
12. Skin rashes 9. Other, specify:
13. STD/HIV
14. Mental health: anxiety, distress 5. Was there any disruption in accessing
15. Other, specify health services during?

3. Do have health facilities in area? 1 = Yes 2 = No

1. Yes

3.3 Crop Production

1. Did the household experience crop
damage during the floods?
1 = Yes 2 = No
2. Was the main staple crop the one which
was damaged? 1 = Yes 2 = No
3. Did the household experience any loss of
food stocks during the floods?
1 = Yes 2 = No

3.4 Food and Nutrition

1. Do you have capacity to buy food for 1. Mother/wife
the household? 2. Father/husband
1. Yes 3. Boy children
2. No 4. Girl children
3. Insufficient capacity 5. Elderly women
6. Elderly men
2. On average, how many meals do you 7. Other, specify
have per day before and after the
flood? 4. If there is a food shortage in the
house, who is least likely to get food so
Before after that others can?
1. 0 6. 0 1. Mother/wife
2. One 7. One 2. Father/father
3. Two 8. Two 3. Boy children
4. Three 9. Three 4. Girl children
5. Three or more 10. Three or more 5. Elderly women
6. Elderly men
3. If there is a food shortage in the house, 7. Other, specify
whose food needs are prioritized? 8. Don’t know

3.5 Water and Sanitation

1. What is your common source of 3. What are the factors affecting access to
drinking water? domestic water use?
1. Borehole 1. High water price
2. Protected well 2. Damage of the water networks
3. Unprotected well 3. My community is not served by a
4. River water network
5. Spring 4. Insufficient water supply, specify:
6. Other 5. Other, specify:
(Specify)_________________________ 6. None, the household is on the water
mains supply
2. Was the main source of water affected
by the floods? 4. What type of sanitary facilities do you
1 = Yes 2 = No have?
1. VIP
 2. Sanplat 2. No
3. Reticulated Sewerage
4. Traditional Pit latrine If NO, explain:
5. Others
(Specify)_________________________
6. Was your sanitary facility affected by
5. Do you feel safe and comfortable to the flood water?
use latrine/bathing facility? 1 = Yes 2 = No
1. Yes

3.6 Education: questions for household with adolescent family members

1. Was there any damage to school 1. School destroyed

infrastructure (classroom blocks, 2. Lack of school uniform/clothing
teacher’s houses, toilets) due to the 3. Displaced
floods? 4. Violence at school/university
1 = Yes 2 = No 5. Sexual harassment at school
6. No separate latrine available
2. Did any of the school going children in 7. Feeling of insecurity
your household experience any 8. Road Impassable
disruption in an attendance due to the 9. Bridge Culvert washed away or
floods? Submerged
1 = Yes 2 = No 10. School submerged/ surrounded by
water
3. What are the factors affecting/affected 11. Other, specify
school attendance?

3.7. Protection and Access to Justice

1. What are the main safety/security 6. Legal aid

problems faced by women and girls? 7. Community leaders
1. Domestic violence specify 8. Friends
2. Sexual harassment 9. International/local NGOs
3. Being trafficked 10. Community centers
4. Travelling alone long distances 11. Police
5. Early marriage 12. Other, specify
6. Incest 13. Don’t seek help
7. Honour killings
8. Other, specify 4. How often do the following listed
below occur compared to before and
2. Where do female survivors of violence after the flood?
go for help?
1. To their mothers Increased , decreased, same
2. To their fathers 1. Domestic violence against wife
3. To other family members 2. Domestic violence against
4. Health clinic son/daughter
5. Private clinic 3. Early marriage
 4. Sexual harassments 2. To other family members
5. Honor killings 3. Legal aid
6. Incest 4. Community leaders
7. Trafficking 5. Religious leaders
8. Other, specify: 6. Friends
7. International/local NGOs
8. Community centers
6. Where do you go for help? 9. Others, specify:
1. To parents

3.8. Access to Information and Assistance, Participation

1. Do authorities give you warning signal 4. Civil Society Organisation

about all impending floods? 5. Department of Disasters
1. Yes 2. No 6. Church/mosques leaders
7. Others (Specify)
2. How do you get flood/relief _________________________________
information? _________________________________
1. From a friend _________________________________
2. Radio
3. TV channel

4. Causes of Vulnerability

4. What are the underlying causes of vulnerability?

1. Residing in a flood prone area.
2. Poverty
3. Lack of alternative livelihood(s)
4. Following fertile soils in flood plains
5. Lack of decision making power
6. Lack of dikes
7. Lack of land for resettlement

5. Coping Strategies

5. What are the main coping strategies that you employ during floods? Rank them in order of
importance.
1. Migration from floods affected areas,
2. Cultivating on small portions on higher ground
3. Raising the floor of the house
4. Flood forecasting,
5. Flood insurance of animals and crops,
6. Food stockpiling,
7. Building flood shelters in advance
8. Others (Specify)
_________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. Are the above coping strategies effective? 1 = Yes 2 = No