Lecture

03 Single Degree of Freedom Model

“The simplest model, exactly known.”

Chapter outline

This lecture begins with a consideration of the free vibration of a single-degree- of-freedom (spring-
mass) system. Free vibration means that the mass is set into motion due to initial disturbance with
no externally applied force other than the spring force, damper force, or gravitational force. To
study the free-vibration response of the mass, we need to derive the governing equation, known as
the equation of motion. The equation of motion is derived using two methods.

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following:

• Derive the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system using a suitable
technique such as Newton s second law of motion, and the principle of conservation of
energy. 


INTRODUCTION

We begin our exploration of vibratory systems with models in which one coordinate completely
describes the motion of the system. Despite its simplicity, the study of single degree-of-freedom
systems is very useful since many of the key principles developed here are applicable to all problems
of dynamics and vibration. We can explore the behavior of simple models, introducing the terms
which will be used in the later sections and learn how to derive and solve their governing equations.
The concept of oscillation frequency is introduced as the most important measure of vibratory
motion.

Fig.3.1. Spring-mass system

First of all, what is a one degree of freedom system? At its simplest, it is a system as shewn in
Fig.3.1 consisting of a mass 𝑚 suspended from a spring 𝑘 . If the weight of the spring can be
neglected, then the system is completely determined by the position of the mass.

In general, a one degree of freedom system can be specified by giving the value at every instant of
time of only one coordinate. This coordinate often is a displacement, as in the spring-mass system,
but it can equally well be the angle through which the bob of a pendulum swings or a shaft rotates
as it undergoes torsional vibration.

Spring-Mass System in Vertical Configuration

Consider the system shown in Fig. 3.2 consisting of a mass m hanging on a spring k. When the
mass is at rest, the system is in static equilibrium (no movement), and the force in the spring is
equal to. the weight of the mass. In this position the length of the spring is 𝑙$ + 𝛿'( , where 𝛿'( is
the static deflection - the elongation due to the weight 𝑊 of the mass 𝑚. The spring force is given
by the product of the spring stiffness 𝑘 and the static deflection 𝛿'( .

a static equilibrium position b. displaced position

Fig.3.2. Spring-mass system in vertical configuration

Thus, taking the positive direction as downwards, for static equilibrium, we have

𝒌𝜹𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 3-1

If the mass is now displaced a further distance x then the spring force increases and there will be
a net restoring force (𝐹34( ) given by

𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = −𝒌 𝜹𝒔𝒕 + 𝒙 + 𝑾 = −𝒌 𝜹𝒔𝒕 + 𝒙 + 𝒎𝒈 3-2

and hence from Equation 3-1

𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = −𝒌𝒙 3-3

The application of Newton’s second law of motion to mass 𝑚 gives

𝒎𝒙 = 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = −𝒌𝒙 3-4

Newton’s second law of motion relates the forces acting on a body to its acceleration, with
the constant of proportionality being the body’s mass. The forces acting on a body can be
characterized as external or internal. External forces are forces from the environment, such
as those due to wind, ocean, impact, or actuators. Internal forces are due to stiffness or
damping.

and the equation of motion of the system is given by

𝒎𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎 3-5

Note: when a mass moves in a vertical direction, we can ignore its weight, provided we
measure from its static equilibrium position.

Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum of mass m is suspended on a massless string of length 𝑙 is shown in Fig. 3.3.
The position of the pendulum is defined by the angular displacement 𝜃 . The equation of motion can
be derived in two ways: (a) by summing forces and (b) by summing moments.

Figure 3.3 Simple pendulum

a) By summing forces

When the pendulum is displaced through an angle 𝜃 , a component of the weight of the mass 𝑚
will act so as to restore the pendulum to its equilibrium position. The free - body diagram is shown
to the right, where 𝑇' is the tension in the string. By summing forces in the instantaneous direction
of motion -- perpendicular to the string -- Newton’s second law gives

𝒎𝒍𝜽 = −𝒎𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

where the tangential acceleration is 𝑙𝜃 . Rearranging, the equation of motion can be written in
standard form as

𝒈 3-6
𝜽+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎

𝒍
b) By taking moments about the point of rotation O,

The equivalent governing equation is

𝑰𝟎 𝜽 = −𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

where 𝑙 sin 𝜃 is the moment arm for the weight 𝑚𝑔, 𝜃 is the angular acceleration, and 𝐼$ is the
mass moment of inertia about O, which can be expressed as 𝐼$ = 𝑚𝑙 H . The equation of motion in
the standard form then becomes

𝒈 3-7
𝜽+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎
𝒍
which is the same as Equation 3-6. This equation is nonlinear due to the sin 𝜃 term. From Taylor
series and linearization, we can approximate sin 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 for small 𝜃,

𝒈 3-8
𝜽+ 𝜽 = 𝟎

𝒍
Note: The vertical motion of a body suspended on a spring is governed by the same
mathematical equation as the linearized equation for the angular motion of a pendulum
oscillating about its equilibrium position. There is a physical difference though. When the
suspended body is in its static equilibrium position, there is energy stored in the spring since
the body’s weight is balanced by the spring force 𝑘𝛿'( When the pendulum mass is at
static equilibrium, since the cable or rod to which it is attached is not elastic, there is no
stored energy in the system.

Gravitational potential energy can be taken to be zero at this location. While in motion
both the pendulum body and the suspended body have their maximum kinetic energies as
they pass through equilibrium.

In the above two example, we derived the equation of motion based on Newton’s second law of
motion which is vector based approached. Now, let us derive the equation of motion based on scalar
approached i.e. energy method.

Energy Formulation

Newton’s second law of motion is a cumbersome way to derive the equations of motion for a system
having more than a few degrees of freedom. In subsequent lecture, we introduce Lagrange’s energy
approach for the derivation of governing equations. Here, an early glimpse is provided into the use
of energy to develop the equations of motion.

In a vibratory system there is generally an interplay of kinetic and potential energies. We are
familiar with gravitational potential energy. Strain energy is another kind of potential energy stored
in an element such as a spring. If the system is conservative, meaning that energy is conserved
without dissipation or losses, the total energy remains constant. The sum of the kinetic 𝑇 and
potential/strain 𝑉 energies is

𝑻 + 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 3-9

For a spring element, the energy stored in the spring due to an elongation 𝑥 equals the area under
the 𝐹 vs. 𝑥 curve. In a linear force-deflection relation of slope 𝑘 , this area equals 𝑘𝑥 H 2 (refer
Fig. 3.4b). If the spring has an initial stretch 𝛿'( , then the total strain energy stored is
H
𝑘 𝑥 + 𝛿'( 2. A change in the vertical position 𝑥 of the mass 𝑚 results in a change in the
gravitational potential energy equal to – 𝑚𝑔𝑥 .



a B

Fig. 3.4 Potential energy in spring

Note: Gravitational potential energy is defined as the work done against the gravitational
field 𝑔 to elevate a body of mass 𝑚 a distance 𝑥 above, in this case, an arbitrary reference
plane called the datum.

In a mass-spring system with a massless spring, the kinetic energy of the system is due to the
motion of the mass and equals 𝑚𝑥 H 2. Substituting into Equation 3-9 gives

𝟏 𝟏 3-10
𝒎𝒙𝟐 + 𝒌 𝒙 + 𝜹𝒔𝒕 𝟐
− 𝒎𝒈𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝟐 𝟐
Differentiating this equation with respect to time yields

𝒎𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒌𝜹𝒔𝒕 − 𝒎𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟎

Recognizing that in static equilibrium 𝑘𝛿'( = 𝑚𝑔 represents the force balance in the free-body
diagram of Fig. 3.2a , we have

𝒎𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 𝒙 = 𝟎

Since 𝑥(𝑡) cannot be zero for all time 𝑡, it must be that

𝒎𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎

This is the governing equation of motion derived from only energy consideration

Classwork:

a) Derive the equation of motion of spring- mass system in horizontal position.

Fig. a. Spring-mass system in horizontal position

 b) Fig. b shows a U tube containing liquid of total mass 𝑚 and mass density 𝜌 and having a
uniform inside cross-sectional area 𝐴. The liquid is assumed to be oscillating in the tube
with a displacement 𝑥 from its mean position. Write down the differential equation of the
liquid motion.

Fig. b. U tube with oscillating column of liquid