• This is helped with the enzyme Kinase -
CARBOHYRATE AN PROTEIN
METABOLISM
ALPHA Glycosidic Bonds are easier to be
hydrolyzed than BETA
Carbohydrate Metabolism stars in the
MOUTH due to the presence of ALPHA-salivary
amylase (This catalyzes the hydrolysis of
glycosidic bonds). Specifically ALPHA Glycosidic
Linkage.
Readily available or smaller saccharides
lang ang mauunang ma hydrolyze sa bunganga.
In the stomach, walang reaction
masiyado since gastric does not have anything
na mang ha-hydrolyze sa saccharides kaya
walang mangyayari. Mapapadaan lang talaga.
Enzymes will be inactivated, kaya useless din.
Mag sta-start basically sa small
intestine, ALPHA Pancreatic Lipase who will be
responsible in breaking down your
polysaccharide chains to smaller units. Until
magkakaroon ng monosaccharides, if di
kakayanin, then Disaccharides. In the intestinal
mucosa, diyaan makikita yung specialized
enzymes na mag brebreakdown sa saccharides
that has glycosidic linkage such as Maltase,
Sucrase, and Lactase.
You will then now have the glucose,
galactose, and fructose (Monosaccharides)
GLYCOLYSIS
Main metabolic pathway of
Carbohydrates. Converting of glucose for other
products that will be used for energy or other
pathways.
Step 1: Phosphorylation
• Glucose to Glucose-6-Phosphate.
HEXOKINASE.
• ATP to ADP since isang Phosphate and
nagamit.
• Hydrogen is removed from Carbon 6 at
papalitan ng Phosphate.
Step 2: Isomerization
• Glucose-6-Phosphate to Fructose-6-
Phosphate (F6P)
• Enzyme = Isomerase - Phosphoglucose
isomerase
• 6 ring carbon to 5 ring carbon.
• Lalabas si Carbon number 1
Step 3: Phosphorylation
• You are going to attach another
Phosphate to the right side.
• Enzyme = Kinase – Phosphofructokinase
• Fructose-6-phosphate to Fructose -1,6-
Biphosphate
Step 4: Cleavaging
• Hahatiin lang sa gitna si Fructose-
1,6-biphostate
• Produces Glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate and Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
• Enzyme = Lyase – Fructose
biphosphate aldolase
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate can
either continue to step 5 or go to
another metabolic process or
pathway.
Step 5: Isomerization
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate to
another Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
• Enzyme = Isomerase – Triosephosphate
isomerase
• Phosphate group is shifted to carbon
number 3
Step 6: Oxidation and Phosphorylation
 • Oxidation with the help of NAD+
• 2 Hydrogen will be removed. Isa mag a-
attach kay NAD+ para maging NADH tas
yung isa is magiging free sa
environment.
• 2 Phosphate group will again be added
from an Inorganic group.
• Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-
Biphosphoglycerate
• Enzyme = Dehydrogenase –
Glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase
• Kukunin ni ADP yung isang Phosphate
kaya makaka-produce ulit tayo ng isang
ATP.
• Enzyme = Kinase – Pyruvate kinase
2 (or 4) LANG ANG NA-PRODUCE SA ENTIRE
PROCESS NG GLYCOLYSIS.
Glycolysis ay nangyayari sa CYTOPLASM.
Pumapasok lang si mitochondira kapag yung
Pyruvate na product natin ay naging Acetyl-CoA,
since si Acetyl-CoA ang gagamitin natin sa Kreb
Cycle.

NEXT STEPS WILL BE THE PROCCESS OF

GENERATING ATP

Step 7: Phosphorylation of ADP

• 1,3-Biphosphate glycerate to 3-
phosphate glycerate
• 1 Phosphate is removed with the help
of ADP. Then ADP will become ATP.
Kaya dito palang makikita na may
production na tayo ng ATP.

Step 8: Isomerization

• 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-
phosphoglycerate.
• Nag palit lang si H+ group from carbon
number 2 at Phosphate from carbon Hindi masiyado energy efficient si Glycolysis
number 3. compared to that of B-Oxidation since 2 or 4
lang ang napo-produce na ATP. Pero magagamit
• Enzyme = Mutase – Phosphoglycerate
siya kapag kailangan mo ng biglaang energy.
mutase
Pero kapag kailangan mo ng overloaded type of
Step 9: Dehydration energy, kakailangan mo ngayon si B-Oxidaton.

• Tatanggalan mo lang ng isang Hydrogen

(H+) sa carbon 2 and isang Hyroxide
Randle Effect – Pyruvate dehydrogenase
(OH) sa carbon 3.
complex will serve as mediator. Siya yung mag
• Then makakaform tayo ng H2O or
coconvert ng Pyruvate natin to Acetyl-CoA. This
water.
reguylatory enzyme will inhibit glycolysis since
• 2-phosphoglycerate to
lipid metabolism is nakikipag unahan sa B-
Phosphoenolpyruvate
oxidation.
Step 10: Phosphorylation
Hindi lahat ng organs kayang mag shift, si Brain
• Phosphoenolpyruvate to Pyruvate ang kailangan lang ay Glucose, wala ng iba. Kaya
si Glycolysis is reserved for emergency cases na
kailangan na siya ni brain.
Glycolysis – Formation of Pyruvate from
Glucose

Aerobic – Sa mitochondira mangyayari with the Gluconeogenesis – Formation of Glucose from

help of Kreb Cycle. Pyruvate mag u-undergo ng
oxidation process. Then need makikipag
interact kay Coenzyme A. Tas decarboxylation
ang mangyayari. Mag tatanggal ka ng CO2.
Greatest release of E. Pyruvate.
non-carbohydrates such as Amino acids from
proteins and Glycerol from Lipids. Eto
nagagamit kapag there is an insufficient amount
of Glucose in the body.

Anaerobic – Sa cytoplasm lang. No oxygen is

Glycogenesis (By the word genesis, creation) –
observed. Product is dalawa, it is either lactate
Glucose-6-phospahte to Glycogen
and acetaldehyde and CO2. Lactate is with the
process Fermentation, in this process NADH + H Glycogenolysis (By the word Lysis, breakdown)
and Inorganic phosphate group are observed. – Glycogen to Glucose
Moderately efficient.
Glucose ang nagagamit at napro-produce ni
Lactate – There is the possibility that this will Glycolysis at Gluconeogensis. Tas Glycogen
affect the heart and muscle. When it reaches naman kay Glycogenesis at Glycogenolysis
the cytosol, it diffuses out to the cell and go to
blood stream then it will affect the pH value of
blood. It is highly acidic in nature, trigger the
body to have a compensatory mechanism such
as fast breathing and hypertension. It causes
muscle pain and cramping during exercises.
Kaya hindi dapat dependent si body kay
Anaerobic. Kaya mas better ang B-Oxidation tas
deretso Kreb Cycle.

GLYCOGENESIS

• Starts from Glucose-6-phopshate

• 3 Steps lang
• Palitan lang si Hydroxide at Phosphate
• 1st step: Isomerization
 o Glucose-6-phosphate to
Glucose-1-Phosphate
o Enzyme = Phosphoglucomutase
• 2nd Step: Formation of UDPG
o UTP means Uridine
Triphosphate
o Tatanggalan mo ng dalawang
phosphate si UTP kaya magiging
UMP nalang. Hence, meron
ngayong na-release na PPi or
Pyrophosphate.
o So, yung UMP will then interact
kay G1P kaya magiging UDPG
ngayon siya. Uridine
Diphosphate Glucose (2
phosphate ang makikita)
• 3rd Step: Glucose transfer to Glycogen
chain.
o Glucose unit of UDPG is
attached to glycogen chain.
Kada may bago kang ina-attach
na glucose unit sa Glycogen
chain, always na nasa end part
sila nag a-attach.
o Then we will have the product,
Glycogen Chain.
o Ngayon, bakit may ATP
involved. Kasi, kapag nag
karoon na tayo ng Glycogen
Chain, yung UMP kanina na na-
attach kaya nagging UDP ay
matatanggal ulit para bumalik
siya as UTP para magamit ulit
for the conversion of G1P to
UDPG ulit hanggan maging
Glycogen Chain ulit siya. Kaya
siya huma-haba ng humahaba.
o Utilization dito ng 6 ATP, para
mas maka pag produce tayo ng
higher energy form which is
UTP.
o End product = a-1,4 Glycogen or
a-1,6 Glycogen
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• Breaking own of the Glycogen
to Glucose
• Hindi exact reverse si
Glycogenesis at Glycogenolysis
• 2 steps lang ang meron dito
• It does not need UTP
• 1st Step: Phosphorylation of
Glucose residue
o Kapag hindi na
kailangan si glycogen
chain pero
kakailanganin for the
purpose of producing of
glucose-6-phospahte
para makapag produce
ng F6P.
o Gagamitin si Glycogen
Chain and it will
undergo
phosphorylation, kaya
tatanggalan mo ng
isang Phosphate group
ngayon yung Glycogen
chain para makapag
produce ng G1P.
o Enzyme =
Phosphorylase
• 2nd Step: Isomerizaton
o G1P to G6P
o Enzyme =
Phosphoglucomutase
o Hydroxide na from
carbon 6 is pupunta kay
carbon 1.
• Now we already have G6P as
our end product. But if there
are enzymes that interacted
with our product, then another
products will be produced for
other purposes.
o Enzyme = Phosphatase
▪ G6P to Glucose
 ▪ This will then Propionic-CoA which is then used for
be used in the Gluconeogenesis.
Liver and
Kidney
o Enzyme =
Phosphohexose
Isomerase
▪ G6P to F6P
▪ This will then
be used for
Glycolysis in the
Skeletal Muscle

GLUCONEOGENESIS

• It is not the reverse of Glycolysis

• There are 12 steps. May 2 lang na steps
na need gawin muna, then reverse step
na from that of the Glycolysis.
• 1st Extra Step: Conversion of Pyruvate to
Oxaloacetate
o Enzyme: Pyruvate Carboxylase
• nd
2 Extra Step: Conversion of
Oxaloacetate to Phosphoenolpyruvate
o Enzyme: PEP Carboxykinase
• Tas same step na pero baliktad lang
from Glycolysis
• Metabolic pathway wherein conversion
siya ng mga non-carbohydrate
materials. Such as lactate, glycerol, and
amino acids.
• During starvation, since wala ng
glucose, ang nagagamit ay fats and
other energy sources. Ang apektado ay
cells na kailangan ang energy soruces
natin.
• Ang brain natin can derived its energy
from ketone bodies na maco-convert
into Acetyl-CoA. Incase na wala ng
glucose, pero take note na ang brain ay
mas want niya padin ang glucose as its
source of energy.
• Pero sa mga odd-number na fatty acids
natin from B-oxidation, magiging
Substrates for Gluconeogenesis
• Lactate
o Common occurrence in
muscle activity, during
anaerobic glycolysis in
skeletal muscle, pyruvate is
reduced to lactate by
lactate dehydrogenase
(LDH).
o Good for the liver, it
produces additional
reducing agents such as
NADH.
• Pyruvate
o Common substrate for
gluconeogenesis
• Amino Acids
o All 20 of the amino acids,
except LEUCINE and LYSINE,
can be degraded by the TCA
cycle and converted to
pyruvate or oxaloacetate.
• Glycerol
o This is liberated from
triglyceride and now can
enter gluconeogenesis.
 • Propionate or Propionic Aid • The chemical link between
o generations
o Oxidation of fatty acids with • The source of genetic information in
an odd number of carbon chromosomes.
atoms and the oxidation of
some amino acids
generates propionyl-CoA.

Euchromatin

-It is less densely packed DNA and consists of

ACTIVE GENES

Heterochromatin

-Consists of MORE TIGHTLY packed DNA;

expression of genes in this region is limited. The
tightly packed DNA in this type of chromatin is
NOT accessible to transcription factors and
polymerases required for expression of genes.

-Kaya kakailanganin mo na dito yung mga

specialized polymerases para ma-transribe mo
yung mga genes natin.

DNA

-Genetic material: Sequence of nucleotides

encodes different amino acids.

-It is all about storage and transfer of genetic

informations

RNA

-It is involved in the transcription/translation of

genetic materials (DNA)

-Can also be absorbed in viruses

NUCLEIC ACIDS -Can be seen in all parts of the cell

• They dictate amino-acid sequence -Synthesis of proteins, and carries the essential
in proteins functions of the cell.
• They give information to
chromosomes, which is then passed
from parent to offspring.
• The 4th type of MACROMOLECULES
 The building block or smallest unit of
Nucleic Acids are the NUCLEOTIDES. Where in it
is connected with long chains.

• Nucleotides has 3 parts:

o 5 Carbon sugar (pentose)
o Nitrogen that contains base
(made of C, H, and N)
o A phosphate group (P)
• The P groups make the links that unite
the sugars (hence a “sugar-phosphate
backbone”)
• PROCEED READING THE NOTES GIVEN
BY CRIMSON AND REFERENCE BOOKS.