Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dbanda
Mulungushi University
1
What is Glycolysis?
It is a cascade of reactions that converts
glucose into two pyruvate molecules or into
lactate aiming at production of ATP and
other intermediates.
It is also utilized in its opposite direction in
gluconeogenesis.
2
About GLYCOLYSIS
1.RBCs:
are devoid of mitochondria and depend on glycolysis as the main source
of energy. Mammalian erythrocyte is unique in that about 90% of its total
energy requirement is provided by glycolysis.
2.Contracting muscles
due to occlusion of blood vessels by the muscular contraction that
decreases oxygen
5-Cancer cells
due to dissociation of the high rate of
glycolysis from Krebs', i.e., aerobic production
of lactate.
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Other functions
7. It is the major source of lactic acid that is gluconeogenic.
8. Reversal of glycolysis is gluconeogenesis, an important
source of glucose.
9. Main pathway of metabolism of fructose from the diet.
10. A small number of genetic diseases occur due to deficiency
in activity of enzymes of glycolysis, are manifested mainly
as hemolytic anemias.
11. Cancer cells are glycolytic producing large amount of
lactate, favoring a relatively acidic local pH in the tumor, a
situation that was utilized to develop therapy for cancer
that could be locally activated by this acidic pH.
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This pathway can be thought of as comprising three stages
STAGE I
conversion of glucose into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate; consists of
three steps:
(i) A phosphorylation
(ii) An isomerisation, and
(iii) a second phosphorylation reaction
STAGE II
Cleavage of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into two three-carbon
fragments. The resulting three-carbon units are interconvertible
STAGE III
ATP is harvested when the three-carbon fragments are oxidised
to pyruvate
The break down of the six-carbon glucose into two
molecules of the three carbon pyruvate occurs in ten
steps
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The preparatory phase of glycolysis
1. Phosphorylation of Glucose
Catalyzed by phosphofructokinase
Reaction is irreversible
Reaction is the major point of regulation in glycolysis
Enzyme requires Mg2+
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4. Cleavage of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Aldolase
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
3-phosphate Triose phosphate phosphate
isomerase
5.
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6. Oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate
NAD+ NADH
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + Pi 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
Catalyzed by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
The first of the two energy-conserving reactions of glycolysis that eventually leads
to the formation of ATP
Reversible
7. Phosphoryl transfer from 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP to form ATP
ADP ATP
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 3-phosphoglycerate
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8. Conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate
3-phosphoglycerate 2-phosphoglycerate
Catalyzed by phosphoglycerate mutase
Reversible
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Control of glycolysis
Enzymes catalyzing irreversible reactions are potential sites of
control ie hexokinase, phosphofructokinase and pyruvate
kinase
Phosphofructokinase
Most important control site in mammalian glycolytic pathway
In the liver the
enzyme is inhibited by ATP
Inhibitory effect of ATP is reversed by AMP
Activity increases when the ATP/AMP ratio is lowered
Inhibited by a drop in pH
Inhibited by citrate
Activated by Fructose 2,3-bisphosphate
Hexokinase
Inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate
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Pyruvate kinase
Activated by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, to
enable it to keep pace with the oncoming
high flux of intermediates
Inhibited by ATP
Inhibited by alanine
In the liver inhibited by phosphorylation
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Feeder pathways for glycolysis
D-Galactose
Lactose Gylcogen;starch
Lactase
Phosphorylase
Glucose 1-phosphate
D-Glucose Phosphohexose
(gluco)mutase)
Glucose 6-phosphate D-Mannose
Sucrose
Sucrase
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
Glyceraldehyde 3-bisphosphate
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Bioenergetics of (or Energy yield
from) glycolysis:
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Under anaerobic conditions:
1- Total ATP lost = 2 ATP as follows,
One ATP in the activation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.
One ATP in the activation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose1,6-
diphosphate.
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Under aerobic conditions:
Total ATP lost = 2 ATP.
Total ATP gained = 10 ATP are generated as follows,
4 ATP (obtained by substrate level phosphorylation) + 2
NADH.H+ chain (produced from oxidation of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) 2 X 3 ATP = 6 ATP,
after oxidation in the functioning respiratory
Net ATP gained = 8 ATP as follows,
10 ATP – 2 ATP = 8 ATP for the aerobic oxidation of
one mole of glucose.
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Regulation (or Control) of
Glycolysis
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A. Key regulatory enzymes:
1-Phosphofructokinase:
It is an allosteric enzyme stimulated by high levels of
fructose-6- phosphate, fructose-2,6-diphosphate (in
liver), ADP and AMP, Pi, and ammonia.
It is inhibited allosterically by ATP, low pH and citrate.
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2-Hexokinase:
Accumulation of glucose-6-phosphate and inhibition
of phosphofructokinase results in accumulation of
fructose-6-phosphate and glucose-6-phosphate that
allosterically inhibit hexokinase.
3-Pyruvate kinase: It is inhibited also by excess ATP,
fatty acids, and acetyl-CoA
and is stimulated by fructose-1,6-diphosphate, ADP
and AMP
It is regulated by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation-
dephosphorylation mechanism 26
B. Hormonal regulation:
1. Insulin:
Stimulates synthesis of glucokinase,
phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, so
it stimulates glycolysis.
It also induces glucose transporters to provide
cells with glucose for glycolysis.
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