RF Secrets White Paper February 7, 2000

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RF Implementation of High Capacity TDMA 3G Data

and Voice Networks

Introduction

Third generation (3G) wireless networks will need to deliver high speed, high
capacity wireless data applications while simultaneously coping with an exponential
growth in voice traffic. Meanwhile, the wireless communications industry is already
faced with increasing competition, which puts additional emphasis on capacity,
quality, and costs. Given the limited spectrum available for these new applications
and competitive challenges, the key to achieving all objectives lies in effectively
managing RF capacity. RF techniques, properly understood and implemented, can
help operators build a wireless network with the highest possible spectral efficiency
while maintaining quality service.

3G Table Stakes: Services and Capacity

Wireless communications have become an integral part of everyday life in most parts
of the world. They are also an essential element in the today’s business toolkit, just
like computers and fax machines.

For the future, in order to address the need for increased capacity, new data
services, and international roaming, the international community has come together
to define a new set of requirements for wireless communications systems. In
addition to delivering high quality, secure voice communications, third generation
wireless systems will need to support:
• packet-switched and circuit-switched data
• high speed data, with mobility rates of 144 kbps up to 384 kbps, and fixed
rates up to 2 Mbps
• national and international roaming.

And most importantly, 3G networks will have to accomplish all this with higher
spectral efficiency than is implemented in today’s systems.

TDMA 3G evolution

For an IS-136 TDMA system, a 200 kHz carrier-based EDGE overlay network is the
preferred solution to providing high speed packet data services. Voice service will
either remain on the 30 kHz TDMA carriers, or, as a possible path for evolution, voice
services may be migrated to the 200 kHz carriers through packetized voice, using
EDGE as a transport. The EDGE system is based on a modification of the GSM/GPRS
packet radio system. EDGE introduces an 8PSK modulation is introduced in addition
to the GMSK modulation to increase the spectral efficiency of the radio link.
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An overview of EDGE requirements

The GSM/GPRS system is based on a 200 kHz, eight-timeslot channel structure.

Control channel signaling is usually carried on the first timeslot of a carrier in each
sector. To ease the mobile’s task of measuring neighboring sectors for potential
handoff, the GSM standard requires that the carrier with the broadcast control
channel and common control channel be transmitted with constant power levels. This
carrier is known as the beacon carrier.

On the other hand, in order to maintain a minimum reliability requirement, well-

engineered frequency reuse must be implemented for co-channel interference
protection. The GSM frequency reuse baseline for a three-sectored configuration is
N=4/12, i.e., a minimum set of twelve unique channels is required for cluster of four
cells or twelve sectors. This means a minimum of twelve times 200 kHz, or 2.4 MHz
of bandwidth is required to deploy a single EDGE carrier per sector. For the IS-136
system, an additional guard-band of 200-400 kHz is required to control adjacent
channel interference from the 30 kHz carriers.

For most IS-136 TDMA service providers, it is very difficult to clear a total of 2.6 MHz
of spectrum from the existing voice network in order to deploy high speed data
services initially, and cane be cost-prohibitive when early demand for data services is
low. To solve this problem, the standards forum has created the Compact EDGE
standard, which breaks away from the GSM tradition of having control channel
signaling on the beacon carrier. Instead, Compact EDGE uses both time and
frequency domains to provide the required twelve unique frequency-timeslot channel
set needed for the control signaling and to maintain the required C/I performance.
Control channel information can be carried on four timeslots on each carrier, and
only three carriers need to have the set of twelve frequency-timeslot channels. As a
result, only three times 200 kHz plus 200-400 kHz guard-band is required to
implement Compact EDGE. In addition, the base stations need to be frame-
synchronized.

In summary, there are two flavors of the EDGE standard. One is known as EDGE
Classic, which requires a minimum of 2.6 MHz spectrum to deploy EDGE in an IS-136
TDMA network. The other is known as EDGE Compact, which requires a minimum of
800 kHz of spectrum to implement. Because guard-bands are required between the
IS-136 30 kHz carriers and the EDGE 200 kHz carrier, it is most efficient to have all
EDGE carriers in a contiguous block of spectrum.

The bottom line

With the emergence of third generation systems and the development of Wireless
Internet products and services, there will be increasing demands on RF capacity.
While there are other means of accommodating rising capacity requirements – such
as cell splitting, hierarchical systems, and adding spectrum – the pursuit of lower
frequency reuse factors is the most cost-effective solution.
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Principles of High RF Capacity Networks

Spectral efficiency

The primary source of RF capacity in a cellular network is the reuse of limited

spectrum. The more frequently the same spectrum is reused in a network, the
greater capacity the RF produces. The best efficiency measure of a cellular or PCS
system is the spectral efficiency.

The spectral efficiency of a cellular or PCS system can be defined by the number of
channels per cell for a given total bandwidth:
n = Btotal / ( Bchannel * N )
where Btotal is the total system bandwidth, Bchannel is the bandwidth of a channel,
and N is the effective reuse factor.

As we can see, to increase the spectrum efficiency of a cellular or PCS system one
has to decrease the effective reuse factor N. The achievable reuse factor N is
determined by the following factors:
1. RF propagation characteristics
2. The level of RF engineering optimization
3. The C/I requirement of a system
4. The level of interference generated by a call
5. The level of intelligence in channel management.

RF propagation

In order to reuse a frequency channel, adequate isolation between co-channel cells is

required to control interference among co-channel cells. A linear model with slope
and intercept is typically used to describe RF propagation as shown in Figure 1,
where R is the coverage radius of a cell and D is the distance between a cell and its
co-channel cell. The D/R ratio is often used to gauge the co-channel isolation
required by a system. The lower the D/R ratio, the lower the reuse factor N. As
shown in the figure, the steeper the propagation slope, the lower D/R ratio it takes
to achieve the same isolation. Therefore high capacity RF network design should
always strive for steeper propagation slope.
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Figure 1 RF Propagation and Frequency Reuse

100

110
Propagation Loss (dB)

120

130

t a l o s I
140

150

n o i
160
3 4
100
R 1 10
Distance (m)
D 1 10

35 dB/decade slope
45 dB/decade slope
25 dB/decade slope

Now the challenge is to influence the RF propagation slope. Empirical studies have
shown that the propagation slope is inversely related to the antenna height, as
depicted in Figure 2. When antenna height is reduced, not only does the propagation
loss intercept increase, i.e., the propagation loss at the same distance is higher; the
propagation slope also becomes steeper. The steeper propagation slope helps to
increase isolation among cells, which in turn increases RF capacity. One side effect of
lowered antenna height is increased propagation loss, resulting in shrinking cell
coverage. So antenna height needs to be carefully optimized to maximize the
propagation slope, while at the same time ensuring adequate coverage is
maintained.

Figure 2 RF propagation slope as a function of antenna height

100

110
Propagation Loss (dB)

120

Decreasing Antenna Height

130

140

150

160
3 4
100 1 10 1 10
Distance (m)

In addition, proper application of antenna down-tilt and careful antenna azimuth

optimization are crucial in increasing co-channel isolation.
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RF optimization

As we have seen so far, RF isolation is a function of the quality of optimization effort

spent on a network. The greater the effort spent on proper RF design and RF
optimization, the better the network’s baseline RF, which provides a strong
foundation for higher capacity and performance. Although RF optimization efforts
trade off with the investment in RF software features, they cannot be completely
replaced by RF software features.

System features that improve C/I

In general the RF capacity of a cellular network is inversely proportional to the

required C/I of a system, as depicted in Figure 3. Therefore system features that
reduce required C/I can be used to increase the RF capacity of a network.
Interference cancellation technique is one such feature.
Other features that improve the effectiveness of C/I include those that optimize
power output and manage channel assignment.

Figure 3 RF capacity as a function of required C/I

RF Capacity

Required C/I (dB)

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Power control

A signal is transmitted to the intended user to support each call. However, one user’s
signal is another’s co-channel interference. The more power is transmitted to support
a call, the more interference is created for the co-channel users. Therefore a high
capacity network should minimize the amount of power transmitted to support every
call. This is typically done through dynamic power control.

Intelligent channel management

At any time in a given cell, the quality of available channels will not be the same. On
the other hand, because of the large dynamic range in propagation loss in a typical
cell, not all mobiles require channels of the same quality in order to provide the
same end-user perceived quality. For example, while a mobile on the fringe of a cell
requires a relatively clear channel, another mobile closer to the cell site can still
operate with a noisier channel. Intelligent channel management features enable the
network to assign channels that match the call requirement with the available idle
channels and thereby minimize the required transmit power and interference.

Advanced RF engineering

RF design

The first step in building a network with tighter frequency is to employ better RF
engineering design and optimization. As we know, the primary source of RF capacity
in a cellular network is the reuse of spectrum. Therefore RF engineering efforts
should be aimed at designing networks with better cell-to-cell isolation. The
examples in this area include adopting a tri-cellular cell grid, which uses antennas
with narrower horizontal beamwidth, nominally 65 degrees. Compared to the tri-
sector cell grid that uses 90- to 105-degree antennas, the tri-cellular network
provides around 1 dB advantage in C/I performance. This is especially effective in a
greenfield network design. In an existing network with a tri-sector grid, antennas
with narrow horizontal beamwidth can be applied as capacity sites are added.

Antenna height plays a very important role in the cell-to-cell isolation of a system. In
a capacity-oriented network, antenna heights need to be minimized to the point of
adequate coverage. In addition to reducing antenna height whenever possible,
antenna downtilt and antenna azimuth pointing should also be carefully applied to
minimize unnecessary propagation and subsequent interference.

Another area of enhanced RF engineering practice is frequency planning techniques.

A tighter than nominal frequency plan (N=7, for example) can often be applied
directly once better cell-to-cell isolation has been created. For example, the Nortel
Networks N=6 frequency plan provides 25% more capacity with very little
degradation in C/I performance.
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Frequency planning tools

Automatic frequency planning is another emerging area of advanced RF engineering

practices, where the cell-to-cell isolation in a network is measured and used in a
computerized algorithm that allocates frequency on a channel-by-channel basis. In
most cases, a tighter reuse can be achieved through a fixed frequency plan
generated by an automatic frequency planning tool.

Advanced RF Features

RF features play an even more important role than RF engineering techniques in

achieving a higher capacity network. Following are RF feature capabilities that
improve RF capacity. Remember that the RF capacity of a system is inversely
proportional to the C/I requirement of a system, thus, features that reduce the C/I
requirement of the system while maintaining the user perceived quality have a direct
impact on RF capacity.

Whenever a call is supported in a wireless network, there will be a signal transmitted

to the mobile terminal. The intended signal for one terminal can be an unwanted
interference for another terminal. Therefore RF features that minimize the
transmitted power for any call will also have a direct impact on network RF capacity.
Examples of interference control include power control and various smart antenna
schemes.

A TDMA network is typically designed to have 17 dB C/I over 90% of the coverage
area in order to provide good voice quality. Due to the large dynamic range of
propagation in a cell, which is typically 60 to 80 dB; to meet the above requirement,
a typical TDMA network without RF channel management will have a large portion
(>60%) of the coverage area with C/I better than 25 dB C/I. This 60% of the cell
area has what is known as the excess C/I, because when a channel has better than
25 dB C/I, the bit error rate (BER) of the call is already at 0%, so there is no room
for improvement. A price is paid for the excess C/I, because it means the terminal is
receiving too much signal power, and we know that this means another mobile is
receiving interference. Intelligent RF channel management features can convert the
excess C/I into RF capacity while maintaining good voice quality.

While there are different RF management features, they are all founded on the same
set of design principles, that is, managing the use of the RF channel resources based
on the individual call’s requirement in a cell. An RF management feature needs to
know the forward and reverse idle channel quality in a cell. In order to make the
optimal decision in channel allocation, it also needs to have knowledge of the forward
and reverse in-call channel quality in order to manage the performance of a call.

To summarize, there are two important steps in achieving greater frequency reuse.
The first step is to create the best possible C/I environment through advanced RF
engineering design and optimization. More importantly, the second step is to apply
intelligent RF management features that optimally use the scarce spectrum to meet
performance requirements. The role of RF management features is to convert the
excess C/I into more RF capacity.
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Other RF Capacity Options

To implement a 3G network, we need to accommodate the existing voice traffic while

at the same time finding enough spectrum to implement the EDGE data carriers. This
means we need to find ways to add RF capacity to a network. There are different
ways to add RF capacity to an existing network, including: cell splitting, denser
reuse, hierarchical systems, and additional spectrum. Each has advantages and
limitations, and they will be addressed in this section.

Cell splitting

Cell splitting is a widely practiced way to add RF capacity to a growing network. For
example, by taking the coverage area of one larger cell and instead deploying four
smaller cells, each supporting the same number of channels as the large cell, the RF
capacity of the area is quadrupled. The principle is fairly simple, but it does have
limitations and disadvantages. First, every time a new cell site is built, there is the
cost of cell site hardware, real estate, installation, and backhaul. In addition, every
new cell increases network maintenance costs. In terms of cost per additional
channel, cell splitting can be quite expensive. In contrast, it is much less expensive
to add channels to an existing site, because in most cases only new transceiver cards
are needed. Second, as cells become smaller, it is increasingly difficult to find
appropriate locations for each new cell. In addition, RF coverage control becomes
increasingly difficult. And as cells become smaller, it is harder to perform handoff,
because the relative mobility of mobile phone users increases. In summary, cell
splitting can be very effective in addressing RF capacity needs. However, it is
frequently not the most cost-effective approach, nor the easiest solution to manage.

Frequency reuse

Denser frequency reuse minimizes the need for cell splitting, and is the most cost-
effective way to add additional capacity to a network. It is especially effective when
the targeted capacity enhancement is less than 80%. In the implementation of an
EDGE data carrier, it can be used throughout a network to clear enough spectrum to
deploy the initial EDGE carriers. In order to achieve denser frequency reuse, more
effort needs to be spent on proper RF engineering of cell-to-cell isolation. And more
importantly, advanced RF management features need to be implemented throughout
the network infrastructure. Proper implementation is also crucial to successful
feature deployment and, ultimately, of achieving denser reuse.

Hierarchical cell underlays

As traffic in a network continues to grow, there will be areas of traffic hot spots in
geographically concentrated locations. This is also true in indoor environments, as
more and more people use mobile terminals in settings such as malls, convention
centers, airports, and sports arenas. This type of traffic is most cost-effectively and
spectrum-efficiently addressed by deploying hierarchical cell underlays. Since this
involves a new cell site, there will be hardware, real estate, and backhaul cost
associated with this type of deployment. In general, the cell site hardware is cost-
optimized for this type of application, and the real estate requirement is not as costly
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compared to a regular cell site. Indoor deployment of hierarchical cells is also

becoming more and more important in providing high quality coverage and RF
capacity relief to outdoor macro networks.

Additional spectrum

Acquiring new spectrum obviously provides another way to address the requirement
for additional RF capacity. However, spectrum is costly and scarce. Another cost
factor is the new cell site hardware as well as the additional backhaul required. In
many locations, zoning requirements may preclude the use of additional antennas for
the new spectrum. In this case, new dual-band antennas may be used to swap out
existing single band antennas, at additional cost. Due to the difference in
propagation loss between different spectrum bands, there may also be coverage
differences between the new band and the existing band. As a result, new cell sites
may be needed to fill the coverage holes in the new band. Additional engineering
efforts will also be required to manage the handoff and traffic flow interactions
between the different bands.

An overall strategy

Having outlined the different options to obtain additional RF capacity in order to

deploy EDGE data network, we now discuss an overall strategy in applying some of
the key options. Experience with voice networks has demonstrated that the most
cost-effective means to add RF capacity to a network is to increase the effective
frequency reuse. Depending on network growth and traffic forecasts, the application
of the process outlined below will start from different points.

If a network is still in a coverage-limited phase, then traffic growth needs to be

assessed to determine whether the network will soon become capacity-limited in
some areas. If the growth projection warrants cell splitting, then it should be carried
out proactively. Proactive cell splitting leads to a well planned grid structure, which
has proven to be advantageous for high capacity networks. As cells become smaller,
antenna heights need to be lowered accordingly, providing additional cell-to-cell
isolation and additional C/I benefits on top of the gain from cell splitting. These
improvements can be converted into capacity gains through RF management
features deployment.

Once a cell grid has been split to around 400-500 meters, additional cell splitting
may have a negative impact on the propagation slope. At this point, there should be
ample RF capacity as measured in Erlangs per square kilometer, especially when
additional spectrum is available. In this phase of RF capacity evolution the objective
should be to maximize macrocell capacity per cell and design a system with the
minimum achievable average cell radius. As discussed earlier, this is accomplished
through the application of advanced RF engineering techniques and RF management
features. There may be specific hot spots and indoor areas that require further
capacity enhancements, which can be addressed by deploying hierarchical underlays.
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Conclusion

RF capacity will continue to be the most important engineering issue for 3G

networks. Experience gained from implementing high capacity 2G networks will be
applicable in the design and implementation of 3G networks. The implementation of
2G networks has shown that an overall RF capacity evolution strategy centered
around frequency reuse reduction provides the most cost-effective means to address
RF capacity requirements. Proper implementation of RF management features on top
of advanced RF engineering techniques will ensure success in building high capacity
3G networks.