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I-, M-, A- and S-type Granitoids: Their Attributes and Mineralization, with
Indian Examples

Article · January 2008

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 4th Prof. C. Mahadevan’s Mem. Lecture, SAAEG (India Chapter), Kumaon Univ., Nainital, India
Jour. Econ. Geol. and Georesource Management, v. 5, nos. 1 & 2, plp. 1-23, 2008
I-, M-, A- AND S-TYPE GRANITOIDS: THEIR ATTRIBUTES
AND MINERALIZATION, WITH INDIAN EXAMPLES*

R. DHANA RAJU+
Ex-Associate Director, A.M.D., Dept. of Atomic Energy, Hyderabad - 500016
Hon. Visiting Prof., Dept. of Applied Geochemistry, Osmania Univ., Hyderabd – 500007
Abstract
Granitoids, based on the nature of source and their chemical-tectonic-genetic aspects, are classified as I-, M-,
A- and S-types, derived, respectively, from igneous, mantle, deep crustal (with anorogenic and/or alkaline
character) and meta-sedimentary sources. These granitoids constitute either as host or source for diverse types
of mineral deposits of granophile (i.e., granitoid-related) elements. The magmato-tectonic, petro-
mineralogical, geochemical and genetic attributes as well as mineralization of these types of granitoids,
together with relevant Indian examples, are presented in this paper, with a view that the same will guide in
identification of target areas for granitoid-related specific mineral deposits for follow-up exploration.

Preamble: Professor Calamur Mahadevan (1901-1962), a visionary of University-

level geological education in India, was the Head of the Department of Geology, Andhra
University (AU), Visakhapatnam from 1944 till his untimely death in 1962. Before
joining AU, and after obtaining his doctorate degree under the supervision of the Nobel
Laureate, Sir C.V. Raman, Professor Mahadevan worked with the Hyderabad Geological
Survey during 1931-44. This experience in the Survey had a profound influence on his
practical-oriented teaching at the University as well as conducting many training
programs-cum-investigation camps for students in exploration for iron, lead-zinc, barites, graphite, copper,
mineral sands, groundwater and natural gas in different parts of the State of Andhra Pradesh. In AU, he had
introduced in 1950’s the then new disciplines of Geology like Marine Geology and Nuclear Geology in M.Sc.
Geology, and Petroleum Geology and Micropaleontology in M.Sc. (Tech.) Applied Geology. During 1950’s,
he had deputed some of his students to do their either Ph.D. or Post-Doctoral work at some leading institutes
under the then well-known international experts in Geology like Professors Billings, Webb, Arthur Holmes,
Paul Ramdohr and La Fond, so that they, after return from abroad and with state-of-the-art equipment
provided by him, can lead in their respective specializations such as Geochemistry, Ore Microscopy, Marine
Geology and Nuclear Geology, all of which are at the infant stage in India during that period. Besides, he was
instrumental in some of his bright students for appearing in the competitive examinations and joining the
Central Services. As a result of all this, numerous students of Professor Mahadevan held many top and
strategic positions in the Geological Survey of India, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Oil India, Atomic
Minerals Directorate, Mineral Exploration Corporation, National Mineral Development Corporation, National
Geophysical Research Institute, National Metallurgical Laboratory, many Universities/IITs and Indian
Administrative/Foreign/Forest Services.
Though I did not have the opportunity of either being his direct student or even seeing him, in person, my
connection with Prof. Mahadevan is as his second-generation student (being the first Ph.D. student of one of
his students, Prof. J.S.R. Krishna Rao) and as an alumnus of the Department that was headed by him for
nearly two decades, considered by many as its golden period. Like me, there are numerous admirers of Prof.
Mahadevan in India and abroad, which is reflected by nearly 200 members of ‘Prof. Calamur Mahadevan’s
Students and Admirers Association’, operating at Hyderabad since end of the year, 2001. I am indeed grateful
to Profs. K.L. Rai and Santosh Kumar for inviting me to deliver this ‘Prof. C. Mahadevan’s Memorial
Lecture’ at the 10th Annual Convention of ‘South Asian Association of Economic Geologists’ (SAAG) (India
Chapter) and National Seminar on ‘Magmatism, Tectonism and Mineralization’ (MTM-2007), being held at
the Kumaun University, Nainital-263 002 during Oct. 29-31, 2007. To be in consonance of the objectives of
SAAG and MTM-2007 as well as part of Mineral Exploration, Petro-mineralogy and Geochemistry, the
branches of interest to Prof. Mahadevan, I have selected the present topic dealing with attributes of different
types of granitoids and their mineralization, with selected Indian examples. As a mark of my reverence to late
Prof. Calamur Mahadevan, I dedicate this lecture-cum-paper to him.

1
________________________
*Prof. C. Mahadevan’s Memorial Lecture under SAAG (India Chapter). +E mail:rdhanaraju@yahoo.co.in

Introduction

Granitoids, being the predominant plutonic rocks in the Earth’s upper crust, have
major implications for petrology, tectonics and mineralization. The ‘granite problem’ is a
major petrological problem that received wide attention of many leading field and
laboratory geologists, starting from 1760 to recent. Thus, between 1760 and 1800, it was a
case of ‘neptunist’ vs. ‘plutonist’, favoring, respectively, a sedimentary vs. igneous-
metamorphic origin. This was followed by the ‘magmatic’ vs. ‘metasomatic’ (granitization)
that was hotly debated until about 1960. More or less simultaneously with this has grown
during 1930-70, the concept of ‘fractional crystallization’ vs. ‘anatectic direct melts’. Since,
1970, the emphasis has shifted to the sources of granitic magmas, viz., mantle, subducted
slab or crust. Tectonically, the granitoids help in probing diverse settings like oceanic
ridge, island arc, continental arc, continental collision and extensional regimes such as rift.
Granitoids carry numerous elements that are mostly geochemically incompatible
and, hence, concentrate in the acidic magmas and melts from which these rocks form. Such
elements are termed as ‘granophile (i.e., granitoid-related) elements’. These include (i) very
small cations - Be and B; (ii) univalent – bivalent octahedral cations – Li, Fe2+, Cu and Zn;
(iii) large, highly charged cations – Mn3+, Fe3+, Y, Rare Earth Elements (REE: La to Lu),
Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Mo, W, Sn, As, Sb, Bi, Th and U; (iv) alkali – alkaline-like cations – Na,
K, Rb, Cs, Ag, He and Pb; (v) Noble metal – Au (rare) and (vi) anions and anionic
complexes – with O and H, including C, P, S, F and Cl (CIMM, 1988). In view of
such diverse and large number of granophile elements, granitoids constitute a major and
important target for mineral exploration of many metals. Since the granitoids as a whole do
not host all the granophile elements in good concentration to become mineral deposits, it is
imperative to probe what type of granitoid constitutes the potential host and source for
specific granophile elements. This requires classification of granitoids, based on different
parameters. Such classifications include: (i) pre-, syn-, late- and post-tectonic granitoids,
based on tectonic style; (ii) alkali feldspar-, syeno- and monzo-granite, granodiorite,
tonalite and trondhjemite, based on the mineralogical proportion of alkali feldspars to
plagioclase; (iii) peraluminous, metaluminous and peralkaline granitoids, based on
chemical parameters of alumina- and alkali-saturation index; (iv) oceanic ridge, island arc,
continental arc, continental collision, post-orogenic, rift- and continental epeirogenic uplift-
related granitoids, based on tectonic setting; (v) cold and hot granitoids, based on content
of radioelements or amount of radiogenic heat generated; and (vi) barren, fertile and
mineralized granitoids, based on potentiality for a particular metal. Better than all these
classifications is the frequently used classification of I-, M-, A- and S-type granitoids
derived, respectively, from igneous, mantle, deep crustal (with anorogenic and/or alkaline
character) and meta-sedimentary sources (Chappell and White, 1974; White and Chappell,
1977; Dhana Raju et al., 1983; Whalen et al., 1987). This classification is more compre-
hensive as it takes into account diverse aspects of source, chemistry, tectonism and genesis,
and, hence, is better suited to indicate type of granitoid for mineralization of particular suite
of metals. Accordingly, the magmatotectonic, petromineralogical, geochemical, genetic and
mineralization attributes of these types of granitoids, together with the Indian examples, are
presented in this paper. Before this, a brief account on the nature of metal-anion complexes

2
and the general processes of concentration of granophile elements is given in the following
as they have direct bearing in the formation of granitoid-related mineral deposits.

Nature of Metal-Anion Complexes and Processes of Concentration of Granophile

Elements in Granitoids
The metal-anion complexes in fluid phases associated with the granitoids are: (a)
oxy – for Sn, Mo and Nb; (b) hydroxy for Ag, Sn, W and U; (c) molybdates and tungstates
for H, Mo and W; (d) fluoride for Sn and U; (e) chloride for Cu, Zn, Pb and Hg; (f)
carbonate for W and REEs; (g) phosphate for W, Ca, Fe, Mn, REE, Li, Al and Na; (h)
sulfate and sulfides for Au; (i) bisulfides for Cu, Zn and Au; and (j) borate for Li and Na
(CIMM, 1988). The granitoids and granophile elements originate from the same source for
granitic magmas and any material assimilated en route to the site of emplacement, with the
source contribution being much less important than fractional crystallization to produce
higher concentration of the granophile elements. Their first boost for average abundances
in continental crustal rocks towards concentration in mineral deposits occurs during partial
melting, with enrichment in silicate melts up to 20 times, depending upon the degree of
partial melting, its style and the bulk distribution coefficients of the elements. The
granophile elements begin to concentrate before appearance of crystals in the melt due to
dissolved water in the magma, which not only depolymerizes the silicate melt with
attendant reduction in viscosity but also creates regions in the structure of the melt where
unusually large or small and/or highly charged ions can concentrate. The process by which
this takes place is known as ‘thermogravitational defusion’ resulting in some pre-
concentration of the granophile elements near the roof of the granitoid pluton, independent
of any fractional crystallization processes. Further concentration of granophile elements
occurs during main magmatic stage with (melt + cognate) solids, pegmatitic stage (melt +
cognate solids + fluids), pneumatolytic stage (solid + supercritical aqueous fluids),
hydrothermal stage (solid + aqueous liquid phase + vapor phase) and final stage (solid +
liquid water) at very low temperatures.

Backdrop of the I-, M-, A- and S-type Classification of Granitoids

Chappell and White (1974), and White and Chappell (1977) have broadly classified
the granitoids into ‘I-type’ and ‘S-type’ having, respectively, igneous and
(meta)sedimentary sources, while Dhana Raju et al., (1983) extended this classification to
some Indian granitoids and its bearing on associated mineralization of Cu-Mo with the I-
type and Sn-W with the S-type. Pitcher (1983) subdivided the I-type into ‘Cordilleran I-
type’ and Caledonian I-type’, and brought out their comparative and contrasting aspects.
Later, two variants of I-type were introduced, viz., the M-type (mantle-derived) and A-type
(anorogenic/alkali type), and attributes of the latter were given by Whalen et al., (1987),
while some of the general characteristics of all the four types of granitoids, i.e., I-, S-, M-
and A-types are given by Condie (1989) and Park (1989).

Attributes of I-type Granitoids and Their Mineralization

Amongst the four types of the granitoids, the I-type, having igneous source, is
dominant over the rest. The general attributes of the I-type are as follows:

3
(i) petrologically of variable composition of either TTG (tonalite-tronjhemite-
granodiorite) or granodiorite-monzogranite-syneogranite (sensu stricto)
with xenoliths;
(ii) mineralogically comprising quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar (pink colored, interstitial,
invasive) hornblende, biotite, epidote, allanite, sphene and magnetite;
(iii) geochemically, mostly metaluminous [A/CNK, i.e., molecular proportions of
Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O + K2O) < 1 and with normative diopside] and to a lesser extent
weakly peraluminous (A/CNK up to 1.05 and with a little normative corundum),
moderate depletion of Ba, Ti and P, strong SZC (Subduction Zone Component: Nb-
Ta depletion relative to Th and light REE), low value (≤ 0.71) of ISr, i.e., Initial
87
Sr/86Sr, and εNdi of ~ 0 and δ18O of 8-10;
(iv) tectonically related to subduction of either island arc (IA: ocean-ocean) or continental
arc (CA: ocean-continent) and collisional setting;
(v) genetically formed by fractional crystallization of calc-alkaline/island arc basalt or
partial melting of basic rocks like orthoamphibolites, hornblende schists, etc.; and
(vi) mineralization of Cu and Mo (± Ni, Co, Au, Ag, Te, Se and U).

Of the two sub-types of I-type granitoids, the ‘Cordilleran I-type’ is diagnosed by

tectonic setting of ocean-continent margins, variable petrological composition of tonalite
(predominant) to granite with dioritic xenoliths and minor gabbro, mineralogically with the
presence of magnetite (‘magnetite series’ of Ishihara, 1977), geochemically with the values
of A/CNK <1.05 and ISr <0.706, and with mineralization of porphyry Cu and Mo. The
‘Caledonian I-type’ has the attributes of tectonically being “Andean” and late stages of
collision belts, petrologically variable from granodiorite to granite with mixed xenoliths
and minor gabbro and diorite, mineralogically by the presence of both ilmenite and
magnetite (‘ilmenite series’ of Ishihara, 1977), geochemically with A/CNK of ~ 1.0 and ISr
of >0.705 to <0.709, and rare mineralization (Pitcher, 1983).

Indian Examples: These include the granitoids of (i) Singhbhum region in eastern India, (ii)
Malanjkhand pluton in central India and (iii) South Khasi batholith and nearby granitic
plutons in Meghalya of Northeast India.

Singhbhum Granitoid in eastern India: The Singhbhum craton and the volcano-
sedimentary Proterozoic rocks at their northern fringe are bordered by the intensely
tectonized Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ) that separates the highly metamorphosed schist
belt in the north from the Singhbhum craton. In this region, the crustal development
commenced with the formation of a sink zone in the thin ultramafic/mafic crust at ~4.0 Ga
by successive accretion of mafic and sialic material, derived from upper mantle as well as
by metamorphism of the supracrustals leading to the rapid thickening of the continental
crust to at least 30 km by 3.8 Ga. The Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) represents the
oldest representative of this primordial crust. The earliest granitic activity recorded is the
~3.78 Ga Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss, followed by the emplacement, in two
stages, of the ‘Singhbhum Granite Batholith’ (SGB). SGB is composite with at least ten
forcefully intruded magmatic bodies of tonalite, trondhjemite, granodiorite and granite
(TTG) containing biotite, chlorite and muscovite, and numerous patches of granitized basic
metamorphic rocks, besides xenoliths of hornblende schist. These bodies are considered to

4
belong to separate but closely related Phases I, II and III, with the first-stage comprising
Phases, I and II (~3.4-3.5 Ga) that are older to the volcanosedimentary Iron Ore Group
(IOG) of rocks and second-stage SGB (Phase III:~3.1 Ga) being intrusive into IOG (Fig.1).

Fig. 1. Geological map of a part of the Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ) showing U- and Cu-deposits. Index: 1-
Soda Granite; 2-Mica Schist; 3-Sericite Schist/Quarzite; 4-Chlorite Schist/Quartz Granular Rock; 5-
Banded Quartzite with Sericite Schist (2 to 5: Lower-Middle Proterozoic Singhbhum Group); 6-Undifferen-
tiated Metabasics, Quartzite and Conglomerate (Lower Proterozoic Dhanjori Group); 7-Singhbhum Granite
(Archean); 8- U-deposits; 9- Cu deposits; and 10- Strike and Dip of bedding. (From Sinha et al., 1990)

The low value for K/Rb, depletion of HREE and lack of Eu-anomaly indicate mantle
derivation of OMTG. The first-stage SGB was formed by partial melting of amphibolites
at the base of the crust, while the second-stage SGB was formed by partial melting of
garnetiferous granulite in the lower crust (Saha et al., 1988). SGB is I-type, metaluminous
to peraluminous with A/CNK of 0.93-1.2, normative diopside and normative corundum,
trace element behavior indicating fractional crystallization of a volatile-rich granitic
magma in 3 phases, age of 2.90-2.95 Ga and ISr of 0.7023 (Saha et al., 1968; Sarkar et al.,
1979). SGB, on partial melting and reactivation, gave rise to the soda granite that is
strongly peraluminous with A/CNK of 1.2 to 1.6 and normative corundum up to 3.2
(Talapatra, 1969), model Sm-Nd age of 2.5 Ga and Rb-Sr isochron age of 1420 ± 17 Ma
with ISr of 0.7393 ± 0.001, the latter being a reset event due to tectonization along the shear
zone (Pandey et al., 1986). Mineralizationwise, the 200-km long SSZ (traceable from
Duarpuram in the west to Baharagora in the east) hosts major Cu-(Mo)-U deposits, with U-
deposits/prospects between Bangurdih and Jaduguda, Cu-U deposits at Rakha-Surda-
Mosabani, and U-deposits at Bagjatha-Kanyaluka [all in the Singhbhum (West and East)
districts of Jharkhand] to Kesarpur-Dumardiha in the adjoining Mayurbhaunj district of
Orissa. SSZ was active from ~2.0 to 0.7 Ga and is the loci for volcanism and for the
emplacement of basic intrusives, SGB and soda granite, all resulting in polymetallic [Cu-
(Ni-Mo-Co-Te-Bi-Au)-U], polycyclic, polyphase and mostly hydrothermal mineralization
in diverse rock types of mainly schists (with major minerals of chlorite, sericite, quartz,
biotite and tourmaline in different proportions) and lesser quartzite, conglomerate and
apatite-magnetite rock. The ore minerals include uraninite, pitchblende, brannerite,
magnetite, martite, ilmenite, rutile, hematite, limonite, chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite,

5
molybdenite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, millerite, tellurides and native Cu and Bi. I-type SGB
and soda granite (S-type) can be considered as source for Cu, U and Mo, and metavolcanic
rocks as source for Cu, Ni, Co, Te, Bi and Au (Sarkar, 1982, 1984; Rao and Rao, 1983a, b,
c, d; Mahadevan, 1988; Dhana Raju and Das, 1989; Sinha et al., 1990).

(ii) Malanjkhand Granite Pluton in central India: This Plaeoproterozoic (~2.4-2.1 Ga)
pluton, belonging to the N-S trending Kotri-Dongargarh Rift Zone, is located at the
convergence of 3 mantle-rooted discontinuities on the northern margin of Bastar craton in
central India. It comprises (i) older (~2.4 Ga), spatially dominant, grey ‘Pipardhar
Granodiorite’, (ii) younger (~2.3 Ga), spatially of less extent, pink ‘Malanjkhand Granite’
and (iii) youngest (~2.1 Ga), minor aplite, with mineralized ‘quartz-veins/-reefs’, hosted
by (ii), and basic enclaves (comprising pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, plagioclase, K-
feldspar and quartz) in granitoids (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Malanjkhand area (after Geol. Surv. India), with inset depicting the geology of
the Cu (-Mo) deposit (from Rai et al., 2004).
The ‘grey granodiorite’ is coarse-grained, porphyritic, hypidiomorphic granular, with
occasional foliation, and comprises quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase and hornblende as major
minerals with brown biotite and microcline as minor phases, and epidote, sphene, apatite,
zircon, rutile and magnetite as accessory phases, whereas ‘pink granite’ is by and large

6
comparable to gray granodiorite in grain-size, texture and overall mineralogy but differs
from it in its predominant pink color, with microcline and green biotite as major phases,
hornblende as a minor phase and additional accessory phases of pyrite and chalcopyrite;
alterations include sericitization and saussuritzation. Aplite, present as dykes and veins
cross-cutting the granitoids of (i) and (ii) as well as mineralized quartz-veins, comprises
microcline, orthoclase, oligoclase, quartz and biotite, with accessory sphene, epidote,
apatite, calcite and fluorite. The mineralized quartz-veins comprise predominant vein-
quartz with accessory plagioclase and mica (Rai et al., 2004), together with a host of ore
minerals that comprise dominant chalcopyrite, with lesser pyrite, magnetite, molybdenite,
sphalerite, bornite, idaite, covellite, chalcocite, spionkopite, geerite, anillite, djurleite,
alunite, malachite, azurite, goethtite, native Cu and Ag, galena, thorite (Sikka and Nehru,
2002) and uraninite (Tripathi, 1979). Geochemically, both gray and pink granitoids are
metaluminous to weakly peraluminous [A/CNK 0.74 to 1.10 with average of 0.96 (n=15)
of granodiorite and 0.84 to 1.11 (only one sample with 1.34) with average of 1.02 (n=15)
of granite; data on A/CNK are recalculated, using the chemical data given, respectively, in
Tables 3 (A) and (B) by Rai et al., 2004], calc-alkaline, subduction-related volcanic arc
type, with high concentration of several metallic elements in the granitoids and notable
higher contents of Cu, Mo, Sn, W, Zn, Pb, Ag, Ba, Rb and Li, and lower contents of Ni,
Co, Cr, Sr and LREE in ‘granite’ as compared to ‘granodiorite’ (see Rai et al., 2004 for
actual data), low value for ISr (0.701-0.705, Panigrahi et al., 1993) and δ34S close to 0‰ (-
0.38 to +2.98‰, Sarkar et al., 1996) in typomorphic sulfides. Genetically, the data indicate
that the granitic melts could have derived from either mantle material with a short-lived
history in the crust or a lower crustal basic source of short crustal residence (Panigrahi et
al., 1993), with the source of heat to trigger the melting/anatexis of juvenile crustal rocks
due to mantle underplating in relation to rift tectonics of the Kotri Rift Zone or from the
radiogenic heat stored during crustal deformation prior to the development of Kotri Rift
(Rai et al., 2004). The evolution of relatively older gray granodiorite through pink granite,
mineralized quartz-vein and youngest aplite possibly relates to increasing volatile activity
in the same direction in the parental granitic melt. All these data demonstrate that the
Malanjkhand pluton is of I-type (Cordilleran-type) granitoid with large-tonnage but low-
grade Cu (-Mo) (92 million tones with av. grade of 1.3%Cu) deposit. There is, however, a
lively debate on whether this deposit is of ‘porphyry-type’ (e.g., Bhargava and Pal, 2000;
Sikka and Nehru, 2002) or not (e.g., Panigrahi and Mookherjee, 1997; Vishwakarma, 2003;
Rai et al., 2004).

(iii) South Khasi Batholith and nearby granitic plutons in Meghalaya, NE India:
Neoproterozoic granitic plutons of South Khasi Batholith (SKB: areal extent of 350 km2,
with mixed xenoliths of dominant amphibolite, hornblende gneiss, diorite and lesser
metasedimentary rocks) and its nearby smaller plutons of Umdulun, Phlangdiloin (all in
West Khasi Hills district) and Mylliem (East Khasi Hills district) in Meghalaya are
intrusive into the Archean gneisses and Proterozoic Shillong Group of metasedimentary
rocks, and are, in turn, overlain by the Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments (Fig. 3).

7
 Fig. 3. Geological map showing the distribution of South Khasi Batholith, Umdulun, Phlangdiloin and
Mylliem Granitoids, and the sandstone-type U-deposits at Domiasiat, Phlangdiloin and Gomaghat.

These granitoids are calk-alkaline with SKB (gray and pink types) and Umdulun being of
high-Ca, metaluminous (A/CNK of mostly <1), biotite (± hornblende and clinopyroxene)
granodiorite-adamellite, whereas those of Phlangdiloin and Mylliem being low-Ca, weakly
peraluminous (A/CNK mostly 1.05 to 1.16), bioitite (± muscovite) adamellite. Their field,
petromineralogical and geochemical data indicate that these are genetically related, with
the evolution of the younger Mylliem granitoid (607 Ma with ISr of 0.7119; Chimote et
al., 1988) from an older SKB (757 Ma with ISr of 0.7107; Panneer Selvam et al., 1995)
mainly by fractional crystallization and longer crustal residence time. Their petrogenesis
involves generation of metaluminous granitic melt by low-degree partial melting of a lower
crustal basic rock like amphibolite or hornblende gneiss at low water-pressure with
hornblende (± garnet) being residulal phase, together with “plagioclase effect”, followed by
fractional crystallization, with fractionation of metaluminous phases like hornblende and
pyroxene, resulting in a weakly peraluminous melt. High Th/U value (6-24) of the fertile
granitoids (from the point of U and Th) of SKB and Umdulun suggests that much of their U
was probably lost due to its labile nature, which, on release from these provenance
granitoids and meeting a strong reducing environment in sediments downstream, has led to
the formation of sandstone-type U-deposit at Domiasiat (Dhana Raju et al., 1989; Kaul and
Varma, 1990), south of SKB. These granitoids show many attributes of the I-type
(Caledonian type) syn- to post-collision uplift granitoids (Dhana Raju et al., 1996).

8
Attributes of M-type Granitoids and Their Mineralization

M-type granitoids have the following attributes:

(i) petrologically of ‘plagiogranite’ that is subordinate to gabbro and with basic igneous
xenoliths;
(ii) mineralogically containing hornblende, biotite, clinopyroxene and magnetite, with
interstitial and micrographic K-feldspar, and belonging to ‘magnetite series’ of
Ishihara (1977);
(iii) geochemically strongly metaluminous with A/CNK< 0.6, δ18O of 5.5 to 6, ISr<
0.7074, εNdiof ~ 0, variable SZC and minor depletion of Ba, Ti and P;
(iv) pre-tectonic, ophiolitic (back-arc basin) and island arc tectonic setting;
(v) genetically formed by fractional crystallization of the Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts
(MORB); and
(vi) mineralization rarely of porphyry Cu and Au.

Indian Examples: M-type granitoids reported in India are few and may be present as minor
occurrences of plagiogranitoid in the ophiolite belts of the (i) Andaman and Nicobar
islands, (ii) Nagaland-Manipur, (iii) Lohit Himalya of Arunachal Pradesh and (iv) Indus
tectonic belt in the Ladakh region of NW Himalaya.

Attributes of A-type Granitoids and Their Mineralization

A-type granitoids have the following attributes:

(i) petrologically range from ‘alkali granite’ to ‘trondjhemite’ with perthitic and rapakivi
textures, mixed cognate xenoliths and magma blebs;
(ii) mineralogically containing sodic pyriboles, fayalitic olivine, green biotite,
astrophyllite, magnetite, apatite, zircon, sphene, allanite, fluorite, cryolite,
pyrochlore, fergusonite, samarskite and betafite, and belonging to ‘magnetite series’
of Ishihara (1977);
(iii) geochemically metaluminous to weakly peraluminous (A/CNK of 0.9-1.1) to
peralkaline (A < N+K), with high contents of silica, Fe/Mg, Na+K, Nb, Ta, ΣREEs,
Y, F and Ga, strong depletion of Ba, Ti and P, SZC absent, F/Cl < 3, δ18O of 8-10 and
highly variable ISr (0.7030-0.712) ;
(iv) anorogenic and post-tectonic nature, and emplaced in extensional regions of
continental rift/epeirogenic upliftment and hot-spot;
(v) genetically formed by partial melts of lower crustal rocks (e.g., granulites); and
(vi) mineralization of Sn-W veins, fluorite, rare metal- and Li-pegmatites, and mainly
refractory Th-U-Zr-Y-RE-Nb-Ta.

Indian Examples: These include granitoids of (i) Kullampatti in the Salem district of Tamil
Nadu, (iii) Kanigiri in the Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh (AP) and (iii) Jaurahi in the
Sonbhadra district of Uttar Pradesh.

(i) Granitoids of the Kullampatti area, Salem district, Tamil Nadu: The granitoids and
pegmatitic granitoids of the Kullampatti area constitute the northern fringe of their parental,
rhomboid-shaped Suriya Malai (Sankari) Batholith (SMB). All these granitoids are

9
intrusive into the country rock of Archean-Paleoproterozoic hornblende (± biotite) gneiss
of the Bhavani Gneissic Complex (Nathan et al., 1999) and contain biotite-rich schistose
enclaves (0.7-1.7 m across the longest dimension). They occur close to the Moyar-Bhavani-
Attur shear zone within the Palghat-Caurvery shear system of the cratonic granulitic terrain
of southern India. Based upon the field relationship, grain-size, radiometry, petrography
and mineralization, the Kullampatti granitoids (KG) are divided into three phases, viz.,
Phase I – medium-grained, non-radioactive, barren biotite granite (marginal variant of
SMB), Phase II – coarse-grained, radioactive, fertile to mineralized biotite trondhjemite
and Phase III – sparsely radioactive, rarely mineralized pegmatitic granitoid (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Geological map showing the

distribution of Phases I, II and III of the
Kullampatti Granitoid, along the
northern margin of the Suriyamalai
(Sankari) batholith (from Rai et al.,
2004).

These phases represent

increasing evolution in the same
order as well as form a
consanguineous association with
SMB. Geochemically, these three
phases are (a) meatluminous to
weakly peraluminous (av.
A/CNK: ~1.05 to 1.07), (b)
characterized by conspicuous
depletion of Ti, Ba and P, and an
overall enrichment in the
contents of Ga and high-field
strength (HFS) elements of Y,
Ce, Yb, Zr and Nb, with phase II
containing the highest contents of
Ga (av. 25.5 ppm; av. Ga x
104/Al: 2.44 to 3.64) and HFS
elements as well as U (up to
0.51% U3O8) and Th (up to
0.55% ThO2) (see Sarkar et al.,
2004 for complete data), (c) of ‘within plate’ tectonic setting and (d) high ISr of 0.709-0.711
with Rb-Sr age being ~513-534 Ma (Pandey et al. 1993). The mineralization is mainly of
syn-magmatic type with post-magmatic, hydrothermal alterations in volatile-rich stage
leading to mobility of the so-called immobile elements like Y and HREE. The ore minerals
include magnetite, martite and a host of radioactive minerals comprising uraninite, altered
uraninite, uranophane, brannerite, fergusonite, smarskite, betafite, allanite, xenotime and
zircon. Genetically, KG represents the second-stage partial melt of a depleted granulite,
preceded by the formation of a Li-Cs-Ta (LCT)-rich hydrous melt (removed from the site
of its generation) during the first stage of melting. Considering the attributes of KG like (i)
emplacement along extensional regime within continental block of Peninsular India, (ii)

10
absence of any large-scale tectonic imprint, pointing to its post-tectonic nature, (iii)
presence of biotite and magnetite as characteristic mafic minerals, (iv) A/CNK value of
0.9-1.1, (v) geochemical signatures like conspicuous depletion of Ba, Ti and P, together
with enrichment in Ga and HFS elements like Zr, Nb and HREE relative to Th and LREE,
and (v) high value of ISr, the KG is classified as ‘A (anorogenic)-type granitoid’, belonging
to ‘magnetite series’ (Roy and Dhana Raju, 1999; Sarkar et al., 2004).

(ii) Graite pluton of the Kanigiri area, Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh: The Kanigiri
granite pluton with an areal extent of ~13 sq km and age of 995 Ma, with ISr of 0.735
(Gupta et al., 1984) in the Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh constitutes the
southernmost part of the Prakasam Alkaline Complex (PAC, Leelanandam, 1989). PAC
lies to the east of the eastern margin of the Cuddapah basin, with the Dharwar schists and
gneisses to its west, and the Eastern Ghat Mobile belt to its east. It is bound by two major
deep faults. It comprises silica-undersaturated nepheline syenites at Elchuru, Pruimetla and
Uppalapadu, silica-saturated syenites at Settupalli and silica-oversaturated granitic rocks at
Kanigiri and Podili. The Kanigiri Granite (KG) occurs close to a major fault, represented
by the NW-SE flowing river, Mekeru (Fig. 5) and is intrusive into the Dharwar schists,
with xenoliths of the latter in the former.

Fig. 5. Geologicap map of the ‘Kanigiri Granitoid’

within the Prakasam Alkaline Complex (PAC),
with inset showing the location of PAC with
reference to the Cuddapah basin, Dharwars and
Khondalite-Charnockite of the Eastern Ghats
Mobile belt.

Petrographically, KG is ‘biotite granite

(s.s.) with notable content of accessory
minerals like fluorite and rare metal-
bearing minerals, viz., columbite,
samarskite, fergusonite, zircon, allanite
and thorite. Geochemically, it is a low-Ca,
metaluminous to weakly peraluminou
(mean A/CNK of 1.10), highly
fractionated granite, with enrichment of
Rb, Pb, Ga, Y, Zr, U, Th, Nb and Ta, and
notable depletion of Ba, Sr, Ti and P. The
field, petromineralogical and geochemical
aspects point out that KG is ‘A-type
(anorogenic, ‘within plate’), with (i)
affinity to abortive rift-/hot spot-related continental epirogenic uplifted granitoid (CEUG)
and (ii) its parental melt derived by low-degree partial melting of lower crustal mafic rocks
at ~800ºC and emplaced with a near minimum melt composition at about 650-700ºC at
PH2O of 5 kb (assumed). This Neoproterozoic A-type CEUG is fertile for rare metals, and
soils derived from it are potential for polymetallic (Y, REE, Na and Ta) mineralization
(Thirupathi et al., 1996).

11
(iii) Granitoids of Jaurahi, Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh: The area around Jaurahi
forms the NW segment of the Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) and is located in the
southern proximity of the Son-Narmada rift. The granitoids of Jaurahi, covering ~6 sq km
area, have intruded the migmatite sequence of CGC and comprise mainly microgranite and
alkali feldspar granite (AFG), both traversed by minor silexite and riebeckite-bearing
granite (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Geological map of the Jaurahi and its adjoining areas in the Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh
(UP)(lower), and of the Chhotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex in parts of UP, MP and Bihar (upper). (From
Chhabra et al., 2004).

Petrographically, (i) microgranite and medium-grained AFG comprise quartz, microcline

and albite, with minor to accessory magnetite, thorite, zircon, samarskite and aeschynite,
(ii) coarse-grained silexite consists of mostly quartz with minor feldspar, together with
segregations of fluorite, zircon, fluorapaatite, columbite, samarskite, aeschynite and thorite,
and (iii) riebeckite-bearing granite comprises mainly quartz, microcline and albite, with
minor riebeckite, zircon, magnetite and samarskite. Geochemically, the granitoids and
silexite are (i) silica-rich (>70%) and F-bearing, (ii) low-Ca type (< 0.7% CaO) (iii) mostly
metaluminous/peralkaline with A/CNK value of 0.7-1.0, barring some peraluminous
silexite, (iv) enriched in Nb, Zr, Th U, Y, HREE and Ga (Ga x 104/Al : 3.3 to 7.7), and (v)
depleted in Ti, Ba and Sr. They are Nb-HREE-Th-mineralized, manifested in the form of
refractory columbite, samarskite, aeschynite and thorite. Data on field, petrography,
geochemistry and mineralization of these granitoids cumulatively demonstrate that they are

12
of metalogenetically specialized ‘A-type’, emplaced in extensional setting of major rift and
formed by fractional crystallization from a possible mantle-derived magma, with notable
activity by volatiles and fluid phases through the process of pneumatolysis (Chhabra et al.,
2004).

Attributes of S-type Granitoids and Their Mineralization

S-type granitoids have the following attributes:
(i) petrologically of narrow compositional range of ‘syenogranite to monzogranite’, with
megacrysts of K-feldspar, often with protracted history, and xenoliths, dominantly of
metasedimentary rocks;
(ii) mineralogically containing red biotite, muscovite, aluminosilicates, cordierite,
garnet, topaz, tourmaline, spinel, ilmenite, tapiolite, apatite, zircon and monazite, and
belonging to the ‘ilmenite series’ of Ishihara (1977);
(iii) geochemically with high silica, rich in Li, B and F, peraluminous (A/CNK value
>1.05) with F/Cl > 3, δ18O of >10, ISr of 0.7050 to 0.8, εNdi generally << 0,
moderate depletion of Ba, Ti and P, and variable SZC;
(iv) Syn- to post-tectonic, with continent-continent collisional setting;
(v) genetically formed by partial melts of metasedimentary crustal rocks; and
(vi) mineralization of Sn-W greisen and veins, and U-Th-Li-Be-B-Nb-Ta pegmatites and
aplites.

Indian Examples: (i) Sn-Nb-Ta-Li-Be deposit in the Bastar-Malkangiri area in

Chhattisgarh-Orissa; (ii) Ta-Nb-Be-Li deposit in the Marlagalla area in Karnataka and (iii)
U-deposit at Gogi in Karnataka are the examples in which S-type granitoids are critical.

(i) Sn-Nb-Ta-Li-Be deposits in the Bastar-Malkangiri area in Chhattisgarh-Orissa: In the

Bastar craton of central India, the NW-SE trending >80 km long Bastar-Malkangiri
Pegmatite Belt (BMPB) in parts of Chhattishgarh and Orissa, is well known for primary
(in granites and pegmatites) and secondary (in gravel-soil, derived from granites-
pegmatites) deposits of tin and rare metals like Nb, Ta, Be and Li. Its pegmatites and
their parental Paliam and Darba granitoids, together with quartz veins and basic dykes,
have intruded the Archean metasedimentary (Bengpal Group) and metabasic rocks, and,
in turn, are overlained by the Neoroterozoic Indravathi Group of sedimentary rocks that
are devoid of any pegmatites (Fig. 7). Both the Paliam and Darba granitoids are (i) two-
mica syeno-and monzo-granites (s.s.), (ii) have dominant metasedimentary xenoliths, (iii)
peraluminous with A/CNK value of 1.02-1.61, (iv) enriched in Rb (234-721 ppm), Nb
(17-52 ppm), Sn (13-216 ppm), Th (48-117 ppm) and U (7-28 ppm), (v) with an Rb-Sr
isochron age of 2308±48 Ma with ISr of 0.7354±0.0097, (vi) have greisenized marginal
zones, marked by enrichment of muscovite, fluorite and cassiterite, and (vii) have genesis
from the partial melts of metasediminetary rocks; these attributes demonstrate them as of
S-type. The pegmatites (2050 and 1620 Ma) are more evolved and mineralized
(especially those that intruded the metabasic and metasedimentary rocks), with increasing
distance from these granites. They vary from simple-unzoned, barren type I containing an
admixture of quartz, microcline, muscovite and biotite to complex, well-zoned,
mineralized types II to V, including replaced ones due to alibitization and greisenization,

13
containing the ore minerals of columbite-tantalite, cassiterite, beryl, lepidolite and
amblygonite (Ramesh Babu, 1993, 1999; Ramesh Babu et al., 1984, 1993).

Fig. 7. Geological map of the Darba and Paliam

Granites and their genetically related rare metal
pegmatites of the Bastar-Malkangiri Pegmatite Belt,
Chattis-garh-Orissa.

(ii) Ta-Nb-Be-Li deposit in the Marlagalla

area in Karnataka: The Marlagalla –
Allapatna rare metal pegmatite belt, located
5 km east of Srirangapatna in the Mandy
district, Karnataka is at near the southern tip
of Yadiyur-Karigatta schist band of the
Nagamangala schist belt in the Dharwar
craton. The rock types in the area include
the Sargur Group, Peninsular Gneiss,
Bababudans, granitoids like of Allapatna
and their derived pegmatites that were
emplaced into the amphibolites of the
Bababudan Group (Fig. 8).
The pegmatites are of LCT-type and are
classified into barren type I, beryl-
columbite-tantalite-bearing type II and
complex-zoned, spodumene-columbite-
tantalite-bearing type III. Weathering of
these led to the formation of gravel-sized
colluvial placers around Marlagalla-Allapatna, which were mined for over 10 y for the
recovery of Ta-rich columbite-tantalite with beryl and spodumene as co-products. The
Allapatna granite (AG), parental to these pegmatites, is a stock-like body of ~21 sq km
area and intruded the Peninsular Gneissic Complex on the eastern flank of the
Nagamangala schist belt. AG is a low-Ca, potassic, 2-mica, peraluminous granite with
accessory zircon, topaz, fluorite, shphalerite and allanite, with an Rb-Sr age of 2308±48
Ma and ISr of 0.7354±0.0097, all of which demonstrate it as an S-type (Sarbajna and
Krishnamurthy, 1994, 1996; Sarbajna, 2003).

(iii) U-deposit at Gogi in Karnataka: The U-deposit at Gogi in the SE margin of the
Neoproterozoic Bhima basin occurs within the major E-W trending Gogi-Kurlagere fault
near to its intersection with a NE-SW trending minor fault. It is hosted by both
brecciated, siliceous Shahabad limestone of the Bhima Group and its underlying
deformed basement granitoid (Fig. 9). The basement granitoid is both pink and gray
biotite (± hornblende) granite-granodiorite and comprises quartz, sodic plagioclase and
microcline (replaced by Na-plagioclase along margins) as major minerals, with minor to
major amounts of chloritized and epidotized biotite, minor hornblende, and minor to
accessory zircon, apatite, allanite, carbonaceous matter, sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite, galena), ilmenite, anatase, limonite and U-minerals of pitchblende, coffinite

14
and traces of U-Ti complex. The granitoid is a low-Ca type, peraluminous with A/CNK
of 1-1.37, an Rb-Sr age of 2504±28 with ISr of 0.70167±46, fertile with U up to 110 ppm
and fractured with fractures filled by fluorite and calcite; these attributes point to its S-
type nature. Apart from being the host, this granitoid is the source for the U-
mineralization in the Shahabad limestone, with mineralization in both being of poly-
phase, poly-metallic (U, Co, Ni, Se, Ag and Au), hydrothermal vein type (Achar et al.,
1997; Sastry et al., 1999; Pandit, 2002; Pandit et al., 2002; Dhana Raju et al., 2002).

Fig. 8. Geological map of the

Marlagalla-Allapatna area
showing the distribution of the
rare metal pegmatites, their
parental Allapatna granite and its
associated rocks in a part of the
Nagamangala Schist belt,
Karnataka (from Sarbajna and
Krishnamurthy, 1994).

Fig. 9. Geological map of the

Neoproterozoic Bhima basin
showing the distribution of the
basement granitoid and its
overlying Bhima Group of
sediments, along with location of
the U-deposit at Gogi (from Dhana
Raju et al., 2002).

15
 The attributes of I-, M-, A- and S-type granitoids, detailed and exemplified by the
above described Indian examples, are listed in Table 1 for quick/ready comprehension.

Table 1. Attributes of the I-, M-, A- and S-type Granitoids, with Indian Examples
Attribute I-type M-type A-type S-type
1. Petrology TTG or Plagiogranite (sub- Alkali granite Syeno-/Monzo-
and nature Granodiorite- ordinate to gabbro) to trondhjemite granite with mega
of Xenoliths Monzogranite-Sye- with basic igneous with mixed crysts of K-
nogranite with xenoliths cognate feldspar &
dioritic xenoliths (in xenoliths metasedimentary
Cordilleran type) xenoliths
2. Diagnostic Hornblende, biotite, Hornblende, clino- Sodic pyriboles, Red biotite,
Minerals epidote, allanite, sph- pyroxene, biotite, fayalite, green muscovite,
ene, magnetite magnetite biotite, magne- aluminosilicates,
(Cordilleran-type), tite, fluorite, cordierite, garnet,
ilmenite Rare Metal-RE topaz, tourmaline,
(Caledonian-type) minerals ilmenite, tapiolite
3. Geochemi- A/CNK≤1.05; mode- A/CNK< 0.6, minor A/CNK:0.0-1.1; High Si, Li, B, F;
cal features rate depletion of Ba, depletion of Ba, Ti, high Fe/Mg, A/CNK>1.05;
Ti, P; strong SZC*, P; variable SZC Na+ K, Nb, Ta, F/Cl >3;
ISr ≤ 0.71; εNdi : ~0; ISr < 0.707;εNdi : ~0; REE,Y, F,Ga; moderate
δ18O: 8-10 δ18O: 5.5-6 strong depleti- depletion of Ba,
on of Ba, Ti, P; Ti, P; variable
F/Cl < 3; ISr : SZC; ISr : 0.705-
0.703-0.712; 0.8; εNdi :<< 0
δ18O: 8-10 δ18O >10
4. Tectonic Subduction (Island-/ Pre-tectonic, ophio- Anorogenic, Syn- to Post-
Setting Continental Arc) & litic & Island Arc post-tectonic; tectonic,
Collisional setting emplaced in continent-
extensional continent
regions collisional setting
(rift, hot spot)
5. Genesis Fractional crystalli- Fractional crystalli- Partial melting Partial melting of
zation of basalts or zation of Mid-Ocean of lower crustal metasedimentary
partial melting of Ridge Basalts rocks (e.g., crustal rocks
basic rocks (MORB) granulites)
6. Minerali- Cu-Mo (± Ni, Co, Rare: porphyry Cu Sn-W veins, Sn-W greisen &
zation Au, Ag, Te, Se & U) & Au Fluorite, Li- veins; U-Th-Li-
pegmatites; re- Be-B-Nb-Ta
fractory Th-U- pegmatites &
Zr-Y-RE-Nb- aplites
Ta
7. Examples Granitoids of Singh- Few; small ones may Granitoids of Bastar-
in India bhum (Cu-U-Mo), be present in ophio- Kullampatti Malkangiri &
Malanjkhand (Cu- lite belts of A & N (TN) Kanigiri Marlagalla
Mo) & S. Khasi ba- Islands, Manipur- (AP) & Jaurahi (Karnataka)
tholith (source for Nagaland & Himala- (UP) for U, Th pegmatite belts
Domiasiat U-deposit) ya & RMRE for Sn, Nb-Ta, Be
& Li; Granitoid at
Gogi (Karnataka)
for U
*SZC: Subduction Zone Component (Nb-Ta depletion relative to Th and light REE)

16
Conclusions

Granitoids are the predominant plutonic rocks in the upper crust. Though they
appear to be simple rocks based on their mineralogy of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase
and a few mafic silicates and ore minerals, they are indeed complex, as demonstrated in
this paper by the magmatotectonic, petromineralogical, geochemical and genetic
attributes of their I-, M-, A- and S-types. These types both host and constitute as source
for mineralization of numerous granophile (i.e., granite-related) elements. The inter-
relationship of the attributes of the above types of granitoids and their specific
mineralization, as documented here by some Indian examples, can be taken advantage of
in identifying the above types of granitoids as targets for mineralization of specific
metals, which is the prime objective of this paper. After this, follow-up exploration,
involving detailed geological, geophysical and geochemical surveys, should be taken up
to delineate anomalous areas in such identified target-regions for specific type of
mineralization, the potentiality of which is to be tested by sub-surface exploration.

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