A Text-Book of Botany (PDFDrive)

TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT- BOOKS
A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
BY
~HN ~ (pULTElL A. M., PH. D.

U £AO or Dr:f'ART~£1'M' 0' BOTANY, T il t: U1f I \-EIl lTV
0" CItICAOO
NEW YORK
D . APPLETON AND COMJ'~NY
Co1"TllIGhT. 1105. ltV
D. APPLETON ~-D COMPANY
ENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS
EOlTEU BV
A. f. NIGHTINGALE. PH. D. LL. D.

TEXT-BOOKS IN BOTANY
By John M : Coulter. Ph.D.
K&A.D OP nU'.u.'T.M..' tNT 0" llMJ.ST 1.'" 'rat GKn'"EllSrrV
01 CJlIC.AUO
T ext-Boo k of Botany. 12mo. llIW!trsted.

Oloth $1.25
Plant Studl... An Elementary Botany. 12mo.
Cloth $1.25
Plant Relation •. A First Book of Botany.
12mo. Clotb '1.10
Plant Structures. A Second Book of Bo~
any. 12mo. Olotb 'J.20
Plant•• The two foregoing in one 'Volume.
For Normal Schools and Oolleges. 12m.o.
Olotb $1.80
In the Twenti6 i4 Centufl Seri6& of Text-BtIOks
D. Appleton and Company, New York

PREFACE
THE several editions of Plilnt StUJb~., designed for uso

in secondary schools, were combined abridgments of Plilnt
Relations and Plilnl Str!Jdurc8, Although this arrangemont
involved a certain amount of repetition and lack of conli-
nuity, it was felt tbat tbese faults would be corrected by ,
the competent teacher, whose chier desire would ' ~ to
secure points of view in reference to botanical material.
During the fiye years that have elapsed sinee the publi-
cation of the first edition of Plilnt StudiCIJ, tbe opinions of
many experienced teacbers have been obtained, These
opinions hM'e been based upon repeated usc of tbe book,
and have been of the greatest possible ser\'ice in develop- ,
ing definite idens as to the adjustment of tbe subject to the
needs of the schools, Tbe natural outgrowth of tins co-
operation between author and teacbers has been the prop-
aration of the present TexlrBook of Botany, wbirl! sel'ks t.<I
express their combined judgment. 'Ihere, has been substan-
lial agreement as to tbe nature of the material and Ihe
poiots of view, tbe only differences of opinion being such
minor ones or presentation as must always be found among
equally competent teachers,
There has been no attempt to treat the vanous di"iaiollll ,
vi PREFACE
of Botany separately, but rather to deyelop them all in their

most natural relationships; and yet morphology, pbysiology,
and ecology have been kept so distinct that the teacher will
have no difficulty in calling attention to these divisions, If it
is thought desirable.
, In the first five chapters tbe structure, iunction, and rela-
tionships of the most obvious plant organs are considered.
The purpose has been to use the most easily observed ma-
terial to give preliminary training in obse;vation and some
conception of the activities of plants.
The following thirteen chapters present an outline of the
plant kingdom in the simplest possible form to be at all ade-
quate. In these chapters the morphological point of view
neceSSArily dominates, but not to the exclusion of the phys-
iologhu and ecological. In this presentation of the great
groups, which is also an outline of classification, there have
been included special accounts of forms of economic interest;
not only because such forms as well as any others may
illustrate groups, but chiefly because there is a growing con-
viction that Botany in the schools must relate pupils to their
COmmon experiences. IlS well as train them in science. For
the same general reason the brief chapters on plant-breeding
and forestry haye been introduced.
Tbe four closing chapters include a. yery brief account of
plant associations, the most inclusive view of plants. This
subject is merely introduced rather than deyeloped.
It cannot h\l repeated too olten that this book will not
serve its purpose unless it is used as a. supplement to the
teacher, to the laboratory, and to field-work. Furthermore
. it mllJlt be insisted that tbe sequence of tbe book need not be
PREFACE vU
the sequence used by the teacher. For example', work on
leaves, stems, roots, and seeds may come in any order, and
may well differ according to the availability of material or the
conviction of the teacher. Itso happens tbat the book hegins
with leaves, hut those teachers who pmfcr to begin with secd~
should do so.
In the matter of illustrations, there have been many im-
provements, eliminations, and additions. All of this work
has heiin done or directed hy my assistant, Dr. W. J. G. Land,
whose skill in photography has been made use of freely and
whose cooperation has added much to the value of the book.
Unless otherwise credited, all illustrations have been prepared
for thls volume or those previously mentioned.
JOHN M. COULTER.
THE U~'IVER.SITY
0' CmCA.Go~
September, 1905.
CONTENTS
CILU"l'Ii:R ""'GIL
I.-INTuODUCTIO:S
A1I.-LEAVES
/ nI.-'sTEMS . 41
, IV.-Roo:rs . il
,A'.-GEmn.~AT10X 01" SEEnS 84
YI.-ALa.., !)8
VH.-FUNGI . [29
vrrr.-Ln"ERWORTS · 165
IX.-MOMES . · 175
x..-FERNS . · I 3
XI.-HORBETAU..s AND CLVO-r..tOSSCS · 197
A"1I.-GYl\["~OSPERMS · 207
>;IIL-A....GIOSPERMS . . . · 220
/)av.-FLoWERS AND INSEcrs . · 242
/XY.-'sE1':D DISPERSAL • · 255
hvI.-MO~OOOTYL£DON8 . · 262
....xVII.-DICOT1.l..E'OObO'!S: ARCIllCULA."YDE~ · 282
"VllI.-DlOOT\'LEOONS: SYlfPETA.L& . .302
XIX.-PL"\"'<T-tlREEDlNG . · 316
-XX.-FORESTRY · 320
x.."'{l.-PLAST AssoCIA'1'lOll,"S .324
XXn .-Hl'"DROPItYTES · 328
XXIII .- XEROPH"\'"TES .337
XXIV .-M:!:soPffYTE5 · 345
I Nl)EX • ' .357·
FOR SEOONDARY SOHOOLS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. Occurrence of plants.- Plants form the natural cover-

ing of the earth's surface. So generally is this true that a
land surface without plants seems remarkable. Not only
do plants cover the land, hut they abound in waters as well,
both fresh and salt waters. One of the most noticeable
{acts in regard to the occurrence of plants is that they do
not form a monotonous covering for the earth's surface ,
but that there are forests in one place, meadows in another,
swamp growths in another, etc. In this way the general
appearance of vegetation is exceedingly varied, and each
appearance tells of certain conditions of living.
2, Plants as Jiving tbings. -It Is very important to
begin the study of plants witl! the l...nowledge that they are
alive and at work. It must not be thought that animals
are alive and plants are not. There is a common impression
that to be alive means to have t he power of locomotion,
but this is far from true; and in fact some plants l,ave the
power of locomotion and some animals do not. Both plants
and animals are lhing forms, and the laws of living that
animals obey must be obeyed also by plants, Of course
there are differences in detail, but the general principles
f Ii ving are the same in all living forms. To begin' with the
1
2 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
thought that plants are alive and at work is important

because this fact gives meaning to their forms and structures
and positio:ll!. For example, the structure of a leaf has no
meaning until it is discovered how its structure enables the
leaf to do its work.
3. The plant body.-Every plant has a body, which may
be alike throughout or may be made up of a number of
different parts. If one part of the body does not differ from
another, the plant is said to be simple; bnt the most con-
spicuous plants, those with which everyone is best ac-
quainted, are made up of dissimilar parts, such as root,
stem, and leaf, and such pla"ts are said to be complex.
imple and complex plants do the same work; but in the
simple plant the whole body does every kind of work, while
in the complex plant different kinds of work are done by
different regions 01 the body, and these regions come to look
unlike when different shapes are better suited to different
kinds of work, as in the case of leaf and root.
4. Plant organs.-The diiferent regions of the plant
body thus set apart for special purposes are called organs;
and complex plants have several kinds of organs, just as the
human body has bands, feet, eyes, etc. The advantage of
this to tbe plant becomes plain by using the common illus-
tration of the difference between a tribe of savages and a
ch'ilize<! community. The SI"'ages all do the same things,
and each savage does eyerything. In the ciyilized com-
munity some of the members are farmers, otbers bakers,
others tailors, otbers butchers, etc. This is i-.""1l0Wll as
"dh'ision of labor," and one great advantage it has is that
every kind of work is better done. Several kinds of organs
in a pl:rnt mean to the pl:.nt jn t what dh' ision of labor
means to the community; it results in better work and more
work.
5. Plant work.-Although many different kinds of work
. are 'being camed on by plants, all the wo~k may be put
INTRODUCTlON 8
under two neads : nutrition and reproduction. This means
that every plant must cnre for two things: (1) the support of
its own body (nutrition) and (2) the production of other
plants like itself (reproduction). 1 '0 the great work of
nutrition many kinds of work contribute, ana the same is
tn!e of reproduction. In II. complex plant, therefore, ther~
are nutritive orgaos and reproductive organs; and this
means that there are certain organs which specially con-
tribute to the work of nutrition, and others wbich are
specially concerned with the work of reproduction. It
must not be supposed that an organ is necessarily limited
to one kiod of work. Its form alld structure fit it for a
pnrticular kind of "'ork, which may be called its specialty;
but it is not excluded from other kinds of work, just as
a man who is specially trained to be a carpenter may do
other things also.
6. Life-relations.-In all of its work a plant is very de-
pendent upon its surroundings. For example, it must
receive material from the outside and get rid of waste
material. Therefore, organs must estahlisb certain definite
relations with tbings outside of themselves before they can
work effectively; and these necessary relations are known
as life~rewtions. For example, green leaves are definitely
related to light-they cannot do their peculiar work
without it; many roots must be related to tbe soil; certain
plants are related to abundant water; some plants are re-
lated to otber plants, as parasites, etc. It is evident that a
plant with several organs may hold a great valiety of life-
relMions, and it is a very complex problem for sucb a plant
to adjust all of its parts properly to their most effective
relations. It must not be supposed that even a single organ
holds a perfectly simple life-relation, for it is affected by a
great ,'ariety of things. For example, a root is affected by
gravity , moisture, soil material, contact, etc. Each organ,
therefore, must become adjnsted to a complex set of 'rei 11.-
tions; and a plant with several organs bas so many delicate

adjustments LO care for that it is impossible, as yet, for us
to explain wby all of it. parts are placed just as they are.
7. Some conspicuous organs.-The prominent plants,
which are spoken of as berbs, shrubs, nnd trees, have three
conspicuous organs, root, stem, and leaf, which are con-
cerned witb nutrition; and most of these plants bave at
SOme time all!o another structure, tbe flower, wbich is con-
cerned witb reprod uction. Our first attention will be gi"c~
to these three great nutrith'c organs. A tree, for example,
has its roots extending more or less widely through the soil;
from the roots a stem rises into tbe air nnd brllnches more or
less extensively; and upon tbis stem or its branehes leaves
are borne. Such is tbe general plan of the more complex
plant.s; and our first purpol!e will be to disco"er wbat these
Qrgans are doing, and wby they are so rela.ted to one another
and to their surroundings.
CHAPTER II
LEAVES
Arrangement.-Leav s appear upon the sLelll8 ot

definite regiol1ll called IUldes (joints); and this jointed
st ructure of the stem is one of its characteristic features,
although it is much more conspicuous in some plants than
Fla. 1.-l..eAl acrar:agement: A. ~ or alternate ..eaves; B. oppom.UI (eyclie)

leav.; C, whorled (eyclic) Jeavea.-Alw- GUT.
in others. In certain plants only one lea! appears at each

node; and if an imaginaTy Ii ne he <ira wn connecting the
points on the nodes at which successive leaves appear, it
will iornl a spiral winding about the stem (Fig. 1. A). As a

.on""quenc~, leaves "ith tbis arrangement are said to be
spiral, though they are still often eaJled all£rna/e. On
account of this spiral arrangement, two successive lea yes arc
in di.fferent vertical planes. and the danger of f he upper leaf
• shading the lower is reduced. In other planul two or more
lea"cs appear at each node; and as an imagillary line con-
necting their points of origin forms a circle ahout the stem,
the arrangement is called cyclic. Very communly, however,
when two leaves appear at a node they are said to be
opposite (Fig. 1, B); and when more than two appear they
are dcsaribed as whorled (Fig. I , C). The cycle of leaves at
000 node does not stand directly over the cycle at the node
below, but over the spaces between the lower leaves, the
danger of sbading being reduced as in the case of the spiral
arrangement. In fact , the cyclic arrangem nt differs from
the spiral only in haYing two or mo.re parallel spirals.
9. Regioos.- Tbo conspieuoUll part of a leaf is the ex-
panded portion known as the blade, and often the leaf is all
blade. In many cases the leaf has a stalk (pclioL~) which
boars the blade more or less away from the stem; and in
certain groups of plants a third region is eYident, usually
consisting of a pair of more or less blndt>-Iike appendages
(stipul~.) on th.e petiole where it joins the stem (Fig. 2, A).
As might be expected, the essential part of the leaf is tbe
blade. and ordinarily when the word· leaf is used it refers to
the blade.
10. VenatioD.-Upon examining an ordinary leaf, tbe
blade is seen to consist of a green substan~e through wbieh
a network of veins is variou ly distributed The larger
veins that enter the blade !lend off smaller branches. and
these send off still smaller ones, until the small""t Yeinlets
are invisible. This is plainly shown by a skeleton leaf,
that, is, one which has been SO treaied that all the greeD
substance has disappeared. and only the networ:': of veins
7
remains. 'I'he vein-system or "cllalioll of lel\\'es is ex-
ceedingly diverse, but all forms Can be referred to II few
general plans.
In some lea"es a single I'cry prominent, vein runs tbtoui(h '
lhe middle 'If tbe blade, and is Clllled the '"idrill. hOI"
this all the minor I'eins arise as branches, anu such. '"Or ip
sa;d 10 be pimUJtelll ~Ci1,cd (Fig. 2, A, nnd Fig. 9). l 'u;"ol
lell"es several large "cins (ribs) of eql1al prominellccjlWl'(>
the blnde and dil'erge, each gil'ing rise to smaller br.,
C
FIO.2-\"enDtkan: d, pinnately veinetlleaf of quin<.'Jt! .•bt.n flu, blade, SM:dule.
and .'''''uiM: B. palm.ateiy veined led 01 aeranium; C. ~ed te..l (I{
Wy-cf-lbe-valley.-Alo.er OjlAT.
nch 8 leaf is SlUd to be palmately ..eined (Fig. 2, B, illld Fig.

16). In still otber )ea\'~s all the I'isihle "eins run ap-
proximately parallel from tbe base of lhe blade to its apex.
such lea' es being paralle("veined (Fig. 2, C), as distinct from
tbe two preceding, which are both net-"pned.
11. Form.-The f.:>rms of leaves are exceedin,.;ly varier.
and are related to tbeir venation. Palmately veined leau;1
3
-.
8 A T&XT-IlOOK OF tIOTANY
incline to broader forms than len,'es pinnately "cined or

patallcl-"eined, Names ha,'e been given to the various leaf
forms, as linear, lanccolatc, ovate, orllicular, etc" but they
• ellll be learned lIS they nrc needed, In the Dct-veilled
l"a "',,, the margin f the blade lUay be more or less deeply
tOn/h-d!', lobed (Fig, 2, B ); but in the paral! I-"eilled lea"es
the mnrgin is nol at all
toothed, ill wllieJ, case
tbe leaf is said to be en-
tire (Fig. 2, C), It is
quite common also f()r
net-veined leaves to
branch, when they are
said to be compound,
In this case the lenf-
blade is broken up
into a number of small
blades, sometimes \"ery
many of tbem, called
lea/l.ei8, A branching
pinnate leaf is said to
be pinnately compound
FIG. a.-Cumpound leayes : A. Ilwu.. tf!ly t'OlU· (Fig, 3, A); and "
pound '(!Sr oC hl:tck JorU8t: B. paJWlllof'Jy CQm+ brancl,ingpalmateJeaf,
~nd )caf \)£ red f!.luyC!l'. ~'i,th lbree lea8e.t$.
at..o 6.hu1\-ulC.aripuJOL polnUltely compound
(Fig.3,B),
12, Exposure to light.-The special work of leayes is ex-
ceedingly imporhmt, nnd this work call not be done unless
t h leaf is exposed to light, This fa'cl explains many
thi ngs in conneNion ,,-itb the position and arrangement
of lea" s, Lea,'es mw.t be arranged to recei,'e as much ligbt
as possible to b~lp in their work , but too intense light is
dangerous; h~ntc the adjustment to light is a delicate one,
The -get position any particular Jeaf holds in n-Ialion tn
h- iore, depends upon many circuUl8tances, and
LEAVES 9
cannot be eo,'ere<! by a gCJleral rule , except t hat' it ~ks

to get all tbe light it can without danger, Ho\\ len ,"os 8cek
the light will be first considered, and Inter how tI,ey protert
theruseh'es against it,
(1) Hon"lontal po..itioll,-The Ordinary po.ition of tI,e
leaf is more or less horizonlal. This ens bled it to rec ,hoc •
the direct rays of light UPOll it upper sUI'f3~t', nnd IllOT<'
rays strike it than if it stood obUquely or on edgc, ~lost
leaves when fllily grown ar' in a fixed position and "nnJJot
change it, however ullfavortlblc it may become: but llll''''
PIG. 4.--Geraniuw lea:vc.w exPO;;&! first to l"ntJca.I CA) ud lbeQ to ~litJue fD}
tal'1 01 li&llt.
are JeM'es so constructed that tbey can sbift their po~itio

as the direction of the light changes, or the stem lx'lIrin '
the Jea"es may shift its position 60 tbat a better rel"Jio!! t
light is secured (Fig, 4), If a garden nasturtIum growing i
window be observed, its Jellv"" wjlJ be seen facing th
light; but if it be turned around so as to bring the other

side of tbe plant to tbe light, the leaves will become adjusted
radually to the new direction. Mnny plants have mor
or less power to direct tbeir leaves, and it would be in-
t resting to observe what common plants of any regIon
• posse. sit.
(2) P"oblem of shading.-It is evident that leaves of the
same plant are in danger of shading one another; and while
it cannot always be pre-
vented , there are way'!. by
which the danger is dimin-
ished. The problem of the
plant is to develop as much
leaf surface as possible and
to place it in the most fa-
vorable position for work.
The spiral arrangemen t of
leaves prevents two suc-
cessive leaves standing in
the same plaue, and results
in vertical rows of leaves
distributed about the stem.
The narrower the lea Yes,
the more numerous may
be tbe vertical rows; and
tbe broader tbe leaves, the
Sewer the vertical rows
(Fig. 5). In many herbs
whose lcaves are ratber
hirge and close together,
Ftc. ~.-A broadMleoved plallt, ahowing the petioles of the lower
~::~~rticaIrO"'"3.SDd varioUAlydirected leaves are usuaUy longer
t han those above, and
t hus their blades are thrust beyond the shadow. The
same result is obtained when the lowest leaves of " plant
LEAYi:S 11
are the largest, and the upper I~M'es gradually diminish

in size.
(3) RoseUe-lta&iI.-An extreme case of crowding is shown
hy plants with the rosette-babiL; thnt is.thoso which produce
A 8
F'!G, 6.-.Roirelt.e-hAbit tho,., n hy mullein (A) and evt'ut.nI"Vnmrcue (I11-
a cluster or rosette of leaves at the hase of the stem (figs.

6 and 7). Often this rosette, frequently lying nat upHn the
ground or upon the
rocks, includes &11
the leaves the plaut
produces. This close
ovcrlappingofleaves
is a poor adjustment
to light at best, but
there is evident an
adjustment to se-
cure tLe most light
possible under the
circumstances. The
10l\'est lea"es of the
rosett~ are the long-
est. and tbe upper ones become gradually shorter, "" tha
e_.. ch leaf has at least a part of its surface exposed to ligh
LEA\-ES 18
Ifhe overlapped base is not c"pnndpd so much a.3 tho ox-

posed ape", and hence such leaves tirc usual!' nnrrow
toward the btllle and brond towlird the apex, This nM-
rowing at, the bil-'c is i'Omelimc~ clu'ried so far that m st
of the overlapped part is only n petiolo,
(4) Lea!-lIIosaics,-All leaf adjustments (in luding ,the.
spiral arrangement, elongation of lower petiole", et c,)
that hM'e to do, with fitting leuf-blnd slog ther, 80 I bat til
greatest amount of leaf surface mny be eSIO,cd t dil't'rt
illumination, may be regarded as concerncd in tbe con-
struction of a leaf-mo8aic. A general mosaic arrangement

of lea\-cs may be ob..,..n'cd in connection with almo t eve
broad-leaved plant (Figs. 8 and 9); and even wben tb
leaves ate separated along an erect stem, a view from above
14
LEAVES 15
in which all the leaves are referred to a single plltne, shows

the mosaic. In many t rees in dense forests, notably in
the tropics. the leaves appear chiefly and sometimes ex-
clusivel:- at the extremities of the bra nches, often producing
a magnificent dome-like mosaic.
In the. case of sterno exposed to direct light only on onoo
side. a. tbe horizontal branches of t rees, sterns prostmte
on Lhe p:rOIUld . and stems against a support (as climbers
<lnd t,,;nel's) , the l ~a f-bladcs mllst. be hought· the light
side so far as possible, and those t hat belong to the shaded
side must be filted into lhe spaces left hy those t hat. bplollg
to the illumionted side. This is b rought a hout in various
ways, as by lhe twisting of the stem, t he twisting and
elongation of the petiole. the bending of the blnde on the
petiole, et.c. Looking up into a t ree in full foliage. one
\\'ill not.ice that the horizontal branches are comparatively
bare beneath, the leaf-bl ades being displayed on tbe upper
side as a mosaic. The most, complete leaf-m osaic ia abown
by certnin ivies, involving sllch an amount of twisting, dis-
placement, elongation of petioles, etc., as to give ample
eddenee of the importance of securing for leaves an ex-
posure to light (Fig. 10).
13. Structure.-Before considering t he work of the leaf
it wil l be necessary to know somethi.ng of i ts minute
structure. To see th is structure, not nlereiy surface views
must be obtained, but also good clear sections through the
leaf (cross-sections) must be made ; a nd for this purpose a
relatively thick spongy leaf, like that of the byacin r,h or
t he lily, gives the least t rouble.
( I ) Epiclermis.-It is possible to peel off from tbe sur-
face of such 11 leaf a delicate transparent skin (e'{Y'idermi.).
This epidernils com pletely covers tbe leaf, nod generally
shows no green ' color. Examined under the compound
microscope it if seen to be made up of small units of
structme known as cell. "(Fig. 11). Each cell is bounded
by a wall: and in the epidermis chese cells fit closely to-

gether, sometimes dovet.ailing with one another.
Characteristic openings in the epidermis also will be dis-
covered, sOUlctimes ill vcry great numbers. Guarding each
slit-like oP<'nillg are two crescent-shaped epidermal cells,
.ruled gtta,rd-cell" (Fig. 11 ). The ",hole apparatus is known
as a stoma. (plural stoma.la ) . which really means II mouth,"
of which the guard-cells might be thought of as the lips,
• One important fart about stomata is t,hat the guard-cellB
can change their shape, and so Yary the size of the opening.
These numerouS openings are passageways into the interior
of the leaf. pulling the internal ceUs into communication
with the ail' out-
side, and so fa-
cilitating the in-
terchange of gases
that will be de-
scribed later in
connection with
the ,york of the
leaf. In horizon-
tal leaves the sto-
mata are chiefly
}"'w. J 1 .---5urfl1.~ de,,' of lite epidermis of 0. h~'ilcintll an d sometimes ex-
:r~~cl~;d~.lU:~il~r~:d~~~\\~~~illI;:~~~t~l:~ii~. their clusiyely on the
lower surface 1 a
fair average number being about 100 to each square milli-
meier of surface (about 62,500 to the square inch); although
10 some cases the number may reach 700 to the square milli-
meter (almost 450,000 to the sqllare inch). In leaves
.....posed alike on both sides to the light, as in the erect
le~ves of the . common Bag, the stomata are equally dis-
tributed on both surfaces. In f1oatin" leaves as those of
water-lilies, the stomata are all on the ~pper su:.face; and in
submerged leaves there are no stomata. From this dis-
LEAVES 17
tribution it is evident that stomata are definitely 'related to

air; and that, where t.here is difference of illumination on the
(11"0 surfaces they occur chiefly on the less illuminated sur-
face. Stomata are not peculia.' to the epidermis of leaves;
for they nrc found in (,he epidermis of any green part, as
young sterns. fruit, etc., and even on the colored part.. or'
flo\mrs, ,
(2) M csophyll.-A cross-section of It leaf such as t'lutt of
the lily shows the single layer of epidermal ce.lls bounding
the section above
and below, pierced
here and there by
stomata, recognized
by t.heir guard-cells
(Fig. 12). An en-
larged view of a sec-
tion of a single sto- 7/" ,;_
rna may be seen in '
Fig, 20, Between sp
these two epidermal
layers is the mass
of green tissue mak-
ing up the body of
tbe leaf, and known
as mesophyll. This
comprises cells con- FJo. 12.---CrO»-SeCtioJ:] of JjJ~- leaf, showing epi-
JI
dermal laydh (e) with stoma.ta. (.); RleaopbyU
taining the numer- made up of palisade u8SUe (p) and spongy tissue
(..v) with nir-spaces (a), and containing ohloro-
ous small green piBlltlJ; and sey us of veinleUl (11)
bod ies (chloroplasts)
that give color to the whole leaf, Usually the mesophyll
cells are arranged differently in the upper and lower regions
of the horizontal leaf. In the upper region the cells just
beneath the epidermis ill'e elongated at right angles to the
surface of the l eaS, and stand in close contact, form ing the
pali8ade tissue. In. the lower region of the leaf the cells
are irreg~l"r in form, and 80 loosely arrru:ged as t? leave

air-spaces between the cells, tbe whole regIOn formIng the
.p(mgy tissu.e (Fig. 12) . The air-spaces commUnIcate wIth
one another, thus forming a labyrinthine syslem of air-
chambers throughout, the spongy mesophyll. It is into
'this system of air-chambers that the stomata open, and
,,hus ';'h3t mal' be called an internal atmosph.ere is in con -
tnct with ,,11' tbe green working cells, and this in ternal
atmosphere is in free communication through the stomata
with the external atruosphere. The significance of the
palisade arrangement will be considered under the head of
leaf protection.
(3) Veins.-In the cross-section of the leaf there will
he seen also here and lhere, embedded in the mesophyll,
the cross-sections of veins and veinlets, that constitute the
supporting framework of the leaf and conduct ma.terial to
and from the green working cells (Fig. 12).
14. Photosynthesis.-The peculiar work of green plants
or green parts of plants is to manufacture the kind of food
best Imown as sugars and starch, such foods being called
carbohydrates. This manufacture is exceedingl)' important,
for all life is dependent upon it. If green plants should stop
the manufacture of carhohydrates, the food supply of the
world would soon be exhausted. All other forms of food
tire derived from c!1rbohydrates in some way, and only green
plants can add to the stock that is being drawn upon con-
tinually. Tlli means th"t green plants must manufacture
carbohydrates not only for tbeir own use, but also for the
use of animals and of plants that are not green. Since
lea-ves are chiefly expansions of green tissue, they are_con-
spicuous in the manufacture of carbohydrates; hut it must
be remembered that the manufacture goes on wherever
there is green tissue, whether it is found in leaves or not.
A very conspicuous fact about this manufacture is that
it cannot go on unless the green tissue is exnosed to ""hr..
LEAVES 19
This explains why leaves are adjusted in so manY' ways to

obtain light, liS described in § 12. It also gives nnme to
the process, pholosynlhelli8, the name indicating that the
work is done in the presence of light.
The process demands that carbohydrates shall be mad~
from raw materials common in nature anc ~~sily obtained
by plants, and in photosynthc,;s two such subslances are
used. One of t hese is water, which in the plants COffi-
m!:mly thought of is absorbed by the roots from the soil,
passes up through the stem, and reaches the green working
ceJls of the leaves through the veins. The other substance
is carbon dioxide, a gas present in small proportion in the air
(really in I.he fo rm of carbonic acid gas), but one which is
being constantly renewed as it is used, so that it is always
available. Water is made up of one part of oxygen and two
parts of hydrogen; while carbon dioxide consists of two
parts of oxygen and ol1e part of ca1·bol1. These are jllst tbe
elements that. enter into the structure of a carbohydrate.
In photosynthesis the elements of water and carbon
dioxide lire separated and recombined to form a carbo-
hydrate, and when this has been accomplished it is found
that some oxygen has been left over. That is, in the
prozess oxygen is a waste product and is given off by the
working cells. Therefore, in the sunlight a leaf is absorbing'
carl,~n dioxide and giving off oxygen; and tbis gas exchangjll
is the superficia l indication tbat photosynthesis is going on.
It is very easy to discover that oxygen is being given
off by a leaf exposed to light, and that the amount given
off (and hence tbe amount of work) depends upon the
intensity of the light. If an actively gro\\ing water-plant,
submerged in water in a glass vessel, be exposed to bright
light, bubbles may be seen coming from the plant and
rising through the water (Figs. 13 and 14). Shading the
vessel diminishes the number of bubbles. That the gas
being given off is mainly oxygen may be proved by invert-
20
LF.AVES 21
ing over the plants a large funnel and leading the' bubbles
into a test tube, in whicll the presence of oxygen can t}l en
be tested.
It has been noted that photo-
synthesis js associated ])ot mere-
ly with light but also with green
tissue; and in examining the
st.ructure of the leaf it was dis-
co~ered (§ 13) t.hat t.he green
tolar is due to the presence of
chloroplasts iu t he mesophyll
cells. It is these chloroplasts
that manufacture the carbo-
h)' dmt.es, and they obtain Irom
the light th e power (energy) to Ff~·If:~i~~c~l~ ~~:ll";~~rc';:~
do it. The first yisible product. whol!e !ltltiral leafletll bave l'l4.,,()o
of photosynthesis is starch, and ::IJ:~,tl~lig~~t;~~;e~~I~h~~:
'w hen the workilJg cells are very ~~r~~rl::~r~l Ilbundauoe Qf it
active starch mar be observed
·
to accumulate in them; but when the process becomes
slower or stops, as during the
,"; t" night, this st.ncb disappears, the
I
food being carried away for use
.'. (Figs. 15 and 16).*
A summarized statement of ./
i pbotosynthesis is as follows: It is
!' ,,-';
the manufacture of carbohydrates
by chloroplasts in the presence of
PHi, 16.-A getanjum leaf. one-- light, water and carbon dioxide
half of whic.h has heen cov- being used, and oxygen being
ered; the teer MOWB ftbsence
(If starch in the covered balf. given off as a waste product.
* Experiments shou ld be devised to teat for the accumulation of
starch in lea.ves that have been exposed for some time to 3 strong light,
and to show that this a.ccumula.tion does not take place in the dark.
In the experiments illustrated by Figs. 15 and 16 1 the test for starch waa
15. 'l'ranspiration. -\Vater is being evaporated con-

stantly from t he surface of a living plant exposed to the air.
This loss of water by the plant has been called transpiration.
Since Icayes a re especially exposed to the air, their transpira-
tion is conspicuous. Althougb the epidermis impedes trans-
, piration, we have seen (§ 13) t hat t he leaf has in its system of
air-spaces an internal atmosphere, which is in communica-
tion with the external atmosphere through the stomata.
B ence, wnt er"yapor is constantly passing from the \\'orh."ing
cells into the internal atmosphere and diffusing tlu'ough the
stomata into the external atmosp here. Although a cer tain
amount of transpiration takes place directly through the epi-
dermal cells,,IIl uch the larger part of t he water \"3 por passes
out by way of the stomata. If the stomata are closed by the
guard-cells, the internal atmosphere becomes saturated witb
water vapor and tra nspiration ceases. It is evident that
the ]!lJ'ger the air-spaces in the leaf, that is, the looser the
leaf is in text ure, the greater is the amount of intei'DaI
atmosphere, and the more rapid is transpiration. Hence
t he amoant of transpiration from a leaf depends more upon
its structure than upon the extent of its exposed surface.
If a glass vessel (bell jar) be placed over a small active
plant, t he moisture is seen to condense on t he glass, a nd
even to trickle down the sides (Fig. 17) .* When the
8.8 follows: Alter the e)l.-posu1'e to light, the leaves were placed in alcohol
to extmct the green coloring matter (chlorophyll). '\TOeD. this was
accomplished, they were rinsed thoroughly, to remove the alcohol, and
placed in 8. water solution of iodine. In this solution t he sta.rch-con-
tami.l1g portion becomes dark blue, the other portion remnining colorles..<3.
The wnter solution of iodine is obtained by dissolvi.ng potassium iodide
in water and adding scnJes of iodine.
* Some such experiment should be performed to demonstrate the
[set o! trsJlspimtion. Care must be taken to shut off tile evaporation
from the pot or soil, since it is to be demonstrated th!1t water is coming
from t be plant. Rubber cloth or n coating of ])araffin or wa.'- ma.y be
used for sealing up all sources of moisture except the plant (Fig. 17).
LEA VJ>S 23
amo unt of water gi\'eJl off by a few leaves i notetl , some

\ ague idea may be formed as to t he amount given off by a
great mass of "egetation , such as t1 mendon- or a forest.
One observer h"
stated that a single
stalk of corD during
its life (173 days)
transpired a,bout four
gallons of water ; and
that a single hemp
pl ant (140 da,ys)
tran spi red nea rl y
eigbt gallons. An-
other observer esti-
mated that a sun-
fl ower, whose lea f
surface was approxi-
mAtely nine square
yards, gave off near-
ly one quart of wa-
te r in a single day.
16. Growth. - I n
very young lea Yes
growth takes place
Ftc:. 17.- Trnm;:pirution (!xpcrimeot: n poned geru-
at t he apex, but tltis nium Eienled with a rubber clotb and c:ovel1lli
mayceaseearly . The with n bell jill'; t.he mist. and droll\ets or wa.ter
OIl the gl:\..."8 more or tess obscure tbe plant.
subsequent growtb
often occurs at the base of the blade, in a special growiog
regioo7 as may be seen in long and narrow leaves such as
those of grasses. To discover these special regions of
romb in leaves, some rapidly 6'1'owing plants (such as
he gourds) should he cultivated in pots. When the
oung leaves first appeltr, a scale should be marked off in
ndia ink wit b a poi.lted camel 's hair brush on the petiole
there b~ one) and the midrib. The scale should be made
24- A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
wit b cl\,£nitely spaced lines, preferabl y five millimeters

apart.' As the leaf continues to grow, t he most active
growing region "ill be indicated by t he lines that draw
fa rthesl apart.
1t . Protection.-Such an important organ as t he leaf,
wit.h its deli o.te acti,.c cells necessaril y in communicat.ion
witb the air, is ex posed to numerous dangers. Conspicll-
ous among thesc dangers are drought, intense light, and
cold. ~J an y ways of meeting t hese dangers ha ve t een
developed by plants, but t.he subject is too large and com-
plex to be presented wit h any completeness. The best
th at can be donc is to select 11 rew striking illustrations of
protection that seem to be defini te. Perhaps the most
common danger to most plants is an excessive loss of water,
and when a drought pre" ails the problem of checking trans-
piration is a most serious one. As the leaves are the
prominent tra.nspiring organs,
~
...uti( '( t he chief methods of protec-
t JI tion concern them.
~ J.l
,
"" ilt1
~
=
:i ill: c
(1) The epidermis may be regarded as an ever-presenj

check against transpiration (Fig. 12), for withou t it th.
• Such scales on stem and l'O()t are seen in Figs. 57 and 75.
LEAVES
. active mesophyll cells would soon lose all their wl}ter. In

some plants of very dry regions, what may be regarded as
several epidermal layers appear.
(2) The palisade layer of the mesophyll (§ 13) also is
very commonly present and tends to diminish trauspira-
c
e
Fla. In.-Section through a smwJl portion of yew leaf, ahowinc the epid""rmaJ
layer (e) with it!! cuticle (c ) . and the upper portion or thll pttliao.de.layer (P).
tion, exposing only the ends of elongated cells, which staJld

so close together that there is no drying air between
t hem (Fig. 12). It is very characteristic of alpine and
desert plants to form two or three layers of palisade cells,
apparently as a protection
against unusual danger from
drought and intensity of
light. The accompanying
figure (Fig. 18) shows in a
striking way the effect of p
light intensity upon the
structure of mesophyll, by
contrasting leaves of the FlO, 20.-Section through 6. SDlAll I)OrtioD
same plant exposed to ex- o f CMufltion les.f, Ifta""rng the! epider-
mal cells (8) with their heavy cuticle
treme conditions of light (c); a !!iosle stoma in the el)idermal
layer. opening without into 11 brottd
and shade. The intense pb.88ageway through the cuticle. and
light i s dangerous to tbe within into llD Ilir-.cb:unber; lWd the
upper pOrtion of palisade cells (P) con-
chloroplasts, and it has taining chIoropltulUl.
been observed that they are
able to assume various positions, iJl very intense light mov-
ing to the more shaded depths of the palisade cells, and in less
intense light moving to the more external regions of the cell.
(3) The cuticle, which is often developed U pall tbe

epidermis, is one of the best protections again st loss of
water. It is dC"eloped by the exposed walls of the epi-
dermal cells. and being constantly renewed from beneath it
may become ycry thick and many-layered (Fig. 19) . Some-
. times the cuticle be-
comes sothick that the
passageways through
it to the stollttta re-
semble tubes (Fig. 20).
In dry region!l, or in
Fto, 2L-Bct'lion through the lellf of bush clover,
Bhowing Ul'pl"r nnd lower epidermis, pulisude any much exposed
cell!-, sud teU" of the I!pong~- ti~ue; th~ l('!wer place, the cuticle is fl
erJiciermiB produce!! numerous ... illmle hairs t},!H
bend shllrply IUllJ lie rJong the surface of (he very constant feature
lear.
of plants.
(4) Hairs in great variety are developed upon leaf
surfaces, being outgrowths from the epidermal cells. They
mal' form only a slightly downy covering (Fig. 21), or the
leaf ma v be covered by a woo 11 y
01' felt-like mass so t,h"t the epi-
dermis is entirely concealed, as
in the common lllullein (Fig. 22).
In dry or cold regions the hairy
covering of leaves is very notice-
able, often gh;ng them a brilliant
silky wbite or bronze look. Some-
times instead of hairs the epi-
dermis de\'elops scales 01 \'arious
potterus (Fig. 23), often overlap-
ping and forming a complete
coyering. The great variety of
these l]airs and scaJes, and the Flo. 22'-!~e:~g hair of
ease with which they may be ex-
amined, make them an attractive st,udy. At the same
time, just how tbey protect the leaves is by no means
LEAVES 27
clear; and doubtless they may sen'e other purposes also,

or sometime may even be of no use whatever to the
plant. It has been
suggested that in re-
gions of intense light a
coyering of hairs is an
effecti\'e sun - screen.
The explanation is
th~t, being dead struc-
tures, containing air,
they reflect the light,
thus diminishing t he
amount that reacbes
the working cells. As
is well known, hair
are by DO means re-
stricted to leaves, but
occur on all parts of
plants. P,o. 23.-8""_ f,om lhe leaf of 8,.,.,m",: ,uch
(5) Small leaves are sen1es overlap and form 8. oomplete covering.
characteristic of dry
regions, in tills way each leaf exposing a small surface to
the drying air and intense light. That this reduction in
size holds a direct relation to
- e the dry conditions is evident
from the fact th"t the same
- w plant often produces small
leaves in a dry region and
larger ones in moist condi-
- w tions. In the case of the
cactus, a large group in the
dry regions of the Southwest,
F1G. 24.-:Seeliob through 1\ leaf of Be-
gotlia, sbowiliK epidetllll\! layers (e), the leaves have become 80
colorlesa water 8tornge tiBIJt,te (w), much reduced that they are
and the central ~lls CObta.ining
chloroplaata (c). no longer used in photosyn-
A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA]\'T
28
thesis, and this process is carried on by the gre.en tissue of
the globular, cyli ndrical, or flattened stems (Flg. 25).
Flo . 25.-A ,lobular cactu!I. with ribbed !Item be:lring 8'pille~ nud 110 £olinge leaves.
(6) The roselle-habit (§ 12) is a very common method of

protection used by small plan ts gJ:owing in exposed situa-
tions, as hare rocks and sandy ground. The clustered
lea \'es, flat upon the ground or nearly so, and more or less
oyerlapping, form a very effective arrangement for resisting
intense llght or drought (Figs. 6 and 7) .
LEAVES 29
(7) Water reservoirs are common in leaves l\l\d other

parts of plants of dry regions, and while they may not be
regarded as a protection against loss of water, they ac-
complish the same purpose in storing it. Usually the water
reservoir is a definite tissue, and in many leaves it may be
distinguished from the ordinary green working cells by •
being a group of colorless cells (Fig. 24) . In plants of the
drier regions leaves may become thick and fl eshy througl\
:.tcting as water reservoirs. as in the agave. I n the cactus
the peculiar stems ha "e become great resen'oirs of moistUl"e.
T he globular body may be taken to represent th~ form of
body by which the least amount of surface may be exposed
and tbe greatest amount of water storage secured (Fig. 25).
In tbe cnse of these Beshy leaves and fleshy bodies it has
long been noticed that they not only contain water, but also
bave great power of retaining it. Plant collectors have
found mucb difficulty in drying these flesby forms , some of
which seem to be able to retain their moisture indefinitely,
even in th~ driest conditions.
. (8) Profile leaves are those in which the margin is
directed upward , in tbis way standing edgewise. This po-
sition is developed in connection \\~tb intense light, and
results in turning away the Bat faces of the leaves from tbe
intense ray of midday and exposing them to the morning
and evening rays of less iqtensity. 10 the dry regions of
Au tralia tbe leaves of many of tbe forest trees and shrubs
have this characteristic edgewise position, giving to the
foliage a peculiar appearance. The most famolls illustra-
tion in this country of a plant with profile leaves is tbe so-
called compass plant, a rosinweed of the prairie region .
Its name was given because its leaves were said to point
north and south, serving the purpose of a compass. It is
evident that the plane of a profile leaf, exposing its faces to
the morning and evening sun, will lie in a general north·
and south direction. It is a significant fact that when
such a plant grows in the shade t he lca,"es do not assume

the profile position. It must no! be supposed that t here
is any accuracy in the
north 01' south direction,
os the edgewise position
is the significa.nt one. In
the rosin\yeecl probably
the north and south eli-
rrction is the prevailiong
one; but in the prickly
lettuce. a Ycry common
weed of waste grounds,
and one of the most
striking of the compass
plants, the edgewise
position is frequently as-
sumed witbout any ref-
erenCe to the north or
sout h direction of ·the
apex (Fig. 26) .
(9) At otile leaves ha ,·e
fiG. :W.-Pdd../y /cHllce. ~1j(JI\illg rhe edge- the power of shifting
~~i:..or profile Jenves frc.Ill two points of their positions according
t,o their needs, directing
their flat surfaces toward the light, or more or less inclining
them. Such leaves bave been developed most extensively
in the great family to which peas and beans belong, the
most conspiruous ones bejng those of the so-ca.lled sensitive
plants. The name has been gil·en because the leaves respond
to ,·atiou5 external inl\uences by changing "osition with
remarkable rapidity. A slight touch, or even jarring, will
call forth a response from the leaves; anel the sudden ap-
plication of heat gives striking results (Fig. 27) . The most
common sensitive plant, abouJJds jn dry regjons, and may
be taken as a type of such plants. The leaves are divided
LEAVES 31
into very numerous small leaflets, sometimes very small ,

which stretch in pairs along the leaf branches. When a
drought begins, some pairs of leaflets folt!
together, slightly reducing the Slirfoce ex-
posure. If the drought continues, morc
B
1''10. 2i.-Lellf of sensitive pliLlll in tw(o eondiuonll: A. fully cxpnud(..,(}, with the
four mnin branche;! lUlU numerous JCl.lfJeu well S}'lread; B. vIler a abock 01 !IODJe
kind, the Icuflets beillJ! throwll together forward and upwnrtl. Ul(~ four branc.hes
halTing beel) moved tl}wlU'd each other, and the muin petiole having dropped
shnrply downward.-After D Il ClIAUTllt: .
leaflets fold togeLher, Lhen still others, until finally all

the leaflets may be folded t,ogether, and the leaves them-
Il
FIQ. 2S.-Tbe day (A) and night. (8) positions of the leaves ot n cloveI'-like plant.
-After STR.M.HURGER,
seh'es may bend against the stem . In tIlis way the ex-
posed surface may be regulated according to the need.
Motile leaves also shift their positions throughout the day

in reference to light ; and at night a very characteristic
position is assumed, once ·called a sleeping position, but
better night position. The contrast between the day and
night positions of ien"es such as those of the sensitive plants,
and eveD of the common white clover, is quite striking (Fig.
28). These night positions, produced by the withdrawal
of light, may be induced by placing plants in darkness; and
eXl>"riments will show that the power is more common than
is generally supposed. Just what it means is not clear.
The suggestion has been made that the night position is a
protection against danger from the loss of heat, but it may
have no such meaning.
(10) Rain is a menace to leaves, for if the water soaks
in and tills up the air spaces aud stomata, communication
with tbe air is cut off; hence leaves shed water with remark-
able promptness, partly by their positions, partly by their
structure. Some of the structures
that prevent the rain from soaking
in are a smooth epidermis, a cuticle,
a waxy deposit, felt-like cov.erings,
overlapping scales, etc. In the
rainy tropics it is very common for
the sunken veins and ribs of the
leaves to form a sort, of drainage
system for carrying off water, the
main channel lying along the midrib,
which terminates in a long, spout-
').G. 29.-Dingnmmati• ...,. like point (Fig. 319).
~'~~:::~::~~=et~~b= 18. Fall of leaves.-Many shrubs
:::
lion 0{ the cu!ting-ofJ layer and trees of tem pel'ate regions lose
~:~ :~ =:~~~ bundle their leaves ' at the approach of
. winter, or even earlier, putting out
ne,: leaves lD the following spring. This is called the
deciduous haW, and it is an adaptation to climate. While
LEAVFS ss
in some deciduous leilyeS, as those of oaks, t here is no
special preparation for falling, in most of them n special
plate of cells is formed at or neal' the junctu re of tbe leaf
with lhe stem, kno"'ll as the cutting-off layer, which gradu-
ally loosens t he leaf from the stem, so t hat it falls by its
own weight or is wrenched off by t he wind (Fig. 29).
In connection witb t he deciduous habit there often
appears the autu mn coloration of leaves, so strikin g a feat-
ure of temperate forests.
The colors t hat appear
are shade of yellow and
red, either pure or vari-
ously in termixed. They
are the r esult of t he wan-
ing activity of the leaf,
the yellow mostly being
the color of the dying
chloroplast, and t be red
corning from the pres-
ence of a new substance
manufactured in the en-
feebled cells. The pop-
ular belief t hat these
colors are caused by
frost is only partly true,
for t hey often appear
before any frost; but
they may be induced
by any conditions that
tend to diminish the
activity of the Jeaf, and
cold is one of the con- FJ G. aO.-The needle-leave. of tl. pille.
spicuous conditions.
19. Leaves of evergreens. -I n contrast with the decidu-
ous shrubs and trees are the so-called evergreens, in whicb
there i~ no regular annual fall of leaves. Such leaves en-

dure for a Y"rdng length of time; but as there is no regular
period for all 'of them, the shrub or t ree always appears in
foliage. I n I he temperate regions t he most conspicuous
cyergreens are the pines and
tbeir allies. A comparisop
bet ween tbe needle-leaf of a
pine and the leaf of all qrdi-
nary deciduous tree wW sho\\'
what the e \'ergrcell habit in-
yolves in temperate region s
(Fig. 30). Th e leaf of a pine
must be protected 0 as to
FI G. 31,-Cro!lt'-8eelion of rhe I1~dle
endure the winter, and this
leaf of II pille. ~bowillg Ihe epider- has iuvolyed reduction of
111iR whh }lb..n:l· cVl.ide (4,\ ;."1 which
are flunKen stomata (.); mlL'lses of surface and extremely thick
hea vy~wa JJ ed cl'll~ (h ) heoetlth the
epidermifl: t.he rnesopbyll reboion (m)
protecti"e la)"ers about the
containing chh,Jrl)plasts. IlDd the cen- lllesopbyll (Fig. 31). This
tral col.)\'\ess r('gion cOnl!l.iuing twp
\'"8.8cular bundles .-A rter SACIIB, has diminished the ability to
work; but it has saved the
tree the necessit;' of putting out a complet.e new crop of
leaycs for the ]lext, season. The deciduous leaf, on the
other hand, is broad and thin, "itb great capacity for
work ; but tbis forbids protection during the winter.
20. Special forms of leaves. -Be.ides t he ordinary leaves
that haYe been considered, and which are called in distinc-
tion foliage leaves, there are special forms of leaves whose
chief work is different. In so rar as they are green, th~y
manufacture carbohydrates as do the foliage leaves, but I>
dist-inct cbange in structure and bebaY'ior indicates tha~ this
is not their chief work. .
(1) Seales.-The most conspiclious illustrations of
leaves that bave become modified into scales are to be found
ill subterranean stems and scaly buds. Underground stems
cannot produce foliage leaves on aocount of the a bsence of
__ 1 LEAVES 35
hght, but they produce leaves reduced in size and "~thout

green tissue. Often these scal s seem to be merely useless
relics (Fig. 64); but sometimes they are used for food
storage, as in Illy bulbs, onions, etc., which are mostly made
up of flesh y 8ca lc (Fig. 65).
In the scaly buds, ao common on shrubs and trees, the
overlapping scales ure clearly protective structures, and to
this end are generally firm and resistant, often coated with
resi." the inner ones being frequently clothed with woolly
hairs.
(2) Tendrils.-The whole leaf or some of its brltnches
may develop as tendrils. the latter case being illust.rated by
tbe s,,'eet peo (Fig. 32). Ten-
drils are scnsith'e to conta.ct
ODd aid in Climbing. Some·
times leaves act as tendrils
"'ithout any modification of the
blade, the petiole being sensitive
1,0 contact and encircling sup-
ports like a tendril, as in t.he
garden nasturtium.
(3) Thorns.-Leaves de"elop-
mg as thorns may be observed
:n the barberry (Fig. 33). In the
}ommon locust, acacia , etc., only
the sljpuJes dnelop as thorns.
Both tendrils and thorns are
,Iso developed as stem struc-
;ures, being modified branches.
(4) Leaves of pitcher-plan/s.- Flo. 32.-Pinnately compound
leaf of galden pea, whose ter-
[n these plants the leaves form minal portion hDJl developed
~ubes or urns of various forms, M tendrils. - After STnAS-
BliBOER.
which contrun water; and to these
insects are attracted and drowned. The common pitche.r-
plant of the northern States, a Sarracenia, is a well-known
36 A TEXT-BOOK OF HOT ANY
bog plar,t (Fig. 34), but is not so elaborately constructed

for capturing insects as is a common southern Sarra--
cenia (Fig. 35). I n this plant the leaves a,re slender, bol-
low rones. and rise in a tuft from the swampy ground.
The mouLh of this conical urn is overarched and shaded by
a hood. in which are translucent spots, like numerous small
windows. Around the moutll of the urn are glands which
secrete a sweet liq-
- ___., uid , kno\\'u as necta.r.
Inside, just below
the rim of the urn,
is a glazed zone, so
smooth that insects
cannot walk upon
it. Below the glazed
zone is another one
th ickly set with stiff,
down ward- poin ti ng
hairs; and below this
is the liquid in the
bottom of the urn.
If a fly, attracted to
the nectar at the rim
of the urn, attempts
to descend within the
urn, it slips on the
glazed zone and falls
into the water; and
if it attempts to
esc»pe by crawling,
FIG. 33.-Leaves of barberry developillg B$ thorns. the downward-point-
. ing hairs prevent. If
It seeks to fly from the rim, it naturally flies tOlvard the
translucent spotS in the hood, since the direction of en-
trance is in the shadow; and pounding a;:aillst the hood,
"LEAVES 37
the fly usually falls into the tuhe. The pitchei's gen-
erally contain t he decaying bodies of numerous drowned
insects.
A much larger Californian pitcher-plant, is Darlillytonia
(Fig. 36), whose lea,·es are one and a half to three leet
high , the hood bearing a
gaudily colored " fi sh-tail"
appendage, the whole stru c-
tur~ being a more elaborate
",,0. 34.-Leavee of the common Fill. 35.-Leaf of a lkIuthern pitcher--p1.u.nt.

Dort-hern piteher - p!ant. one of IIbov.'ing the funnelform and winged
them seetioned to abo ... cavity pitcher. and tbe overarching hood with
Bnd wing.-After GRAY . trnnsiucelJt spota,-After KERNER.
.nsect trap than are the leaves of SaTracenia. In t hese

;raps Dot only are the remains of flies found, but bees,
IOrnets, butterflies, beetles, grasshoppers, and even snails
lave been reported.
38 A TEXT-BOOK OF" BOTANY
Tbll species of Nepenthe. from tbe oriental tropics, very

common in conscn·atories, develop most remarkable leaves,
the lowest part being an ordi-
nary blade, beyond which is a
well-developed tendril , at tbe
end of which there arises an
pitcher- FJG. 37.-Leaf of NepenIJ/e8, show-

plant. showing the twisted nnd winged ing ihe blade-like buse. the ten-
I)itcher. the oVeNlrcbin(t ho.xI "itb trnnll- dril portion, !lDd the termiual
\ueent SPOllj, Ilnd tbe fish-tail appendage pitcher WitJl its lid. -Aiter
to till' hood.-After K£RNEft. GRAl".
elaborate pitcher with a lid (Fig. 37) . There is t he same

sweetish secretion at the rim of the pitcher, and the same
accumulation of water within as in the ordinary pitcher-
plants.
(5) Leaves of. .undew•.-The sundews are forms of
Drosera and grow in swampy regions, the leaves forming
LEAVES 89
small rosettes upon the
groulld (Fig. 38). In one
form the blade is round ,
and tbe margin is beset
by prominent bristle-like
hairs, each with a globu-
lar ghnd at its tip (Fig.
39). Short.or gland-bear-
ing ~ajl's are scatt ered also
OYer the inner s urface of
t he blade. All ihese glands
excrete a clear, sticky fluid ,
which hangs to them lik e
dewdrops, and which, not
being dissipated by sun-
light, has suggested the
-- -ne sundew. If a small
ect becomes entangled in Flo. 38 , -f)undewlJ.- After l(£flNEfl.
A
. aD.-Two leavetl of a lluuaew: A. glandular haire fully exteudeu: B, balI
the h.ainI bending iaward. in the J)Of!itiOD aal!WDEM} when an insect btu beeD
captured.-After iU:RNIlL
4
one of·tbe sticky drops . t.he hair begins to cnrve inward, and
presently presses it.s "ict im down upon tbe surface of the
blade. I n tbe case of a larger insect, several of the mar-
ginal hairs mal' join to-
gether in bolding it, or tbe
whole blade may become
more or less rolled in ward
(6) Leaves of Dio~a:Q.
-Tl,is is one of the most
famous and remarkable of
insect-trapping plants, be-
ing found only in l:ertain
sandy swamps near Wil-
mington, N. C. Tbe leaf-
blade is constructed so as
to work like a steel trap,
the two halves snapping
togetber. and the marginal
brislles interlocking like
the teeth of a trap (Fig.
Flo. 40.-T~ leaves of Diona>a: two with 40). A few sensitive hairs,
:f'U::~~~~~~ro::R~~~. ttar, shut on like feelers, are developed
on the leaf surface; and
when one of these is touched by a small flying or hover-
ing insect, the trap snaps shut and the insect is caught.
Ollly lifter digestion, which is II slo11' process, does the trap
open again. Dionrea is popularly known as the" Venus
fly-tr'lp."
Sarracenia, Drosera, and Dionooa are conspicuous l'epre-
sentatiYes of the so-called carnivorous or insectivorou;
plants, all of which capture insects and use them for food
They are green plants, so that they manufacture carbo
hydrate ; ·but for some reason they supplement their fOOl
manufacture with a supply of food already manufactured
"nd· obtained from the bodies of captured insects.
CHAPTER III
BTE1I4B
21. Reiation to other organs.- The stem is connected

lith the roots and bears the leaves. 'So constant a feature
,f the stem is leaf-bearing that the presence of leaves is one
nethod of distinguishing underground stems from roots.
,at merely do stems bear leaves, but tbey usually bear
hem in such a way as to expose tbem well to the air and
he sunlight. Often stems branch, and in this way in-
rease their power of producing and displaying leaves. It
, e,~dent that the stem, more than anything else, is tbe
eaf-bearing organ ; and in bearing leaves it must be also
he channel of communication between them and the roots.
So closely associated are stems and leaves that they are
poken of together as tbc shoot; and thus the whole hody of
he plant of ordinary experience is said to consist of shoot
.nd root, the former usually exposed to the air (acria]),
he latter usually exposed to the soil (subterranean). As
.n)' hranch is merely a repetition of the stem from which it
.rises, so any branch witb its leaves is a shoot, just as the
ohole stem system with its leaves is a shoot.
22. External structure.-The ordinary stem is a jointed
tructure. While this is very e~dent in sucl~ stems as the
:om-stalk and the cane (seen in fishing-rods), it is often
nade apparent only hy t he leaves, which appear at the
oints or nodes (§ 8). The portions of the stem between the
lodes-portions which donot hear leaves- are t heinternodes;
lence a stem is a series of alternating nodes and internodes.
41
42 A T EXT-BOOK OF BOTA::'~
Branc11'es as well as leaves appear at the nodes; and there is

usually 11 I'ery definite relation between them, the branch
appcarilOg in the up-
pcr angle between leaf
and stem, called the
axil of the leaf (Fig.
41). Most branches
arc thus axillary in
position. The inler-
nodes gi ve length to
the stem, separating
the nodes from each
other, and so display-
}'la. 41.-A IICl!.rlet ,unner beu.n. IJhowin4' tenr· jllg the leaves more
~r:~;!s. uooe.. int«Dod8l, and axillary freely to the air and
the sunlight.
23. Direction of stems.-The directions in which stems
grow are due to a variety of causes, some of which will he
considered later; but for the prescnt ollly certain positions
will be noted.
(1) Erect st.ms.-The upright stem i8 the most common;
llnd it scelllS altogether tbe best adapted for the proper
display of lenycs, for they can be spread out on all sides
and carried upward toward the light. To maintain the
erect position is not II simple mechanical problem, and in
large woody stems it involves an extensive deyelopment
and arrnngemcnt of supporting tissues. Tbat some special
organization is necessary to maintain the erect position in
the air is e,idcllt when aerial erect ~tems are contrasted
with submerged erect stems. In small lakes and s101l"-
mOYing streams submerged plants are commonly seen, as
the pickerel-weed and numerous others. In the water
tbe stems are !'!'Cct; but when taken out they cllllapse,
having betn sustained ill position by the water.
A.nnnp' gpMJ),l ~}""n)1Q tit,.. trl:\l:lo i.:: thp. mnd: ;mnrAJOl-,::i""," AnA
STEM
it hOB de"eloped into 6 great "arict}' of Iorros or' habits.

In some trees, ns the pilles and their alii '_, t h~ mnlil st,'ln
continues n a centrnl shuft to the top. th(' braucll('s l"pJ'{'ud ..
Flo. 42.-An Au.trian pine.
jng borizontally from it (Fig. 42); wlule in other trece, as

the oak and tbe elm (Figs. 43 lind 44), the main stem
-.,on dhides into Jarge branches. In the former case the
A TEXT-DooK OF BOTANY
tree ha§ a general conical outline; in the latter case it has tl

spreading top or tl'own. It is nn extcllent plan to become
Flo. 43.-An o&k in ~intM oondiUOll.
acquainted with the common trees or' " neighborhood and

to learn to recognize them by their habits. Trees are also
an excellent illustration of the fact that wbile the main
tern of a plant rna ... be erect, the branches may be di-
STt::MS 45
rerled at any angle, often horizontal. alld som tim f\'Cn

deseending.
(2) Prostrate &lem8.-1n mllny plnnt!li t.h(' main 8t~m or
certain branch('s lie prostr3.1t' 011 the ~round or ncarly 80,
FlO • .,...-An ehn to (a)i&p..
Dmelimes spreading in all directions IUld becoming inter-

roven into a mat or carpet (Fig. 45). They are found
,specially on sterile nnd exposed soil, and there may be an

mporianl "I.tion bi'lween this fact llnd their habit. In
luch ~tcm:-; thC'TC' is a distillct Jisa(h'antage in the display
rll •. '1.'l.-I'rol'trulle fllClI.l uf P,rl{'.!I,lI",
of le~l\'c5 it!' compared \dth ere('t :;t{'ms: for instcnd of being

free to spread nut I C8Yf'R on nil sid~s. onf' side is aga.inst the
ground . llJld the fTN> f'pa(·t~ for IhrU) is dimi njshl.'d nt If'8st
one-half. All (he leuws such a stem
bears are necessarily dircct~d toward
the ff"{'e side.
FlO. 46.-A l!lraw~rry-P'II.11l . BboYinc .. runner that. baa

devel~ _ flew piAb.t. ... hie.h ih turn has HInt out an-
other n1JlDeT.-Afier St:UB&1tT.
We mny not 1\now all the reasolls why so unInyorable a

posHioD for leaf display is assumed; but among tbe results
llre protection in expo cd situo.lions in some cases, and the
STEMS
multiplication of plants in others, In many plants. Ill! the

prostratc stern ud \'Iillrcs o\'rr the Irrollnd, rOOIS develop from
th(' nodes Ilnd l'nl('r Ih(' soil. I('nn'~ nr(' fornwd. unJ a JH'W
plant is !-\tu rtf'll , wldc,h mlty I~('(lm(' iru..i<'IWtHIf'l1f hy tht"
dt'at h of the olo('r part~. In I hi.'ot WHy a plllnt nUl~' spr('od
OYer the P;:fOUll{l. multiplying it~·lf lndl~Hnitl'1y. ~o
('fi'crtin.' is thh~ lllC'tilod of n1Ulliplic'atiofl lhnl pl"l1t.8 with
erc('t siems uften ITInk,,' uS(' of it, s(,lIdin~ out from Il('nr the
bn~~ ~pt>('ial pro:;;t ntll' hrHlu'hC'!'I \\ hidt no nUIC'i" 0 ' er the
ground and ~tart nl'\\' plants, A \"('rr
familiar illustration i~ fllrnislwd hy the
st rn whcrr~'-J111lIlt. \\ hi<-h :o/c'Tlds (,ut pt'('ulinr
leafless ruutlers to strikr root at I be tip 11IH l
Rtart new plant~ . which IX'('OO1e inu('pt"'ml[,lIl
by the tIt'8th of tho runncl'l< (Fi!!, 46),
These \'[lri ou~ prost rale str'IHR illllstra tc'
the fact that nodcs ('all produ('. no t 1)111,"
Ica \'cs and branchcs. but IIlso roots, if
plaeed in suitable conditions, Admnlugc
is taken of this fart in the common pro('('ss
of layering, in which such Ht('ms tl!ol thoR('
of blackberries and raspherries ure henl
down to the ground and con red with SOIl.
when the nodes strike root IiDd new plallts
arc started,
(3) Climwng sLemB,-A great mliny
plants !un'. developed the ability to sus-
tain theruseh'es by using supports, AI-
lhough not able to stand alone, by usinl(
these supports they may attain lrTeatlengtb
and display their leaves to light even in a
dense forest. This climbing is effected in
a variety of ways, In some cases, as the morning-glory,
bean, and hop-vine, the stem twines about tbe support,
such plants often being distinguished as twiners (Fig, 47) ;
in other cases, as the grape-yine and star-cucumber, tendrils

arc formed , which t winc or hook sbout the supports (Fig.
48); in still other cascs, as the woodbine, the tendrils pro-
duce .uckers that act liS
hold fasts and enable the
plant to cling to trees or
walls (Figs. 49 and 50).
It is in the dense forests
of tbe tropics that climb-
ing plants become espe-
cially conspicuous. There
great woody '~nes fairly
interlace the Ycgelation,
and a.re kno~'n as lianas
or lia7).es.
If a young moruing-
glory or twining bean be
watched , it will be dis-
Flo, 48't-;~~~~ :!.rf!:~~~~i=~. "ilL it! covered that the elonga-
ting stem is unabJe to
st"nd upright, and that, as it bends oyer, the inclined part
begins to swing through a horizontal eun·e. which may bring
the stem in contact. with a suitable support. If this hap-
pens, tIle stem, ('ontinujng to swing in a cun-e and growing
in length at the same time, winds itself about the support.
This movement of lhe portion of the stem which is in a hori-
zontal position is thought to be hrought about by a peculiar
response of the plant to gra,·ity. The influence of gravity
in directing plnnt organs will be considered later.
Tendrils nre illustrations of plant structures that are
uDusually sensitive to cont·act . When the tip of a tendril
in mo,wg about touches" suitable support, the side touched
becomes conca". and the tend.ril hooks or coils about the
support. This is nnly the fir t re ponse of the tendril to
ccntact, for presently t he rest of it begins to CU1'\-e-a move-
STEMS
ment which results in spiral coils, since

tbe tendril is fastened at both ends (Fig.
48). This cun'ing and twist-
ing of the tendril between its
iastened extremities naturally
results in two spiral coils run-
nUlg in opposite directions. In
this way the slem i8 fastened
to its support by numerous
spiral springs. All of these
movements snd tbeir results
may be obsen'cd by culth's-
ting a plant !!Ueh as the star-
cucumber, which grows ropidly
and has conspicuous and very
sensitive tendrils, In the case
of the ordinary climbing wood-
bine and certain species of ivy,
which cling to walls OT tree
A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANf
trunks; the tip of the tendril when it comes into contact

with :t support is stimulated into deyeloping the sucker-
like disk 1\"liich acts ag a holdfast ( Fig. 50).
24. Internal structure. - As the stems of seed-plants
show two distinct tylX'S of strllcture. it will be necessary to
point out the great groups of seed-plauts, '0 that the types
of structure may be referred to them. The Gymnosperms
include the pines and their allie~, th(' common e"ergreens;
the !tionocotlliedolls include such plants as grasses. lilies,
and palms; tho Dicotyledons, much the largest group,
include (he common deciduous trees, such 85 oak, maple,
hickory poplar, b{'('('h , ct('., as well as the great majority
I
of CGmmon herbs. In stem strU('(ure the Gymnosperms

and the Dicotyledons sho1\" the same general plan , while
the other type of structure is exh ibited by the Monocotyle-
dons.
(1) Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons.-If an active twig
of an ordinary woody plant be cut. across. it will be seen
that it is made tip of four
general regions (Fig. 51):
(1) an outer prolect ing lay-
er which mn)' be stripped
of! as a thin skin, the epi-
dermis; (2) within t his a
zone of spongy tissue, usu-
ally green. the cortex; (3)
then a relati\'ely broad zone
of fum wood, the Va.sCUUzT
cylinder; and (4) in the cen-
FtP~J~~-:!~~~':of/ !;:dn~~~~; ter the p'ith. The special
cortu. i UI, V'IlM!ular cylinder; p. pith. feature of ~his arrangement
is that the wood occurs as
a hollow cylinder, encloSing the pith and surrounded hy
the cortex. In the older parts of stems the pith oft.m dis-
appears, leaving a hollow steQl. The cortex is the active,
STEMS 61
working region of the slpm: .inre II 18 jtI'I"('D it is able to

mllnufnelurc c:trbohydrat<'< as do the lea,,"" (4 I~ ); find it
is also ('ont'E"rnt'd iu nthE'T work ronnf'l'u~ wi th nutri ..
tion. The- ,·t1.~l·u}ur ('rltmh·r. 011 tIlt:, ()tll{'r hand , i ~ the
gn·at rondu('tjll~ r('gion. 8."i \\pll n~ Ollt' that ,ej"l"S rigidity
10 the stem. This work of rondu("tiO Il will lJc considered
later.
U t.he- vt\.."('ul!\f {'\'\inu{~r \ '(" {')\.aminf'd ('\ o~t'l\', it \\"1\1 b<.~
se£'n· tl1at it if' hrok't'll up into k('~nwnlS by pl~lC$ of ("eH~
that tra " er~(' it from the' pith TO the: (.'orH'X. th C6f' rMlinling
plale, of rell. hoin!!" lh. 7'ilh TOil' ( Fif( ..SI). The c,I"lllld('r is
thus Illu(k up of a nurnl.K'r (If S('l!nu:n l ~ which Jlr(' ('ollt<!
vascular bundlrR. Ttl(' peculiarity (If tht' st rueture of the
8tcm in (;ymno~JX'rtn~ and I Ji(·r1ty l('dons. then·fort,. ('an be
described us the arra ng(-'m('nt of tll£' YIHlcu}ur bundles so 8.8
p x
:-"0. 5'.:.-crOtlP-MoCti(ln tlr VlUlt'ulat bundl~ frum pin" RteJI'1 • • hm~ 1),1em (-1;),
C&lDbiwn kJ. (loud pbl~nl (pI: Of] ~ t;idt' Ilf ,he li.inc:le -ow of eambiuID
C'l!U. there are )'<tUlIjI; .xylem apd pbloem (!ell. wt p. . ~uaJJy wto u..
m.&ture condl tlOP_
(0 fonn a hollo,,' cvEnder. In woody stems the bundle.

are " err close togetller in the cylindc;, forming 8 compact
cylinder with narrow pith ra y.; but in tbe stelll8 of herbs
the bundles ure well se parated, lea "ing broad pith rays.
n the cross-section of lUI individual vascular bundle be
examined under the microscope, two regions will be
recog~ed (Fig. 52): the inner one, toward the pith , being
called 1DOOd (rylem) , and the outer one being caUed lxut
(pIWJe1h)* A vascular bundle., therefore, is made up of

wood and bast, which differ from one anothe r in the work
of conduction, the wood chiefly conducting the water tbat,
enfers ti,e plants by the roots and is passing to the lea"e8,
and the b,,"t ('h;{·lIy condu(,ling prepared foud.
The cells (If the wood that ('onduct wIlter are called
lroc}teary t)(,SSl'/ S. Tht·y nTC morl' or less e}ongtl t£'d a.nd
have vor~' thirk walls. upon which there appear markings
of various kinds. These marking may be seen in a.
B c £
Flo . r.s.-Y~ls : !'piral fA ) Md annular (8 ) \'Ht!eb: dOlted vetl45fll (C); 5i~'1
VeiIt4!-! (Dl lI.nd I!ieve I)lnte ( !') fre.m pump~I\.-A and B after BoNSI£1\ ani
SAlU..os-; C after Dr.: DAilY; D Utei' STfl4.8RCkOEI\,
longitudinal section through the wood. Some of the "essel

ar marked by " spiml band that extends from end to end
llnd are called spiral. "cssds (Fig. 53. A.); otbers show
series of t bickened rings, a.nd are caUed annular """sei
(Fig. 53, 13); while others, and among tber_n . the larges·
.If. eross-eection of s. pine t""'>ig be tained first '\\ith ufrnnin ar

.Ilerw.ro with Dclali.td's _loxyloll, the xylem will become brig!
red and the phJoem ricb violet.
STEMS 63
have numerous tllin spots ill their walls which look like
dots of various sizes, and the"" lin' the dotlcd or pilU4
vessels (Fig. 53, C), often called dotled duclJ:. These pitted
"csscls are often \"(~r.'" large, tlwir opE'njnJr~ being ,"jsibJe to
the naked rye in the CI'05;::Hlrt'tiol1 of oak wood.
The cells of Ihe bast thtlt ['(lnduN pn·pllrt'd food "r('
called sieve ,·tssels (Fig. 53. D ). be('atl'" in !.lwir Willis,
usuall~' the cnd "'3I1s, th,'re appear Itreas full of perfor,,-
tious, like the lid of II pcpper-box, Owse ,ucas being callt-d
sieve-platcs (Fig. 53, E).
The \'('in8- of Jean's ar£> vascular buucHes that aN'
continuous with th ose of thc stem . ]f the rdutivc position8
of wood and bust in t h(' :;;t~m be f(·nwmbered , it will I_)(\
secn that when a bundll' turns out into a leaf. th. wood
with its trachcary yessrls is lowaro the upper side of the
leaf, and the bast with its sieye yessel. toward the lower
side.
A prominent feature of bueh steinS i, that, they can
increase in diameler. If the stem lasts only one growing
season, that is, if it is :in anl1ual, the in('rf'asc in diamet.er
does not occur; but if it lasts through so"cral soo.sons, that
is, if it is a pcrenm'al, it increases in diamC'ter from year to
yenr. X aturally annual stems belong to herbs aud perennial
stems to shrubs and trees. Taking the tr<·e ft. all iJlustra-
tion, the increase in diameter oc'('urs us foilows: BctWPCfl
the wood and the bast of each bundle is a layer of very
active cells called the camlnu", (Fig. 52 , c) , which 800n
extends across the inten-cning pith rays, and so forms a.
complete cylinder of cambium. This ['ambium has the
power of adding new wood cells to the outer surface or the
wood, and new bast cells to the inner surface of the bast,
as well as adding to the pith rays where it traverses them.
In tb.is way" new layer of wood is laid dowo 00 the outside
of the old wood ; and usually tbese layers, added year after
year, are 80 distinct that a section of wood shows a series
54 A TEXT-BOOK OF' BOTANY
of con(l<'n!ric rings (Fig. 54). Ordinarily one such layer is

added ('nrh year, and hence the layers are called annulll
rings. Tlw age of 1l tn", is usually estimated hy counting
these rings. but occasion-
ally morp than oue ring
may be added during a
single :'I"car. The nen-
IS)'ers added to the bast
nre not persistent: but
the wood ac('uIDulnt.cs
year afU'f ycar. until in
an ordinnry {ret' th('
o5t em is !1 gren t mass of
wood coyer('d with thin
b)·er. of bust and ('or-
lex. It is this mass of
:fo)1I. S".- {,r'(m..·lM"('tioll ()f II. hmllch 1) [ bax
elrl"r thr~ Y('IlT!' old, 5 h ll Willlt three 1IU- \\'ood that supplies OUI
Im ..1 rinitl'l in L\)I' Y~ular {"~'Iilld"_r; Illl' lumber.
rl"UAtifllt rill~ ( m) 'f.. bit'l\ ~rOll1llhc "'I\SCU-
Thjs annual incrcnse
lar rinl( ( Ir' rel'fl'M'nt the pith rayl\. die
priucipaJ ( 1II (l!j extcfld.i r., (rota pith
in diameter enables the W C<lr-
Ie..\'(f') .
tree to put out fin in-
crcn.s{'d number of branches, and hen('£' JC'fiYC'S . ea.ch suc-
cP~djllg year. so that it eapacil)' for leaf work become,
gr('o.tf'r year after year. A reason for th.is is that since thE
wood 1s (,Ollducling water to the leaycs, for food IDn.nulac·
turc. the new h.\~'crs enable it to conduct more water, ane
more Jenyps cnn be supplied.
'Th.e n a stem increases in diameter it is very seldon
tbat th(\ epidermis grows in proportion. H ence it is usu
a lly sloughed off and a new pr"tective cO\'ering is dE
velopcd by tbe cortex. Either t he out.ermost layer of tb
cortex or some deeper one becomes a cambium, whie
means tbat it ;s able to lonn I,ew ceil.. This cambium
called tile cork Cllmbiu1Il,. since it forms at its OUler surfa
Jayer after Jayer of cork cells, which are peculiarly resista
STEM!> 65
to water. If the cork cambium is formed d<,<,p in tht"oortcx,

all the cells outside of iL die. Sinol' they are cut off from the
waler supply in the plant. The cork (,lImhium i. often
renewed year nfter ycarl lind f \\'0 promiuC'ur kiud~ of bark
are fonued. ]n some ('uses th!' SUl'('(_'~"liv(' cork cambiums
form zones completely !l.boullhe ",,·tTI, and the !'ork i. then
deposited in ('oncC"Jltric layers. fnrminf,! the ringed bark.
Such bark often becomeR \'ery thi!'k. find the surface
becbmcs seamed or furrowed. III (he cork oak there is a
"err great. llCClimultttiftn of cork, which ifi stripfX'd off in
sheets, from which corks of ('ornmpr(.'(' Life made. In other
cases t.he sl1ccessiy(' ('ork rnUlbium~. insh'ad of pS8sUlg
completely around the :.;tNJI. rlln into lhf' next outer one,
thus cutting out segments whidl pr(>sentl~' loosen and flake
off. forming .c(tly bark. as ill hi('kor)". apple. etc.
The l n~\'ers of cork uud ollwr ('('II!' (liM OJ!!." lie outside
of the cork cambium form (he.Olllcr bark. which is dead
and dry. The lissues betwl'('n the cork ('ambium and the
cambium of the v!ls(.'ulur (·rlindcr. that is mort or J(·ss
cortex and the bast. form the inlJl"T Uark, which ('ontains
some living cells. To remov€' the out£'r bark dews not injure
II troo .: but removing the inner bark kill. it, because it
interrupts the work of comluction (.'arricd on b~· t h(, sieve
"easels. In the process known IlS girdling, Dot only is the
bark cut through, but the young wood is eut into. This
interferes with the movement of walf'r up th(, Btpm ns well
as with conduction by the sicw \·e"",ls. Jf a smull portion
of the bark is remo\'ed , th" incision extending only (0 (he
wood, as in the making of inscriptions on trees , the ,,·ou.nd
is healed, unless too large , by the gro\\·th of tissue from all
sides until it is closed o\"er. In this new tissue II cork
cambium is developed , and presenLly there may be no
surface indication of the wotlnd. But if the wound
has gone deeper and entered the wood, the record of
it may always be found ;n the wood by removing the
s
56 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTAKY
bark. Jll this way old inscriptiollS have often been un-
covered.
The well-known operation of fJ"afting depends upon
the ability of plants to heal wounds. The plant upon
which the operation is
performed is called the
stock, and the twig graft-
ed in to it the scion. An
ordinary method, cB'lled
c/e/i-fJ"a/ling, is to cut off
the stem or a branch of
the stock, split t he stump,
insert into the cleft the
wccig<>- shaped end of the
8('ion , and seal up the
wound with wax or clay.
The cambiums of the
stock and .the scion must
be put into contact. at
some point; and hence ii
A is usual t.o insert a scior
F1:o .su.-CI~(t~lT&fting "ho'A'ing 8Cionll in in each side of the cleit
"Iaee (A) and the wound &eal~ ....ith since the cambium of th'
clay or wu (8).
stock is comparativel.
near the surface (Fig. 55) . The cambium of stock an
scioo unite, the wound heals, and the scion become 9
closely related to the activities of t.be stOCl< plant as ru
the ordinary branches. Tbe scions are usually cut in tt
fall , aft er the leaves hD\'e faUen, are kept througb the winb
in moist soil or ssnd, and the grafting is done in the sprin,
A number of important things are secured by grafting, b.
chief among them is the perpetuation of useful varieti
with certainty and at a great saving of time,
(2) ]\fonocotyledon""7"In this great group of plants tl
va£!cular bundles of tbe stem are not arranged SO 88 to for
STEMS 57
a hollow cylindcr, but are morc Or le.... irregularly 8caHerod,
as lLay be seen in a cross-scction of a rom-stalk (Fig.56).
As a consequence, there is no ('n·
closing of a dcfinitp pith, nor is
there aoy distinctly bounded ror-
tex. In t.he bundle. I here is no
cambium, and therefore new wood
and bast cannot. be added to the
[)Id,'so that in the trees t.hCT(, is no
annual increase in diameter; nnd
this lDeans that there is no bralH"h-
ing nnd no increased folillgP from
FlO . Ml.-A f'(Irn"lslk . ..~.
rear to yeur. A palm wpll iIIus- inK In C'fUNI-I"t!('Tion .."d
lrates this habit, with its coJumJ)ar, lon,tir udin.a.l IeC!hon the
..altl!:rtd vUC';uiar bund~
unbranching trunk. and its crown
)f leaves, which continue about. the same jn number each
~'ear.
25. Ascent of sap.-The water entering the plant by the

roots and moving upward through the stem is usually
,ailed sap. It is not pure water, hut contains certain 80il
mbstances dissoh'f'd ill it. In low plants. 38 m06t annuals,
,he ascent of sap requires no special explanation; but in
plants such as trees, in which the crown of leaves is many
reet above the soil, the elISe is very different. Several
"planations of the ascent of sap in trees have been sug-
~ested, and all have been disprovcd , 80 that we arc as yet
'n tirely in the dark as to the method.
That thc path of ascent is through the ve!l8Cl. of the
lVood, and not through cortex or b8.Bi or pith, may -be
lemonstrated by a simple experiment. A stem of com
lr sunfiower or balsam is cut off and placed in "'ater Cor
In bou.r. Then it is transferred to .. vessel contairing
"ater stained with cheap red ink (8 solution of eosin),
.nd exposed to diffuse li!;bt. A fe\\' bours later, sections
,f tbe st-em will show the wood vessels stained red. tbe
!cending water hM·jng stained its path. Of course the

,ain may "pread somewhat into adjacent. cells.
In mOftL t.rc('s, as the m!15S of wood increases in diameter,
he asc('IJ<iing sap abandons the illner (older) "'ood and
00 \'('8 only through the newer wood. This results in a
tiffl'rcnt aprearallr. of I he t \Yo regions, tbe old centra!
.'·00f!. abandoned by the sap, betoming darkN and often
lharacleriSl icall." colored (hearl !"ood); and the younger
outer wood, us(·d by the sap, being tighter colored (801'
Ulood). Trers ,·>try grc,,!l y in Ihe relati"c thickness of the
sap wood; for example, in the bocth it is a thick zone, while
in the oak it i· a narrow one. In sucee sful girdling tbis
must be tak n into accow1f" since an incision which would
CUl ofT t he wulcr supply of an oak suUiciently to kill it
would not kill a beech.
The rate of lllm'cment of the ascending snp of course
"aries ,,;th different plants and different conditions. In
the pumpkin-ville, in which the movement is yery rapid,
it Lns been found to reach about twenty feet an hour. It
is estimated that in ordinary brond-Iea"ed trccs the rate is
probably three to sLx feet an hour.
If certnin stems are cut off near the ground, it is ob-
served tbu t afler • short time the sap begins to ooze oul-
a phenomenon t.bat is often called bleeding. In some
woody plants, as grupe-"ines and birches, the snp flo\~s
out with considerable force, indicating some pressure be-
low, which is called rool-pre,'sllre. . While root-pressure mny
force the sap into the stem, it is entirely inadequate t<J
force it to the top of a trec.
The so-called maple sap obtained from the sugar
maple i lIll interesting illustration of tbe use of Slip th ..
accumulates in Il. woody st.em in tbe spring. At tbat tim
the "'aler has no opportunity to escape througb leaf tran!
piratioD; so the wood 'becomes gorged with sap, which ea
be drawn off by boring into the wood and inserting spile
STEMS 159
The characteristic sugar has been obtained by tile 6lI p from
food stored in the stem, notably in the older wood.
26. Growth in length.-Growth in length begins at the
tip of the stem by tile fornwtion of lie" cells, wllich nrc
organized into alternating nodt·!' and
internodes. \\·hen thrse regions ure
first formed the internodes aro "ery
short, and their subsequent (IJtJ1l~;J·
tion,· separating thf' nodes, is the rhif'f
cause of the lengthening of the steJ1l.
In ternode are able to elollgltle for
only a certain tim~ , 80 (hat the rlon-
gating portion of a st('111 do('s not often
extend more than ten to h\"(·nty inches
below the tip. Seedlings Rlith as those
of the bean should be culth·.ted, and
the region of grOWl h, the region of
greatest growth, and the rate of gron·th
determined. The. arne method may
be llsed as was used with the leaf
(§ 16), in thi cnse em'h internode
being marked with equally sp"ted lines
in India ink. Measuring these spac(·.
at intervals of one or two days will FlO. 67.-8earleL runfl«
determine the facts referred to aboye bMJl marked with •
IIC&IJe ()( 6Ye milUme*
(Fig. 57). illten'!W and photo-
P"Il"blltd .teo fat't~
27. Special forms of stems.- L su- etlltt boo,..; 1.bt1 IiDa
ally branches resemble the stem from d~t t~t-ther .ho..
the ~ .paein&.
which they arise, but occasionally they
differ in a striking way . That these different strucmres ate
really branches is usually evident to external obscn'ation
[rom the fact that tbey stand in the position of branches,
that is, in the axils of leayes (§ 22). The three following
forms illustrate axillary structures that do not resemble
ordinary Jft-ancbes.
(1) CladopkyUs.-If the greenhouSi! smilax, often called

wedcUng smilax, be examined, the apparen t IOM·es will be
discovered (0 be branches modified so as ~o assume O,e
form and work of le",""s, rach one of t.hese leaf-like brunches
sl.ncli'J~ in the axiJ of a minute scaJe-like Jeaf (Fig. 58, A).
'-:1I'h brunches are called clodophyl18, which means" leuf-like
Pta. M.-cJadoph~· U" ~ A. ",-eddin,. tmilu (th~ appo.rent leAves are the modi6ed
bran(ht!J.. lind the ,-ell) Jeaves an'! UU~ Miuute Me.!t.les that HUblwd tbcm); E ,
PhIlUoclcdl4•.
bratlches." In the Austrolian region a group of evergreen'

is charaoterized by bearing cladophylls; and the younl
plantlet shows the gradual ChlllJge of true green leal·e
into little scales, and of brancbes into cladopbylls (Fig
·58, B) . I n the common garden asparagus the appaten
slender, needle-like leaves are all cladophylls doing lei
work.
(2) Telldrila.-It was shown (§ 20) that leaves or pa.r1
of leaves ma.y develop as tendr'.ls, and this is true also I
STEMS 61
branches, as obsen'ed in the passion-Rower, Wh~8C long

and very sensitiye tendrils appear ill the axils of lhe len,'••
(Fig. 59), Whether tendrils "'place loa"cs or branches
makes no difference as to their structure and activity, bul

it is of interest to Dote ~hat different organs may thus ~
replaced by tbe same organ.
A'TEXT-BooK OF BOTANY
(3) 'Thorns.-Branches, as well as leaves (§ 20) , may

,-clop as tho rns ; an excellent illustration of a branching
orn being SOI'Il in the honoy locll ~t (Fig. 60, A), and of a
llplc thorn in h"wthom (Fig. 60. B ). In dry regions .
FJo.60.-TbornlJ: A. h Olley locusl; /j , Il&'II\·thorn,
such as mny be found along the Mexican harder. thorns and

spiny brul1cbes are )"cry common; and since in some cases
these spiny branches develop into ordinary branches when
the pl8.nt has a sufficient supply of water, it is thought that
such thorns and spines arc results of unfa\'orable conditions
for growth. The same statement applies, of course, to those
euses in which thorns have replaced leavos.
The most common modi.fica tions of the stem are those
which arise wheo it is an underground structure. Althougt
it is natural to think of all undergrou~tructures as roots
<,..,_ ;0 rA. from. being true. < ince the stem is primarily,
STEMS 03
lenf-bearing structure, it continues to bear Irn"es' wben

under ground; but often thes(' I C3YCS fir rnut·lJ modifit..'tI.
either T£"du('ed in six£' So as to Ix' men.' tudiJDi'Jits , or uS(.od
for ~Olllf' other purpo!;C, Til£' fact that a f;tlhlcTTancnll
f't TU<'iutc bear ~ It'nY"'~ of sault' kind IIldicfll('!o\ I hut it is a
sH'In and not [l rooL Sincl' bOI h the 8(('ltl nllu its 1('1\\'('8
must be ('onsid('Trd ill {·onu(,(.,t ion wilh tli!' tlIJ(_JI'r~ound
habit, the shoot (§ 21) will be rOIl"iderrd Tllth,'r Ihlln Ihe
5H';" 3.lon('. In general th r' s,ubl£'rrnnt'UH shoot i!:l c(Jn~
"piruollsly a region of food s(ornge, The three fol1ol\'illg
tn>es firc the mo:.:t ('ommOJI.
(4) Rhizomes.-This is probably th. most romll'on
form of subtcrranrun stem. ]t i!-< usuully horizontal. more
or Ie,," elongated. and much
I hirkened for food storag(·. and
io;:, often called the rootstock
(Fig. 61). It advance, through
the soil year after year. o[«'n
branchin,e. ~cnd ing out roots hC'-
nealh " ... eI leaf-bearing branches
into the air. As it continue: to
grO"- ao t he apcx, it gradually
dies behind.
tbus isolating
branch es in
[he case of
branching rhi-
zomes. It is
a \'eryefficient
F,o. 61 .- Roo'~lOC'k or ., '~n (common brue).
method for the hhrina yCtUna !.!:ave&.
spreading of
plnnts and is extensively used by grasses in covering areas
and forming turf. The persistent continuance of some
weeds, especially certain grasses and sedges that infest
lawns and meadows, is due to this habit (Fig. 62). It is
lpoSRible to remove from the soil all of the indefinitely

'anelling rhizomes, and any nodes that remain are able
, send up fresh crops of aerial branches. In mnny ea cs
boo 62.-RI)(1l"'tock. of ~ J,.AI;U', IIhQ\\'ing bow it ad'\"lUlce8 beneath tbe jfrQulld

IUld fM!od.. tip ... lIu~iou of brllnobes; the breakill& up ot lIucb a l'ooliltook only
"ule. it! ~puale iDdjviJua.ls.
only a single aerial bran,'h is sent up each year, as in wild

ginger, Solomon 's seal (Fig. 63), iris, bloodroot, etc.; in
others, lea yes
and flowers
may be sent up
separately by
the rhizome.
I n tbe com-
mon ferns, it
FtG. 63.-Roolo!tock o( Solomon', fIMI. sbowin& terminal trW be noted,
bud. (h,e bue of this y~r'lI aerial bnmch. IUld &CAn 01 the so _ called
the braneh_ of three p~inlt ~.-Aftet" GRA '1'.
fronds are sim-
ply large leaves developed directly by the rhizome. P er-
haps even more familiar is the extensive rhizome system
TEAlS
of the wnter-lilies, from whirh anS(> the len,'o" witl\ lar e

floating blades (pads). Therefore, a rhi zome docs not nec-
essarily benr ani,' scal~ len\'es. but mny d~\'el(Jp also les\'P8
that become 3(.'rial: find in thnt l'SlU\ thr,- 1U"t~ mmulh
large. ]t is c,-idpllt t hut in planls p08.._"Cs.~ing rhi%om;s
tbc sllbh~ rrfinealJ stems nf(' perf'llllial. whit£' the u{'rial pnt1:t
may be annual.
(5) 1'ubers.-lll SO Ol~ plants the end. of undprground
stems be-come Y('fy much ('tllnrgrd for food stora~f.'. 1'11('8("
enlargemeIlts are r:lIl('d lulJcr$. till?' best-known illustration
""ing the common POLato (Fig. 64). That it is a stem
structure is eddent from the fact that it benrs "ery mhrh
reduced lea\'es, in the axils of which 8.rr bud" the so-called

"eyes." Abnormally dC"eloped potntoc. often show tbe
shoot character of the tuber "cry plainly , and in tbe cnse
of potatoes sprouting it is evidcnt that tile eyes have de-
yeloped into brancbes. In pi:lnting potatoes, ad,'antage is
taken of the fnct that any node placed in proper conditions
may stnke rool and put OUI a branch. Since the eye. are
hranch buds standing at nodes, and any piece or the
potllto containing Ii bud is able to produce Ii new plallt, it is
customary 1·0 cut tbe potato into pieces, being careful that
each piece contains one or more eyes. Heaping up the
soil (hilling u p) ... bout the base of the polato plant ind ucea
the formation of more of the s ubterranean, t uber-bearing
16 A TEX?· BOOK OF BOTA~'Y
branel;cs. In the tuber called Jerusalem artichoke, which is

developed uj" the subterranean sIems of Ii kind of sunflower,
the nodes of the stem and the buds of branches lire more
conspi('uous than in th" potato. Floshy roots. such as those
of the sw"t'( potato. should not he ronfuspd wilh tubers.
(6) Bul/JR.-In some plants the main 8t(,01 i, "erl" short
and is cO\'crl'd hy numerOUf: t.hickened, o"crlnppin~ IC3YCS
or leaf b"scs (usually call~d scales), the whole stru"ture
being II bulb. Bulbs
such as those of I he
lily , h)·aeinth. tulip. anci
onion are Yf'r~' fa.miliar.
I n Ibi, en"e the food
storage is chidly in the
s(·ales. Sealy bullis are
those in which th~ scales
OY('ri3p, but nrc:' not
brond enoug-h 10 enwrap
those within. as the lily
bulb (Fig. 65) : coaled
.1 B bulbs are tboS<' in which
FI(j. 63. -Sclily bulb Cof ~hil~ lil)" : .4. CXll"- tbe broad scales com·
rim- ";e,,': 8. Jtmgi!udin:u aecdon. llho1\'"iIl£ pletely enwrap thos<
.hort (Item and overlapping ewes.-Aiter
D ,ul.LOJ/ \\~thin, as the bulb
of onions and tulip'
",,111 bulbs, called bulblets, are borne by ome plants 0
parts abo,·o ground i as, fDr emmplc, tbe bulblets that III
pear in the o.xils of the leaves of the tiger-lily and those th,
repl!l.c~ flower-buds in the common onion. These bulblel
whell planted, have the power of producing new plants,
do the subterranean bulbs.
The aboye subterranean shoots, with their storage
reserve food. enable plnnts to put out their aerial parts w'
remarhble promptness and de"elop tbew with gr
-ninit". As an illustration of a situation in wbicb t
STEblS 67
ability ~ of great "?
" anla~,,' 10 plants. I he "l'Tnai habtl may
be n1rntloncd. It 15 a mall(!r of ('ommon OU!'N \'S lion thot
the rich di~play of spring fiowprs o('(."t11"'S ill for('Sls and
wooded glens before the lrt·O< ,'Olll" illto full folio!!," The
working Beason of th(':;.(' ~priu~ pll1nl~ i~ II(-t\\"('('o 111<' lH.'~in
nin~ of the growing s('u;;:on and 111(" full (urNH fulltll!C', und
t 11(' ~;ubt(' rran(>an 5}100t ... ('Ilnblt· I iI(,11110 ~'nd up bran(' ht~~ or
I(':n'{'s with ~rca.! r[!pjdit~·. Afwf the fo rest l(~u\"("R art· fully
de'·eloped. the a"Hilnhlt' Iilthl for work ""ne8lh t h. f" rc8t
(TOwn dimini~lH.'s. the f.:prin,e: finwrrs disnplK'ur, and t hE' short.
pt.·rind of acti"ity dors not f('turn until the' lW,Xt Beason.
II hu.~ uerJl ob:.;rrn.'d lJml JWltl .\· of Ihl·.~ UndeT#!rotmd
strul'! urc~ gradua lly bt.'c·utTlr mo rr and mort' d("~pl)' huried,
an d it appcar!' that !'oj fHI1( ' pro('c:k' o f splf-burinl i ~ going (In.
For example. it ha" oeen oiJ.<prwd thaI if 'he ,uberous
unJrrground "!('1Il of J uck-in-th(·-pu lpi!. "ft('n railed In-
dian turnip. be planl('d in " flower-pot near Ibe surface of
lh(' soi l, it will be found si x: iuc·ltes dl~('pcr within a wfek.
This is proba.bly !lO illuSlrlltion of {'xl'c-edinl-'!ly rapid burial,
but eno ugh has been ob"rwd of the habits of s uch 1'laot8
In indicate that such gradual self-burial of underg round
pans is yery ('ommon, E).1l<'rim('nts ha\'E' Indicated tbat
th" self- burial is not continued indefinitely. but that for
pach kind of plant there;" a normal d,'p' h reat!\(!d by the
uT,dcrg"'ound stems, If ~u('h .... l('01s arc planted below
their normal depth, the ('xpcri01(,Ilt.." show 1hat there are
"arious metbods of ascending to the proper depth.
D"(,DS
28. Nature of buds.- A bud is an undHeloped shoot,

wbose inter~odes ba\'c Dot elongated. so that tbe leaves
oyerlap. forming a more or less compact structure (Fig. 66).
It resembles !l bulb or bulblet in general structure, except
lhat the overlapping le.\'es are nOI thjclfened as food
reser\·oirs. The outer (older) leAVes of the bud protect the
lner '(younger) ODe•• nnd all the lenves protect the delicate
;rowing np<'x of the 31em or tbe branch. There are what
,"e called lcaf-Imds atld flo"'eT-buds, but only tbe former
,viII be considered hcre.
29. Position of buds.- ll\ shrubs and ["'cs t he growt,h
of stem and braof'hcs is not continuous. but is interrupted
duriJ\g the winter. Preparatory to this
interruption a bud is fOTl1)cd at the end of
each growi ng axis. and is callc-d the tcnni-
nal bud (Fig. 66). "'hen it op<'ns the fol-
lowing season it ('ontinuf's t he." growth of
the "tem or branch . Buds arc form('d also
in the llxil:s of leuyes 1 usualJy onc bud in
an axil. and hence the.\' arc called c<xil-
laNj buds (Fig. 66). When the,\' de\'elop
they form net\' branches. "~hen the {,er-
minal huds arC' stronger than t he axillary
bud:;, the main stem or branches continue
to clongl1te year afler year; bUI if the
axilhlr), buds are stronger. the growth of
the ne\\' bmn(;hes may rcrlac~ that of the
stcm from which they arisc. For ~xam
pIc, in lhe common lilac the t\\"o buds in
Flo, 66.-&llly bill'"
0{ hick-or)": letmi· the axil. of the uppermost oppositc leaves
Ilaj Ohe ",rOlJ,lJt!lfl,
later&l OIJI.!8 u;(1I-
develop branches. the tcrmin.sl bud be-
Jar)' tU! .!lWtIo·h b,· tw("cn them not ('ontinuing the growth
the leaf 'I(IIU'I-
After GRAY. of the ""is, and often Dot even being
formed. Hence the lilac bush is cha.rac-
lcrized by its forked branching. eacn axis appearing to end
In a pair of branches. Axillar), buds do not all de" elop into
branches by any means. but an)' of them may do so under
certain conditions. If the terminal bud. is injured or is fee-
ble, the axillary bud or buds nea.rest to it will be more
hkdy to develop branches; and if the upper axillary buds
'_,,,..,,,,.j the next lower ones will develop, aDd so un
STEMS 69
down the a....ds. Axillary buds mo." exist for """'rnl "ears
without any opportunity LO devclop, and they tnuy .'·~n lie
o\·C'rlaid by the growth of the StPIl) on which rhf>" ~lu"d.
30. Scaly buds.-The most cOllspiruou., burls ·art· th~
so-railed scaly buds. in which the QUI('rmost Jf'nY('~ dt.'vt·lnp
as dry aJld often hard sc'ulcs, enlirrly unlikl' lhe lru(' lctL\'{'s
(Fig. 66). These o,wlllppil.lg s('ales protect the d,·lieate
le8"c6 within and the growing apex of the ste rn frolll sudden
changes of temperature and from moistuTC", und llre of len
made stil1 more f'ffpdi"e against moi~t\lf(' by bf'roming
(:o"crcd wit h a sort of varnish or balsam. us in the hol'S(~
chestnut and balsam-poplar. The insioe flf t hI' 8c'01(,8 or
the roung le8\'cs within lire often ( '0\' ('«'(.1 with wool. It.fit a
furth£'f protection against suddru ciJan~('~ of temperature.
It is e"ident that scaly buds are especially udapted to
protect delicate struc'lures dllring lhe wint('r nnel early
spring, and hence a re c'haraclcrist ic of the shrubs an.d In..:oeH
of temperate regions.
In the spring. 8uc·h buds first swell and then open, the
young branch emerging by the iengt hening of its int(!T-
nodes. and gradually spreading i1. lenvc.. During tbe
opening the scales usually drop off. leaving mOre or less
campJcLe rings of scars about tlJe stpm, t.hus rx:rma.nently
mark.ing the position of the bud. If n brunch continues
to elongate for a number of years. its age and the amount
of growth each year can be determined by the successive
sets of bud scars.
31. Naked buds.-Buds in which flO protective scales are
developed, or any other special coverings, are called fUJked
buds , and are characteristic of tropical plants, altbough
not entirely lacking in plants of tbe temperate regions.
32. Accessory buds.-In some plants more than one
bud may appear in tlle axil of a. leaf, as in tbe maples, in
wbich three buds occur side bv side (Fig. 67). As these
buds are most conspicuous in the early spring, the position
of the leaS i. indie.led by the leaS scaf, immediately above

wbich til,' t hree buds " PJX'tlr. In the common bush honey-
suc kl . three to six buds appear in each axil.
In all ~ueh "ases t.he ext ra buds a.re ca lled
occ('ssory buds.
3~. Adventitious buds.-Sinre the lips of
Slf'mS or branches filld the 8xiJs of 11"3Yl~s art"
t he usual plu('es for buds. those which oecur
in nl hrf positions arc called (l dll('n t ili.(IIl~ bu.ds .
~u("h buds appear on Stf'D1S (on th(' inicr-
nodes). roots . and e\'('Zl leuy(:,s. and very
('omOlonly thf:'Y arise as a rcsult of injury.
On llw trunk s of tree:;:;, ("yen a t t hi' hnFc,
woullds often result ill the forma tio n of buds
nnei the developme nt lIf YiA:orou~ young
bmneh s usually called suckers or wfller
sprouts. Often from a 51 ump ,'OUlll!: shoots
arise. and the process of pollarding consists
in (,jut.ting off the crOWllS of tre(',t: lhat new
branches m.,. be de\·ploped in connection
Fln. (,7.-Branch with the woun<.l. In the \\illow • . for example .
of mal,le. i!.h"' ..··
the production of such shoot. is '0 p"ompt
ii'll[ termil\al,
latera.1. I\lId ac- and they are so ,igorous and plillble t hat
~;t~;:~~.- twig~ for basket-work are obtailwd from them
ill this way. In propagating plants by root-
cuttings. as cnn be done with blackberries and r aspberries
advantage is taken of the fact that some roots can produc'
buds. In propagating by stem-cuttings it is the axillar:
buds that den,}op the new shoots: but in root-cutting th
new shoots arise from adventitiou bud . That leaves als
ma)' produce adventitious buds is shown in connection "it
the practise of propagating begonias by leaf-cuttings.
It is eYident, therefore, that while plants ordinari
produce terminal IIlld ax:illary buds, under certain co
ditions buds may be developed and shoots arise at any pIa,
CHAPTER 1\'
ROOTS
34 . General character.- I ll ~('n('t'al. r(lotfl Rrr or,!!nniz{'d

to work ill the soil. bUl this is not lrllt.' of :dl (If Ih(·m. The
soil roots. liO\\"e\Tr. will 1)(' ('(lnl">id('fl~d firsi. 9.1" bein~ the
most com mOil and as exhibiting nw~1 tll'urly thp structure
A
PtQ. 68.-Roota: A,da.nddion with tall-root; B. era.- with dw.-Wot fibrouaroot&.
6 n
,d ',"ork of roots. One of lbe most obvious contrasts

ith the st.em in f'xtcrnuJ appt'arance is that roots bear no
:Q\'Cff or scales, lind are not made up of nodes and inter-
odes.
The rool. that come' from the seed, including all of its
ubs('qu('n( branches, is the- prim.ary roof. In some cases
he prinw.ry root dC'\"(']ops II single prominent "erlictllly
lescBncijng axi ,~, C'llllf'cl thl' Itll)-Toot, which gives off small
lrnnchc.:s, as in the dandl·iiotl (Fig. 68, A); iu other cases
~hc primary rool breaks up al once into n clusiler of branches,
as io mlln)" grasses (Fig. 68, Bl. 1 n many cases the lap-
rool becomes con'pif"uously j hi"kenrd for food storage, as
illustrated by suc h common
vegetables as radi sh (Fig. 69,
A), I urnip, and parsnip. 1n
some cases where there is no
PIG. 69.-Fl~hy rootll : A. ",dish ~itb flesby t..ap"root; R, d.a.hlia with cluster 0(
fle!!.hY root.
tap-root, the br&nchcs become thickened, forming such

clusters of thickened roots as tho e of the dahUa (Fjg. 69,
B ) and of the sweet potato. Roots t hat arise from the
stem or the leayes are secondary roots. For example, a
subterranean stem or '" creeping stem strikes root from the
ROOTS 78
nodes. and such ""condary roots 1Il.~' be th. onl)' rOOt. or

many plllntS (Fig . 46). In propa",:lIin,l: planl.' h.' layering
(§ 23) or by cut t ill~~. the rool1' an:- Ilt'('('~urily nil ~'c.·ollt.lar)'
roots. E\"t~n rT{'ct c;:t('IHS
!mmctimc:; s('nti down
R{'condnry root!'l into lhr
soil from the lower jOlHtl-l
( Fig. i7 ). as is "{'r~"'om
mon in corn .
35. R oot-cap. - The
growing tip of earh Toot
unci roollN is prot('C'1 {'d
hy a {'a p of ('ells {'ali,'"
the root-wp (Fig. TO ).
Thifi Toot-cap (.'on~ist8 of
"""cral lnyers of cells.
the outer ones graduall~'
dying or being worn nway
as the ti p of the root
pushes through the soil,
and being replaced by
new layers which are
continually forming be-
neath. In some plants
the root-cap is "Ny
ea.sily seen as 11 conical
thickening at tbe lip of
the rootj in others it
FlO. 70.-Loncituilillal aeelion throuch root--
can be demonstrated tip or ITliderwort. u.nwillC ~lt1l1 "ucular
only by examin ing un- u;iII (P(l. cortes: (p), CJlidc!rnu. (It), aod
rool-cap (rl.
der t he microscope lon-
gitudinal section through the root-lip. The presence of
such a protective cap in the root is in stroug contrast with
the stem, wbose growing ~ips are protected by overlapping
leaves.
36'. Root-hairs.- A short distance behind the root-cap

the surfa('e of the root brcomes ('oyered by a marc or less
den'e !(rowth of hai ro. known n" rool-hairs (Fig. 71 ). These
hairs are otllgrow1hs. somr-
times "cry long ones. from the
su perfi cial cells. [l. single cell
producing a single root-hair.
[n faet the root-hair is only nn
extended pari of the superfi-
cial cell. The root absorbs
water and materials dissolyed
in it from the soil. and the
root-hairs enormously 1I1crease
the allsorbing surface. Gen-
erally root-hairs do not last
very long; but new hairs are
being put out by the elonga-
FIG. 'I.- Root-tip!! (I{ CQrn , IIh" ,,-ing ting root as the old ones behind
rool-hait'll aod dl~ir flU!1ition in re:l- die. so that there is always a
~r~nflf' to fbI:' ,va.-inK tip: A, 1!"-H'II'n
ill llOil (hia-her up tilt' h,un 1~'(Im6 zoue of active root-hairs near
mudl more ahunrlftm Imd longer); the tip , but none on the older
B. JTU'II"ll. in mo~t air.
parts of the root.
37. Internal structure.- A cross-section of a young Toot
shows two prominent regions (Fig. 73). In the center is a
solid "asculnr cylinder . often called the central axis. It
",ill be remembered th.t in the stems of Dicotyledons and
G."mno, perms (§ 24) the vascular cylinder is hollow , en-
closing pit h. Iuyesting tbe solid "aseular eyl.inder of the
root is the cortex, whieh often can be stripped from the
central axis like a spongy bark. If the section has passed
through t he. zone of root-hairs, they can be seen coming
from the superficial cells. A longitudinal section of a root-
tip, in which these regions are "ery you~g, is shown in
Fig. 70. .
The wood (xylem) and the bast (Phloem) of the vascuJal
ROOTS 'TIS
cylinder d o not hold the sarno N'lation to ench other aaln
the stem (§ 24). The ,"!I"cular cylinder, instead of being
made up of ,"Meulnr bundles
,,;th wood toward t he center
and bast toward the outside.
as j n stems, is nl1l.cie up of
wood and bast strands aitC"T-
nating with eac'h ot hPr around
the center (Fig. 72 ). T he
wood strand ~ radio t c from
tbe center like the spokes of
a wheel. and the bast st rand
3J'C bet ween these spokC's nrur ....10.7'2 - !)'JI.V1lIllIll. lIr ('rt_~ti(jn 01
.... ynun( "Mit. "howul.C du' Inll~
their outer ends. Th i~ ar- byf'1' ,)( Ih~ _teJt II') and Ih~ "'~ u
rangement of wood and bast lar r',)'liurln '''\ ollluun,nlfaltt'fnaIUIIt
~jtI\ln. of .xylil!1U (tl .nd Jlblofoul (p).
is pecuIJar to rots.
" then roots increasp in diameter, a camuium soon begins
to form new wood and bast, as in the stems that increaso
B
Ftc. 73.-Diqnun abowia..- the met.bocJ of thiekeoinc the ...aacular cyUnder of a root:
alternate with loW'" xylem 1ftTand! (r). the wb.

.... repre.ent. the CI"OeIHI!euon of • YOUD« root i.n ",b,ich foW" pbltlem .t.r'UlId.. ~)
~ recioo beiI:Ic t!DYIikJped
by the lhj~k ClOt'tC; B repr.-nu an older roo&. in which lbv'e '- a COQ~UOWI &00II
01 cambium (c), which it: lorm.in&: OJ] the outMde new phloem (lip) In coauc.
with ~ old (P). and on the inside DeW xyieID (1ItZ) alt.erD&Uq with &be old ~).
76 A TEXT-BOOK OF B01'AN'l'
in diameter (§ 24). The new wond, however, is not formed

in connection with the old wood. but just ,,~thin the bast,
t}Ult is, farther in bet ween the ({ spokes" of old wood,
resulting in bundles like dIOse of lhe stem (Fig. 73). In
this way a thickening "asnulal' c)'linder is formed , like that
of stems that increase in diameter; and presently the cross-
section of Ill!' root resemblesth.! of tbe stem. ]t is evident
(Fig. n) II",t the prineipal pith rays separating the ,'as-
cular buodif's of su<;:h n root ('xtcnd inward to the original
radinting strands of wood that alternate
with the original strands of bast. The \'as-
(,ular hundles of the root connect with those
of the stem, and these in turn with those of
the lea,·es. so that throughout the whole
plant there is a ~ontinuous t'llscular system .
The origin of the branches of roots is '-cry
different from that of sIems. I n a stem
the branch bcg:ms at the outer part of tbe
cortex, but m t he root it begins at the sur-
face of the vascular cyJinder and breaks
through the cortex (Fig. 74). If the cor-
tex of a root be stripped off, the branches
P,o. 74.- Lo .."',u- will be found attached to t he central axis,
din'" _,;"" of nnd the perforations made by the branches
l'OOl o! s .. m ..··
leaf. "bowillll: Ih., through the cortex can be seen.
branc.betl I!.tarl- 3S. Growth in length.-The elongating
intr: frum the
cen tmJ n..~j" and region of the root is much more restricted
t~lwtratiug Lhe than tbat of the stem. It. was Slated (§ 26)
oortex.
that tbe elongating region of a stem may
extend ten to twenty incbes from the tip, or even more ;
but the e.lougatmg region of a root is hardly eyer more than
two-fifths of an inch. and often not more than haH of that
The region of eJongation and of greatest elongation shoule
be determined by using such seedlings as these of peas
tleans, and corn. When the young :roots have become t
ROOTS 77
halI to ooe inch long, mark as delicatoly a. poS8ibl. in-lndiA
ink with a soft camel 's-h .. ir bru~h n ... tics of eqll811,I' SPMed
lines, beginning at tho tip, Obscfl'ations at llw ('lId of
twenly-four to forty-{'i!(ht
hours will di~l' o\"(> r t hr
region of elongation and
of grC'stcst (lIOn~al iOIt
(Fig, 75),
39. The soil. - l3<>foro
:1 usorpt ion by root:;: j;o: rOIJ-
!;id Ted. it is IlP{'cssaTY to
know somr thillg' of the
structure of soi1. F-ioil is
finely diyidd rork ma- llu. 75.- Iw.:IU! l.r .....'If'I· Nun"" bMn
teria l, which may be tnftrKf!ofl wi1 II lin", Imf\ miUimetef apart.
and pliot.ocrapbed .he!' forty -tiabt.
mixed \\it h a ~r('alcr Or bon .....
less amollnt of matprial
(called organic material) doril'cd from t he brokcn-do ..' n
bodies or waste productH of plants llnd anima l . However
fine the particles of soil may bl', they nOl','r fil together in
c['"lse contact. so that thrrc ar'(' OfK'H Mpa("('s cn"lJ'\\'here
among them. Immediately aftl'r a sonkillll ruin thCllll
spaces arc fu ll of waler, but if the fl.oil is Ot1~ that drains
easily, the water gradually di,appenrs from tl" spaetH, and
the larger oncs arc occupied hy air. In addition to thjs
occasional water, each particle of soil is in\'!'Rtcd hy a tbjn
film of water, 'which adheres to it c1oR(>ly, and whiC'h never
entirely disappears el'cn in the dric,t "oil. The soil \Va~er
is never absolutely pure, but contains dissolved io it cer-
tain materials obtained from the wil.
As types of soil. BaM, rwy, aod Ilumu. may be con-
sidered. Humus is a soil ill which there is iOlenni"ed 8.
large amount of decayed plant material; and it is frequeotly
called vegetable mold, or lear mold, lhe best illustration
beiog tbe upper soil of forests, Aside from certain materials
thJ1t U,e cifferent soils ma~' supply to the plant, they are
cSp<'cilllly characterized by their relation to water. The
power of 3 soil to Tc-cciYC' und to retain water is a very
irnportutlt ('unsid('rnt ion in ("onnnrtion w-jth plants. For
examph'. it i:-; l'\'jt!C'nt that tlu.' I t'('rpti,'c power of Rand is
h~h , and its f{'U'lIti\"(' I)()wpr is lnw: while in the case of
dny thf' i.:;; trur, One' of th(' ~re8t ach'antngC's of
n'\"('ro;;p
hunluR i:o; thm its f(~('('ptin\ und rl?tenli\"(' po\\"t'rs nrc })PUcr
balnncC'd than in sand and day. It, is easy to clE'yise It
series of cX I)('rinH'l1ts th!lI will show in a rough way the
cnluparati\,(' re('(;'plin' and T('{ en lin' powers of these three
Iyr)(-,s (If soil. It ha~ becll Fho\rn also that for Bn.'" gin·n
soil. t he more finely the panicles nrc di"idcd lhe beILer it i
for plnnlR. ~,"h ('n th(' soi l is turned up with Fiow or spade.
it, i, dried b,. the air and puh'erizrd a nd so put in better
condition for plant s.
It is evidf'nl that in considering the relation of t.he soil
to planls. lIot olily the su rfar(' soil must be considered, but
nl ~o 111(' soil bene3t.h (s ub8oil) . For example, if humus
Tests on sand . the water will drain away much more rapidly
than if humus resls 011 cia,.. The whole subject of the soil
in its relation to plants is one of extreme complexity and is
as ret little understood.
40. Absorption of water.-To obtain water from the
soil. the root not onl)' often branches profusely, but also
de"elops the roOl:':!iairs described .boye (§ 36). Only in
ttw younger portions of the root, that is. in the generat re-
gion of the root-hairs, is absorption of water effected. The
root-hairs push out among the soil particles and come into
" ery close eon tad with them, ~he particles sometimes be-
coming embedded in the wall of the hair (Fig. 76) . I n this
way the films of water adhering to each soil particle are
.losely applied to the hair. and water passes from them
I,hrotlgh the "all of the hair into its ca,~ty. and so into the
plant. The process by which the water passes in is known
ROO'!'S 79
8S osm.osis. As water is absorlx-d from the film th~y
be('ome thml~er. und thi:; 10,,1:;. is ~uppli{'d from npighhoring
films. 1n T,OIS WD." n flow from zl'~ioll.'~ of 'he soil deeper
and more dl~[lHll than (ho"(' ((I whic'h
the r001 r('ut:IH'~ j:-; :o'l'1 up Hlwnrd I hi'
films losing, Wat('t. Th£' wnlt'r ",,,ppl,"
mu." not lip :lblp It) lllnk(' ,:!'ood :'11l'h
10s:o> illddillil('ly: alld if :;n, llu-' fillJ1<.;
gnldu:.tlJ.,· become Ihinll{'r. lllilil u
point if,; r('[1.(,II(·d wllc·n Ihe rO(l{.hnir
('an ()htain no t 11(' film
1110r(' WHI('f,
hnldin~ t{'nn('iou!-\l~' t( ,
pnrlirk of
il:-'
!';oil. Aftf'r til(' rools han- (lhluinNi
nil I}1(> Wlj!('f t1wy ('an from IJH' ...nil.
and it seems fp(·r({·(·lly dry. it stdl
('ontHins t\\'O tCI I \\(·1\"(, IX'f ('{'Ill of
water in tlw form of films .
The water thur; obtninNl by th(.·
rnot-hairs p:1;o;s(,~ inward throuc:h
and ('ntrr.- thr wood
t})C corti',,'
of the \'ns('ulnr cylinder. und Fw 76 - n cw\t-bair 0( wheat;,
"hi(-)} I . "bowo I~I IJe al) otlt-
t hen isfree 1(I Hs("rno to til(' ..... ,"'>111 lruol an f11tt.krmal
woud of the stE'm. and ~o to 1 he ('fOil , In d~ oon~1 with IOU
p.rtk""-.
lean's.
li should und,'rstooo thftt 'he wuter de ...", not enrry
]x.
into the plant thc· soil sub.~tlln(,(,~ dis:;oh'('() ill i,; but eacb
dissol\'ed .ub"tanee. although it must lx· in solution in
order t o enter thE:' plant. is lurnt'Cl uad\: or ('ntcl'l:i Ilpon cOn-
ditions that hclong to it""lf aIm,". Certain dissolved
5ubstno{.'es may not lx· nblc to l'ntrr at all, and itl COn...
sequence of this th£, root ha~ l,x'('n said to pos.'iCSi' a selective
p(H~'er; while other substances liB)' t"nter "'ith greater or leu
rapidity at different timcs. or ma~' ('Ven ]x. turned back at
certain times. All this diversity of bebavior is dependent
upon definite 1&".. of physics.
41: Special forms of roots.-Roots in the soil serve the

dOllble purpoS<' of "n"horing the plant and ah"lrhing wa-
,cr, but certain roots hold otber rclations nnel need special
mention.
( 1) Prop rools.-ln certain planls root.s nre spnt. out
from the Mom or ,he brnneh~s. and finally rcadling the
ground ('stablish lil(' lI~uHI ~oil ~inr(' t hes(' roots
1'('1:11 ions.
rc~mbl(' braces or props. thr nume prop rools has bern ap-
plied to them (FiA'. 77). A Y<'ry ('ommon illustration is
that of th(' corl1-:ttalk. whi('h ~{'nds ou t t::t1rh 1'oot:o' from the
lower nndl's of the f:.tcm. .:'11 01'(' strikinJ!: illustrations. how-
('Ycr, nfC'furnished by th(' hanyan and thr mangro\'('. The
banyan s(-'nds dO\\,11 from its wi<-ir-!'-prcading brnnrh('s prop
roots, Wllicb urc sOlUetimt!S ypry numt~ rous . \Y hen they
enter 1h(' !!ICli l lhe\' oft('n ~row into larg-e trunk-likr sup-
ports, enabling the branches to extend O\'cr nn extraordi-
nary area. There is rt:c·ord of a banyan cultiYst('d in
('eylon with 350 large and 3.000 small prop roots, and
able to CO\'cr a Yillage of one hundred huts. The man -
grove is found along t ropicnl Ilnd subl ropical seacoasls.
and grndually adyances into the shallow water Ly drop-
pinj( prop roots from its branches and entangling the
detritus (Fig. 307).
(2) W ater rno/s.-If Il stem is Boating. clust,ers of
whitish thread-like rOOt lets usually put out from it and
dangle in the wc'er. Plants which ordinarily develop soil
roots, if brought into proper water rei a, ions, may deyelop
water rools. For iustanc.:e, willows or other stream-bank
plants may be so clo,," to the water that some of the root
system enters it. In such cases the numerous clustered
roots show thei.r water character. Sometimes root systems
developing in the soil may euter tile drains, when water
roots \\ill deYelop in snch clusters as to choke the drains.
The same bunching of water roots may be noticed wben a
hyacinth bulb is grown in a vessel. of water. It is e,;dent
ROOT
th~l \..'"t.,nt,act with abundan~ water modifies the Connn.tion

of runt,!:; , both U5 to numlwr und C'hara(·ter.
(3) Clinging root •. -8uch rools are developed to fasten

the plant body to some support. and may be rel!:arded aE
.~ TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
rOOLs r"ing as tpndril.. 1n Lhe trumpet·crepper and

poison.i,·y these tendril-like rools cling 10 "arioua supports.
such as sLone wall s
Ilnd I ree trunk s .
by f'f'Jlciing minute'
uran('iI(,fI into the
cre\·j('("s. ] n such
ctlses, !tow(" 'cr, the
plant Jl!lS also 1 ftlr
s()il ront s.
(4) Air rool.,.-
~omc pl ants ha\e no
Roil C()I1lH'clion at all.
In t be rniJl.)' tropics,
where it i ~ po~sib le
to obtain sufficient
moist urc' from thr
nil', tht'ft· are many
such planl s, notable
among which BTe the
orchids. to be ob-
se rycd in almost
nuy greenhouse .
Flo.iS.-Anorchidwitb.eriAlroolJl. Clinging to the
trUll ks of trees r U u-
all.Y imitated in the greenhouse by nests of sticks, they
send out long roots whirh dangle ill the moist air (Fig.
is ). ueh plnnls are called epiphyle3, the name indi-
cating that they perch "pon other plants and have no con-
nection wilh tIle soil (Fig. 79). A very common epipbyte
of our Routhern . ._ tales is the common long moss or black
moss (although it is by no means a ~oss) tbat hangs in
stringy mns;;cs from the bra",cbes of li\'e-oaks and other
trees (Fig. 0) .
IUl. -;U. - A (.:TOO,' o f lienal IlhUlh' ( epiflh~· Ie.) III • tr(}J) jc,J ftn"efll .
- After "KAR8Tt;"S and !O;CIlItMCIt.
Flo. 8O.-Live--oau ~ ';'t,b loq ., mOM."

83
CHAPTER \
GERMINATION OF SEEDS
42. Introductory.-ln the prrreding chapters the struc-

ture tllld lht" woZ'k of thE> tlln'(' grl'tlf nlZrriri,'c org!ln .~ (It'uL
slcm, J1r1d root) of the hig'her plauts \,"ere ('onsid{'red. in
studyjng die' g('rlllillarion lIf f;('edl'-i , (hl's(' or~an~ m:I.~· be
obser\,f'd Hs..~utnil1g (Iwir \'arious pORition~ and rriatiouR. anu
the student nU1Y be introduced to certain important facls .
.F'lG. 81 .-~tion of ~ll: ""mo"iol one cot)'l~on, and 1!hulI'io(; tbe \~t.a. tb ..
TNUJU"jU. oolrJedon. &he h,rpocolyl (iu. tiP in position to etnuce) . .and the
lliumnifl.
Perhaps the most common seed used in cla study of seed

germination is the garden belln, although other seeds hould
be germinalt'<l in the l aborat.or~', and, when possible, studies
of germination should be extended beyond the laboratory.
43. General structure of the seed.-It is very commOD
to study e,'en ibe surface or'tbe seed in great detail, but
~~
GERMINATION OF EEDS
only such features as hn,·. an ""ident bearing upon its

germination will be considered here. The Reed is in\'ested
1)\' a hard coat (testa), which in somc' secus is extremely
h~rd. and is c\'idently n prot(,ctive structure during th~
1Il0rc or less prolongrd period of
rest. Within the trst a the young
planllet is parked, III this singe
('ailed lhe e",l"yo (Fig. 81). The
!)rocess of germinntion is til('
(·.cape of this planllet from the
tesla . • If the embryo of the' bean
br removed from the t('stn - IR'Iler
FIG. Sla '--'~lion of ,;olet !leC(I , abo'l\'ina:

elubryo, endOtlpefIII, IUld telll ... FlO. SZ.~liJlC of 1)811:
.A. embryo t'e'lnoved from
te¥ta.; B, younl' Medlin,
done after soaking in \\'ater for ahoww. hypocoty1. cot)'le-
dOM. lWd plumule; C.olde r
some time-and straightened out, eeedlina: aho..nll.l tbe tinlt
internode and 1eava. of the
it will be found to consist of three IIleru.-Alter aU,T.
distinct parts (Fig . 2 ). The
most conspicuous of these is the two IlbaJves" of the bean,
which are the seed-Iea,"es (cotyledons) gorged with resen'e
food. These cotyledons stand upon a minute stem, whlch
in the seed is curved up against them, and which is called
the hypocotyl, a name applied to the peculiar stem of an
embryo. Between t he cotyledons, and arising from the top
of tho hypocotyl is a bud . called the plumttle. from which

the futu re I Cllf~' stem is to develop. i n many seeds the
reserve food is not stort'd in the cotyledons. but in a spe-
ciaJ ti sfoi.ue Rurrounding till' ('l1lbryo. which in gcoE'rai may
be call"d CT,do'lJl'rm. 1n the "iolct seed. for example,
within the testl. i, the endOSpl'rtn. and embedded in the
endosp<'rm lies the embr,'o (Fig.8 Ia).
44.. Conditions for gennination. -The length of time
8('('ds may J'{'tain their yi l ulity \'tui('~ with diff('TPnt plnnt.s.
In natuTf' tlwy nr{' f'xpt'{'lt'd 10 l!E' rminnie in the growing
8CMlon fullowing 1heir tllUlllril_\": but many arl" known to re-
tain t,h r power of germination fo r R('Yerai years if kept in
proper. ('onditioTis. ('hid among which. apparently. is dry-
ness. Thl' stori{'S of the grrmiuution of wheut tlnd ('orn ob-
tained from the wr!lpping::; of mummirs han:' pl'oH'd to be
mYlhs.
Th£> conditions f(·quin·d for germination are abundant
mois lur{'. ~tlita.blt' t('mIX·rnture . and u supply of oxygen
(which meaus access of u.ir). ~E'('dfi vary gn'utly in the
amount of heut neccssa r.'· for g(_·rmination. as may be
inff'rrC'd from the far t thut ~orne s{,pd:; germinnt{' in carly
spring or ('n~n on th£' mf'lting- snow-fields of alpine and
aret ir regions, while others ncpd the heat of t hf' tropics.
45. Absorption of water. -When a seed has becn placed
in the proper conditions for germination. the first ,·i";ble
result is its ,welling through the absorption of waler . The
amount allli force of this swelling may he obsen'cd by plac-
ing a quantit), of speds in a tumbler of water and putting
va.rious weigh ts on the mass. [ t is entirely clear also that
ox ~'gen hu.s been passing in. for tbe seed gi,·c, off carbon
dioxide and hent. That heat is gi"en off by a germinating
seed is made "or)' plain in the process of malting, in which
a large mass of barley i put in germinating conditions in a
confined space, and the combined heat from all t he seeds
becomes very evident.
GERMINATION OF SEED 7
46. Respiration.-The escup" of carbon dioxido. ,which

follows the taking in of oxygen, is Ihe superficial indication
that the ,'cry important pro('E'ss call1'd respirat1:cHI is g'oing
on-8 process t hat is essential not, olll~' to c\'cry living
animal and plant. but also to ('\'rry living cell. Just what
happens in respiration is Ycry uncc·rtuin; but it illyoh-es I.l
!otC'ries of changrs in thl' li\'ing 8ubstanm' (protoplasm) itsclf-
changes which arl' madt' possible' uy 1 h{' preSf'Il{,(, of o'\:ygC'll.
Rnd among wI.08(' results are lhl~ iilwrulion of carhon dioxide
3E n was.te produt,t, flnu of ("Iwrgy for plant work. Huch as
growth and moYC'mcut. A plant. IhrTefoTr, cannot work
without respiratioT1: am.! if it ('aIHlfIt work it ('{'llS('S to live.
The coni rast het wt'en ph(ltoi-iynth('sis (§ 14) and res-
piralion shou ld br k('pt di~lirl('tly in 1l,ilJd, Uf' the former
process so masks the latler in grC't'1i plant~ (OxpoS<l'd to light
that the Q('CllrrC'nc'(' and tlH: importullC't' of ]"C'spirution in
them i s not nln-ays fully npprC'('intN,L 1t was onr'C' ('usto m-
a ry to ('ontra.st plants and !llljmals b,\- sial ing I hat the form-
er take in ('urhon dioxide lInd f:;i\-C' Ollt uxyv;cn (photosyn-
thesis), and t.i).(' laHer luke in ox}gell and giv(.· out carbon
dioxide (respiration). It i" .,·ident thut all li,-in~ things,
whether plants or animals, arC' dpI){'ndC'llt upon f(.'!:.o.piro.tion;
while green plants \\'ht.' 11 expus{'d to light eRn al!:to do the
work of photosynt hf'sis. The contrast between the two
processes may be made still more (·"ident by the following
statement: photosynthesiB o('curs only in grre11 cells, re-
quires light . uses carbon dioxide. Iii:)f'rates oXy)!e'JI, makes
organic material, and accumulate'S ('nerg.\' ; while respiration
oecurs in eyr-ry lh~ing cell, do(~~ not r('quire light, uses
oxygen, liberates carbon dioxide . uscs organic material, and
liberates encrg}·.
47. Digestion.-Before any growth of the embryo can
take place the reserve food must be changed. Most fre-
quently in seeds the storage form is starch , but starch is
insoluble ."d t.herefore cannot move out of !,he cells in
7
wbicb it is slored. Accordingly it must be changed into a

soluble form; and t his work is commonly done by a sub-
stance cal1('d all (,llzyme, whi('h is prodU(.'ed by the living
subslance (protoplasm) of the cell. There uro numerous
enzYlnt's. \\ hich an upon different subst!tn(·{·s; but the olle
most rr('qllC'lIll~' found in s('eds i:; that ('sllrd diastasr. whieh
ha.s the P(lWC'f (If ('(Jnn'rling stlltch into one of the soluble
auglll1'. Thi!:o; pro(.'(·:;:-i of eOIl\"C'rting in~(llt1bl{' food into u
s()lllbl(· f(lrm i~ di!l('stion. and in ordinary s('('d:; thf' starc h is
digC'!';!{'d Hilli Iw('onH's stlp;nr. All of this work preparatory
to growth il('('ounts fur the activity noted in the two pr('('ed~
ing s('{'ri01}S. Th(' foou ht·in,g- in the form of a soluble s ugar
can leun' the storage cells und pnss to th(' regions where
groWl h O('CII TS.
48. Assim.ilation.-ln a germinaling seed the soluble
8ugnr prorltl('~d hy djgl'~lion pusses ill solution from cell to
cell, R(wording to the la\\" ~ of osmosis, until it reaches cells
where !-'To,,·th i. taking placo; thnl is, where the protoplasm
is forming n('w cells by di"iding those already formed, nnd
enlarging t he new ones until each one is as large as the
cell of which it was 8 di ~-ision. Thi s cell di"ision and cell
growt h nrc going on very actively in the hypocotyl and
plumule of the germinat.ing s('ed; and '\'hen the sugar in
.olution rOllellOs the acti,-c cells. it is used in building up the
8oth'e pro!Opla.lll. which is being broken dO\nl by its
aelm! \. This transformation of food into protoplasm,
by numt'TrJUS intermediate steps, is assirpilatl:on.
49. Proteids.-Thus far we have considered only carbo--
hydrate foods. but in building up protoplasm tbe carbo--
hydrates arc first used in the manufacture of 111"oteids.
Just how proteid. are formed is very uncertain, but they
are more complex tban carbohydrates; and in addition to
the carbon. hydrogen, and oxygen of the carboln·drates,
prot.eids contain other elements, notable among which are
nitrogen, sulphur, and phosp~orus, and these enter tbe
GElUlli'1ATION OF SEEDS II
plant in "arions compounds found in the soil. The ,,-bite

of an egg is an illustration of a prlltC'id: and J]W:l{ in general
is a prott~id food, as ('otltru'"t('d with lm.·n.d. which i.;; tl CflT-
hohydrate food. In man." ~l'('ds l'rokid foud i~ ~tor('d ill the
form of aleurone (rraifl!~. For ('xttrnplc, a ~('ctiorl of il wheat
p:rnin, or the gnun of an." c'ommon {'(,fPal. ::-hnwR aleurone
grains in t he outer layer of ('nlioslwrm ('('11[.;, jUHt in~idc of the
test;::.; \\'hiJe the OUICT f'ndospcrm ('('lIs t'pntnhl sturc:h grains.
50. Fats.-In addition to rnrl)(lhydrnt('~ unu protf'iciR,
sume plants form fats. the third kind of organic- food; nnd
t.hesE" Ints aTf' som{'1imes slorrd in th(' l'I(.'t.'ds in Hquid forn)
(in small drops). as in the ra,tor-bran. flaxseed , etc. rats
contain carbon. hycirogf'n, anti oxy~('n us do the- carbo-
hydrates; but while in the ('ur\)ohydrall's the hytlrogrn find
oX )'g~n
occur in the proportion of two to on~ (H,O) , in
the futs the proportion of oxygen is much 10",. In ad-
dition to the oil outained from the seeds mentioned aho\'e,
oli\'e oil and ('"olton-~('(>d oil m!ly be- mentioned u.s plant
fa.ts of commercial importane("
51. Escape of the hypocotyl.- The first part of the
spedlillg to push out of tho te,ta is the tip of the hy-
p<)cotyl, which
is to denlop
the root. It
is soon eyident
that this elon-
gating tip di-
rects its gro,,,tb
downward. that
is, toward the
earth I eyen if
! t has to CUT\'e FIG, 83.--Ce.rmina.dna: ~: tM bun kl the left. hu not.
about the seed ::dm::ce:~~co:.;~~~~~;" turDed~aJter
to do so (Fig.
83). It is exceedingly sensitive to surrounding influ-
A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT AN.
l'ne('''' a condition th., i. tailed irritability. The outside

jnttlH'n('('~
thut nf1ed irriluble orp:ans are rall('d stimu.li)'
for ('xnmpJt~, among animals light jl:i a slimulus to the
('~·e.
,0:1. Geotropism.-The young ront, d('\'(>lopilig at the

rnd of tilt' h~'pn('ot~ I. is ,'pry "i('ll::.ith'e to ~r:l\·il~·. n ('00-
dilinn th:lI j..: {'ul)pd gflltropi.vn. thl' root ueing- ~~ljd 10 be
grotro1)i('. Tilt' word fIll'UII:; "dircrt('d b~' t ht illfiurlltl' of
Ihr rurth," whal j~ ('ommonly ('allf'd gr:lYil,'" a(·tillg 11:0; a
slimull1~. If thl' root-lip, when it pushes out of the !{'sta.
is eJin·('h-·d upwurJ or horizontally, ,gravity acts as. n
8timulu~ :lnd the irritahle root responds by developing: a
('un'uturc thut. din' ct;O:. it downward (Fig. S:l). This is
onl~' one way of rc~ponditlg to the stimulus of gra\'ity:
nnd sinre th.is wsy dirc'cts the organ loward I he souree of
the stimulus, th(, or~nn i~ said to be positively (lcot,ropic.
Jf thl' same sl imulus and responRe that directs tlw rool-tip
toward the soil COll\iml{,~ to diret't it within the soil. it
conLinul"s to grow directly downward and becomes a tap-
rOOI (Fi~,. 6~ and 89). When such n root, 11UYing en-
t('~d the soil. bt'~itls to send out branches. these do not
respond to th(' stimuJu:, of grn\·it_\· as docs the rap-rooL
for th(~y f'xtend throug:h lhe soil in en'ry direction , and
urc eddently 110t pO:iili"ely geotropic.
53. B ydrotropism.-The root is yery sensilh'e also to
the pr('s(,IH'(' of mojsture, a condidon that is called
liydrotropi" I1I, the root being said to be hydrotropic. The
word nll'[lflS "directed by the influence of moisture." the
moistufE' acting as a stimulus. and the foot being 1>ositi-r;ely
h.udrtllropl.·c. Since ordinaril~' t he stimuli of moisture and
gru\'ity act from th(' same general direction upon the root,
thl:' re.~ponses are not contradictory. It is of interest,
therefore, lO arrange un experiment that \\;11 make them
rontradietory. Au ercct support. shaped as shown in Fig,
84, is cO"ered with bibulous paper which is kept moist.
GERMIN.~TION OF SEEDS 91
To the inward sloping surface is pinnffi n "oedling }\'hose

root has \\"(,11 "'aTled. Til photograph (Fig. 4 ) shows
thnt the root. con ·
tinlling to ~ro\\'. has
t timed fro111 i he Y{'r-
lienl dirc('t ion und{'r
I he ::;limuiuf' ()f I hr
moisture in thf' bibu-

lous pn l)f·r. and is
PIlTsuillg 1I [,!:<'tlrr:.d di-
rrction that is n rc-
l'ullnnt hPlw(,(,1l the
tWO ~tiltlllii. A mor!'
rl(,luiled oh:o;cryfttion
(If , uch Ull {'x peri-
men! showi"' that 1he
root - tip sonwliru('s
turns IowaI'd and
50nwtimr=- away from
the mOist paper.
54. Escape of the
cotyledons and the
plumule.-After the
Pin. 54 .-.\ belul -.JUIIIJ 'bo...·ma: Iht' ret!JlOnMI
root "\\;lh its branches of the root wbell t.he Ilimulw. of &n,·hy ill
has anchored the from olle d.irt-ctiOfl and 1Iial of moultur'e from
flllOlheT,
plantlet to t hc 80il,
the hypocotyl begins to elongate rapidly; and since the
cotyledons are still within the testa this elongation results
in the development of an arch. the hypocolyl arch (Fig.
85). As the arch constantly secks to straighten it",ll, the
upward pull on the cotyledons finally draws them out of
the testa and the hypocotyl straightens. The cotyledons,
however, hayc done their work, and although they may
become green and persist for some time, in the benn they
are of no further importanre. It is Ihe escape of the
J..,um,ulc that is "'p"cially significant, for it develops the

shoot (Vi!!:. '5).
L
FlU. tlb.-A M!ri8 ill (hf' fl:1'f1l1inntillll of tht> Irnrden hcau. 5ho9d.ng the bYPocol,r1
arch . che rulllna out IJf the- cotyleduu6 :.ud tbl! pl.uD)We. nnd the 8tnUQ;ht.en.iug
or til ... h),pocol )-1.
With the oet:lblishlllont of rools in the soil and the

exposu re of green If'fl''PS to the light and nir. germination
h:: O\'cri fl)r til(' plnllt i:::; ubi£' to tnukt' its own foud.
5·;. Phototropism,- The "Iem is sen.iti\,e to the direc-
tion of rays of ligh t . " ('ondi';o" that is called photO/TOp-
Flo. 86.-A bean ~tinlt that 1I'1U! pl.~ in & borUoow position and a.l'ler t..-o
hour. pbotocrapbed.
\S11I, the stem being said to be phototropic, The word

means "di rected by the inJIuen~ of light," the same stem
GERMINATION OF EEDS 93
appearing in the word "photop:raph." The rm ' "eli<>-

lropis-m is oft en USf'd. meaning "dirC'('trd hy (he infiuE'nce
of the sun H; but while the sun is thl~ usual gOUTre of light.,
it i. not the onlr one. It should be nor,,,i lliat it i. not
li!!:ht in general that arts as til(' "imulu". but the directwn
of the rays of light. The response
uf the stem to this stimulu:;\ is to
turo eljrcctly townrd Ill£' ~Ollr('(' (If
ihc litrht ra ~'!oI: thot i-;, thr ~t('tl' i~
po.<:itil'ciy phototropir. Fi.l!. ['(i :-.how:->
a ll('un seedlin g: that wa~ plnrrd in a
horizontal pm:ition and 1 wo hour~
afterward photographed. FI!!. 87
shows the sam!' plant rompi(,lPly
iny('rted. a1l0\\"('0 to grow for t\\'o
days. and then photo!!raphed. In
both ca~('S the strong tun'ature
dc\'elopcd in rcsponsf' to the stimu-
lus of light is \'Cry c\'idenl. the tip
of the stem in both eXp<'rimcn ls
being directed toward t he source
of light.
1L should be rememh<>red that;
these stimuli that influence direc-
tion call forth a response only when
the organ is out of line , and the
response or reaction is tl cun'e that
FIC'. 87.-l'hc AID'" IIt'edlwl
brings it back into line. It is also .bown in ri«. 86. eom~
important to note that the sensi- pletely iD"erted, and afta"
two "-YI pbotocnlphed.
ti\'e or irritable region of an organ
is not I}ecessarily the region in which the reaction oecUI'1!;
and this means that the stimulus has been transmitted io
some way from the irritl\ble cells to those that respond, for
example, by developing a curvature. :\'or does the reac-
tion follow the stimulation immediately; for there is an
94 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT~'Y
ini('ntaJ. known as rear/io1l time, which is generally much

longt·r jJJ pl1J.l.Jts than jll animals. The rcnc:tiorJ timp may
be f;c\'('r1l1 hours, but the mo,-emeJlt
of the J~IlVCS of lhe S<'Dsilive-pJalll
(* 17) allli the snn pping shut of lhe
J('nn'5 of Diomw. (§ 20) follow ,h~
stimulation with remarkable prompt-
ness.
The maill stem in most eu:;:{>:- i8
positillel!l phototropic, liS sho\\-n b{'fof(:'
(Fip:s. 86 and 87); but it is also
negat;rf'ly geotropic. The brallches,
ho\\"('n·r. may r{'~pOl1d to these
FJr.. AA. - A ~lIirlC or stimuli in a \'C'ry different ,,-ny, lISU-
... hill" lllu!IIts.rd II:ro"'1\ in nlly ('xtt'ndillg in u morc or less hori-
. 'lI tf!r Ilud C):IKJIIot'd to
",~k liahl, lth(J";nll: the zon tal dir(,CliOlJ, and lx-ing mainly
pU.litll'C IJllUlOtrullUlIIt tr01l8l·ersely geotropic. T h<' leuves,
or Ih" 1I1f!Q\ and ,he
Ileptive phototrol,i~m also, are usuully neither posirin:'Jy
(If the ,,~()I: th,. IU?O",'"
inrii('ft.lt' til" flirectilm (lr
ncr ncgalivply ph01 otropir. but af{,
th~ ray" or hltllt. directed horizontally. beiug lrans-
Fu•. 8tt-A !o&ies in th .. cernuuatiua 01 tbe ~arlel runner beL't.

GERMINATION OF SEEDS 95
"frsely p"~lolropic. The n'tlju.,-

m~lIt of II", Il'uf-blndl'" to the
IIl'W dirf'rtioll of I he light [l"In,"
hi' sprn i[l Fi l!. Ri.
Thl' root HI~o is phol otropiC',
turlling dir£,(·tly :L\\tty frolll the
~OUJ"('l' of li~ht: t l\[It is. it is
'lcgatil!e/!I llJwlutropic. rig. 8
Hho",!" a s('('dlin~ of whitf' mu~~
tnI'd !'o urnlll;,{('(1 thul both stem
and root nrC' (·x posea only to
\\eak light. tli(' former ~bowinR
p(l~iti\'f" till' 10tl('r nt'gltti\"c
~ofylethm remonMi III ,,1111'"

Ihereilltif>llUrIJl,rtlt .• "dlhe
tLtch df'v..lop.!d by the fir~1
illlemut.ic.
photoLropi -m . It is
interesting to note
that a tap-root he-
ing positiyely ge~
tropic, POSili\·cl.v hy-
drotropic , and negu-
tI\'ely phototropic, all
of its responses under
ordinary condi tions
combine to direct it
in to the ,oil.
56. Other seeds.-
PUl.. OO.-----&!edlin, uf eutor-bean. abowia& larce
It must not be sup- and Il"WU eol)'Jedou..
CHAPTER \"I
ALGAl
57. General cbara cters.-Alg", are the simplp~1 green

plants. and it is thought that the hil(her plants haw bt-cn
deri"l"d from lhrm. Tht"Y grow in the water. and hence
t.h('ir habits are 8dnpu~d to a wntpT ell'\·iroument. Thf'Y nrc
often called srn\\,t:'C'ds. hut althou~dl they are n~ ry nbundnnt
along seacoasts lh('y nrc al~o ubundnnt in frC'sh W:l{('TS,.
Some of them nrc 0 small I hat I he indi"idual bodies ~re
visible only under the mieroscop". and there is nery )!'rada-
tion IH sizf" from this to th~ bulky uodies of certain marine
forms . •
Allhou~h all Alg'" contain chlorophyll. and hence are
able to make thoir own food (§ 14 ). thoy do not all npp"ar
green ; for in many of them the chloroph.dl is nbscurc-d by
other coloring malINS. The four grent groups of Alga' nre
named from the geneml color of their bodies. although
it must 00 remembered that they all contain chlorophyll.
which makes them independent. Some representatiYes of
each group are "dected for t1cscription. but they or others
like them must be ex. mined before any real knowledge of
them call 00 obtailled.
1. BI.Il'£-GREEN ALG.'" (Cyanophycea)

5 . Glreocapsa. - These plallts form blue-green or oli"e-
green patcbes on dnmp tree trunks, rocks, walls, etc. By
m eans of the microscope these patches are seen to be com-
98 •
po ...d of multitudes of spherical cells. eMil c II representing
a complete Glmoca],sa body. Olle of the peculiarities of the
plant is thn t the outer part of the cell
Rt.l.U Oe('omes mucjl[t~jnous, ~w{'lls.
nnd forms :l jcll .... -)jke ~b(·at h. Am on~
tile cell. examined then' will [x, found
some that nrc di\'iding. n wnll f'x lend-
iug ac ross the sphrri(·al ('('II and di-
\'iding it into hrmiBphrfC's. Fa('h
hemisphere is a new plant which
r·) n.DZ.-GI«ocaJ*l·.hu....
in" "n.l(' ""ll•. aod amall
\M!eta
I:I"HUI'. thaI h..... e
fnrould h~' dlviuoQ ud
~ held '«<ether by the
8flvdopwt Illucllace.
• grOWl! as large as the

parent ccli and then
divides in turn. The
mucilaginous walls hold
the cells together, and
80 th£'y arl' found in
groups of various sizes
(Fig. 92). This method
of rcprod uction by cell-
diyision is t he simplest
kind of reprod uction .
59 . Nostoc. -These
plants occur in jelly-
like masses in damp
places. If tbe jelly be
Pro. 03. - A. . filM« : tbowioa: tbe dulin-lib fiJa- examined, it will [x,
nw'll and • beterocyl\ (a); B . G~Ill: found to contain em-
aho1VinI mucllap .beaLb. },._j ~teroc)"l't.
aod~apex. bedded in it numerous
CHAPTER n
ALOE
57. General characters.-Alg:r are the simplo.t grotn

plants, and it is thought t hut t he higher plants ha"e b<>en
derh-ed from them. Thf'Y grow in the- wafer. and hence
their habits arc adnptf'd to u \nlter en"irolllncnL They arc
often called ""o"""od" but although the~' ure ,'cry abundant
along seacoasts they fire also abundant in fr(>sh wnt('fS.
orne of them !Lrc so SOlan that the indi"idual bodio. arc
visible only under t he microscope. and t here is ,,'pry grnda-
tiOI! in siz~ from this to th~ bulky bodies of cerfain marine
forms.
Although oJI AI!:,,· contain chlorophyll. and hence are
ablt' to mnkr their own food (* 14). they do not all appear
green; for in many of them the chlorophyll is obscured by
other coloring matters. The four great groups of Algie are
named from the general color of thei r bodies. although
it must b<> remembered that lbey all contain chlorophyll,
which makes tlwm indC'JX'ndcnt. Some reprE'seotnth'es of
ench group are ""lctted for d escription, but they or others
like them must b<> examined before any rew knowledge of
them cnn be obtained.
1. BLUE-GREEN A W.E (Cyanophycc<E)
58. Gloeocapsa.- These plauls form blue-green or olive-

green patches on damp tree trunks, rocks, walls, cu. By
means of the microscope these patches are seen lo be com-
gs •
ALOE (19
posed of mullitud~s of spherical cells. e"rb cell representing

a complete Glreoc.apsa body. 0110 of the peculiarities of the
plant is that the OUler part of the cdl
wall be('omes murilagilloll~, 5w£,1I5.
nnd fo rms" jelly-likr Rheuth. AItl(ln~
the rell. examined lherr will br found
some that are dh·idin~. n wall <'xt('I)<i-
inJ: across the spherical rcll and di-
\'iding if into h('mi~ph{'rcs. Fa{'h
hemisphere is 11 n{'\\' plant which
Fw .Q:2 _-GhrDmPItJ - .how.

ink ~lIalt' ~lIa. 'lid aman
I(TI.nll"' ltutu 11.\'". bco:oeQ
formt'd II\' clivi.ion a04
an' held t"lether by the
Mwelopina U1Ut.U!lCO.
• firows ns largo as the

parellt cell and then
diddes in turn . The
mucilaginous walls hold
the roll. together, and
so they arc found in
groups of " urious sizes
(Fig. 92). Thi. method
of reproduction by cell-
dh'isioll iR the simplest
kind of reproduction.
59. Nosloe.- These
plants occur in jelly-
like masses in damp
places. If the jclly ~....
Flc. 93 ,-A , NOfI4«: abo ..inc tb~ ehtun·1ike fila- examined, it will be
UM.IU. And a Mlfj"()cy.t (a); B. G~I4: found to contain em-
.bow.inc mucz1ap ahe.alh. bual beteroC~",
and taperinc ..pex. bedded in it numerous
cells iikc lhose of GI{f'ocapsa, but they are strung togelher

so as to fOrlD chains of yary·ing lengths (Fig. 93, A) . The
jelly in whirh the"" chains arc cmb<>dd"d is formed from
the cell \\tdls. as in GlaocapsQ, but it is much more abun-
dant. One notable fU('1 in Soslor is that the cells of" ('hnin
arC' not ull ulikl', for 11t irregular intcn'als there occur larger
rolo rll's~ ccII,. ('ollru IIrtcrory.ls (rig. 93. A. aJ. a name
which mE-ntIs simply "other tells." I t. is obserycd that
when th(· ('hain hrt'aks up into fragments, ench fragment
is composed of the cells between lwo heterocysts. The
rrngmrll'~~ wrip;gir out of tht:' j<,'lly ma1rix and start new
('010n;('8 or (·hajJl~. ('3dl ('('II di,·jding to jJ)('frase the length
of tiH' C'llnin. A common plullt. rrlntpd to Xostor shows
still 11I0rr differentialion in the cells of the filament. the
hcterol'ysl h(·ing 01 the bu"". and Ihe end cells forming a
t"perin!! and .ometim~s whip-like termination (Fig. 93, BJ.
That eneil cell of Xo"ioc is an individual is eyident from
the fatl thnt 0 siugle rell 'lo'pamted from the chain continues
to lire nnd t1i,·ioee; and therefore the chain is a colony of
individuals. cuch onc reproducing by cell-di\·ision.
60. Oscillatoria.-These plants are found a5 bluish·
green sUppery masses on \Vet rocks, or on damp soil) or freely
floating. They are simple filaments composed of Yery
sho~t flattened ('ells (Fig. lH), and the name refers to the
fart that the filaments exhibit n peculiar oscillating moYe-
ment. A filament is really u ro\\" of indepelldent cells
pnrkcd in a mutilnginous sheath, like (~oins in a coin-case.
The cells nre eYidently fiattened by mutual pressure, for
tbe free f.ce of the terminal cell is rounded (Fig. 94. B);
and if " fil.ment is broken •• nd a new cell surface exposed,
it at Once bulges OUt. If a single cell of the filament is
free frolU .U the rest, both Battened faces become rounded,
and the cell becomes spherical. It is evident that presSure
within the cell distends the elastic wall ",bene,oer it is (ree.
Each celJ is able to dhide, forming new cells and thus
ALGA> 101
lengthening the filament, which may break up into frag-
ments, eacb fragmcnt forming a new filument.
Although O.cillaloria is regarded lIS a filamentou .. colony
of indidduals, the peculiar ",.,·jng and gliding movements
of the filament show the cells working to-
getbeT. The transition from a colon!, of
, one-celled independent individuals to an
jindividual of many interdependent cells
is jnsensjbJc find indefinite.
61. Conclusions.-Thcse three forms
of blue-green AlgO!' will sen'. to illustrate
the general fealures of the whole group.
The name of the group rcfers to the faet
that in addition to the chlorophyll the
cells cOlltain a characlcristic blue color-
ing matter which docs not mask the FIr. IH - Otdlloktria:
green, but combined with it gives n. A~t1I'O{ til.llIenu;
.8 , III ~II&1~ fllJ&.mmt.
bluish-green tint to the plants when morelUlla:r~.
seen in mnsses. l\ ot all the blu..green
Aigre are bluish-green in tint, howeyer; (or the presence
of other substances may disguise it, and the color may be
rellow) or brown, or eyen reddish. For example, the
largest of all the blue-green Algro has given name to the
Red Sea.
The group is sometime. railed t he green .limes on ac-
count of the characteristic slimy. muril,,~,,"noll' Willis. They
are Yery simple, being onc-cclled piunts the cells occurring
l
singly or in eh,yns and filaments. The reproduction is

exclusi"ely by means of cell-didsion; and since the cells
that divide are ordinary working cells, this method of re-
production is usually called vegetative multiplication. In
plants whose bodies are many-celled, cell-division usually
results in the growth of the indiyidual rather than in the
formation of new indidduals. The power of motion is
marked in certain forms, and there IS also a t-endenc,
102 A TEXT-BOOK OF nOTANY
shown by the cells of a colony to work together. Different

forms of cells are exhibit,·d by .~·o,'lor; and th.is condition,
spoken of as the differentiation of cells, implies also a differ-
en tialion of work.
62. Presence in wa ter reservoirs.-rntil rC'centJy the
Alg11l werc thought to I", of no importante to man; but it is
now known that th£' ofTrnsi\'e odor and taste too often
observed in drinking wnter nre c1uc almost entirely to t1wm.
and chi"f among t hc polluting form. flre the blue-green
AJga.-. This pollutinn of walC'T becomrs yeTY ronspi('UQU8
when it OC'tUTS in city reservoirs or in ponds. and ,'arious
nlOt.hod, of purification h.,·r been suggested. Of these
none had pro"ed .at isfnclor.'·. until in 1904 the Department
of Agricultuff' HI \V3Rhington unuOllJ1('pd fhat .'Ul efferti\'e
method of destroying the Alg'" or pre"cllling their "PlX'ar-
n.nre had bf'('n dis('o\'(,TNl. It ('onsists in introducing into
the water a solution of copper sulphat e so dilute that it is
tasteless und hnrml('s~ loman; but th(· warning is ~iyen that
each reservoir (IT pond mu~t be studied before the proper
amount of t.he solution cun be known.
2. CREE" ALG.£ (ChlnrophycC(£)

63. Pleurococcus.-Tbe,e plants are exceedingly com-
mon . occurriuJ! in masS{'s. ('slX'cially on the north side of
tree trunks . old fcnce,. Nr ., and looking lik<- • green slain.
After a few damp days \ he green of the masses becomes
more vivid and r.otieeablc. These finely granular green
masses ure found to consist of multitudes of spherical (!Clls,
resembling those of GiU'{)C(lpso. except that there ii' DO blue
",ith tbc chlorophyll, and the cell are not emoodded in a
jelly-like substance der;"ed from the walls.
The ceUs may 00 solitary. or they may cling togetber in
groups of "arious .izes (Fig. 95). Cells that have just
divided may 00 observed easily, the e,idence ooing that the
ALO.ll!: 103
tn'O daughter oells h"'e not yet rounded off or separated .

'0 tlult they appear as 1110 hah'cs of the parent cell. E"cn
hc[ore lhey sepa-
rate the)' may di -
vide again. and
thu o a group of
ccli. may be
formed. Plrllro-
("pallS. then,ron'.
i:, nnother illu~1 ra-
t ion of nn extreme-
ly simple pl.nt . in
that i[ consiRts of
~- p
Jr':. 9.'i.-I'/.-ufYl('(I('r_ ..t . 1iH" .duh t,lllfJt. ","jIb h.
OIh.' ("(·If and repro-
llu{'l .. u,;. U-J~. \lIn,)u. J<'ua- uf dh,,,j<)11 iI) pro--
duces by cell-di"i- ducilill II""" ~II"; /-', (!ol(llll~ af ~u. I,ha' 1I."e
rcrnzunt"J in CUUI-.t"l.
siun.
It would be hard to imagine a simpler ph,nl. and Ihe
plant kingdom can be thought of as l){'ginnillg \I·ith illdi"id-
tin Is ton:::i~{ine of one g-r(,f'1I C(·11 alia r(~producing by dj\'i-
~ion. This onr ('('II. hOW{>YflT, absorln;; material. makes food,
ussimilatcs it, e.... nclurt:;. Trspiration, ctc.; in fart. docs all the
'work of li"ing (.'arriN..1 on by plants with roots, ~tcms. and
lean>sJ nlthough thry rna." tontain millions of celll:l.
64. The plant cell. -PlturocOt:cu8 rna)' be used to illus-
trate the conspicuous featurps of a living plant c~ll. Bound-
ing the tell there is a I hin. elastic ccLI-wall, compo,.d of Ii
substance called ccllulo,e. The cpll-wall, thereforc, con-
stitutes a delicat(· sac, which contains l.he li,·ing sub~tn.nce
kno\yn as protopu",m. 1t is the protoplasm Ihat has formed
the ,,'all about itself, in the same sense that a snail deposits
the shell about its body. The protoplallm is organized into
various structures which are called orga1l8 of the cell. One
of the most conspicuous protoplasmic orgaDs is the 1Iue/flU',
It comparatively compaet and usually spherical body, and
generally centrally placed wi ~hin tbe cell (Fig. 95, A).
B
104. A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
In the great majority of cells there is a single nucleus, and

all about it, filling the general cadty within the cell-wall ,
i. a mass of much less dense protoplasm, known as cytoplasm.
The cyto~Jasm seems to form the general background or
matrix of -t he cell, alld the nucJ,·us lies embedded within it.
Allother protoplasmic organ of
the cell is the plastid. P!astids
arc relnth'ely compact bodies,
a and variable in form and num-
ber. The most common kind 01
plastid is t he one that contains
chlorophyll, and hence is known
, •- as the chloropla.tid or cfoloroplast.
An ordinary cell of an alga,
t bereforc, consists of a cell-wall,
,,~thin whirb the protoplasm is
organized into cytoplasm, nu-
cleus, and chloroplasts. Wi th
Flf~:!h~:~;;~~I~':~;, proper stainjng the nucleus and
and ey topllUlro Cc), the chloroplasts of Pleu.1'ocoCCU8
can be seen; but these structures
may be seen more distinctly and with much less trouble
itt the cells of a moss leaf (Fig. 96).
The cell-wall is elastic, so that the cell can be compressed
or inflat.ed. The single cell of Pl.euTococctlS, unless pressed
upon by neighboring eells, retains a spberical form as long
as it is ali,'e. a fact which shows that t here is constant aDd
uniform pressure on the '\'all from within the cell. I t is
found that t.hi pressure is due to the abSorption of water
in Bufficient amount to stretch the wall, this distended con-
dition of the cell being called turgor, a name indicating
that the cell is turgid. Pleurococcu8 retains its spheric,,1
form, therefore, because it is turgid; and the bulging of
free ,valls of O.cilbUoria (§ 60) is due to the turgor of
the cells.
105
65. UlothriI.- -These are bright green, tbrca -like

plants found in the shallow, moving water of strctlms Or
lake margins, wher~ they nre anchored to sticks or stonc•.
Each plant is a simple (unbranched) filament, composed of
a single row of cells; and the cells ru-e all alike c"~Jlt ing
that the lowest one is usually colorless, nnd is elongated
and more or less modified to act a, n boldlnst, anchoring
the filament to its support (Fig. D7, A). With the possi-
•
Flo. 97.- Uloth~: ..t., 1)3M! o( filafMhl. IIbow-in« hol.If.. , ct'll Dnd five v~tat_i<re
"'U' o ,.ncb 'lritb A sin,df' ClOIlJIp.i ('uotll c.,lindriuJ chloroJ\lllIIl lM'C!n in III!ClJan)
flUlT'OUnding Il nuclfou.; D, (our cellA! COOULIIllIIJ; ,"-:imminc lIpf)re.; C. one ctlJ
contain jlll" {OUT "rimtnmg ~,.t(I,..., (a), A frft. P"imm,jng 1IP0I'f' (b ) • • CldJ (e) fN)ID
whirl! moal of tbe jpUYletee have eftAPI!d, painnt glUllell!fl (tiL and the n'!f\Iltina"
o&bOtft (~> ; D. yaung 61~nt frow IJ '''imroiolf .,Xln!; E. ~rtJ ph.inc
after reMt; f ', ~re producinc p'immin, "pores.-E and F. after DOIlr::t;-POIIT.
ble exception of the holdfast cell , in each ccII there lIl1ly be

seen a nucleus and a single chloroplast of peculiar form,
being a thick cylinder im'esling the rest of the cell-contents.
As oeen uilder the micr!,scope in optical section, the cylin-
106 A '!'EXT-BOOK OF BOTA~Y
driool chloroplast apJX'urB as " t hick g'-oeo mass 00 each

.id,· of the central Ilucieus (Fig, 97, A), Each cell is able
to diddt" and FlO the filament ~rows in lrngth; or frng-
mC'Ilts (If old fiialllt'llts lllUY de,-elop new ones, resulting in
v('I;('t 1\ tiq' mult iplic'at ion.
All hough enc·h ('1.:,11 of the fiiam('nt is an ordinary nutri-
ti n' ('(·11. lllldl'T c{' r tuin C'OIHlit inns one or mOTe of tlH'sE' cells
contain other cells, thnt ilfl,H' hr'{'T1 formc'd hy what is t31J{'d
the illtNn"1 did,ion of the (>ide'r 00(' (Fig, 97, B ). In
ordillnJ'Y (·(·II-divisiol\ tht' wutI (If t he old ccII forms n part
of Ill{' walls of the uu t in int C'rnaJ di"ision
tW(I tiC'\\" ('('lifo:;
tn t" \\-nll of the old i,;; tlltly 0. ('"asc which encloses the ne~\'
C('Jl
one•. "",I from whi('h I hey (""3 1)(', 'Yhcn these cells form(,d
by inferna.l didsioll f".'iNtp<' from the moth('r~c('JJ into the
wnl C'r, il is disvOYC-ff\d that thf'Y a.rc able to swim nhout br
the lu:-:h ing mo\"cm CJlt s of four (,j}jll th at nppcnr in n cluster
Ilt tlw poinled end (Fig, 9i, C, b) , Aft er a time these
s";mming cells settle down. lose thrir cilia J and by division
lx'gin the dewlopment of new filaments like thoge from
whieh they came (Fig, 9i , D). It is e"ident that the
swimming ('rHs hun.' introdu(·{'d II new method of r('p rodu('~
tion-, method thai il1\'ol\'es t he formation of "sl",cial coli
fIor re proouction , quitt' disti nd from the ordinary nutrit.h·e
cells. _\ special cell thus scI apurt for reproduction is called
a 8} )()rl', and spores that s\yim fire distinguished as 81d:m~
mi"g 87IOr<8 . A \'or)' important fact about Clothrix, there-
fore . is t hftt il reprod uces not only by vegetat;,'e multi pi i-
en-tiou, but also by swimming spores.
In other cells of the same filaments , or in cells of ftl a-
ments under different conditions, the same formation of
cells by internal di"ision rna." I';' obscn'ed; but the con-
tained rells are sm~lIer and more numerous (Fig, 97, C, c),
When they escape. it is disco\'ered that tbey also lire ciliated
swimming oells; but since tbey do not produce new fila-
ments, it is e"ident that they are not swimming spores.
ALG.£ 107
It has been obs~r\"ed (hal (h~"" small .wimmiu~ cell. come

together in pairs and fu~(' (Fig . Vi, C, iI). Nll"h p!lir lhu8
forming (lne H('W ('~II (FiJ!. 07. C, (). TIH' ('('II tim::: fornwd
pa::.;:-;('~ thro\l!;!h u r('!"tinp: J)(·rind (lI)'.llull~· durin!! "iuh'r),
tilt'll lW,!!iu5 to ~r(lw O'ip:. H7. 1:1. <lilt! finally prodll(·('·~ four
.. winlming; sp()r{'~ ~rip:. ni, F ), ('t\{'h IIf ",hic'lI i:-. nilh· to pro·
dU('('!l n('w fiial1lrnt of l'/nthrix. 1 It·n· j, \'\'id('lltl~ tl third
nl('lhod of TrpTnUUl'tioll, which i:<; lli·(·ttliur in tlw fa('t thut
tWi) :o:p('('iul ('ell!' llllilr to form th(· !'lporr thut protlu('f's the
nt'w plallt. Thr!o\(' l\\() :-pP('iai (,(·lls an' {lamrll R (R('xuul
(·t~ I1,:.; ); their act of fusion i:- jt'rliliwtion; thl' ~pnr(' thus
[OTroNl i:; thr on:.:.porr ('~~-:':P()f('); unci thj~ kino of rf'-
prnduelioll i!' c:lllC'd ,'lfIlW{ 1't1'rlldllrfi(ltl.* )t ~hould 00
uhse n'C'd that thr swimming :-:porf':-; and 1he· n{"l~pore8 of
l"1()lhri.T do UOI differ in what I hc'y arC' ahle> to do. but in
the' 1TI(,thod of Ih(.ir forru:lljllll. Ollt' l)t'iIl~ fnrmro hy rclJ~
dh+~joll and the othrr by ('('lJ~flll"ioll; bUI to djstingllish rc-
produ(·tioll I,." .r;:porcs from hf'xuul r('prodlldion by O()sporcs,
the iorm<'r i.'\ ('nlif'd asrru(ll rrprodu('lifm, find th(· ,sp<)res nrc
often ~p(}kell of as asrrual ~ll(}r{'lI: aithou#!,h when the word
., spore " is lIsed it generally irnpJj('~ an asexual t-,'porl",
Th~ thr~(' rn~tllods of «'produ('t icm found in Clolhriz
may be :::.ummari7.ed in the f(lJlowin~ graphic way:
(1) \ ·egeta(i,·e multipli('ntion i. indicated b~· p-p-
P-P-. in which P stund. for the plant , there bein~ ..
succession of plants arising dirf'ctiy one from the other
without the interposition of ~ny 8pecia.1 cells.
(2) Reproduction by asexual spores iii indicated by
P-o-P-o-P-o-P-. indicating thal new plants ate
not produced directly from the old ones, but thal between
the successh·e geuerations there is t.he asexual spore .
• It dOeS bot seem wise to multiply terms I\t this point, a.nd hence
the more general terms H fertilitation" and ooepore" are ueed &II in·
f{
eluding the more special terms 'lconjugation" and Uzygospore."

10~ A 'l'EXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
~3) Sexual reproduction is indicated by

p.l -0" 0_1' j -o" o_P .1 -O" o-P
I -0 / I -0/ I -0/ '
indicating t lwt t 11' 0 <pc·cial crib (gam('tco) are produced ~y
the pbnt .thnt these two fu,e to form ono (oospore), whioh
then prouuc('::; a new plant.
66,.£_~~This plnnt is found attached to
sticks rumstones 81. I he edg(' of ponds or lak es, and is often
::;0 abundant as to form thick
rnnt:; (If long anchofeu filaments.
I t i, casil,\' di<tinguishcd fronl
("/otlirix, for it is a much C'oarS('r
plllnt and branches frecly (Fig,
%), It is mentioned here both
Oc('uuse it is common and be-
('ause it. illustrafes a branching
filamentous bod)', Just as in
('(othriT, reprodurtion in Clado-
l)horo is carried on by means of
swimming spores, and also by
the fusion of s wimming gametes
to form ouspores.
67. CEdogonium.-The fila-
FlO. 98.-CladnphcnJ: 1\ bmnc:b- menlS of CEdogonium are long
.
~ :a='~~~~~c1:~()86 and simple, the lo west cc lI act-
ing as a hldfa t, lIS in Clothrix
and Cladophora. In each cell Ii nucleus may be seen (Fig.
99). and apparently seyeral chloroplasts; but reall)' there
is ollly one large complex ch loroplast.
Anyone of thesc cells may produce within itself a single
large swimming spore, which escapes from the mother-cell
into the water (Fig. 99. C), At its more pointed clear end
there is Ii little crown of cilia, by means of which' it swims
about rapidly. These spores finally anchGr themselves,
and each one produces a new filament (Fig. 99, D and E) .
109
Certain cells of the filament become very different from
jhe ordinary cells, enlarging and becoming globular (Fig.
99, A and B ). In each one of these spherical cells there is
B
w:J
c
Flo. 9A.----<E'doQronu.,": A , portion 01 filament w 01l;'irIC ve«etatlve c:eU with lu

DUcieua {to, an o6ttooium (tI) fined b) .. Jar« eA paclced with food .• _eond
o6conium (c) eon:aininllUl 068p()t'e, aa . bOYTl by heav)' wall. and'.0 a;,tbtridia
(6), eI~b eot)wnin,.,.0 ~ D. portiOD 01 fiJ.amerJ.~ ahowina aJlt.beridia (a.)
--
from which '''0 ~ (11) have MUped. A V'r.P-Lati_ cd! with itA nucleul. ADd
atl o(Con,iom ..w ah • ."erm lwI eoMred (e' . • nd .. Iloee eu nue/eu. (d) mAY be
aeen: C. awimmi..o& 1fPO"e: D and E. )'QUll& Ii.lamelit. developin& from nrimmina
formed a single larg~ "ametr, which remnins in the cell that

produc("s it. Ttlis InrE{(' g.'uDrte, whi('h T('mnins passin', is
the frmalo p;nmetr or egg, nnd the !!Iohular c(,11 t hat produce"
it is till> ongonium (e,l!p:-co",), In the fl,g urr (Fig, 99. A
and /J ) TlH'sr lur~(' f'~!!~ an' SPf' ll pu{'kcu with roundish
mufo;~(,~ {If f(Ar-;{'n'C' food .
O! lwr {.('JI~, (,il her ill ,h(' !-lump fiianwllt (lr in somE' other
filamrllt. uifTrf from I h(" orditlary ("f:lls in hC'inl! mu(,h
.hortt'r ( Fil':' fln, .1, II, Hnd 8, a), ln ('3('h of thrm one or
tWfl I!UI1lf't('s art~ fornwci Ulld fire ~d frc'p. swimming nhnut
like 8mnll s"'immill:C; Rp()r('~ ( Fig. 99, 111 b). Thr"'l(, actin.'
gnnwlps art' th(' male ~Ullu't(,R or ,f:tprT1ns , and the ~,hort ('('11
tlwt produ{'('s I hf'1ll is I hi' (lnlhrridium.
Th(_' l'Jw rrns swim nctin·'.'" about in the "irinity of an
otlgollium. and sooner or later one enif>rs thrOIl!!h nn 0pt'fl-
ing in the oi)gonium wall and fusC's with the eg~ (Fig. nu,
/J, 0), As a rCRu11 of this att of frrtilizatinn an oiisporc
is formed lhsL soon orgnnizps a firm "'all about iist·lf (Fig.
99, ,4, c), Tbis firm \\'all indirates that the oiispore is not
to germinute immediately I but is to be prolcrted through nn
unf.yorable season, such as failure of food supply. cold ,
or drollght,
I t is evident, t herofore, t hat ,,!though bot h the swimming
spores and the oiisporps ,tr~ .bl~ to produce ne'" plants, the
former germinate immediately and enable the plant to
spr~ad during the growing season, while the latter Inst
thrOll,gh the winte r when the parent plants haye perished,
and form new plants in th l' nf'W growing season.
The lllO't importunt fart illustruted by CEdo91J}lillm is
that the gametes arc not alike, as in L'lothrix and Clad-
ophora, but have become ,'ory unlike, One of tbem (the
egg) is relatiwly large and passive; the other (tbe sperm)
is relath-e ly small and RC'tive. In this case, therefore, the
two sexes are nppnren.t, and we recognize male and female
.gametes.
ALGA! 111
e.S. Vaucheria. -This is one of lhe most common of the

.l!"!'("(·n Aigre, occurring in f{'It-like masses of connie filaments
in shallow wah,'r nJld on
muddy hIUlk:i, and alw
{'(lollnonJ." found on the
d:ll1lP ('urt it nlld pots of
~rf'(>nllou"(-·i'l. }I is often
(",,\I('{I !:r,,'n folt. The
liluuwflt i:;; '"('0 ' long and
lIsually hrllllrh('.!', exu'n-
:-;j\'(· l.\'; !Jut its grf'flt pC"--
(·1I1in.rity i:J t hnt tiH'r£' .
111>. IOO. - I'f1tu:htorlo: "h()..-ing

Ihl:' Illfll;f'. nrll.f,chlllll;. ,'(I;'IL'I-
('~·tI('. (iltl.mf'nf"U~ t.v.1)-. ("{Ill-
tltj"ln~ nuwt-r')u~ chl(lr~
plu..."U! lend lJllClei.
no partition wall in
Ih,' ~·h()lc bod)·, which
forms one- long COH-
tinuous {'a"ity. This
,·","il, is fuJI of cyto-
plas";' , and ernbl?ddcd
in the. r:nop\asm are
ver:: numerous ch iaro--
plast. and also numer-
ous nuclei ( Fig. 100) .
F;uch a body. ('ontain- 1'1<; lOJ_-l'lI'lIchb"iD .. "buW',nt:!t1t' lormflliQu
ing nuclei not sepa- .,ltbe }~e IIpnre 1.-4 I. I'" d",.h·'f"«'" rB ), ..OO
the ~Dm. u1 • ~ .... filamftol (C),
rated from each other
by cell-w ..Jls, is called .. rlTnocyte (common cell), or it is
aaid to be uenocytic.
rauchcria prod uces very large asexual spores. Tbe

tip of a branch becomes separated from the rest of the body
by a wall (Fig. 101, A). In this improdsed chamber the
wbole of the contents form a rungle large spore. It escapes
inlo the wllter through an opening in the \\'l1il , (Fig. 101, B)
Ilnd fimlily dnelops u n,'w filament (Fig. 101 , C).
~('X organ" (ant hcridia and oogonial are also deyeloped.
In a ('ommon form of j ' u1lcheria they appear sepllTalcly on
the side of tho Inrgc Clrnocylic Lody, and are ",'parated
from lh(' gCTl('ral tfi\'ity uy walls. The o<>gonium is a
globular ('oil (Fi~. 102, b), 115u.lly with a perforated beak
for lhe entrance of "perms (Fig. 102, fl, and contains a single
Pro. 102.-&xu.1 ",production in ' ·Q.,('IIn"M ~ .A, A RlI,le antheridiol branch ,.,it:-t
nn ~rul'ty anlheridium (a) 41 itt, tip. ~Ild .u1!O all flOftOlliuIII (t. ) containing 8
het"'Y~""lllled ('(_I'ore Cd _nd llho ...·inc tbe beak U) tbrollkh which litt' ',:lerJD
I,_!te-d: B, annllier Ir~iet.. in wWcb • single brunch bean! &t\'"C!raJ OO!onia , and
... tt'nllinat coill'd anthcridium.
large ogg. The antheridiurn is a mucb smaller cell. on lhe

end of a branch (Fig. 102, a), "ilhin which numerous very
small sperms are formed . The usual escape into lhe water
and entrance into the oogonium is followed by fertilization
(one sperm furung with the egg), which results in an oospore.
T he oospore develops 8 thick wall and is tbus protected until
the next growing season (Fi.o:. 1021 c). I n aDother species,
AWd<: 113
often more Ilbundant, a single urllnch from the Illain b'ody

ocurs sel'eral lateral oogonia and a terminal coik-d (wther-
idiulll (Fig. 102 , B ).
The two import.ant facts iJlustrat rd by I"aurheri'a are ..
the C<Elloc)'tic body nnd the del'clapmont of ,,,,"ciul c 'IIs to
act as sex organs.
rl '1 . 103 .-.'l'lNIUvru: (l l, .. complete- reU, IIhn ..... i llS!: th,. spiral, band-iUel" thloropt.."
"ita erntIf'(J(I''''j pyrc(lw{u. ...nu 4 uuclolu' ( l'Ie..... I,he ce,,~t) lI.unlt b)' TatU.uuc
IItrlLnds of t'ytophulll.
69. Spirogyra.-
This is one of the most
common of the pond
scums/ occurrin~ in
slippery and often
frat hy masses of deli-
cate filament.- fioating
in still water or ahout
springs. The filaments
are simple, and are not
anchored by a special
basal cell.
The cells contain re-
markable chloroplasts,
which are bands pll.SS-
iog spirally about with-
in tbe cell-wall (Figs.
103 and 104) . These
bands may be solitary
or se'-eral in a cell, and Fla. l(H..-S~ ; A-C. Var1out; .t..... in the
""""'..
,,-,'dopmen& 01. IIelIiwd tubee; D .• DOIIlPIel.ed
form very striking and
con.picuous ohj~('lS . The band is not fiat. nnd to deter-

mine it!" form i!:' (HI rxc'eUcnt cXl'r('i~c for n Sl udC'llf IrunJ-
in~ to n'('OIl~t ruet lIiJj<'C'1 ~ under the mi('ro:-,{'opt:', Embed-
ded in the ,·IJI"rophyll bnnd jjod"lc-lik" hodir" (l'.'IT(IIoids)
arc SC'l'l l, around whieh a !!ranuiar 1.0 11 (\ (If !o;1 arth grains is
oftf'n \'jeiii,l('. I n (u\"oruhle mal('rial. notahly (,(,II", with R
sinJ.dl' huud, t 11(' nuC'leu:o; nilly bt'" sC'en, ~urrOllnd('d by u zon('
of cyt(lplasm thnt is eOJlneciNI b~' radiating !".trnnds with
tile ('-'"t"plasm "/!Hin"( t 11(' \I·all (Fig. 103).
Spir(tfl.llra j:; lX'fliliur ill producing no swimminj! ~pon'g.
or asexual spon':-; of nny kind. lt s nlt't hod of sexual r(:>-
FlO. 105 .-SplrflOllN!. I!li,ndng ~If\(\ ('Ommon excoeptianfi: .", IWO conD('('ted cell!!
that htwt' {firmed (oOotJlU1"e6 without fU1!ivlI. IUld • k"COud eell tbal Iuu. AltrmfJt.ed
ro C(:Inrle<'1 ,nth (.!fIfO of tllt-lIt; H, ~Jls (If dHl.'6 filaments, the oe:lLf of tbe oen-
tn.! oue 1I.,-ln,: COUuMI e<i 1\-itb ootb tbe otht!l'$.
production also is peculiar. Cells of two adjacent tila·

ments put out protuberances toward one another: nnd where
they come in contact nn opening is formed. t be· result being
that there is e. continuous passageway connecting a cell of
one filament "itb a cell of-tbe other (Figs. 104 and 105).
Wben many of tbe cell of two parallel filaments become
tbus united, tbe appearance is that of II ladder, witb tbe
filament$ as the side pieces and tb~ connecting tubes as the
115
rounds. In "ach rell thus connect~d with another a sinille

lar,l!'t' gam£'t{' is fornH'd. and on(> of thrill rnss(.\~ throuRh lhe
('onn('('ting ltil){' to tlu· lItht'r. Thl' !-!"UJn{'i('s. art' sinlilur. und
till·iT fusion r('suits in a llcu\'.'·~wnll(·d (tosp(Jr(' (rig. 10~, D),
which t-mJLlff':; through 1h{' wjnlcr and gf.'Tmin:llf·s during
lht, fol1owin!! season.
}~I{(s1Tloly8./''''-'''''''·l'irO!I:rtra is a "rrr fa \·ornLIt." ({Irm for
d('tn()n~traling plasmolysis, which menus the shrinkage of
pn It lIpla...-:m f rom l os~ of
wnt~r. Tht' cytop lasm
{If an a<.:ti\"t~ ('{'II is full of
\\"Hle'r, whi('h ofl£'n col-
lects in dropl(·ts of vary-
ing- size, called VQcuoll's.
Tlwre is a1 ways a lnyer
of cytoplasm in close COll-
uu·t with the ccli-waH,
bu t t he in terior of the
F I G. J06,-PlulJwl)'llil'l: " .• ~U of S1'I"'fIJI"J
rell may be one large befOrtr pl"fJIol~; y, ,tit' ".me cdl .Ir,u
vacuole traversed by Ili.umHIYII.II "tilb • tell per ~lIt IOlul.jon or

..h.
st rands of cytoplasm , as
in SpiTOgyTO. The turgor of the cell (§ (;,1) keeps the elastic
wall distended; but if lhe cell be put in a solution of sugar,
waler will be withdrawn. The vacuoles t.hus beginning
to lose their water, the cytoplasm shrinks; and if the loss
continues, the vacuoles are obliterated, and the layer of
cytoplasm in contact ,,~th the wall ""parates from it, all
the cytoplasm of the cell contracting into It compact mass
(Fig. 106) . The name plasmolysis really means tbe" loosen-
ing ,. of the" plasma" (protoplasm) from the wall. Any-
thing that withdraws water from a cell plasmolyze. it, and
the filamentous Algre are r.. vorable forms for experiments
to show this.
70. Conclusions. -The green A1gre are so named because
the green of the chloroplasts is neither modified nor obscured
116 A TE.1:T-BOOK OF BOTANY
by other colors, and tbe plants ba ve a characteristic grass-

green color. As indicated by the illustrations gi"en aboyc.
they include simple onl~ce llcd forms which reproduce only
by cell-diyision (vegetdivc multiplication) , and simple
or branching filamentous forms which also reproduce by
swimming spores and oosporcs. Such filulllCntou:; forms
as Ulothrix, Cladophora. and (F.;dogonium arc representa-
tives of a group known 8S the Con/erva forms. haYing
bodies of many cells and swimming sporcs. r alLchcriu
represents the Inrge group of Siphon forms, characterized
by their crenocytic bodies. Spirogyra represenls the Con -
jugale forms, the name meaning H yoked togcther/ and J
referring (0 the connecting of the filamcnts for fertilization;

the gronp is characterized also by the absence of swimming
spores and the peculiar chloroplasts. not all of which are
spiral bands.
The bodies of green Algre are not all single cells or
filaments. the marine sea-lettuces, belonging with the
Conierva forms, baving broad, fiat, leaf-like bodies that
have suggested the common name. Some of the green
AI!!:re are associated with tbe blue-green Algal in the pol-
lution of water reservoirs referred to in § 62.
3. BROWN ALoE (Phreophycere).

71. General characters.-The two preceding groups are
the most common AJgre of the fresh waters, but the brown
Algre nrc almost all of thcm marine. The association of a
hrown coloring matter with the chlorophyll has given name
to the group, and the plant bodies display Yacious shades of
yellow, brown, or oli".. In size the bro"'fl All>-" range
from forms tbat are micro$copic to those that are bundreds
of feel long. Tbey belong chiefly to tbe colder waters of
lhe globe, <caching their greatest development in the arctic
and antarctic regions. The greatest displays of huge bodies
111
.Icng our own coasts are to be found on the rocky shores' of

tlte Korth Atlamic and the Nonh Pacific, the display on
the laiter coast being especially rich in forms. They are
all anc hored plants, the strong Ii oidfasls nnd leathery bodies
enabling them to live exposed to strong wa"cs nnd cur-
r('ots.
The largest forms are t hc kelps (Lnminarins), the general
habit of body being a stem fastened to the rocks by a cluster
)f strong, roo t-like holdfasts, and ending in a blade-like

~"pansioll (Fig. 107). The giant kelps of the Pacific Coast
!l.1'e the most notable forms. One of tbese has 11 stem about
fl: o. l 08.-A kelp with Very lonltaod roptoo

like .tem be&riul num~ Jea.....-
After BUSETT aoJ MUll.R.A.T.
8S luge as a clothes-line, reported as sometimes reaching a

length of 900 feet, and bearing numeroUl! leaveB (Fig. 108).
The bladder keJp has .. very long fierible stem (120 to 150
118 .A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT.A..VY
feet] that swells at the end into a large globular Boat, t(,
which arc nttached leaycs often t ~n or twoh'c (eCL ~~ .1g
(Fig. 109). The sea-palm has a thick errrt stem tlmt beaN'
~ crown of largc drooping len\'cs (Fig. 110) .
Flo. 109.-.0\ blAdder ke;p.-After PQ8TUA lWd Rc,.s£C!!T.
Another group of brown Alg'" is represented by the rock·

weeds (called also wrack) and the gulfweeds. The former
(mostly Pu£us) CO \ 'er the rocks between tide-marks, being
ribbon-like forms repeatedly forking at the swollen tip.
ALGJE 119
md often bearing air-bladders to assist in Ronting (Fig.

Ill). The IllMt complex body i" ,hu, of 'he glllfwccd
(.'iaT!laf<~U1ll ) 1 in \\ hirh ther!'
arc siclI(ll,t branching stcnu
'l(i . 110. - A lIeD-palm . - .Uter Ru- f'w . III - Fntamf'f11 of F'!#"IU, l'hMf'inc
forked hrattrblllllt_ r"p,..... lucu ..e u, ...
II.nd IUr·blttdden.- Aher L l. t..KNlII;,. .
>earing numerous leayes like ordinary foli~e. and .talked

lir-bladders that resemble berries (fig. 112). The gulf-
,reeds occur i.n warmer Waters than do Lhe other Jarge forms,
~nd are often torn from tbE::ir anchorage and carried away
rom the coast by currents. collecting in the great sea eddies
)roduced by oceanic currents and forming the so-called
largasso seas. Some of the gulf weeds forming tbese masses
9
of ' I<)getation floating in mid-ocean continue to grow luxu-

riantly , especially in warmer part s of the Atlantic.
From lhe ashes of kelp. and rockwoed. the chief supply
of iodine is obtuined; nnd these grcfit masses of vegetation,
Fla. Il~ .-Frnpn('tl l of Satva..,.urn. aho .... mj!: diffel"l!lIliatino of the tha.Uw inlo
ftl~m·likf' and leaf-like Jlm-lion•. :ll1d aLso l~ bladder-ukt' 800.hl. -Aher BESXi:'l"J'
and Mt:1UU.,..
tnro\\-n Up or left e."<posed by the tides, are used for enriching

farm lands.
72. EctoCBrpus.-The . two principal groups of brown
Algre are distinguished from cach other by their re-
production. B}' rar the larger group includes the kelps,
whose method of reproduction is "ery simple, although many
ALG.£ 121
of their bodies ar~ huge. Ectocarpus may be used to

illustrate the essentinl fC!:llurl'S of the group. lts body is
filame"tous ( Fig. 113), slI>:w'sting tl,e iJod!' of some of the
CO'I/rrva forms among til<' grc'cn AI~tt·. ('prlnin
("('II. of the filament (Fig. 11 3. A J. or d,. <,,,,I rell'
(If ~pcl'iHI RhorL brt\lwill'!'. Lt('''unw {'lilarg('(i nod
prouu(;{' numerous ~wimmillg: spor('~. Tilt' ~will1"
mill!! ~pol'es of brown AI!!!1' nf(' J~{'uliur in U!-iU"
ally bearing the two ('ilia (Ill (lIlt' sidt· of the body
mlhC'r thun at OlH' pntl. lind hf'lll.'(·
they a rc dl'Seril/('d Uro lalt.~rally liirili-
tilr (Fig. 11.). C).
The roll thot produces ,wimming
spores WllS sotnC"t imcs l'lpoken of
atllong the gre£'n AI}!t{\ us u motllct-
cell, but a mot her-roll way not al-
W8,l"S produce spores.
Ht.·llep it is well to usc
a term thut implies tho
product of tbe mother-
rcll, and in this case
the term is sporOllg1:14,m
(spore-ellS<'). A spomn-
giuJD, therefore. is un or-
gan that produces spores;
and among the Alg'" de-
scribed thus far it con-
sists of one cell.
In addition to the one-
celled sporangia, other FIG. ua.-Edocarmu: a ruaulmtou•. bran~
organs in similar posi- inc fOf"tn: A. tiJammt bnrine o~Jed
eporanGa (.): 8. filament I:M!arinI mu,-·
tions may occur; but. celled pllWltaDlia (g).
they differ from the spo-
r angia in being many-celled (Fig. 113, B). In each cell
usually one body is formed, which when discharged is seen
(.0 r&lemhlc the s,yimming spores, Howeyer, it fuses with

another (,<:II of tl,e saDie kiud, "nd this beha,-ior and the
result show thut it L" n gatnt't(·. As a re~wlt of this aet of
fertilizarion llll oO.'"ipore is [ol"nwd, ns in the Cllse of Clolhrix
(§ (5), This kind of s('xtllli rrproductioll is rrgard('d liS
sjmpJr bt'('allq(' fllf' pujdng gam('if'oS nrr :ilikp. uud h3YC not
become distingllished as egg :md !"pcrm , as in a:.:dogonium.
(§ 67) and I'auc/I('ri" (!, (8), ln tho'r plants ""paratr
nam(,s w{'rp gi\"(,11 to t he ()r~anR produ('ing <'ggs: (cxjgon ia )
and tho~(' pr(ldlitiTl~ ~pc rm s (nuilwrid_ia). ]11 Clolh rir alld
Ectocarpu,{l, on the ot her hand , 110 f:;u(·h di~tinClion run he
math,. anu IU'IH'(' the organ produc'ing gnn1£'tes is ral1C'd n.
gametangium (gamcte-case). Of ('ourse o{igonia and an-
thcridiu arc gametangia} but the inttrr name is !!en('rally
used only when the
gnmett.'s arc alike. In
ECloca1"pW;;, there-fore,
man~-ccllt'd gametlln-
gia ar(' producrd (Fig.
113. B). ill addition to
one - celled sporangia
(Fig, 113, A) ,
This great group of
brown AlgIP, of which
ErlocarpliS is heN' used
as a reprcsentati \'(",
is distinguished, 11,"re-
fore. by its swimming
spores and its similar
gametes.
Fm. ll.(.-Fwt'W:abo";n,a !lltetiono£thecavi:y 73. Fucus . -The
~=:~. =::~.~::.~=-. smaller group of brown
in
AJga> comprises the
rockweeds (F""tM) and the gulfwccds (Sargaosum) , the
former of whieb may be used to illustrate the grcup.
.ALO~ 123
In the swollen and forked tirs (Fi~. 111 ) of the ' rib-
bun-li ke body of F ucu,oi 1Hlnl(?fCHIS nt'Sk~Fh:Ip('d c:t\"iti£':o:o 0('-
['ur, each of whjch c'ommumc8tt'::; \\illl lil(' :,urfat'(' by 1\
A
lJ
[t)
lJ
.
"-v
0l
c
c
f If)
~
I'
1 i
" I
R
FIo. lJ 6.-F.,ru.:abo..-in,trq;p:jl:l t.hr oo,:onium (A) aodafter diK.barp CEl. antbe:r-
jdium eoot.a.iniD& ~ (e" tbe dilfoC'barptJ "tft'alJy biciliate ~ (0), Md
ecp.u.t!'OUllded by . .&r:minc ~ (F and U ).-Aiu:c S1su.uac;-o.
small, pore-like opening (Fig. 114). On the walls of these

c.wities oOgonia and ant.beridia are produced. The oogo-
nium is JX'culiar in that it usually produces eight eggs,
which arc discharged and float free in the \I'ater (Fig. 115,
A and E). Abollt these eggs tbe sperms swim in great
numhers, of ton striking against them and setting them
rotnling (Fig. 115. F and II). Finally, a single sperm fuses
with an egg and an ouspore is formed, which later produces
n new Furu s plllnt
This group of broln! Algre, therefore, differs from the
other one in prodllcing no swimming spores, and in its
dissimilar gametes (eggs and sperms) .
4 . RED ALGA': (Rlwdopityccw).

74. General characters. -The red Alg'" are mOBtly
marine' forms, and T('('c iYe their name from the fnel that
F"lo. UG.---ODe of the nd AJaa.
I).red coloring motter completely masks the chlorophyll.

,.,. a consequence, t he plants are various shades of red,
ALO.IE 125
"iolet, dark purple, nnd reddish-brown, often beautifblly

(int~d. In general. tile bodies nre much IUore graceful
anu delicate than those of the brown AIglC. Tilere is the
FlO. 1 J1.-Qn.e Of the red Alp.
greatest variety of forms. branching filaments. ribbons, and

filmy plates prevaiHng; and often profuse branching occurs,
the plants resembling mosses of delicate texture (Figs. 116
and 117). One remarkable group, chiefly displayed on
tropical and surf-beaten coasts, contains such a deposit o(
lime in the cell-walls tbat tbe (arms resemble branching
corals or coral-like incrustations; and for tbis reason Lbey
are called corallines.
Red Algal aTe all anchored forms, and are chieOy dis-
pla.yed in tempera.te and tropical waters. While Dot re-
stri~ted to any special depth, they are characteristic of the

deeper \\"ntcrs in \\"h.ich Algre b>Tow. The red Aigre are very
lit lIl' u,,·d by man, probably the most conspicuous article
(If rommer('(' obtained from them being Irish moss, used in
jelly-like prcp"rnliolls, \\"hich i.' the dri('d bodios of certain
forms nh\1ndunt ill 'he Xort lJ Seu.
I.). Reproduction. -Thr TC'prodllrtion of thr red Alga."
i, wry r~culi"r. bcing entil"('I;' unlike tllnt of the other
Alga'. Ko ~\\"immjng SPOT{,S
arc produ('rd. hut f'porun-
gin occur that pr{)du('(" nnd
di::.:cllarge ~por(>s without
cilia and ht'nce \yithout the
ability to swim. Since ench
sporangium uflualfy pro-
duces four such spOTrs,
they arc c"lIr'd Iclro"I>orrs
(Fig. 118). Floating about
in the water instead of
A actively 8wimmin!t. they
Ftc. 1JS.-Tlie lJl>omn~iuDl (II )auJ di!- finally germinate and pro-
~~~~~~":::~I~_~~: one af!be duce new plauts, as do Lhe
swilnming spores.
Th(' sexual re-production, howeyer, is most remarkable.
but il; 100 complex to be presented in any detail in an
eI€:'tnf'lltary text. 1'11(' sperms, like the t.etrssporcs. nre
\\"ithout oili" and simply float into contnct with the oOgo-
luum. \\"hose form is like that of a flask with a long narrow
nock (Fig. 119. A). In the bulbous base of the oogonium
the egg is de,·e1oped. In a "cry simple ense the fioating
sperm comes in contact with the long neCK, the two waUs
become perforated at the point of contact, the contents of
the sperm enters and pas..~ to the egg. and thus fertili-
ZIltion is accompI.ished. As It result of fertilization there
appears on the plant a spore-eontaining structure like a
ALGiE 127
little fruit (Fig. 119, Band C, lind Fig. 120). The spd1'e8
it contains produce the alga plants ngain.
:-\uch a life-hlstory is I(lor(' (.'omph'x thull uny thus far
gin·n. During: t he growing scasoll t h(' tt,t ru~por('~ Inull iply
t h(' plant; nlld t he life-history mar b{, inuirnlrd n.~ follow!,
)' J'· . . j~n[l.tiJJg the ordinnry plant body:
P -tctrn!o;poTe-P-lct ra:-llnrf' - } 1-1r t ra.~pt)n·. rt ('.
;,u('h a Rrri('R, how(-'\'cr, U(,\·~ not ('ofltilllU' illd~: finitcly;
for It is :';topp<,d hy th(' ('ollliug of :1.n lIUfU\'OTUblc period,
~!l('h a period as n'int('r N'lu'(:,:-It'lIt.'S to mallY plUlltS. In the
lift'-hist or:- of OUf Ted air.!'ll
fhi~ unfavorable pt.'rind is
bridged by the fruit-like
body, just a~ in the oilier
Alg.'l~ it is brjdgC'o by the
ae3yy-wallt'd oospore. :-Iuth
Flo. Ill}.-Que of the red A.J,p!: A.

aexua.! brancbet. showina a.nthuidia
(0), 06scmiwn (0) 1II'ith ita lou.c: Qed:
(0 to which a.re attaebttd twO.".enDS Flo. 120.-A bl1ln~b of ODe of the n!d
<.); B and C, develoomenl 01 the Alp .howinl • malure (ruit.-Uk&
lruiHike boQy.-Aflel' .K1n. bod.v (.), with eteapin.-.paf'M (.).
a IiIe-bistory may be indicated as follows, a formula in

which the fruit-like body is designated by F:
}J ~ --sporlit "/ F-"porc-P ~ -spcrnl"/F -;;porc-P, etc.
l -egg l -('gg
Th(_) fOrluuln shows an ultc'rnation of the ordinary plant
body Ilnd the fruit-like body; the lntter always resulting
from the act of fertilization, Ilnd the former coming from
an asexual ~p(Jrc. This alternation becomes a conspicuous
feature of higher plauts.
CHAPTEH \"II
FUNGI
76. General characteTS.-The FlIngi do no! cont.ain

chlorophyll. "!lei tl,i., fae! forms the ,hllr]>("t contrast b<--
tween them and the AI[!:I('. The presence of ('hlorophyll
enubl"" the Algre to be independent (If any other organism,
since they run manufactu re Uwir food ()ut of carbon dioxide
und waler (§ I~ ). The aooenee (>f chlorophyll compel.
the Fungi to be dependent upon other orl(anisms for their
food. T hi, food is obtained in ! wo general way. : either
(I) directly from li"ing planls aml IInimals, or (2) from
orgallic waste products or de&d bodies. In f'a~ a living
bod,' is attacked, the attacking fungus is called a parntrite;
and' the plant or animalattucked. tho"llOOI. In case the food
is obtai lwd in tb(' other wny. thE' f ungu~ is railed a wpro-
phyle. For exam pip. the rust that lltlach wheat i8 a
parasite, and lbe wheat j:; the host; while the mold whjcb
oitpn de"elops on sta le bread is a saprophyte.
In case parasites attac k "aluable plants or animals they
may be "cry harmful , giving rise to destructh'c diseases.
The l;nited States GO"crnmcnt has expended a great den.1
of money in studying such Fungi , trying to discO\'er some
method of destroying them or of pre"enting their attacks,
There is an interesting selective power exhibited by many
parasites, that restrict themseh'es to certain plants and
animals, or e,ren to certain organs. ~fany, however, are
more general in their attaclcs; and some can live as para-
sites or saprophytes as occasioQ demands, It must Dot be
]29
13(1 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
su'ppos('d that all rwrnsitrs are harmful to man or even

dc"tru('fiw' to the·ir h(lse.
I n t iw {'nsf' of f'aprcq>hytf"s, df':ld hodi(· s, or h0J~' products
are nf(ackl·d. :l.Tld ~oorlPr or latf'r all or~nnir matter is
atttH'k('d unu dl'C'ompos{'d 11." titc·m. 'Y (,l'C it !lut for thel11
It th(' whol(. su rflH'C' of 1hf' (.'urt Ii would oC' ("()y(· r f·d wi! h a
thi('k (h'posit (If th e animal anJ plant 1"('m:lilIO; of 111(.' paRt

thou:->tlnd!'. of yrurs."
The panlf'liti(' nnd sapropllytie h[ll)it.~ aT(' ne)l re'!':! rict('d to
the FlltJ~i , for llw." uc,'piopt.-'u al":(1 II." ~ome of
ha\"\~ 1,('('('1
tht· hi~lH'r plunt!';: hut I,y far til(' iarg:("::H di~pl:l.'· of t1J(,~('
habit s is that gin'll hy tllp l 'tlllgi. It j..; tho\l~hl thut
Ftlngi hUH' bC'{'n drriycu. from Al ga.' ; that iR , that FUTlgi UTe
simply Alltfl' I hat hll \"0 loarnou I ho purn>il ic or ""prophy tic
hubit.. Some of l l"-'1ll n.·~t'mbl {· ('C'rtain Al!:!;a' !'=;() do:.;!'ly that
th{' ('onnedioll seems \'cry plain: but Of h(,rs h3 "e b{'come
so modified I hut I hey h,,,·c losl 811 likenp," In t hI' Alg:r.
~o llttC:'mpl will bf' mude' to pr(':;;('nl (','('I) nil ol.ltlin(' o f
the rJns."ifiC':lljol1 of thjs "[ISf and prrpJexing group. A. few
illu 8tratio n~ will b(' selected from the best-knowli forms,
csp('ciully Ihosc of importnnoc 10 mUll.
7i . Bacteria.-Bartcriu inrludc I he smnll('st kn O\nl
Jido " forms, Fome of whi(,h ar(' spheri{'!!.1 ('('1/:, only r.u.~I)O
inch in diam('ier. ]t i:-; e~timat('d that 1.500 (If certain
r od-shaped forms. placed enu to end, would "bout stretch
9<.'ross t br head of :In ordinary pin. E\"cn to distinguish
ordinary bacterin, therefore. the highf'st powers of the
microscope a.rE' DE'cessa.rYi and to study them is too difficult
for t.he untra.ined student. However. they are so Yc ry im-
portant to man , on account of t lwir useful and dcslr ucti\·e
operations. that eYNY student should ha\·e some informa-
tion "bout them. Public attention !las been drawn to tbem
chie6y on atcount of t he part they play in many infectious
diseases, in which connection they are often refened to as
u mic.robes H Or Hgerms."
FUNGI 181
Ractflri.a nT(, found Illnl(J~1 C'\"(·r.ndlCN>-in the air. in

lh(' \\Hlt·r. in the F:0il, in m()~1 fond ..... und in lli(" bodit,:, of
pbnt~ alJ(l animnl~. 1\:' rt'A"lilar illhuhilunb. :\Inny of Ihf.'tn
lin- rlllirciy harmh_,,ss;;, SOUl(' !lr(' u:-l'ful, !\l1d ()tli{'rs u~ Yrry
dangt'rClus. :\ lHhoratf1r~' tWar Pari:>., arrullj.!:(·d for ~I udyiltg
hal' tf'ria in th(' air, ha~ [ouud lll!lt tiw HY('r:tg-t' !lumber of
i','I('If'ria in {'n~ry qll:trl {If IIiI' ill 'hnt lo('nliry iJ.; eight.",
Till' hi1!hl'~t I"Illtllhc'r;;.; \\"(.1'(' found dtlrill~ tilt' ulltllnm, und
til(' lo~n':.-t durilll! tilt· ,\inlf'r; \\hilt' u wiml from tll(' city
il\('n'a~('(1 llil' Ilumlwrg v('I'.'· Illuch. Tll£''! pun'" wfitf'r of
!'.I,rin_l!:" !lllti \\T·JI~ (.'nntnill:\ nhundant ifllctC'rin, \\ hilr in
:,-{a~naflt Wa{('1' and Sf'Wrl' \nd('1' the'_\' r;;warrn in immense
JJtllnl)('~. Th,. sljmy d£'p(),,,,jls 1I.r.;uRlI," nb,!.:.f'rw·d nbout.
., iron" alld .. sulphur" ~pr~n~R, or ill th(, pipt~s I('adin~ frorn
tl!{'lll. are due' to tile pr('s(.'I\(.'(' of tlw J'('('ulin_r barteria liv-
ing in ~u('h wntrrs.. TIl(' Pff.'St'I1(,(.' ()f dnngf'rOliS hsrteria
in drinking water is probahly thr most {'ommon tnuse of
epid('rnirs of inft,t"tiolls dis('3!'C'''', nnd \\"llrningF IlF to the
dant:tf'rOliS rondjtjon of iI city wal(·r·~llppl.r should always
Ix· heeded. Ii is ycry e\'id"lIt thut nO sewage should find
it~ way into :"uch w3ter.~uprly.
It is important to know Bomolbinl( about lhe .trudure
and the habils of bact(·ri •. i",fore considering Bome of their
important rdati ons to mao, They urC' ollc-cC'lJed and OCC'lT
in tlner general forllls: ( I) spherical cells, u"ually grouped
in various ways, and indllding the mjnutcsl forms
(Fig. 121. 13); (2) rod-.hnp"d eells. that is, longer than
broad. the ccli. remainin!( ... parate or attached end to end
and formjng filaments (Fig. 121, F nnd C); (3) elongated
cells, !rOTe or Jess ('uTyed, from short tUIved forms resem-
bling a comma to long spirals (Fig. 121, J-M). Many
b~ctcria swim more or less aeth-eh- bv mc&ns of cilia; and
Ulls fact first gnyc the impressi~n that they are minute
anjmals-an impression that i. still prevalent outside of
laboratories (Fjg. 121).
A TEA~-BOOK OF BOTANY
Reproduction i. by cell-dl1·i.•ion. as among th~ b!ue-

green Algre (§ 5 60), a group which the bacteria resemble
\ . ,
/1..
A " ?~\B
f
Flo. 121 .-A lVOutI of bacl@rU. 01' 'nrious kinds. rm.t1y cilUte<i; F iJ: the ~
ter:iwn 0{ t,ypboid fner, aDd H that of eboleu..-Ah6 ESGLER and PR.l.sn..
in many ways. This cell-<li"ision i remarkably rapid in

bacteria, resulting in such a prodigiousmultiplic8tion of in·
FUNGI 133
di"iduals in a comparntively short, time that it is impossible

t(l imagine what would happen if bacteria were left fl'('<)
to rcprodul'e to their full c"purity. Burteria h.,·e becn
obsern.-'d ILl reproduce thcm~IY("s in fiftt."Cll to forty minutes
after their formation; that is. u sillglp generation of such
barteria is that kngth of time. It would I.>e interesting
to dt'tcrmme the llUlllb('r of progeny from {1 Sillg lc bnrtrrium
at till' cnd of twenty-four hours. if Buch a rnt£' WCrt' main·
tuill('d. \\'hrn nutrition fails. mnny hntff'ria 118\'(' tbe
power of ps.:;::ing into n prol(·(·tNj {'(Illuition, a portion of the
protoplasm within til« (,(,JI 5<rpfuntinl! from Lh(l rest and
he,"I>Ining "urrounded by n thick m"mbrunr (Fig. 122).
The: rl':-;t of the (,(,II finall~' dis()r~nnizc~ und this internally
formed ccII l:wrsisis. It Ita." rec('in,'u the name of s l>ore,"
Io
bllt is not to be regard{'d nB U Rporc in the w;uul Acnse. A

~:n!!l(' bacterium produeC's only onE' surh glJor(' , and when
this spore again encounterf: fa\'orhble ('onditions if produces
in lurn only a single bacterium. This II spore'," thE're(ore,
is only an inacti\'c and pro{C'cted condition of the uacterium.
I t is of great importunce to dPlermillfo thr power of
rC'!"Iistan{'e of bacteria and of thC'ir more resistant "spores,"
and there is great variation in this t('1!3rd. Drying and
cold kill many. but not nil. For example . il i. known that
the bacterium of typhoid fevcr (Fig. 121. F) can endure
freezing in a block of icc for months and brcome acti ve agllln
when the ice melts; and for this reason the Bource of ice
used in drinking water should br considered as carefuUy as
the SOurce of the water itself. Moist heat. hOlVe,·er. as
boiling or steaming. has been found to be most efficient io
killing bacteria; and SO the boiling of water and tbe cooking
of food are usually ample safeguards against them. Tbe
5O-<)alled disinfectants are d'emicals tbat destroy bacteria.
It is tbe knowledge of such facts that bas de"eloped ,,'ba~ is
called a.ntiseptic surgery, whicb is tbe use of "arious means
to ~xclude bacteria a.nd 60 pre,'ent in1I4mmation and decay.
134 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA~Y
, The most important relations of bacteria to man may b~

groUIX'd lIlJ(Jc.r til" follo\\"iug Ihree head,,: (J) thuse that
£"dll.Cl' fcnn('nt(l/ioll : (2) lho~e that iltdlU'( discaNt"; (3) and
those that fir nitrogen.
(1) Bacteria thai l'lIdlltf jrrmrntatl·ol1.-ln ~('tl('ral, fer~
mentation i~ thc Ut'(·ompo<.;ition of eurf)(lilydrna·::; and
o
protC'id:.;. hy I Ill' nrl ioa uf Ii \-ill!:! forms dil'Pt'lly or hy the-

f'nzynw"i (§ ·17) \\'hith t!H'~' produ('(', nnd ('on.5pil'uou~ uJlIong
th('~(' f(lrm'" arc' h!H'lf'riu. \\'hcn protf'id ~ ( Jlwat , ('t(o.) ('on~
tainin~ nil rn~l'1l und ::.ulphur arC" d{'compo;o'('d in t his way.
ofi'f'rlsi\'(' ,!!'U:O:('~ ntf' lib(·rnlNI. !':u{'h dN·()IYIPO.:-:itioll IW·ing
Oftl'l1 (':lllt·d put reraL't iOll. " 'hen l he word fE'rnH.'l1tntion is
o rdinarily used it refers to the decomposition of sugars in
(. ( ___
,loW 9~~J~
~!
V'i 1 9 .:l1 'J
~Jo ~'lJgo O:<l)~

~.o ~ tI~
",0
A B C [)
FlO. 1:!2.--l....~rl.Aili ~Ir.leriu of ff'l"Inentntinn Alld di!lol'~' harle-ria of .. nuring milk
t. t >. pf \'ine~ (1J) . (II d;phl.ht-'rill C{'~. (11 lelolmu .• v r IvclvlH\ (DI; (' IJlJd [J dJ{.I"
die ((lrrnation oC tbe ~ulloo" eI)Dre.'·-Afte.r FIf<CDER
Roilltion. as in yarious fruit juices. which brc3ks them up

into alcoholnnd carbon dioxide, the Intter rising as buhbles
through th~ solution. which is then said to h<- working.
, uch fcrment:\tions urc produced cllieRy hy yrast , which
a.rc con-idctM in the next section; but ba-cteria are con-
""med in t bp souring of milk und of fruit juices and in
the manufuNure of yineg:ll' (Fig. 122). These saprophytic
bllctrria that induce fermentation aDd putrefaction are of
muc h sen-ice lIS scavengers. being the chief agents in the
destruction of dead bodies. The various processes for
FUNGI 136
pre,er\;ng food arc att~mp(s to exclude barteri!> toot

would induce fermentation or u('('I\.".
(2) B(1ctcr£a lhal induce di,lfrant.-FortunatC')r most
bac·tcria ar(' liarmles::.. fur I JH'Y ar(' ('OIlSt!tlllly prt'~cnt in the
nosLriis and nlOulh amI alimentary lnu't. Evon lhuS{' that.
,1r£' d8ngerotls may lit. rcs..istf'd StlCCt'S.o.;CuJly llnd {a;J !o
dew·lop allY symptoms of di::N\~. \ \ 'h{,11 Ill(' n· ~i''''tan(·('
h,iS Leen inetT,,(,tulll anu the dis,'n", 1m.• dr\'rloj"'u, tlo,'
h/J ell'riu. may produc'(' IO(,1l1 {'[feNs, as ill diphrlJerifL (Fig.
1~:!,C) and in typhoid rl~ \"rr (Fig. 1:!I. F ) ; but til£' most
~('n{'rnlefi'c('t is fr(lnt tIl(' proJ\I('tion of poi~()ns (tox.ins)
\dlieh tire disLributed b.\' til(> blood, J(·:tuing to few!r. de-
lirium, etc. 'these poisons are diff('T(,llt for ('a('h ciiRellS<')
'0 thnt a surcessful antidote (al1titoxili) fur Lhe diphtlJeria
POiSfJfJ has no ('ffeet on f he poison of tIlt:" bacterium of
typhoid feyer. It is hop(,(j that nnlilo:\ins will u{'
<.Iist·o\" ..
('n~d for nil such bart erial dis{'n!'St.~s} among which fiTe not
only diphtheria and typhoid fe\'C'r, but 31'0 dlOlcra (Fig, .
121, IJ). tubcrculo~is. aud pneumonia. Su(·h ('Tupth'c dis-
casc~ us measles and scarleL fen..-r hoyt>nol yet Lt,;(·n proved
to be due La bacteria, Among plants also certain bac,tcriHI
di~eascs occasion great los.-":', as I)('ur blighl nnd peach y(>1
lows, and as yet }uj\"e bufH£'d thoR(' 5ef'king fur J"f'Jllcdies.
(3) Beteleria Ihal fix nilrogeri.-It will be rcrncmlJCre:i
that green plants nnanufll.ct ure carbohydrate', from carbon
dioxide and water (§ H); but that in Ihr manufacture of
proteids from cRrbohydrateri nitrogen iR necessar~·. AI·
though free nitrogen constitutes nearly oight--tenth. of tbe
air, plants CAnnot use it in that form. but must obtain it
through their roots fTom certain compounds existing in the
soil. As crops are removed. the nitrogen supply in the soil
is diminished, and presently the soil becomes so impo\'er-
ished that it is said to be exhausted. To restore the
fertility of the soil, the farmer has learned to use nitrogen-
containing fer tilizers. Througb the remo"al of crops and
10
i... yarious other ways the loss of ayallable nitrogen for

plant s is enormous; a.nd to me(_)t tbis loss is one of the most
important problems, for the known SOurces of suitablc
fertilizers cannot yield them for "cry mnny years.
Since fin endless supply of free nitrogen exists in the air,
it is natural to turn to th.is source of nitrogen su pply for
plunr.~. This means lhut the frC'{! nitrogen of the air must
Jx. II tixf'u ' I in some combination that can be us(\d by plants.
It is just here that bacteria of the soil playa \'cry important
pari. );01 only do those bacteria Ihat produce fermenta-
tion and decay lay hold of plant and animal bodies and
produl'c (h e 11P('('ssary nitroltcn-('ol1tuining substances in
the soil. bu~ certain other bacteria of the soil haYe the
power of fixing the free nitrogen of the air iuto compounds,
and hen('c thry arc called 1/ nitrogen-fixing bacteria, If
II
worn~out lund lies fallow for a few years there will be a

slow arcunluJatioIl of nitrogen salts through the activity of
these bacterb. The,· ha\'e been ('ulti\"ated artificiall,-, and
it is hoped that such cultures will be obtained th.t it may
be possible to use them to inoculate itupo\'erished land
with nitrogen-fixing bllc1.cria. and so hasten its restoration.
A peculiar group of soil bacteria penetrates the roots of
certain leguminous plants. as ClO"Cf, alfalfa, peas, beans,
etc .. and produces li ttle wart-like outgrowths known as
rool-tubercles (Fig. 123). The cells of the tubercles s«'1\rm
with bacterin, which are found to hl"'e the power of fixing
the fret' nitrogen of the air circulating in the soil. As a con-
sequence, such plants can Ih'e and thriY~ in a soil exhausted
of its nitrogen salts. and call be used in restoring tbe soil.
After an ordinary crop, such as wheat, bas exhausted the
soil. a crop of clo\'cr or of alfalfa plowed under will restore
such an .mount of nitrogen salts to the soil that it can be
used again for wheat. often \\;th a surprising yield. This
indicates the sigllllicance of what is called rotation of crops.
It is a very interesting and important ract that these
FUNGI 137
root-tubercle bacterin haw bl-ell culth·,tpd artificialh' 'at
the l-nilt'd ,(" teg Dppnnment of Ap-iculturc ill .uch ,,'way
that they can be shipped anywbere at small cost and used

to inoculate soils tbat are deficient in tubercle-forming bac-
teria. This deficiency may be discovered either by the air
138 A TEXT-BOOK 01' BOTAN,
sehre nf tubrr"' ..s on the roots of leguminous plants or by

the fuilur(' (If :-;llC"h plants to gro\\' at nil.
7~.
Yeasts.-y"""t , afl' oliP-eellrd plant. that reprodure
by budding. Tid:;;; ('urioll!' (llC'lhod ('Ollsists in n (,(·I1's pUlting
out 011(' or more projections which
gradually enlarge and finall.,· IK'(,OlllC'
piltl'hf'lj off. Often the cells (hus 1'1"0-
du('rd ding togNht'r in short irr(.·gu~
Inr ehaills (Fig. 12~). The chief in-
ter<'st in {'onuC'ction with ~'ellsl5 is'
• •< the il[lpOrtfLnt part they piny in tbe
. fermC'nt:-Ition of sligar so}utioJl:-, " split-
ting" Ill(' Rugar into alcohol aud car-
bOil dioxide .• pro«'58 also induced by
c"nuill bacteria (§ 77). but chiefl~· b~·
,~~ , :-1; the yeasts. Fernwntatioll by yeasts
Flo. lZ4.-YeJl.III-f'C'U". reo. is ('mployed on a large seal£> in the
:~I;~~i,:':n!":'h~II:::diltfi' llHHlllfu('turr of Uf'N', WillC, :wd spirits,
und in the making of br~ad. In (h.
last·namrd proc(':.;s. the douJ{h is iUQ(.' ulnted with yeast
plants und pll\('l'd in a sufficiently warm temperatute to
induce "pid growth. The plants begin to reproduce act-
iYE'ly by buuding; t11P ~ugar in the dough is split into
alcohol and carbon dioxide; and the l<1lter, being a gas. ex-
pands .Hld puffs up the dough. making it light and porous,
that is. ('uu:,ing it to •. ri~{'. H
The ~·ea.ti; commonly 'tiled ba"e been cultiyated for
c£'nturir-s and are not known in the wild state, There arc
also" Ilild yeasts" of man~' kinds. and many spores of the
higher Fungi bella\'e like the yeasts in budding and induc-
ing fermentation. The" working of ~>ea.st may be demon-H
.trnted by i!lttonucing olDe of the yeast preparation into"

solution of sugar or sirup and setting it in 8 warm place.
After a few hours the bubbles of carbon dioxide sbould be
seen rising through t.he liquid.
FUNGI 139
79. Mucor.-One of the mo.! rommon of I he Murors, 'Or

black molds. forms whit{' furry groKths on du.mp br<>ud,
prescn'cd fruiu, mallurc h£'J..Ips, ('I t', 11 may lx' gruwn ('usily
1')0. 125.-Di!l.p1Uil of MttlXl'l". ~ho";n« tbt' proru~l)' bnuu:Jlinr; hly~IiUID aDd

Lhree .porophor~. IPurll.ugia fOfm.il!1 lIlI b lUIIJ r . -Aftt"l" Z tJI'r
1fO A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
by keeping a piece of moist

bread in n warm room un-
der a glass yesse!. The
SOllrces of its food supply
indicate that it is a sapro-
phyte.
The !lody of ]I! lieor is
a good illustration of the
bodies of ordinary Fungi .
The principal part of tbe
A B body consist s of colorless
Flo. 121. - I~,·~lopill' ~por"-n itlll of Mul:Ur : brul1ching threads, eHher
Jl, """1111"11 Tip of IIJlHrolliiore; /J, wnll isolated or more oft.en in-
Nl lllU1llln, .PQl'lI.ult1um (nlDl tbe re8t of
tbe body. terwoven , and is called the
mycelium (Fig. 125). The
interwCilxing may ue \'ery
loose . the mycelium look-
ing like 8 delicate cobweb;
or it mo.y be close and
Flo, 12S.-MaturuporsnpufII, of M'tU'Or, FIG. 129.-Burrt ~utD of M-.r:«-,

aho'Winl: waU (0). numNQW .pores the ruptured _aU nOl beioa abo_n,
Ccl. &ad partition ""aU ptabed up into the looM ~ &dherin& to the c:oa-
the tant)' of the lQ)O~um (tt). VGS partitioo wall (_ Fi&. 128).
FUNGI 141
ompact, forming a felt-like mass, "-'l mny be sren .0111....
imes in connection with preserved fruits. The mycelium
, in contact with its source of rloo·,",upply, which is
,.II.d the substratum..
From the pro~trntf' my('('lium numerous er('('t hrllnChc8!
..rise, each bran ch broring at its tip a large globlilar ceU
Prc. 130.-8exuaI TeProduction 01 MQ~. Abowina ti{¥ or IIeS'Ual bnrncb8 in ~

t.crt. (A). the f'rQ pmel~ cut off by partition _allt (8), &ad the heavy-.
-..lled ~ (Cl ; B and C are more or: _ ~de &If &0 cell COD~I&.
containing spores (Figs. 126, 127, 12 ). The globuJaJ' ccli,

therefore, is a sporangium , and the crect branch is a sport>-
phore (spore-bearer). The sporangium waU bursts (Pig.
129), the light spores aJ'e scattered by tbe '1vi.nd, and fall-
ing upon a suitahle Rubstratum germinate and produce new

mycelin. Th(·s(' spores, althougli asexual, are c"idently not
swimming sporrs, ag thrre is llo-watf'r rnNiiulll for them 10
usc. Thi~ l1wllwd of tmnsf{'r being impossibl!', the ~pores
are scattered by rurrrnLS of air, and must be ('orrcsponcl-
ingly light nnd po\\"d('r~·. It is. interesting tn noit' thut reT-
t:lirr molds that ~r(l\\' ill thc' wn{('rd(·\·('/op ~,\·irnIIliCJg5por('s.
\Y hil~ I he ordinur, nWI hod of r('pl"odurtion thr()u~h the
gro\\;n~ ::I('aP:(m i!i hy means of lhesc rapidly grrmillutillg
sporc's, in ('{,Ttain {'ondiliofls sexual T<'pTodlirlioll also Ot'CU"S.
Bran('ht.'s put forth from two COfl1iguous Illycelial thrend:;J
th lips ',f tho brunel,c, lll'ing in (onlnct (Jig. 130. Jl) .
Partition walls s{'parnlc th(' tips from the main body of tbe
plant (Fi~. 130, B), the wIllls in contnet become perforatod,
the cont~tJts of the tWo tips fus(' , alHJ. a }H.'ayy~"al1('d
oOspore is the re.ldt (Fig. 130, C).* This .exlI"l process
suggests that of Spirogyra (§ 69).
80. Peronospora.-Thesr arc tlw downy rnildf'ws, yery
common panJ.sitcs on the Icaycs of S('ed-plants. The
mycelium is entire-
ly internal, uranch-
ing llmong the tis-
sues of the leaf. nnd
piercing the Ihing
cells \\ilh slicker-like
branches tbat rap-
1"\(1.. 131.-t\.1'fI,.nc.h of 1.'Q~\ium of p~ in idly absorb their
ooDtaet ,.,·,th t .... o eelJj! or. b()ltt plfUlt. and !lend- contents (Fig. 131).
ina: illllJ tbem a~bina: bBUeheI.-After D£
Bur. The presence of the
parasi te is made
!mown by discolored and fulUlly deadened spots on the
leaYes, where tbe tissues have been killed.
• It i~ not ~. to induce JfllOOf' t.o perfonn the sexual process, Md

in fael such n process may not often occur in nature.
FUNG I 143
From this internal myr·olium num.rn", "porophol'Cs

Rris(> Rnd reach th£> :'IHrf!1("{' of the }C'!lf; and UltHl" of them
ri .. illg:lOOYC th{' fi,u rf:-u'{' C'h~(' to,p:C't IWf. .
iiwy form liltlr yt'!\,('ty l'flH'll('s :-;1I~
~(·~tillg tht' name downy mild!'\\',
'}'!1(':-;(' f:porophor~"~, aft(·r ri~ifl~ abo\"('
t II(' ~urfa('(' of 1h(.' I{'nf. hralwh :r('('!_\'
,,,,J pmdu('p "pores (Fi/!. 1~~). The
~p(lres arC' sctltt('red hy lh(.· wind, ftlll
upon of hc·r It'D Y{,S, and start n('w 111.\,~
(·\·Jiu, whirh prnt'tralt· into til{' tis."lIP'"
(Jf the Ipar and hrgin th('ir nl '·ilg('~. ]n
this nTHy the parasite spreads wilh
grt·:lt rapidity, ofu'n producin~ srri-
Oll-= f'pidf'mi('s among plants.
I n certain cond itionf:;slX'(>inI IJratJ(·h-
ariS(' from the m~'('dium which hear
(>:-;
nnt heridia aBO o6gonin tha.t remain

,,"thin the host (Fig. la3) . The oii/!.o-
"jllrn deyclops a single Pgg. The 8n- rl(;. J32.-8rtOroplion. or
• Pn-oNI/IJ1i1r'1l rorm ri.9-
ilteridium comes into cnntact with it. in" liu'ollllh II~ "UlJuat.-.
puts out a tube thut picn'cs the 0(;1'.0- of Ole hOllt·leaI (J~.IO).
hnuH,-hinlit. and beat--
ninm wall, and dis.;chargf's its contents iq ~,.; thilI fOM,D
(Fig. 133. B ) . As" re.ult of this aot earl!IN POf.ato-rot.-Al~
e.r~tltlllc;ell..
IiiG. 133.-P~: A. ~ium f/l') with IU)tbmdjum (0) in eonlad; B. tube

( tom utheridium pebCt,n.tinC oOconiQJbi C. OOcUniUDl cootaininc o(kpcn.-
Ail« D.dUar.
1H A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
of fertilization , n bea ,'y-walled oospore is form ed witLin the

oogonium (Fig. 133. C). The infected lea"es containing
the oospores fall and gradually tlecay. thus liberntillg the
oOsporcs, which aTl~ frrc to gcrmjnnLc during the l.ext spring
and infect new !ca\'t's.
The dOWT1Y mildews include some yeT;; destructive par-
asites, attacking porntoE's (pointo-rot), gnlpe-yin(·:o:. lima
beans, lettlu.'c, on i on~. cu(,umbers, melons. r:t.dis}les, ('te,
"ari ous means ha"e been disco\'ered for hOlding these dis-
eases in check.
S]. Alga-like Fungi.-Jrucor and Perollo'1)()ra are repre-
sentati\'es of !l. large group (Phycomycete.) of Fungi lhnt
most resemble Alg,e, and suggest tlearl), thnt they erc Algre
that ha\'e beeome parasitic or saprophytic. In the wbole
:;roup the filaments of the mycelium are cceno<'ytic, as nre
the bodies of the group of green Algm to which J'aucheria
belongs (§ 68). They reproduce by 'pores, which are usu-
ally scattered by the wind, and also produr·c ol>spores.
Some of tbem. represented by Jf ucor. huye similar gametes,
that arc brought lngether in a war that suggests the SpiTO-
gyro group among the green Alg'" (§ 69); while the others,
represented by Peronowpora, produce eggs and sperms. as
in the case of rauch eria, though, since there is no water
connection, the sperm reaches the egg through a tube.
Mucor also illustrates the saprophytes, and Pcrollospora
the internal and destructi"e parasites.
82. Mildews.-The true mildews are very common
parasitcg on Jea "es and other parts of seed-plants. the
mycelium spreading oYer the surface like a cohweb. They
are allen called powdery mildews in contrast with the
downy mildews (§ 80), since in most eases they look like
patebes of whitish powder on the leaves. A very com-
mon form occurs on lilac leaves (Fig. 134), which nearly
always show O,e whitish patches from early summer nnti]
fall, Other common mildews attack such valuable plants
PUNGI 145
as apple, ""ar, cherry, rose, hop, grape, whent, goo.eber~y,

cll('umber, pt.'a. ycrbena, sunflow£,T. 8SI(·r. £'1f', lrl fUt't, ,-('ry
.eed-plants seem to c.~tpe their attacks.
f(' 1\" Being eXler-
nal parasites. n'l.ildrws are not
n{'c('$snrily destru(.'tivc; but
the'!' OflCll cause the death of
the> host.
All examination of the my ..
!'!'!ium shows that ils filaments
bayc partition walls; und hence
the body is not c~no('ytjr! as
in .llucor and PCT01tQ~pOTa, hut
mude up of a row of cells as in
the COTl/en'a forms among the
green Alg'" , Small disk-like
outgrowths are scnt into the
epidermal rells of t.he host,
ancboring the mycelium and
absorbing the eell contents.
During the summer. numer-
ous sporophores arisc from the Ftc.. 13".-Ulac k:.r oov~ .-Itb
mycelium, not bearing sporan- mild".., liI~ ,bal)#'(I N!'Cipn.t npt6-
aot-lItil1lt tbe myc:efhHn. Uld tl_
g:n, as in Mucor (§ 79), but bba.c.k dot. Lbe.~
forming spores in n peculia.r
"'.y. The elld of the ~porophore rounds off, almost separat-
ing itseli from the part below, and !Jeromei' a spore. Below
thiB another organizes in the same way, then another, until
a chain of spores is deyeloped (Fig. 135, A), easily broken
apsrt and scattered by the wind. Falling upon otber 8ui~
able lea,'es, thClle spores germinate and produce new my-
celia, enabling the parasite to spread <lith great rapidi ty.
Tbe mycelium produ~es also minute nntheridia and
GOgonia, which come in contAct with one another an do
those of P/!1'on~.pora (§ 80), but it is not worth while for the
untrained student to try to obsc,"'e them. As a J:esult of
IeTtiJjznUon, however, n structure called the spore-fruit is

dcyeloped . Tho"e spore-fruits appear on infected lea\'~s as
minute dark dots (Fig. 134). each one beitll( a sphere of
hcayy-wnll"d cells (Fig. 135,
E), which usually benr hair-
like appendages of yarious
forms. In fact, the l'porc-
fruit is n hen',)' prolecting
cn~r for spores, and cnrries
mildews through the winler
or the dry season. The ap-
penrance of a many-celled
spore-case as the resu lt of
fertilization, rather than a
DCW mycelium! suggests th e
similar result of fertilization
among the red Alga! (§ 75).
By bursting the wall of
Fro. 13:i.- ReprOOu('tion (If miMew: th is spore-fruit. one or more
A. chain 01 IJI>oJ'UI develoJ:le(1 hy 11
"poroph~re: B. IlPO~ hUfllt,
delicate bladder-like sacs are
and .lw~itlg the extruded IJIlC extruded. and tllTough the
(UCWl) v..itb ita spores. - Alter
'!'vLAaH •. transparen t. wall of each sac
several spores may be seen
(Fig. 135, B). The delicate sacs arc called asci (singular,
Q.Scu..~)J a. word meaning It sacs," and hence the great group
of Fungi represented here by the mildews is named the
Ascomycetes, which means" sac Fungi. " In the life-history
of the mildews it i " 'ident that there are two kinds of
asexual spores: those produced in cbains by the sporophores,
and those produced in the sacs of the spore-fruit. Both
produce new myoelia, the latter starting the first mycelia
of the growing season . and the former multipl)ing mycelia
throughout tbe b'l'owing season.
83. Other Sac Fungi.- The group of sac Fungi is a very
large one, containing many forms that are well known snn
FUNGI 14,7
some that are important. All of them. at .om(' r",rioo'of

l},(' lifp-history. })fodu{'(· Rpon'~ ill ~!.Il·l'-, und l)I(' sat'S arc
w:lI:dl.\' cOlll:l.incd ill tl !'oP(lrt·..
fruit. Tlw spore-fruit i~ of 1Im.'l'
g-t"lI{'ral killt.l~: ( 1) a h(~llow I'phpr(',
.:'(lmplrt rly rndo:o;ing {hr ~U{,,; (:!)
':'1 fin ... k-likr E.1TlH.'llJr{l wit h fI :--nl:.l11
{'[)('ll rl(lck; 8.lld (a) U cilp-lik(· IIr
~!\\l('(' r-like F:.tnH:tUrl' ~hi{'11 i!'i
~in('d by :1 l~lyf'r of S3C.~.
The fir8:I, kind of ~Jtor('-frui{ i~
iIIu::,tratpd Ly t lil' miltlt·ws just
de..,cribcd . It is of iZlI('rrst to
know that truffles an:' ~tJ{'h
tiosf'd spore-fruit~, having h('-
come large and edible. TIt('
t ruffle Fungi arc· !'ftprophytil"
the mycelium being found e,p"--
('ially in forrsts l.lIldcr d£'cayjn~
Jpu "eg. The tru ffi(,s oi ('omm{,f(.'t'
are obtained cllieOy from Franec
fllld Ttal)".
The sac Fungi with fla.•Ie-like
spore-fruits are illustrated by
maoy forms growing on dead
wo<x:I or as parasites under the
bark. of trees and shrubs, and
forming upon the surface of tbe
bark black, wart-like !'ToII·ths
that include the spore-fruits, in FIG. 13G.-H8d o! tyl! ..uaebd
plum- and cherry-trees produc- b)' « ,01 hUlCU.t, wa.l!picuou.
powtbt replacln& th~ c:rainI 0(
ing the disease known as black rye-Alter TULUJfiIC.
knot. An important member of
this group is the fungus that produces the ergot of medi-
cine. It is parasitic upon the young heads of rye and
H A TE..'l:T-BOOK OF BOTANY
otllcr grns$('~. distnrt ing t hrtn and produring t he CX('rc~c -nt

growL Its from whj{'h the ergol
is obtained (Fig. 136).
Fto. 1:\7 . -1''''0 kintls of ('up.fUnInl8. FlO, llf:..-A <,ul,,-full!tUI' .irfuwinl 0 11

-Aller I.IN OAL !lpfu«,.-A f"'-r HI IJ\1.
Most ntirartiw. howeyer. is the group oj :'laC Fune

with spore--fruits ~hapc'
like sauerrs, ('up:=:, funne]:
fiat disk!'., ('t('.; for III
lining. mlldr up of a b.\"{
of the spor(' - ('(lnt :linin
sacs. is often some brillhu
shade of rrd. )".lIoIY. ,
brown (Figs. 1:;7 nnd 13~
The scarlet-lined cup;
certain forms are oft.
seen on decaying 101
stumpsl etc.; and in t
morels tbe spore-fruits e
so large nna Beshy til
they are used as one of t
most delicate of the cdi!
mushrooms. although tt
f':Io.. i39.-TM- ('ODU\)OU t!dihlf' mol"tll. tht' are not mushrooms at
d~ona in the mrl~ beiDa lined
b). ala,)"a' 0/. '&IICi.-After GUIIIO,N. (Fig. 139).
FUNG! l·h
84. R usts.-Rusts llrc dcstructh'c parasites that o.tt(lck

almost all •••d-planl., but thoS<' tbat III tack the cerral$
nrc' of .spe<'i~d imjJorlam'{', 'Y hNI.t. outs, rye, atld bnrley
alI h!!yc their llnd ill the rnitl'd Stnlrs there is
rU :,I:;;;
n yf'arly los~ of sen'ral million dolhLr:: (HI t\('('(lUnt of the
ru nl~('S of the whe:H ·rust alnn~. scurc('ly n fic>lc.l hd ug: ell'"
1ift·!y frC'f' from lhr pt:"si. J\aluralJy th('~ parasitl'S have
IW(·fI ill\'Cfo;li!r!lt('d p<'rsi:o't('ntl:'; but whilr very murh hu
h("t'n }earnC'd about 'lwir liff'-hi stori{'~ und l:wll1.n ior, no
rpnlr-riy has b€'f'1l dis('on'n~d. Jt hn,,", IWf'n found 1hhl cerlain
\'[lri('ties uf wheat resist til(' rust hl\tter than others, and
thut yuri(·ties rip<.'nillg (>arlr f~S(,UIJ(" seriouB injury; Bnd
rhr ..,{' farts may lcud to the iJn:euing of rt'·f\ist-u.nt and ('arJy
ra('t'~,
The life-history of a rust is usually "cry ('omplex, since

: herr ar£> .';(,Y(, l'ai piJa8(,:oI in the hi:il ory, n.nd aU i he pbases
mn,\- not occur Ott the Same h(l;-;t plaut. ~inc(" wheaL-rusts
art' bet tf'r k,Hlwn than Ully 0 1hrr,
(IIlP of t}lf'm mny be used t.o illus-
trate the life--history,
While the lea yes nnd the stems
of wheat nTC growing, the my(·(·(ium
of the parasite is burrowing among
the tissues of infected plants. About
thetime oi hnfy('st. numerous ~poro~
phores arise from the mycelium and
reach the surface of le",·e. and
stem::., each sporopbore producing }l(l.l40~f~7'=et~
at its tip a reddish spore (Fig. }.JO).
These are tbe summer spores, and they occur in 6uch great
numbers that they form rusty-looking lines and spots,
gh'ing name to the disease . The su=er spores are scat-
tered freely by the n'ind; and tbose falling upon otber
plants germinate immediately, the new mycelium pene-
trating the bost plant and beginning its ravages. By
mrllns of t hose summer spores t he rust may spread through

a field of whcat "nd into adjoining fields Wilh greal
rapicliry.
L:J.t t'f in lh t' 8C'uson, on the stulJble
and 011 plants not f('moved in the hur-
Y(,~1.int!". bln.(.'k lilles and dol ~ apJX'llr.
whi('h UTr ml1~Sf·t: of II yery JifT('renL kind
of ~ p ore ,!'o:('I1( to r he
surfac(' by the myc('-
lium (Fig. l·ll). This
sJ)ore. which is two-
Cf'lIl·d nnd
hus II ypry
hCfl\'Y wall, i:: rhe
Flo. lolL-The. "int~r U'lnter spoTe; for it i~
.IJor~ of ",heaL-nil I .
in thb3 form that the
rust usually endures the wiIlt<!f.
1" iho spring the willter spores, lying
",",here tile plants on which the)" lH're
produced huye decayed. begin to gef-
min"te, each one of the two "0115 Bcnd-
ing ou t a short lilamrnt.. This filament
is not a pnrnsit(', but it snprophyte, and
ustlull.y consisrs of four (·ell::. e8ch one
of widell sonds out a lit dl' branc·h, at
the tip of which a small spore is pro-
duced (Fig . H~) . These may be called
FlO. H2. - A winter
t!lJrly spring SPOTf'-8 . ~i"Ore of ',",lea I ~ rwI t
germinating. each fila·
Tb£>se eurly spring spores ar£> scat- m~nt Ilroducins four
tered by the \lind; and tbose falling oeIlB.. each of ...·bieh
8t!llda otH • braneh
upon barberry leaves germinate, the tbA.1. ProdUOM at ita tip
new mycelia eutering and spreading A spore (early wprine
fP()re). - Aher Tu·
througb the lesves. I n this phase the
rust is parasitic upon an entirel}" dif-
(erent host, and one that holds no relation to wbeat. The
mycelium in the barberry leaves sends to the leaf surface,
FUNG I ]51
I'ually the und~r one, groups of sporophor~s , cach gr<>up

,urroundcd by n eup-likt, st rlit'lllft'; and hl'UN' lltl'~(' {'up-
Ikt· ('lustcr,,, tl1ln"' bpC'll culled clu.9lrr-cu /lS. ] lJ lbt,~\ dUSI('T-
'UJIS the *,P(Jf('$ (1('·
l'ur in long: (·haill~.
:llld rua)' be ""lied
"l,rill!} ,'1J>OT('/<I or dUff
II'f-rllp SpOTI'8 (Fig.
14:1),
Th{'se fiprin~
"POrt'.'i on tlw Lur-
III-rry Jen yes aJ'(~
"':l 11 prod by II}('
WilLd and inf{·(,t
y\HHIP; wnrnt plnllts;
I hnt i_", g'C'rmlll:ll(' J 1(;0 J4:1.-.-\ dmll~r-CUIJ (0" wrberr)'} aI .. !II!!IItI·ru4t
and prOUUt'C m:,,("('- wlltllmi ng du,Unij of IIJlri1l1: 'JH..t_.-Aft~ e;n......
Jia wiJj(·h pcnctralC
I fiNn. ThcS<.' n('w mY(O(·lia laler pnt forth th(· !'l:urnmer
~J)llt(':-:. and in I his way t ht' Hf(' r~'d{' hu.s Trl"urnt,d to the
poilll with "'hieh lliis tt('count h<.'uatl.
It wilt be noted that in this lifc·-hi:-i(or,'· th(Of'{' (U"{· four
himls of spore,,: (1) lIlt' ellrl), FpriJlJ( 'pore" product'd by a
:;imple saprophyti(' filnnwnt. and illf('('tillg b!triwrrr J('0'1\,(~S';
(:!j the ~pring or du~t('r-('up sporf"~. produc·{·J by a UI~~cdium
I-'arn.,:itic on the barberry . Hud illfN'ling young wheaL
rlanl.; (3) the summer spor<'s. produc'ed by a rn~'('elium
p3.r~itjc OJ) whrst, nnd infr-('linA 01 her whrut planl~; (4)
thE" winter spores, produced by tIl(' Aun)e m.,"C'(·lium, and jn
spring producing the saprophytic filaments, In lhe 1; njt~d
Statrs the barberry is not widely distributed enough to play
so important a part in the liie-history of whcat-rtlSt, and
other seed-plants ba \'e ~n found to be used as hosts fOl
the cluster-cup stage of certain forms of rust, It is alJl(
stated that the cluster-cup stage may be omitted, in tha
II
152 A TEXT-BOOK OF J30T Alo'Y
cqse the early spring spores infecting wheat plants ro.ther

thlln barberry le.,'",; and recently it hIlS been "hown
that often thr summer spores ftUTyj,'C the 8C \ 'cre:--t ·winter
and infC'('t young wlwut plaJlts of the next SeaSOl 1.
A nOI her well-blOwn rust is that which at ta('ks apple-
trf'C~ 3.nd their relutives, ill{' wild cTab. hawthorn, ptc.
The 51 a~e on t he a prl,~tre(' i. \ hr' cI us-
ter-cup ~lag-(', the cluster-cups ocC!urring
Oil t}u-' tlnd('f surflll'(' of the 1('I1Y(,s; the
myrdium also attacks and ruins the
fruit, tll(' duster-cups being s('('n in
C'OIlON'fioH with the di$ellSN purts.
The cluster-c·up SPOTPS jnfrct the ('pdars,
producing swellings half
nn inch or more ill diarne-
l ('r und kn own as ('{'uar-
appl('s (Fig. 1-14). 1n Ihe
spring these cedar-apples
ll('('Qme conspicuolls. espe--
dally after a rain. when
I It(' jelly-like mosses eon-
taining the orange-colored
spores s\I'ell. These spores
fire blown about and in-
fert the apples. At tempt.s
are made to check the a p-
pie-rust by destroying the
1'10. H .... -A c:ed1U'"aJ)pie. cedar-trees and by spray-
ing t he apple-tree, "'hen
ther are putting out their lea"es, wi&h It liquid that kills
such Fungi .
Although rusts poESe several kinds of ordinary (asex-
uall spores. no oo' pores (sexually formed spore ) h. ve been
obseI\'ed; but a process in the life-history representing 8
tscxuoJ act has been discovered ill some forms.
11)3
FUNG I
85. ]liushrooms. - T his

narn(' i:;; a '\"('ry indrfinit(,
onC'; soUlf'\imes app\~ ing
to a.ny of t h(, Rc:,hy Fungi
of the- umbrella form, slid
...;nnll'li1Tlcsin(.\ t1dln~ :llllon~
~l1{'h forms only Iho:-,C' that
US
arc (.'fiihl(', th(' poi:,01l0
(In(.':' \)rine: spokt'll of u";
toad~t()(I\:O;. For our pur-
pO~P. no f'xa,rt, definition
(If tilt' wl)rU is lI(·(·(·s~t:trY,
it hf'iug L15f'd a~ the roW-
mOil name ~)f u. ~rou l' of
iorm~ with which the ~t\l
Ut'lLl :;hould be somewhat
familia.r.
The life-history of the t'u. 145._ M Y.. uum"'. mu.'...:...""'....
ordinary cdilJ\P mushroom m''''''''.'''o,.. (".... o"'' ..- .. '''·....•..
~ TEXT-BOOK OF nOT~"11
i . the markets will so,,'e as an illustration. The royce·

um of while hr:l.J)c'hing thr('ud.t; ~ pread~ C'xlcIlsiyC'ly through
he substratum of decaying orgallic mat erial. and by tho:.;c
"ho gro\\ mush-
rooms is ('aIled
spa "'I I. Thi:- my-
celium. nil hough
t.he least l'unf'piru-
Qtl8 part of the
mushroom, is, of
course', 1he TNl.!
Y{'g('l ali\"(~ body.
r pon this u ndcr-
ground rn,\"('('lium
lilll e kllOb-likt' pf(l-
tuoeTH}}('C'::\ sri;:;('
(buttons) . growin/(
lal'g(:'r and la tgpr
(Fig. l45) until
they deyelop into
the umbrella - iike
structures (:om1l1on-
Iy spoken of as
mushrooms (Fig.
146). This um-
brella-like struc-
ture. howc\'er1 ('OT-
responds to I he
1')0 . U7.-..~riOM through the db f)r • eommon sporophorcs tbat
mu~broom : A . gillf banJinlC from lh~ J}ilt'll.!; B.
elope I{ill ailo"inlt tbe basidium I.,~; C, tlIlLteh nri:;te ' from the m:v-
enJa.rpd "ie-I',-. abo'll'ing the basidia-bearing l!f}QteI. celia of other groups
-A_fl.f!1" $.ACIlS.
of Fungi , except
that it includes a large number of sporophores organized
into s single large bodr. Therefore. the real mushroom
body is 8 subten:anean mycelium, upon which the struc-
FUNGI 155
turps ('ommonly called mushrooms are the ~pore-bearlng

ltralH'hrs. In pulling lip a mushroom. fragments of the
UI~Ti'ijurn may oftell bt~ !-;{'(m utttl<:ll('d to it. looking like
~lJlllJJ rO{)t l el~. 1n thl'> IoHowiag df',Q.I·riplion, hO\\'P\,{\T J the
won.l ruu;I\!tro(Jrn will he uSNl in its ordiunry scn~(' .
The lllU31,r()om h." n slulk-Iike p"ninll (Mi1"') fwd an
('\paIIJ{'cl u rHbrella-li k(, top (piiulS). On th(' under ~iue of
lilf' pllt'u:-i lIlt'n' art'" fl~lJlld lhill, r.'ldialin#!. kuif(·-I.lhu.l{"-lik{'
platl" (gill'l ( Fi):, IH, , I ), The Furf:l('I' of til" !till. l'onsiRts
of!l loyer of pc('uli"r l'iub-" IIUIH'ti (" 'II" ('ull,'d /"" idw (l' ip:,
1-17 , U) . From tlw hr<Hlu eml of \·u(·h bn!"oiuium uhually
four dclictltc hrllll('lws
arj",C', each produc·jng ut.
ir:-i tip a minute spore'
(Fig, 147, C), The rip"
:'J.Ofl';'; ~howc r down from
1111' gill ~urfaccs , gC'rmiwll r ,
and produce- n(',,"' lllyrpiia..
The most common f'di-
bJp mushrooms gron- ill
fi(·lds and past urt'S; but
t itHP are numerous mu~h~
rooms in the d('('p woods,
in f::t(,t whcrryer there is
urraying organic material.
It has been found impos-
sible to gh'e direct ions for
distinguish ing edible and
F'tr.. 14.8.-A cnmrnOR fl(u,t-Iutl,ru.-
poisonous forms that can Aflt!r C1Bl'O"',
be used by those who are
not f,.miliar "ith mUllhrooros, It is exceedingly unsnfe fOI
an inexperienced person to gather u'ild mushrooms for eal-
ing, for some of lhe deadliest forms resemble in a general
way those commonly eaten,
The mUllhrooms with gills form a very large group
156 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA~-Y
but numerous forms di"pl oy the spore-producing layer in

other ways. For example, the pore Fungi fire so named
because they hal'c pore-like depressions or tubes lined by
the basidium-laye r, instead of gills. 1ft addition to umbrella-
like forms among the pore fUllgi (Fig. l~S), tl,ere arc the
numerO lls bm('k(·t Fun~i. whi<-h apJXlar as har-d hoof-like
nutgrn\\'Ihs on tree trunks (Fig. 1~9), stumps, elC. . orne
of these bracket Fungi are perennial, showing annual I.

ers of growth, as the common touch wood or punk. Ot
mushrooms have tbe umbreUa-like bodies. but instead
either gills or pores, there are pine-like processes coated
the spore-forming layer (Fig. 150) ; others appear
FUNGI 157
~l"lntinous. dark-brown. shell-shnf'(~ tllns."('~. TN'll\mblihg

t''''': .till other. resemhle floshy branching roml~ (Fig, 151),
!Illd hrllec arC' csl1t~d rOTa.1 Fungi.
In t!;l'Jl(·rnJ. JDu;,;hroom!'! urC' htlrmJ,'s._~ tlnd oflf"U URf'ful
":\prt)phyte~. hut there nrC' nJ::.n dpstrul'tivp pur:}.~jtjr rOTm~
Fm, 150.-.\fu.hroorn ""th spine-lift Fra. Jlil.-Tbf, C'\lmmOIl .,ruble cutal

proeetwlet w&tead (lr liIl•. -AfI~T f~.-Afw CtNO~.
GIIdOS.
thal attack forest-trees. Th. m~'relium usually spread.

between the bark and the wood, sending special absorbing
brancbes into the wood, often ."en illl() the heart wood,
causing decay and weakening of the stem. The spore-
bearing structures are sent 10 the surface, and appear lUI
toadstools, bracket Fun"". etc. pores are produced in
great profusion and iuIeet olher trees, the new mycelium
uBing wounds to effect its entrance. Some mycelia spread
through tbe soil, inoculating trees through tbeir roots; wilile
15 A TEXT-BOOK OF' DOTH"Y
ill Of h~r rases th,. sport'S arc scattered b,' the wind and the
illfrrtioll.fortB ill the trl'(' lops, Almo't all full-growlIll'ceS
aTl\ di!ol('u:;jNl nI ~nnl(' poin!.
~(), Puffba lls. - Tlw j)\lffhnll. nrr ftc'h." Flillgi (h a t differ
frnfn t h(~ lllll., hrponl ":' in h:H·j!ll! 1hC' f'POfl'l" ~)ldh~ (·J until
tlw.,· are riJ'(' (Fig:. 15Z).
TJl('r(' is a !"\Ji.llt' ITUI1N.tn
rtI.'"('f'liuln.:1::: in th(' rnu:>:h~
room::. ; btl t j h{' ~pon' ~
hl'uring ~ tru('t[lr(' is a
(ll'~hy. p;lohtllal' Ludy. rol1-
tuining irn'g'ubr cham-
brTR 1iu('() \"ith lhc f:.pore ...
produciJlg Ja~·{'r. \\" hf'n
youn~. thi:;; hody i~ f'olid
und white'; hm: n,: ; the
sport's maLUT{'. it )x.conlf's
ydlnwi5h !lnd brownish.
grnduull,' drieR up. "nu
finall,' is onl,' a brown
parchment -like shell ron-
t!linjng :nnum<:rabJ('. ('x~
FI(:. IliZ. -l'uffunIi8. - Altt'r GII>SOS. c('<,dingly Rmall :::poTes
that are disrhurg(;d by
the breaking of (ho shell. Some of I he puffballs berome
Ycry JaTgf", tcacJting a dillmt:'ter of twch-e to eighteen
inches.
I, The higbest group of Fungi.-The rust_, mushrooms,
and puffball. l'C'Pl'C'>Cllt the highest and most extellsit-e
group of Fungi. charr.cterized by producing spores by means
of a b>lsidium. and hence called Ba$idiomycete.8, ,,-hich means
"basidium Fungi," The peculiarity of the basidium is
that it sends out brancbe . each of which produces a spore
at ;t~ Lip (Fig_ 1.J.7. C), Th layers of basidia (spore-pro-
dUc)ng cells) were noted iu the musbrootru! and the puff-
1I'UNGI 1110
ball.: but it is thought that B bruoidiurn is .... pre... n'ed '1I!<O

in Ilw life-history of the rust.", llnd hcn('(' diE'" arc now
iud!Hj('d among the B:l.sid iom.,'c'ctf's. Thi~ ~UprK'l"("(_i bB.-
:-oidnlfH of the rU5>t i ~ th(' lillie fil!llH('nt pr(t(lu('(·d by tilt:'
Willlf'r ~po r('. \\hit.h s(,Jld~ nut brant"!-lcs that bear till' smn ll
(·orly 'pring 'pores (§ 84).
<"'''. Mycorhiza.-This n!lm(' lllf'lUlh roof - fUI)gus, find
un nssodntion th:ll cxi~ts bctwf'Cn ('('Ttuin FllJl,:'d
Tt'ft'T_"; 10
of 'he soil and the r(lots of hil;llf·r plauts. It "'..~ 'hough'
Ollte.' th:H tlli.s ::L~!-,(lciation of ftillgU~ tlnd root oCClIrrro only
iu ('Olln('ctimr wilh II lim itNI mIHlh<"r of h.iRhef plAnt~,
Emdl !l.:<; on'hid!oi, onkfl, }tt"!1.1 h plants, ('Ic. ,: hut more r('C'E'tlt
~tlUly indicntcs (hal proiJni,ly tIl(' large- rnnjorilY of \'ns~\Jlur
pi:1htS, that is, pla.nt~ \\ith true roots, hn\'c d('\'('lopc'd thi."
n'latio!) to n .oil fungu., th wator-plnnts heing excopted.
It h., I,•• n found tho!, the humus s()il of forellt" is in large
pa.rl "a HYing mass of innumrrahJc filam£'.utollB J'ungi."
It is of advantago to roots to rolate
thcmseh"cs to tbis gTcat net work
of filament", which are already in
the bcst relations for absorption;
and tI,ose plant. which nrc unable
to do this are at a disadvantage in
the competition for the nutrient
materials of the forest soil. It is
doubtful whether many "asclllar
green plants CaD absorb from tbe
s;:,i] enough for their needs with-
out this "",,iSlance; and if fhis is
PIG. U3.-M,yeorbia: the tip
true, the mycorhiza Fungi become
of. beech rootlet enmeshed of \"ital importance in the nutri-
by a .00 iunplt. - oUter
PR4.,.... L tion of such plants. The delicate
branching filamentsof the mycelium
either enwrap the roo tlets "ith a jacket of interwoven threads
(Fig. 153), (.or occur wi thin t he cortical cells of the root.
9. Licbens.-Lichens are abundant everywhere, form-

ing splotches of various colors on tree trunks, rocks, old
FlO. IM.-A common licben gnJ,,·in.l: on bark; the tlUm«!rouJI da.rk di!!ks are lined
b.)' " lnyer of adCi.
bonrds, <lr., and growing also upon lhe ground (Figs. I5!
and 155). They Ita"e " general greenish-gray color, but
brighter colors also may be ob erycd.
The great interest connected with lichens is that they
FUNGI 101
are not single plants, but

II18t each lie'hcn is formed
(If n fungus and an nlga
li"in1!: log('thcr 80 inti- g
mutely as to appear like
n single plant. In other
\\"ord!'. a lichen is not an
imli"idual but a firm of
tWI) illdh"iduuls. Ycry un-
like one another, If II
lidwn be sectioned, the
rrlatinn bet ween the two
rOllstiiuent plants mn." be
(Fig. 150) . The JUll-
"N'1l
gus makes t he bulk of the
hndy with its interwoven
lIl~' l'elial
threads, in the }lC. 15G.-1.~tioa of • lkheG . .M-
lles of which lie the
1l1l· ... in.. thfo !nt."..ovlI!n rnYl'f-Iiuftl of the
fun.cu. ("' ) anli the .nlm.bed aJp (g).
Alg<r-, sometimes scat tered, -Afler S-,cu•.
sOJll(,times ma~d. It is
t h"se enmeshed AlgID,sbOl\ing through the transparent my-
celium, that gi"e the greenish tillt to the lichen .
Fro.. 157.-&ctioa 01 ODe of the cuJMib ))odiN of .liebe.• bowinl the ,talk of the
CUP (.), We m.a.M 01 AJp (Q'). and tbe lininc t.J.... of &Ki (.\).-Alc.er 8.&.ca.
It has been found that the lichen-alga rnn live quite

ind('pen drlltly of the li ritl'n-fllllglls. In fn ct. lit" cnmeslied
AJp:1{' arc often fE"('op;ni l.f'd a~ idC'ntical with Iorrn~ Ih'jng
independently, lhe forms usually bcillg "('rlain blut~green
Flo. 16S.-Mueb t"-1I1a.rpd IIt'Cl.ioo of portion or ti.ning layer . .bowiD& the Aeci
n 2.3,4) "fI"ilb \.hm caota,ine-d Ipol'H.-.'t.he"l' S"Ct1l1..
Aigre and some of the simpler green Aigre. On the other

haud, it bns beeu found tbat the lichen-fungus is com-
pletely dependent upon the Aigre; for the germ.inating
spores of the fungus do not develop far unless the young
Ft'NGI 163
tllYl'elium can lay hold of .uitnble AI!:!!'. Artifirilll lith.

f'n~ nlso han' been made uy brint!i!i~ logt' lllPr wilJ .·\J ,lra'
:\nd lit·hr n-htngi . I...ielH.'n ~. t}u.' rl'forl'. art' rf'ull~ ('oIllhina-
Iltln~ of 3. p3ra~ iti(' fun~lIs and it ~ hO::I. tli£' IJartl:;i,j~ m
Iwill£! peculiar it! I iJat tIl(' h(l~ t i:- not injur£'u . Tilt, funp;us
li\I'::;: upon rh(' food madl) h~' the uig-u. llt1(j liI(' rr):llinlJ
:->lIgg:(,-q('(i is I hut tht: ~tlJ!!l i~ r-milnn'd by the fUIJ~u s.
:\1 t:l,rtain tinl('~ {'up-like' or Ji . . k-lik(· holiif'R IIpJwur UpOIi
tilt' :'lI rfu ('(' of t 11(' lie-tlC'l!. wit It hrown or bltu'k o r more
"rich I I.'" t.'ulurcu lining ( Fi~. 1.:;..) I. .A :,{'l'tion Ilirollgil tli ....t·
FIG. 159.-Fruocoee lir:beoa: ...f .• aimpl~ form: n, reindeer mOlll9; C, Jl oommO(:l

hanpn&: lu:ben.-.4. alld Balter BTau.A,n;.ot;lC; C. all4!1' g"C1U.
bodies shows that the colored lining is largely made up

of delicate sacs containing .pores (Figs. 157 aod 158). It
is evident, tberefore, that sucb a lichen-fungus is one of the
Aacomycetes (§ 2), and it is till. group of Fungi that
is chiefly concerned in forming lichens. Some Basidio-

mycetes also haw learned 10 form li chcn~.
Yarious forms of li'chens cun Iw distingui,;hed as fol-
low~: (1) crus/aeem,s lich(,11.~, in whjch the body TrsemLles
an incrustation UPOJI it:, suhr..:trflturn of roek. J";oii, (.-t('.;
(2) /oliose lichen", will. flulkned, Iouf-like, lobo<.l bodies,
attuc-}wd only at the middle or irrrguiariy to the' stlustra-
tum (Fig. ]3,s); (a) jl'uti("() ... ( lirhcn.'''1 with sipnJ,eT houies
branchillg like slirubs, C'ithcr creCl, hunging, (lr proRtfate
(Fig. 159).
Licbens Il.r(' often Y<'ry important in start inp: a humus
rormntion on bare rocks and sterile soil. In SU('!t ('xposed
situations Alga' ('QuId lIot endu re alone, and of ('OUT:;;C
Fungi ('ould not ('xi:,! alon e in any situation . The li("hen
comuinution CU ll exist, how(,ver, sinC!c the fungu s obtains
its food from the AI!:"" while the latt~r aro prot~('ted against
drying out by the t'n,-ploping meshwork of the fungu~. As
the lichens grow and decay, enough humus i::;: (,olletted for
higher forms of plant life to start: and these in turn con -
tribute to a more rapid accumulation of humus, until
presently a respectable soil mny be t.he result.
eRA PTER YllI
LIVERWORTS
90. Summary. -A~ an iutroduc,tlon to 1i\"(~ rwort8 it is

\\I'll to [o'tHle the most importHllt f!lflR in rt~f('rf"fH'(, 10 thf."
Alga· nnd Fungi. Tho AI!,;", and Fungi t"l(pthpr ('onsti-
lUll' \ he first great diyision of t hI' plant kjll~d(lm, known
a:- Thallophytes. The namp nl(':UlS " t)Jalins plants, tr nnd
I'thallus" means a body uSl'ally prostrate aud hU"jng no
sp<'cia.l vegetative organs. as \e-aves, find root~. Ruch a
drfinition cannot be "cry ri~id. for ~omt~ AlgII' cannot be
said to haw strictly thallus bodies, and illlh,· hil(hor groups
thallus bodies also occur; but th~ [lame i. a convenient one
to apply to nil plants below the herworts.
As the sludy of the higher plants is I"'gun, the importsnt
pro!,ress made by the Thallophytes must be kept dearly in
mind, for the ji"erworls start with this progr"",, behind
them. The important progress mu)' he "Iated as follo\\'s:
(1) [ncrea ,.ing complexity at Ihe pUJnl body.-Bcginning
with single isolated cells, the plant body reaches con-
siderable complexit)' among the Thallophytes, in (he form
of simple or branching filaments, plates of cells, and masses
of cells.
(2) Appearance ot .por... -Beginning ,~ith reproduction
by yegetative multiplication, the Thallopbytes soon deyelop
special cells for reproduction (spores), and produce tbem not
only in abundance but in a variety' of methods and forms.
(3) Appearance at 8txUai celU.-AIter ordinary spores
appear, tbe Thallopbytes also introduce a third form of
165
166 A TEXT-BOOK OF BO'fANY
reproduction by producing sexual cells (gametes), which by

fuslIlg ill p.i" (fcrtiilzt1tiOlr) form oospore,.. At first the
pairing gnmpt(·s nrc' alike . but later the~' b('('ome very
differ"nt, and nT(' c"l!LocI sperruo and eggs. The organ pro-
during "[wrm, i.; called til(' 8nthcriciium. llnd that pro-
dlle·jng' an ('~g the o~igonium; and among the Thallophytes
(,llch of th('~c orf:!;nm:: ('o n si~ls of B single cdl.
(4) A lgI( tile illc/rpl'fJdcnl liw'.-This mf':111S llot only that
t he Fungi hu \ 'C probabl,' be,'n derh'ed fro III the Algll? by
I,>sinp; the ubility to make th"ir 0\\,11 food. but also that the
hif;IIt' r plants haw been cicriq'd from t he AI~",. Acrord-
in,:.!!y til(' l_iy('rwort s, ahout 10 be studied, arc beli{,,'('d to
ho w dC'\'elop('d from Ih,' AI!!",.
DJ. General character of Liverworts,-Li\'{'rwons arc
found in n Ynri ('t ~· of conditions. Rome ftoaling-. many in
dump pluc('s, and rnnny on Lhr bark of trees. Th e~' sC'em
to he' pbnt s that hl1,"(, har("ly J('fifllC"d to live on land . alld
this change from the wat er to tile laud iti OIH' of Ihe gr(,31c~t.
and most important in the history of planl". Alth ough in
general Ihey nrc mOiSlUTf'-Jodng, some can ndure great"
FIG. 160,-Ri.cdot-urpIl4l: showing tha.fI<:Nle body, forked branchinl, rrusoidJ on tbe

under &Urfaoe. sud IlPOre-c&!leS .Jon.- tile main ax.ea (lhowin& POSition of areh~nia).
dryness. so that the land habit can be said to have become

well-establishcd among the liverworts.
LIVERWORTS 161
The plant body is fial und comport, lying prostrate upon

it, ,ubstratum, and is often" 'hullu8: thnl is. il .how. no
distinction of "tern !lnd I('un'~. thr whole body nppcnring
I("af-like (Fig. WO )' Th" "plK'r surfat'e of I he body is
fr~ly exposed (0 Ih. li~ht, bul Ihe lowrr surfare is agllinst
thr "ub,tratulll and put s out hair-like pro"('88(" (rhuoid.)
iClr anchorage. If tIlt' uod.I' i...; thin. nil tht., ('(,II!:! l'ontoin
ohloropI1l5("; but if tho bod." i" so thick thul the light
.. anllot penetrate it, the wld .. r layers of rells are not
gr('('n.
H2. Marchantia. -Jlarl"hotztia iR one of thE' Inost com..
mon and conspicuous livenll,·orts. The body i~ a thick
Flo. ltil.- M ardwrnio . u~l-ion <"Ir tbalJUtI· Ihowinc 10'W'e'" I'pidennl. {from
"" hich. in oliJ~r para of th~ Ih"IIu.. rhi..luida aNI df"VNI)Jl'Nn, "'HI 1"Yen of
colorleY cella (pt and one la.r~ ai_r·c-'-uunhf'r ( •.• , tbtl' boundina waU.) contain-
ula ceU. "'i1-b chloroplut. (chl) and pic:rceod by • cbimue)'-!j'kt' alr-portl 1.",).-
Ahcr GOEItEL.
thulius that forks repeatedly, giving the appearance of

noiches of greater or less depth (general habit <IS in Fig.
160) . The central ...."is of the thallus, or of a branch, ends
in the terminal notch, in tbe bottom of whicb , therefore,
i5 the gro\\ing ti p. The upper surface of the .1J arclulntia
body is blocked off into small rhombic areas, in ihe center
oi each one of which is a minute opening (Fig. 162).
A section through this body shows its general structure
(Fig. 161 ). Beginning with the lower gjde, t here is seen
first the layer of cells forming t he epidermis, from which
the rhizoids and certain other appendages arise; above this
12
168 A. TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
epidermis there are several layers of colorless cells; above

these there is a series of large air-chambers into which
pro ject the curiolls cells containing the
chloroplasts; !lnd forming t.he dome-like
roof of eaclt nir-chamber is the upper
epidermis, picrc£"d by a single air-pore
in thc center of the roof of each cham-
\)N. En{'!. ai r-por~ resembles a little
chimney, built lip with sm'eral tiers of
crlls. The rh ombic areas seen on the
surface ()[ the body arc tlJ~ outlines of
the air-chambers, ano the minute olX'n-
ing in the center of each is [he air-pore
Flo I02. - .\Iorcha ,lI.o: (Fig. 162). This arrangement, of cells
rhvmbie D.~U 011 up· contairdng chloroplasts expu.~ed in ai r-
~ .Urfll~ of tb.lI\1l<
(.urfaOf'lIutliue or .if\. chumhers that comtlluni('utr frccl,Y
Chlll'lllofo_nll , each ""~ tbrou!!h
I>it!t~ bv &11 a.ir--
l,ore,-Aher S ... en., air-poreR
suggpsls
the MIne gcnerul mechan-
ism for plant work as tbat 6
described for leans, "'ith
their internal atmosphere
and stomata (§ 13),
A remarkable fact con-
nected with the "'archantia
bod)', as ~ontrasted "ith
that of the Thallophytes.
is tb"t it produces no
spores. Howe "cr, pro"i-
sion for rapid multiplica- Flo, 163.-.lIDTOuzI'llid: .!t'. thalIU3 besr-
tion is made by the pro- in. lin1e CUpi aont.a.inina: reprodue--
ti..-e bod,", and an antheridia1 braot'h
ducllon of peculiar repro- ..nth it. disk, u ..'ell lUi 80IUe Vff)'
ductive bodies that are l'0UllJ' antheridial br.u:u:.ha: B.JleCtioa
IhrouJ"b ancheridial <liAk. uowiDa: the
developed in little cups on .unUn antberidia.-Af\el' KNT.
LI VERWORTS 169
the back of the thallus (Fig. 163). These bodies !Ire round
and flat (biscuit-shaped) and mnnY-"cll,'d, and falling out
of the cup they start new th"lIus b(idies.
Although tho t h.lIl1s uody produces no spores. it does
produce sex-organs. in . .lI arrhantiaJ long. efect, stem-like
brollches ari"" from tho thullu., hearing nt their sUOlmits
cOIlSpiCUOLIS (liskf' that {'Ollt /lin t h(' ~ex-Or,[!'Rlls. Th{' djEOk,
"nnt:linin~ :ulllwridi. ure I"lwd or sl'nll"I"'d (Fig. 163);
while thuse cOlltaillin,g the fI~g-prodll('ing or,:!al1f~ nT(' star..
sh"l)('d (Fig. IG5). The two kinds
of disks arc not found on the
~anll' pl!lllt.
It:l. The anthcrictium. - The
~p(>rm-producing or~all i~ ('a1l{od
nn anthcrifiium, bllt it is yt'ry
ditTprt'nt from the antheridill (If
t he Thallophytes. Inst eud of 1,,-
ing a single cell , it i. a sta lk,·d .
..!ub-shaped or globular, mllny-
celled structure (Fig. I (4). .-\
single layer of cells fonos the
('oyering and within it thf'fP is
l
a rloSC'Jy packed mass of small FIn.. 1ft4.-."rrrrllfJfl/UI antherid;'"

("ells. each one of whidl pro- um .1l~1 t"'1 .r~m..-AlttItr
8 .. 1:1'1",
duces "sperm. The "p"rm is
a very 5n .. 11 cell with t\\'o long cilia, llnd t hesc small
biciliate sper ms arc one of the distin!,'1lishing feature. of the
Ii \-erworts and thei r !ulies.
94. The archegonium.-The e;!g-producing organ is
called the archegonium, and it is \'e~' different from the
oogonium of tbe Tha llophytes. lnstpud of being a Bingle
cell, it is a many-celled structure, shaped like a flask witb
" long neck, and "ithin the bulbous base the single egg is
formed (Fig. 165, B, and Fig. 166). To this neck the
swimming sperms are attracted; they enter and pass down
it, one of them fuses witb the egg, and an oospore is

formed. It is c"ident that fertilizatioll can take place
only in the prc~j('nce of muisture.
Fto.I60.-MClTMu"-
.1 B Iw : nrche.onium.
Fla. l(i6 . -.1I(1rcJulnt.'tl· A. thrllu.s hCarlnlt Drclieeunial COllhliniug!lD ea;
b,.nrbflfl or vanou.._ qefI; U. fltC'tion thruugu ,)orlitln IIf 8J)filnlll'tlOl'tlllllhe
lU'obelOlUAI dillk, . lIo"'io,( 1M'!lidallI IItchecoui!l..-Altt!r moulh of ttle neck.
J';:ST. -AherK!'i"T.
95. Tbe spore-case.-As soon as the oospore is formed

it begins to germinate; hut instead of forming a new AI ar-
challtia thallus, it produ('es a very
different structure. The oospore
germinate justwhereitwasformed~
that is, in the bulbous base of the
archegonium; and there the new
structure grows: When it is fully
de"eloped it is seen to consist of a
.4 B
Fl:Q.JG7.-M ort'JaCllUia:A. sp0-
terminal pore-case full of spores,
rophyte f(lt'med ..'ithin the and a sterile base (Fig. l6i , A).
ertla.rpd arnhe,:ollium . • how-
in.lhft~.(Q ' .nd \\-hile growing, this spore-case be-
.terilfl (fl.) n'!fiolU; B . .epQ1"f!- comes. ancbored in the Marchanlia
c.M' d~~ng .pars, 1M
.terne rqpOlI of the &'POrO- body (that i , in tbe archegonium-
pbyt~ h.vin~ de~ftk.,*1 ineo
" .talk..-After A.H.,.. bearing disk) by the sterile base,
LIVERWORTS 171
and absorbs the nccessary nourishment from it. When
ripc. the sporl'-case is ruptured (Fig. 167. B). and the light
spores are sCllttered; ulld whell they germinate they pro
duC'" new thallus bodies.
96. Alternation of generations.-The life-history of Mar-
chan/ia shows a djstinct alternation of gencrat ion!!:, and
,illee t hi. is a feature of all the Iligher plants it is n('r"ssary
to understand it clearly. The thallus body produces no
spores, but produces sperms and eggs; that is, it produces
gamotes, and hen"e is calld a ycnnetophytc, wbich means a
.. gametc plant." T he gametcs produce an oospore; but
the oospore does not produce a new thallus plant, producing
instead a spore-case. This structure, called the spore-case,
docs not produce gametes, Dut produccs spores; and hence
it is called a 8porophyte, which means a "spore plant."
Thus in the life-hiatory of JIJaTchantin and of all high.!'
plants, there is an alternation of gametoph)'!.e and sporo-
phyte. It is e"ident that in this nlternation of geneTMioll.8
the gametophyte is the 8CxUaI and the sporophyte is t he
sexless generation. Therefore, oilspores are produced by the
gametophyte, and ordinary spores by the sporopbyte; but
the oospores al",ays produce sporophytes, and the ordinary
spores always produce gametophytes. These relations may
be indicated clearly by the follo\\;ng formula, in which G
and S are used for gametophyte and sporophyte respec-
tively :
G{=:)o-S-o-G {=:)0-8-0-0, etc.

T he formula indicates that the gametophyte produces
two gametes, "'hich fuse to form an oospore, which produces
tbe sporopbyte, which produces an ordinary spore, wbich
produces a gametopbyte, etc. It will be remembered tlult a
similar aIternation of generations was DOted in the red
Alga> (§ 75) 'and in tbe mildews (§ 82) among t he Tballo-
1;2 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
ph~·tes, but it is not definite and uni\'ersal until the !i\'er-

worts are f{,uched.
It is important to note thut in this life-hi",ory the pro-
lerted stagc' of til(' plantJ that is, the ~tag(> which rnn endure
the wintpf, is not a IJcuyy-wnll('d out:pore. ns is common
Rmong thp Thallophyte", hut the sporp-('asc or 'porophytP.
97. Other Marchantia forms. -As.~oriul('d with Itlarc/tan-
fin arc olher iin'rWOrlF. thut arc ITIU('h simpler. and whieh
nre "<'ally b('tt!'r to "ttldy if they arc available. They differ
in htLving thallus bodies thinnrf. and. henc£' simpirT, in
st rurt Ufe: in bu "ing i he sC'x-organs dirrct Iy upon the t hnlllls
or {*rnb{'(ldrd in it; und in haying ~impl(' r and IUore ensily
obscn'cd !'poTe-l'ases or sporoph;h('s. *
9 . Jungermannia forms. -These nre commonly ('ailed
the It·arr li\'erworls, Ilnd th('~' are hy fur thf' largest group
of Ih·crworts. Th ey grow ill damp pln('('~; or in drier
situations 011 rocks.
ground, logs. or tr('c
trunks; or in the
tropics on the Ie-uyes
of forest plants.
They nre general~
Ir delieate plants,
and resemble small
mos..._~s. many of
them being com-
1";0. 168,-JII"grrMnn IlW rontUl : A, tbnlloee ronn; monly mistaken for
8. I~{)' form.
mosses.
The common name of the group suggests one of its
principal features. The lo\<est forms have a Ycry simple
thallus body (Fig. 168, A); but in most of the forms the
body consist;; of • t'CDtral stem-like a>.is bearing two rows
• In ease ei ther RicriorarpU3 or Ricciti c:m be obts.iued, it. should be

studied ....ther than M rmhafllia. .
LIVERWORTS 173
of small, often crowded leaye. (Fig. 168. B). There at(>

rcally th""c rows of l e.,·~s. bllt th~ third is against the
substratum and is usually so much ('hanged in nppearaD~e
as not to rese mble the other rows.
There is, of course. the' same altern ation of generations as
in the .Varr..}umtia forms. but tIl(' .sp()rophyt e i,,;; more thUD
a FpOre-('ns(:'. It dryt_')opti a distinct stalk or stem that
hf'ars n. ~por(.'- (·a5C at its ~;ummit . and I.hrrcfor(' tbe sporo--
phylc has h('('omc more (·omplcx. B{'sidcs. the spore-case
uOC's not hur~t Op<'tT sOffif'whnt i rrt'gulnrh', as in the }!Jar-
rhantia form~. hut ~plits int o four pi('('es 'that ~pread apart
Hnd C'Xp05(, t he spore'::;.,
!)D. Antboceros forms. - This group eont lli[l R compar8-
ti\'ely few forms; hut they nre of great int{'rest , since many
suppose that they are the lh'er\\'orts that approach most
,,<'" rly I he higher planls. The
thallus body is 'cry simple. not
becoming so thick as arc the
JlarcJLa"tia bodies. ~nor berominp:
leafy u"dies as are those of the
leafy li,'erworts .
The important feature of the
group is the sporophyte. AI the A
"frui ting " period the thallus be-
comes more or less co\'cred by FlO. 160. - .tnih«
rtn: A. 'halltU' .'i
strucl,ures that look like smull. B
erect grass-blades (Fig. J G!J). ::;~~.~lIt~:
1t1~~.lj.
Each of t.hese hlade-like bodies inc ,,)UI for the ~
is a sporophyte that has de"el- ""'"'01 .......
oped from an oospore lying
within an archegonium. The sporophyte has a larl
bulbous base embedded in the simple thallus, and abo'
this base there arises a long pod-like spore-case. 7
cells forming the ,,-an of this spore-case contain chk
plO1Sts, so that the sporophyte> is able to make food for its,
in addition to absorbing food from the thallus t hrougll the

bulbous base. I n the other Ii,-erworls the sporophyte is
entirely dependent upon the gametoph)-te for its food;
but in the A ,,' /'ocero, forrns the sporophyte. by developi ng
green tissue, ha~ begun to V(' somewhut inrlepe:1dent.
Another important feature of the sporophyte of this
group is th at it ('ontinttes to increase in lengt h like 3 sLem.
but the growt.h tak('~ plUCl' at th(.· bottom of the> sporc-cu!:oi('.
As tht, pod-like- 8.pnn·-('.t\sc splits into t \\"(1 ,'ah'es. bt',ginniug
at the top. t he ripe "pu~es abo,'c nrc fi"t exposed und sca t-
tered; llS the splitting I><'eomcs deeper'the region of the
~ younger spor('s is n'!t.chf·d; and so 011 until the ('HfJsu lc has
\pl(.'tely e:.plil , l\1\d ull th~ spo re..::. h~\x e bt'en ex-
become o:,·oll_
posed (Fig_ IO!!. B) .
It is Hident thnt the AnlhocerDs forms hn'-e the most
complex sporophytcs aJllong Ih'(·rworts. In addition to
producing spores, thes. sllOroph.,-tcs have n bulbous ab,orb-
ing base nnd de"elop grecn tissue for the manufacture of
food. •
CHAPTER L'"
MOSSES
100. General character.-~l oS!<es aro Yor,' nbundant and

.amiJillr pJalll~ lhllt ulmo,Qt (" ·er.nrhere. They
(}('{'Uf
grow in all c'onditions of moi:\[un', from ~ubmer~f>d to very
dry. Many of them ('au f'ndure drying out wonderfully;
and hcnc'c they can grow in \'cry much exposed situations,
as do !Dall), lichens. I TI fact. lichens and mosses. being
able to grow in t.he most exposed si tuations. nre the first
plants to appenr upon bl"c rocks and ground, and are the
last plants ono soes in climbing high mountains or in going
into yery high latitudes.
Masse" have gre"t power of vegetative multiplication,
new leaf), branches putling out from old ones indefinitely,
thus forming thick carpels and masses. Bog mosses often
completely fill up bogs or sma)) ponds and lakes with a denS<'
~rowth, which dies below and continues to grow above 81
long as the conditions are fayorable. These quaking bog
or "mosses," as they nre sometimes called , furnish "er
treacherous footing unless rendered firmer by other plant
101. Peat.-In moss-filled bogs the water aDd tbe den;
"egetation shut off the lower slrata of moss from complet,
decay; and they become modified into" coaly sub.tanc'
called peal, whicb mal' accumulate to considerable thicknef.
by the continued upward growth of the mass of mO(
Other marsh plants are associated with mosllC8 in td
formation of peat. and often t he presen'ation of th,B
plants is remarkable. In iaot, tbe water of peat-bogled
175 Sy
176 A TF.xT-BOOK OF BOT~Y
ant.iseptic, and in such bogs tbere are often found almost

perfectly prcs('Tr cd specimens of ancjent trl.'eS or t1l(~jl' parts
and Bomctinw8 uf mired nnimal~.
Pent is cX lcnsiycly used for fue l, being cut into bricks
and a llowed to dry. The less decompoRed P('[lt is hrown.
nod the more oomplet.ely decomposed is neu rly black. It
is not formpd to any Inrg~ £'xt('nt in "'ann (·ountrj(·s.
probnbJy on nr('ount (If tb(' r:lpid d('('a~' of ,'eg{'tlltion; hut
in the cooler purlR of thf' glohf' it has h('C'n fornwd in w'ry
Jurg(' rnaS8('~. ..\ 11 rhrough IIorrh('rn A~in and EuroflC'. mid
in th(' norl h('rn [ 'nitNI :-it ~l' £':0' und Canada. thl'rt~ are millions
of acres of J)('ut; but little u~e hn~ .o{·('n made of it yeT ill thE'
rnited Btntes. I t. ('x-
ten sivc usc in Ireland is
well known. but there it
is more 8 pI. to be called
tu rf than peat.
102. Life-history of a
Moss.-The ('(ln~piCU0118
part of nn ordi1lary moss
plant tOllSiSlS of n more
Or less ('reet and mmally
I"ranching stem b('llring
numerous deJi<:a tf> lea \'es
(Fig. 1;0, -4). This plant
is ","idently able to make
it.s own food. and it is
anchored to it.~ substra-
tum by hair-like rhi-
p zoid. Its power of yege-
th tath'e propagation has
bcl;h~~::r::'~::)'':~:':~~: been described. but it
_ , roaeue (8) eootalnln& 1IeX"'Ol'pDL
prodnees no spores. At
stu;tain times. bo,,-ever , tlleI'C usually appears at the end of
main stem or lit the epd of a. branch II rosette of
MOSSES 177
lea"es (Fig. liD, 8), often railed the rno s flowf·r. In the
~rnter of this rnsetlr there is u group of ulllhendi, Ilnd
n.rchC"g"oniu , s(Hllelim~s both kinds of org!Ul!il in Ct single
r o ..('tt('. Rom{'tinH's onlS Olle kind.
The autheridia are dub-shuped o rgans corlluining nu-
ml'rOliS biciliate 'perms (Fig. IiI. .1 ); and the archcgoniC1
Fro. 17L-&x-w,uuu of . m._: A . "n ..nth~dium diM.h.rrc:iu . .. ntMII M M(.t_ber.

0ells (01 conWIUII,tlI,ernu, and.wo a 1Ii.n~ ~n lat~j lnol~r~1I U,) .nd apenII
1i'1; B . a group of .rcbelOnia .. ithio .. I"OfIII!tte of Ie. .... e.; C, au arcbeamuwn..-
A(te1'" SA-Clm.
are flask-shaped organs usuoJly ,,·ith ,-cry long neck~, and

containing a single egg in the bulbous base (Fig. 171 , B
and C). These sex-organs are exactly like those described
for ti"erworts (U 93 and !It). It is evident that thiS' leafy
171:1 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT AIo."Y
moss plant, which docs not produce spores, but which does
produce sex-organs, is the gametophyte generation in the
Iife-bistory. It is plain that, the ciliated sperms are organ-
ized fo r swimming. and that fertili-
zation can take place only when there
is sufficient moisture for this purpose.
A
C
Flo.l72.-Developin&aporophyteoialDOM: A. y(Jlll)$ Fla..l73.-At:IOInmoDmo.-
IIPOrOpb,yte de~eloped
from ea in arcbqonium; bearing mature IIPOf'O"'"
B and C. MOM!: advanced
lilt. . . . ill 'tthlch the pb)"te$. wb.ich are toq..
QMX"OPbyte it: elonptlnl and be<!omin&: ane:horecJ n.alkod ~ ~ CUI!L -
in the 1eafy plant.-Ah er 00E.8.£1.. M ter 5ca.u'at.
llOSSES 179
It must be remembered, however, that the sperms are vcry
small and can swim in stich n film of watcr as may be left
OD the plaIlt b.,· a hen"J"
drw or fuin. Since many
Jl1os.'ws grow in VCT.!" dry
places. fertilization with
t h{'m III ust be "cr~' in-
frt'q U,'ll L When \ hI'
~p('rrn5i fire fr('C' to s\\'irn
Ihf'yarr&ttrllcll"d IOW!lrd
,h. necks of the .rel",-
gonia. pass do,,~n them, t)o. 1 i4.--.IO;,K)~ of .. rn~. fr..llj ",bJl:b
Tench the egg. nnd fcrtili - til .. lidt hllVe r.lJell , dill'pl.yinc th.! l«\t.b.
zation is accomplished. -AJUr KJ:It.<r;'r.a.
The o()spore t.hus formed within the arrhegonium at

once begins to I"erminntr (Fig. 17:1), and forms the sporo-
producing structure, which in lOOSSCg is much mote lhan a
7f'" _r B
(\Iff!
Fto. 175..-Filammwu. pvwdl. of tbe yol.1uc mo.: A. '""" YO\U_I fi1a.m~, aomiac
f:rot:o • .IP()r'e (I); JJ, older JiJsmetn . .Ilbmrina branch.i.zq: .habit.. ~'M of old
..,.c')r'e (.). rhisoitb (r). and btuh (I~) whieb clev.lop the t!nCt lNf.1' branc_.-
Alt.er JfOJ7.l.D-l'svIIa...o.
1 0 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA~Y
spor('-cuS<'. It haR a long slender talk. which becomes

II nchored in the 51<'rn of the leafy plant (Fig. 1721: and the
sta1k benrs an t'bborn.1f' and u:;.ually urn-Rhap<:'u SlJOr{._t:l~
full of s pores (I'il(. 17:1). Thi. ' Jlnrc-cllse opens u,'
111C:l1l.
of II lid , ",hirh drops off; anti of'N' " the mouth of the
urJl LilliS ope l1f'd therp may be S<.'eu a St't of drlicllt(' t('(.)t II
cX'l'nding from tht" mar~in of tbt· rim and nw\·ting: in thE."
('("Ill('r ( Fig. 17-1 ). Th ese t{'Nh ot'nd inward nnd outward
RS tllf'_\' nrC' dry or moi.·q. fw d hf"P dis('ltllrl!f' the· SP(IH'S.
It is (' \'idrnt t hat I hil" Sr(ln"'~('n~(' "'it h ifR nnchor('d stalk is
t h{· spornphYl £' p:l'lwrnt inn in \ n(' lif r-hi~, ory.
'Vhprl th!' spnres fnll in :-:uitu.blr silwlIions Ihl'Y gf'rmi-
nat (\ find t'lH' h Oflf' produ('("s a grr(-'n hrntH:hing' fill.lmt.'ni
that looks like olle of ,11<' filamentous grl'en Al p. (Fig.
175). Thifi bran ching fihuncnlOU8 ~ruwth sprC'nds OY('f thl'
Buust.rnluHl. and presently therE" uprear upon it buds
( Fig. I i5 , B . b). cueh of "'hich dC\'eloJls an erect I"af,' stcm,
which is recognized a~ a npw it:'afy mO~f! plant. the form
with which 1hi8 aN'ount of the lifp·history was begun.
IU3. Alternation of generations. - l n the Iif<:'-hisLOry just
given, it i~ ('\'ideot that tbe prostrate grecn filament and
t.he e rect leafy s tems arp two part s of the gametophyrr;
for th£' leafy stems simpl~' arise as creel branches from the
prostrutf' fi lament. 11 is strictly trUE'. t.here-fore. dUlt the
so-call('d moss plant. thf" ('onspic.'uOliS part of the moss . i~
a leaf,' branch of the gametophyte. These leafy branches
become independent of t he filament by sending out rh izoids
into the Imbstratum. so that it is on ly by actually germina-
ting the sporcs that the filaments are seen . :\'ot onl)' docs
this branch bt>llr lellvcs, and hence perform the chief work
of food manufllcture, but it also bears the sex-orpns.
The sporophyte, on the other hand . is dependent upon
this leafy branch for its food-suppl.". and in that sense may
be said to be parasitic upon it. Its only work is to produce
spores; while the gametophyte does tbe chloropbyll work
MOSSES 1 1
and also produces tb. sex-organs. The Iif.,.history. "'itb

U18)' be indicated as follows:
its alternating generations,
(; (~:f~~e~:t!~g)~> O-S(.I:~=-)-o-G~ > o-:-;-o-G,
ClC.
104. The great groups of Mosses.-There nre t\\'o great

_UTOUpS of mOs.~s, Kn o wn as the &ofl 71/ossrs und I he- Ir'Ul'
1UIIS,"1I.~. The bog mos.~e8 are large and pallid mOs.~8 (oulld
Ilhllllduntl,' in bog" und marshy ground, and nre t he most
<'OTl:o;pi(.'UOllS: pent formers. They differ from I Ill' tru(, ,lJlOF8eS
in .!'tru('tUTP in muny \1.' uys thnt nN'd nOt be mentioned,
but on(' contrnstinJ:!; character deser\"cs nt wotion. \ "hen
t hI" :o:pore of 8 uog moss gf' rminat('~. it docs not produ('(l' :l
brunthing green filament , but a fiat com pact thulius body
like t hat of the lin'T\\'Orts. On this thallus body the
,',,'ct I"af~' bran('hes arise. just as they do from the 61:;-
nl{°ntous body in true mosses. This is interesting, because
in the bog mosses the thallus body of the li"erworts is
continued. and also beca use it indicates that the prostrate
filamentous body of the true mosses is proba bly:; modified
thulius body.
The true mosses are much morc num ~rous than tbe bog
mosses. and lin' in 8 far greater va.riety of situations.
Sume of t hem are a lso peat formers, but mOfit of them have
become established in mu ch drier situa.tions.
105. The erect leafy axis.- The lowesv green plants Jive
in the wat.er or in very moist places, but the Liverwort!
begin to occupy the land. In this new position they are
better exposed to light, which is an advaotage in food
manufacture; but they are in danger of being dried out by
the air. In consequence of these dangers, "arious protect-
ive structures have been de"eloped, one of the first being a
compact body "ith an epidermis. An exposure of more
green tissue to the light is secured by the leafy liverworts
in their development of leaves, but their bodies are prostra te
182 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA-~'Y
Bnd tbe best exposure is not obtained. Tbe mosses baye

made still further progress ill d"l'eJopillg an erect branch
upon which lea yes are spread out to the Jight and air frrely
in all directions. All this advance has been made b)' the
gamelophyte, which in the mosses has rearhed the best
posiliou for len yes and hence for food manufacture. How
progrrss in this direction iR l~arri('d further by th(' highCl
plants will be seen in subsequent chapters.
(,HAPTER X
FERNS
106. Summary,-Befor(' "tudying tho fern~, it i. well to

note the pr"grc," t hat has been made by the plantR pr,,'i-
ousl), considcred. H has I",en suid thnt the Algll' and
Fungi together form th. first gro.t dh'ision of the plant
kingdoIDJ the Thallophytes. Tfl(_~ livC'rwnrtR and mosses
together form the second great diYiHion, called the Bry,,"
phytes, n nnmt;' mea.ning U moss plants. /I The feTns intro-
duce the third great division, ""lied the PLeridollhyte., which
means II fern plants." A summary of the contributions
made by the Bryophytes to the progress of plants is as
follows:
(1) The land habiL.-The Bryophyte. establish green
plants upon the land, and as a consequence begin to dcyelop
those structures that the npw conditions demand,
(2) Allernalion 0/ generations,-A life-history consisting
of alternating sexual (gametopbytR) and SCXICSd (.porl>-
phyte) generations is finally established, although it i. in-
dicated in the life-histories of certain Thallophytes,
(3) Gamcl.ophyte 1M chJmophyU gt1UlTalion.-ln the ruter-
nation tbe gametophyte generation de"e\ops the chlore>-
plasts for food manufacture, and on this account is the con-
spicuous generation. When a moss or a Ii verwort is spoken
of, therefore, the gametophyte is usually referred to,
(4) Sporophyle dependent.-Tbe sporopbyte in tbe Bry-
opbytes is dependent upon the gametophyte for food, and
hence remains attached to it. Only by the Anthocero. forlD8
has a partial independence of the sporophyte been attained.
13 188
(5) AI,pearance 01 leaveo.-Among the Bryophyte. ,'ery

simple le&\",s nre developed by the gametophyte, and the
mosses produce lea yes upon an ('T('Cl 6tem.
(6) Many-rcllcd sex-organs.-The mnny-celled antheridia
nnd flask-shUpNl archegonia afC Yery characteristic of Bryo-
phytes, and distinguish even the thallose forms from any
Thallophytes.
lOT. General characters of Ferns. - The fern' are \\"ell-
known plaJlt!'!, aud th(' ordinnry forms nrc cO::iily r('cognized
FlQ. 176..-8hie1d fenu!..
(Fig. li6). I n fact, the general appearance of the lorge

compound lell"es is so cha.r&eteristic that when a leaf is said
to be fern-like " particular appearance is suggested. AJ.
185
though ferns Ilre found in considerable numbers in temper-

ate regions, their chief diFplay is in the tropics, where they
form a striking and characteristic feature of the vegetation.
In the tropics not only are great maSSt's of the low forms
to he seen, from thORO with doli"at e and filmy moss-like
l ea\'c~ to tho:3e with hll~(' l es Y('s. but a1:,,0 tree forms wilh
cylindrical trunks encased by the rough remn!l.Dts of fallen

leaves and sometimes rising to a height of thirty-five to
forty-five feet , with a erO\\'n of great Ie,,\' fifteen to
twent.y feet long (Fig. 177). There are also air forms
(Fig. 17 ), that i , ferns that perch upon other plants but
FERNS 1 7
derive no nourishment from them (§ 41). This habit be-

longs chiefly to the moist tropics. where plants may obtain
sufficient moisture from the air without sending roots into
the soil.
JO Sporophytes.-lf an ordinary fern oe eXllmined, it
will b{' dis('oYcf(·d Ihat it hu:-; n horizontal underground
,[('m or rootstock (§ !!7), whi ch
8{'nd~ out roots into th(' Roil. nnd
on(' or mor£' largr iea"cs into
t he air (Fig. 179). TheR<' len '·e'.
appearing to ('omf' dirctt iy from
the soil, were once supposed to
h<' different from ordinary lea "es
. and were called Ironds; but al-
though Lbe name is still used in
connection with fern lCR\'cs it J
is neither nec~
essary nOT ac-
curate. These
lea '-e8 are usu-
ally compound.
branchingeiLh.
er pinnately or fIG. 170.-The babil of an ordinary fem f.poroobyte).
palmately. II.howina: The boriwnt-.l ruolJltock .endUlJt: out root. and
lea"''', IUld alao the peeu.li.ar rolled tip of lhe developioa;
There sre leaves.
two peculiari-
ties about fern leaves that should be noLed. One is that
in expanding the leaves seem to unroll from the base, M
tbough tbey had been rolled from the apex downwa.rd, the
apex being in tbe .center of tbe roll. When unrolling, this
gives tbe leaves a crozier-like tip (Fig. 179). The otber
peculiarity is that the veins fork repeatedly (Fig. 1 0).
This combination of unrolEng leaves and forking veins is
very characteristic of ferns.
Probably tbe most important fact about the fern body
188 A TEXT-BOOK OF nOTAl' I'
is (hilt it eontai,::' a ~Ilsoul"r ~ (§ 24 ) (Fig. 181).

Tlll' app<:nra!ll'C of this systt' m mark:::, ~om{: c:;,u(' h {'poc h in
1hr P\'o\ut inn of pl:mt,:-:; 1.1.-1 i~ mo.rk\~d amnng !lnill1al~ by the
uPJwarallC'(' (If du' b~l('kb()Il(,. A:-; anirnal ... !In' ofl(U groupt'd
us V(·l'lc·brtllf's and inH'rtc·br:u(?:,. :-;0 phllilS Are often
J!roupC'd n.; \'a~t'tllHr plants and 1l0tl -\':1s('ub r plufll ~. the
IUIlt.'f h('ill!! [iI(' Th alJ() jJIJyjp.~ aJ/d lll(' Bryopllyl(':-;, th(' for-
lJ"It'r 111(' f(' r n~ !tnd tit{' j-;('cU-pJ:UII s. Th (' pr('s(,11(,(' of I his
'"flsc'ul:lf ... ystem nwau;{ II ~ ,,('(:ial COlldut'ling ~y ::;l{'m, ::Lnd
in ['(lrmp('tion with it there are d('\"('lopf'd ill(' first foots
Flo_ lSO.-Portion or lbt.' l<eollf of maidellJlair fern. ahotviul: the forJcing veUu..
.nd t),e first complex lea '-es. uch a plant body, with its
\rnscular system and roots and complex lea,"es, is so dif-
'ereIl! from any pJant body among Bryophytes that the
:reatest gap in the whole series of plants, from lowest to
FER.''1S 1 !l
hi"hest, is felt to he tbe one bet wppn Bryophytes and

Ptrridophytes. On UC:COunt. of 1h(" \'as(,ular ~ystt' l1l Ilnd
t)l lwr n~si::;tunl strllct Urt·~. t lH' rcmnin~ lIf fents bn \'(' Of't.' 11
riG, lSI.--CrOl'llt-NlCllOIl (If the ate-Ill (rootlliock ) of a fern .•hrJtnn.l the peculiar
"&Keular axis. the 1fU'1fI xylelll \,euel. I>eina oompletely .urToulldl!d hy the
phlM-lIl.
preserved in grent abundance in the ro(·ks. Thel;(' records

show that the [(,filS ar(~ a Yery anrjpl1t group. occurring
in special abundance during the Coal-mclL~l1r('s.
Another striking fart about this loafy body of tbe
ferns is that it ne\'cr produces S<'x-or~an f'. hut does produce
spores abundantl)·. This illt'IlIlS that it is tll{' >rorop),ytc
in the life-history of the fern , and whpn it is ('ofitrastcd
"ith the sporophyte of Bryophytes the diffe rences are
remarkable. Among the liverworts and the mns.""s the
sporophyte is a leafless struoture attached to the gameto-
phyte and dependent on it, while the gameloph)'t.e is the
leafy body doing chlorophyll work. Among the ferns,
however, the sporoph)'te is an elaborate leafy structure
and entirely independent. Therefore, when one ordinarily
1110 A 'fF..xT ·BOOK OF BOTANY
speaks of a moss and s fern, the gnmetophrte is referred

to in the former case and tbe sporophyte in the latter.
This means thnt, in passiJl~ from IUOS5C'S to ferns. pln.nts
hun.' transferred the (·hid work of fO(Jd manufacture from
the gnmetophYLe to the sporophyte, which hus lhu~ become
the tonspicuous gencTalion. The ICllY{'S of mos~es , there-
forr, nre gam{'tophytC' lcu\,('s; while 111(' J ('nw'~ of ferns are
the tirs1 sporophytc Ie.a\'r-::t. A ('ommon and brief ~talement
of the conlrn~t bet,wecn th e t\\'o groups is that mosses han:>
1\ lrnfle,. Ilnd ferns '1 leafy .poroplly-te. Hnw the leafless
spo rophyte has bccolTI£' II leafy 011(' is lIli inlC'Trsting hut un-
A B
i't.o.. 1S2.~ 0( ferns: A. ~lonp.ted -xi. with poebt-lib indusia; B. round
IOri. wiLh .hidd~like induaiL
FERNS 191
aru;werro question. The great inLe",st of the AnJhoccrol

forms (*!l9) is due to Ihe fuel. that their FporophYles are
grt"''' and do chlorophyll work; and this hns SUI(g"8tcd the
thought t hat from sueh grr('n tis~ue Ipu "N' hu \'C t~n de-
,·eloped. and thus a leuf." "porophyle hao Ix"'n started.
109. Sporangia.-rpotl the' und,'r Furfure of fern
h·,.,·co dllrk dots or lines un' oft(,,, Fccn (Fig. 182). These
(1f(' groups of sporangin. usu-
ully occurring along the w·ins
of lhf' Undf'T .... urfner, but !'omt'-
times in long: lines along the
(·dge. I II!' mar!,i" of t he leaf
rolling in ulld prot('cting (hem.
ns in maidenhair fern and rom-
ruon brake (Fig. 183). In ferns
hn,·ing t he groups of sporangia
HWUY from the' mar~iD. (,Rrh
group ('on,,) is u.u·ally pro-
tected h." II delicate flup (indu-
.'tlum) growing out from the epi-
dermis, sometimes forming a A
pocket (Fig. 182, A) and some- FlO. 183. fJora.n.oa of ferD#. abow-
inc marainal hnflll Q( ..>toratlcia
lime" an umb rella-like or shield- "ml~tl'!d by Ihe inroUItd naarsw
like covering (as in shield ferns) of ~bl'! IHI : A. the COJtUptl(l b,..kcj
B. rttaidentuur (ern.
(Fig. 182, B ). The position and
the shnpe of the sortlS and the character of the indusium
furnish useful charllc·tcrs in the classification of fernB.
Most fern leaves do chlorophyll work and produce
sporan,l(ia. two yery distinct kinds of work. In some
ferns, howe,~erf some of the lea,'os arc sterile, thal is, do
not produce sporangia, t he other lea "os doing both kinds
of work ; while in other ferns certain leaves or leaf brancbea
are set apart to produce sporangia and do no chlorophyll
work, and tice "ersa, the two kinds of work thus being
divided among the leaves or leaf branches. uch a
192 A TE.c,\:T-BOOK OF BOTANY
djviaion of "'ork OCCU rS in the royal fern . climbing fern,

ostricit [ern , st'usiti\'e fe rn, mootln-ort (Fig. 18ol), auder's
tongue, ('ie.
The sp(l ratl~iulTl of an ordinary fern ('on~ists of a sporc-
case with 8. slender stalk (Fig. 1M). Tbe cuse hn' a del-
itulc wall "-,rnl('d of a sjng ll~ la.nor (If {'C'lh:;
and , eXI(,lIdiflg around it frum the stalk Ilud
nearly to the st.a lk u):!ain, like n nl('ridian
line about tl globe, is u row of peculiar (,(·lIs
F IG. l~ . - :'t:"Cu(ln lhrousb lbp mru.. (If a t'IJieJd fff"fl , I!bo'AlIlp; 1lI-
dU!!iurn arId Pl}Orangia..-Ah~ r:." DLLR a.llli Pn,,!'>"Tl..
with thick '1"8.11". forming a he,,"y ring.

'1'h)5 rin~ is Hk{' a bent spring; and when
the delicate wali begins to yield, the spring
straightens ,·iolenlly. the wall is torn, and
})c.l8t.-A moon- as the spri ng rebounds the sPOl'{.'S are hurled
'Won. .bo'lrina: wit h considerable forre. like a handful of
rolia,p and ~)()
T1IonllDum-beanng pebbles thro),-n forward from the hand.
branebeeor a led. This discharge of spores may be seen by
-Ah~
8 U a(;.CA. placing some mature Eporaogia upon a moist
FER.'1S 198
!'lidt'. and undf'r n h"l\\ power wntrhing 111('m fiS lhf'Y dr.,·
blLd hur:-.I.
1 JO, Gametopbytes. - JII I'CHllj'lllill~ fhf' jif(... hislnn' (1£ II
fl' rn. ttl!' ~pnr(,5 \\ 11('11 cli:--(·haq.!t'lJ. :l:-: ju . . t dt·:-\c·riLl(·tl. 'It('~in
In A"t·rrnina(f'. jlr\n it/I·d (11(',' 11:\\(, fl'u('lic'J ~uitalt!(' {"(111-
dirion:-:. Eadl g('rlllill:lIill~ ~ p()rc. pl'(ldll(,f'~ n gfP('J1 Ihulluse
bndy I hal n'~'IUI)I('s !I Y('r,\' :-:llItdl dl'lil':Ut, iiY('T\\'Orl
( i'i1!. 1.... (.;). It I:' IN.' ply llOldu,d. having a ~('llt'ral lU'url-
!"ll:qx,dnuliill(', Illlt!
I"; u~ually !{'s,..;
than OIIC'-fift h of
!UI i[l('h irl din!T)£'-
t('r, Thi, I haliu,
i:-- "'1) thin that all
it.. . r('ll~ ('ontaill
ddor(1I,I:l~t~. and
rhi'zuid!' from Ill£'
III er slI r13.ee nn-
c'b r it to I he soil.
1t i::: (!y:uent that
if j_~ nTi indC'pcn-
I mt plnnt, .1-
rHo. IRfo.---GAm~I"llbyt~ fprnd,.1ll1II1J1 .., Ik r~rn .4,
hough a rt"ry u:u.ll'r@urfltffahnwiuarhlJ,lJ,t1" (,II '. Illltlll"ridlll. 'UfI).
~mall one. r pon snd IlI"C)lt'II:"IUa (171"1; n, undPT tUrllU,," lOr IU'l older
pnlf'loph~·u!. abo .... ill. thf' yiJUl1" ,pCJrof)bytfl, witb
this minute' plant root (al') and In! ("I,- Arter SC'1u:.... n.
tnr sex-organs arE'
produoed. and therefore i, i, the gam,'tophytc in HlP life-
history, This fern gamelophyte, heca""" it i, a Ihullus
bodr which preced.,s the app"aranre of tl1<' large sporo-
phyte. has been called the pr(Jlhnl1i1Jm (or prolhail'u.),
and tbis name has come to be Ycry commonly used for
gametophyre among aU [he h4:her plant.. M the botl.<lm
of lhe conspicuous notch of the prothallium is tbe grow-
ing point. representing the apex of lhe plant.
The antheridia Bnd 'the archegonia are produced on the
under surface of the protb.llium in the region of the oemr,,1

axis. \Vhen tht' prothallia a.re vcry YOU!\g, tbe ant.heridia
begin to uppenr; and if the prolhallia are poorl;' nourished
and stunted only antheridia appear. In mal ur<~ , well-
nourished prothllllia, however, archegollla also :lppenr. In
consequence of their lat e app"arance , tho ~roup 0f ~rchcgQ
nia is l1{'nr the nolch , that is. ncar thf' ~rowinl! point , whilr
th,' group of anlhcridia is farther hack, on the older part of
the prothnllillID (Fig. 180, A).
The antheridia und ttl(' nr('hcgonio are nOI fr('o(' find pro-
jecting organ~, us among the .BryophytcF. but thc." are
more or It'58 sunken in thr tig,c.:u(' of the prnthn.llium and
open on its surface. In the ('a~(' of the art'hrgonium on ly
Fla. lS7 .-Al'Cb~onhlmo{ a fera eontaininc an ea. (.t') , the lH!C.k i:leiuccun-ed ~
",:ard loward the antberidia.. (
the neck projects, and this is usually bent backward t<>-

ward, tbe anthcridia (Fig. I 8i ). The egg resembles those
of all other archegonium-bearing plant ; but the sperms
are very different (rom those of Bryophyte , ha'ing large
196
Epirally coiled bodies, blunt behind and tapering to a beak

in frOnl. tbe b<>ak Lcnring numerous cilia (Fi.::. 18). The
fern "I",rm, therefore, is n large, spirally coiled , ruu\ticiliate
FlO. l SS.-l'Yo antheridiA of • fern U ). on~ cOIHalninll: "I ... rnlt. lh(! ollier d'-:harl ·
ilia: tbew; alllO • tllJllle 'l>etW much ellwpd l lJ ).
sperm, as compared with the small biciliate sperm of Bry-

opbyte •.
Wi th a ciliated sperm . fertili zation can be effected only
in the presence of moisture, and if prothallia are kept dry
fertilizauon does not occur. In nature, howc\"cr, the pro-
thalli. lying prostrate on tbe substratum are in • fll l'or-
able position for moisture; and wheo there is a film of mois-
ture between the prot ballium and the substratum the
}sperms can swim to the archegonia.
The oospore which is produced germinates at once and
forms tbe leafy sporophyte (Fig. 186, B ). The young stem
and the root remain under tbe soil, but the young leaf is
seen curving upward through the notch of the prothallium
and gro";ng up into the air and light. For a short time th.
young plantlet absorbs nourishment fTom the protbnllium,
but witb itll own root system and leaves it SOOn becomes
independent. I n fart, the prothalJiulll is so smali , and the

leafy sporophyte becomes relatin'ly so large, that the
dependence of the latter upon the former is a Ycry small
item in the life-history.
111. Alternation of generations.-The contrast between
the altrrnating _gcnerntions of mosses and t.he ssmI:' gCIll'ra-
lionEl. in f{~ rns is strikillg. 1n mosses the g'3nlCl(lphYlC is
the ('ullspicuOU8 phase in tlw lut,-history, with ils prOStTUle
fiJamcnts llnd leufy branchesj while in [('rns Ih(' gamt'to-
phyt.c (Fothullium) is a Y~ry in('onspiruous phnse io the
life-history, being se~n only b"' those wllo know what to
look for, and r{'sembling- a yeT)' small simple Ih·crwort.
In the mosses the 'porophyte is at most only" stalked
spore-cnse, att!Lched 10 the garnetophyte and d('p<'lldel1t
upon it for nourishmenl; while in ferns the sporophyte is
a large, independent, leafy plnnt, with Yaseular system
and roots.
The formu la for the life-histo ry of 3 f~rtl mny i.J~ written
as follows:
G(flro\balhul.'U)~> Q-S{Ic.a.{)' pla.nt)-O-~> o-,s-o-G.
etc.
CHAPTER XI
HORSETAILS AND CLUB-MOSSES
II OUI-I}':TA TL:-;
J 12. General characters.-Thc Il()rscini ls or rquisclums

8.rt' rt'pr('Fl('nll'd t o-
day hy onl,\' t \\'('11 I.\"-
fi'"<'~p<·ei(.'~; hUi
during I he CU:lI-
u}t'a:-.ul'(';o; the S}X'-
de:;; w('re yeTY nll-
Illf'rnu,",. and ~()me
of thf.'tn w(' r(' gn'nt
(rt·f·:::. forming n
('(Hlspicuous part of
the fore!'=- ycgettl-
lion. T hey grow
in moist or dry
ground. some t imC's
in great abun-
dance, and hu\'c
such a character-
istic appearance
that they cannot
be mistaken.
The stem is slen-
der and conspicu-
ously jointed, the
joints separating FIe . 18V.--EgulMfjm:.bo ... in, the)Oint.ed and Iluted
.tern. tbe sheatb 01 mmul.f! lNYM at eMh joia&.
easily (Fig. 189). strobili in vano..U&pII. aod.-orne.)'OUOC ~
19 A TEXT-BOOK OF B OTA~"Y
It is also grecn, and fluted wit.h small longitudinal ridges;

and ihere is such an abundant deposii of silica in the epi-
dermis that the planis fpel rough. This last property sug-
gested forme-rly its use in
scouring.. unci the nume
I scouring rush," At each
joint there is a sheath of
minute !(,uyt'!', mOH' or l£'ss
(.'oaie.s('cd. th£' indi\'idual
)f'fl \'es somet inws bcin~
inciil':.l.ted onl,v by minute
trl'! h. Thi:-: arr~lngelllcnt
of iruycs in fl (.'ll'(']e about
t he joint is the cyclic 31'-
rangcmcn t, the if'll n's be-
ing said to he u'horhd (§ 8).
These ](,11\"(,5 cont!lin no
chlorophyll and huw ""i-
dently abandoned food
manufacture, which is C!lr-
ried on by the grf'cn Rtem;
hence t h('y al'e st'alt:$ ral her
than foliage lea,·es. The
}. 1a. l00.-l'.,MU' leM..'>e 5110011 of Equ~
aer ial stem. which arises
t~m. which IU'e not 1tf1!C!1l. b.ye con-
from an elongated root.-
IpicuOluleaf...heatbl Ilt the joinla. and
Lear I!ONlPieuOtlll atfobili; be.a.nni.np
stock, is either simple or
01 Ihl!! later aterile woot.. aJM) ~n.
profusely branched. In
some cases the aerial stems early in the season are sim p1e,
usually not green, alld bear the sporangia (Fig. 190);
willie the later branches from the same rootstock are
sterile, profusely br&!lched, and green (Fig. 191).
113. Strobilus,-At the apex of ihe aerial stem there
may be found a more or less conspicuous cone-like structure,
called the strobilus, meaning pine cone," which it resem-
CI
bles in general outline (Fig. 190). The strobilus is a com-

HORSETAILS AND CLUB-MOSSES 199
pact group of modified lea"es bearing sporangia. Ju.t

a:; in some ferns certain len \ 'CS nrc set np:lrt (0 do chloro-
phyll work and 01 hers
to Ueur ~porangiaJ so ill
the EqILisclum the snme
dh'jsioll of work oc-
tU"'; but the notable
thing is that the spo-
rangiurn-bpuring irRYl'S
are masSt'd toget.her in
1l rIuster t.hat i::: quitl'
distinct from the' rest o f
the ph\,,1. u>uw's srI
apart for bearing '1'0-
rangia are called spo-
rophyllsJ which means
"sporr lcuyes.'· A
strobilus, therefore, is
.. group of sporophyllR
that form a more or
less distinct cluster, dis-
tinct from tbe rest of
the plant.
In Equisetum each
sporophyll consists of
" stalk-like portion and
a shield-like top, be-
neath which the seyeral
sporangia bang (Fig.
192, A). The spores
have a. very peculiar FIQIlt!,9~~-~I;1C~t~:' :!d~:U::p~
outer wall. It cons ts month later.
of two spiral bands
wound about the spore and fastened to it only at the point
where they intersect (Fig. 192, B ). When dry, tbe bandB
14
~oo A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
loosen and unooil; when moistened, they close around the

spore. The coiling und uncoiling mo,·emenls of these bands
as tll(:')" are wet
Ii B
or dry e ntan-
gle lhe spores.
!lnd t her fa ll in
(,lumps. 11 num-
I",r of them
thus germinnt-
ing close to-
FlGi~~;~:;;\ ;I~.·;t~,~:;~;t~~ ~~'~'~"J~~~~,';'/Ie,.~,~!~~~':~I~: ge t )ler.
t.he UIl"!ncJiugo{ tlie 1" {.loll.ml,, f,)nu.UJjt thr ll-! . Gameto-
O\lHlr ('l>ltl.
phyte . - W hen
the f' por('~ of :111 Elj uiS('/1l11l grrminat(' they gin" rist' to
gamelophytcs that in all g(,lleral f('atures res('mblc those of
the fews; that is . they sllIall. green thallus bodies pro-
MI·
ducing nnt heddi(t and arrilf'gollia. From toe oi_ispores pro-
dtl('l-'d in the arciJf'gonin. t he Inrgl~ sporophyte nrjsc~J with
Hs roots, rootstoek. hran('ilL's . l('o\"('s. and strobili.
It is c,·ident I hal. all hough an Equisetu", docs not
SCPHI to r(':o('mL>I {~ a fe rn in the least, the life-history and
the- ehanlcler of the aH. ernabug generations arc the snme.
CLUB-YOSSES
115. General characters.-The club-mosscs often look

like coarse mosses, as the name suggests. Some of the
larger ones nre called nlso ground pines, because of n cer-
tain r('semblance to miniature pines. They are slender
brancbing plant s. with the prostrate or erect sIems com-
pletely clothed witb small lea,·es (Fig. 193). The larger
and coarser forms are abundant in the ~ortherll woods, the
prostmte st.ems often trailing exteru;ivelyand ghing rise to
ereel branches. The more delicate forms nre abundant
in tbe tropics. and are ·yery common in greenhouses 88
decorative plants.
HORSETAILS A:>''ll CLUll-MO SES 201
During tho ConI-measure, tho rlllb-mos-"", o(''I,rrO<l ill

~r(':\tuhuTldanrr, nnd nmon~ them W(' f(' Inr~t' tn·f·" ()f vari-
ous kinds, forming n \'{' r~' promint'nt ptlrl of t Itt, f(lr('st
Flc. lD3.-LJ/'tOpodiltm: A. l be ..'hole plant . atlU"'inlt the horiwntal .. tl!m tiv;na:

nee to mota and eTe(:l branebe. bearinc Slrobili; B, • gnlle llJ,IOf'OI.h)'U with i~
spotaDpum; C• • ~ muc:b m.acni6ed.-Alt.er WOUIDJ.O.
vegetation. As in the case of the equisetum , therefore,

the club-mosses. or Lycopods as they are called, were once
202 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTAl'.'"Y
far more conspicuous plants than they are now, and only
the smaller form. hft". p<'rsisted to the present time.
116. Strobili. -One of the cOlkpicuous featuTes of th.
1ycopods is the ('ylindrical strohilus. whith usually termi",
nates the erect braucheR. and is 1he U dub T' that enters into
the nftme club-mo.s (Fig. 193, .4). ~ometimes the strobilus
i~ quite (.Ii:o'till('t from the r('~t of the fltrm; and sometimes it
cannot br djstingui~ll('d from it, f;O that there is no external
indicatiDn where leafy stem ends and Rtrobilus begins.
The leaves of lhe sl.r(lbilufl resemble the ordinary fo-
Jiage tcnn).!=':; but ea('h on(' i.'!i a F-porophyll, bearing a single
Jarge :o;porun{!ium on its upper surfucc at the base (Fig. 193,
B), so Ihnt tIl(' sporangium ap-
p<'urs in the axil of the sporo-
phyU. Among I he ferns the spo-
rangia nrc numerous on the under
sici{' of l{'u'·C':::: among {'quisetutns
t hey are scveral on the under side
of sporophylls; llmong lycopods
they are solitary on the upper
side of sporoph ~· lIs.
11i. Lycopodium. -The Lyca-
pad,:um forms are chieBy the
coarse club-mosses vf temperate
regions. and are mostly spoken of
as the large club-mosses. The
st robili are often conspicuou and
Yery distinct from tbe rest of
the plant. This leafy, branching
plant mth its strobili is, of course,
the sporoph."te (Fig. 193, A).
Flo. 194 .-8ubtt'tTl.lleao pm- ',hen it spores germinate they
e~ophyta 0( LJ/copodill"',
.henrie, their ~, tu- p~oduce gametophytes; but these
berowr rOit1n: the dotted line gametophytes. instead of being
reprdenU ~lHl .url.oe of the
mil-Afeer BMUCIIJrU...'(K. green, prostrate, tbalJose bodies,
HORSETAILS AND CLUB-MOSSES 208
as ate the gametopll)'tes (prothallia) o( (erns alld .qui.

Aetums. are subterrnlleu.n tuberous bodi('s with no chloro-
phyll. on which the an!ilcridin and archegonia lIppeRr (Fig.
)[14). In some (arm, o( Lycopodium tho tnborOll" prothal.
lium deyelops nn aerilll portion I hut is greell and b.'ars tbe
Sf'x-<>rgans. This strange sUOI<' rrnllcAn and snprhphytic
prothalliuru is in marked contrust with the pruthallitl o (
ferns in its haLits and
appearance. *
J 18. SelagineJIa. -
The Selagi nella forms
arc much more numer-
OUB than the Lyco-
podiu.m (orms. being
"'pecinlly abundant
in the tropics, and arc
often called the little
club-mosses on ac-
rount of their smaller
size nnd more delicate
texture. It is these
forms that are com-
mon in greenhouses
as decorati ve plan ts.
There are often no
strobili very distinct
(rom the leafy slem,
the solitary sporangia
occurring in the a.xils
of the upper leaves FIQ.l9.:i.-UrancbofSdaqmdwbearilllfil'obiJi,
(Fig. 195) .
The most important fact in connection with Stwgi".lla
is that all the sporangia io1 a strobilW! do not produce the
.. The gametopbytes of UrJoopodium are 80 rarely found that it. is
not expected that they "'i11 be eeen by the student.
same kind of 'pore.. For example. c~rlain sporangia (usu-

nil." th(_' lo\\"('r OIlf'!oO) mny ('uch ('ontain four largC' spores
(Fig. HJ6, C ond 1) 1. while the other sporonj!ia conlain
,"pry numrrOllS and Yery
muc'h smal l e r spores
(Fig. 190, A and B).
Thpl"t' mu~' be nQ diff('r~
(,11("(' in th€' nppt.'urnl1(,('
of the spo,·angia. A
plant that produces two
killd" of sporrs . difJrring
in !'i7.t'. i~ su.id to l>e hf'-
/t·rosporous (spores dif-
ferent). The appoar-
ance of this rondition
is a ycry import nnt
fart. for it i:-; an intro-
du ctioll to th. appear-
ance of the higher plums.
Difference in the size
of sporcf' docs not seem
important: but when
thi,., is accompanied by
difference in t he gameto-
Fla, : OO.-.l:Olloroph),Il, of StlaO'itlrl1a . ..... IIpa- phyte produced. it is
rol>}I,\·n be,arina l'I,wMlUJriUITl Ihat pro c:iuc-es
numerous lImall ",Iuret! ( 0 1; r, ~p(lroIJbyli Yer.'" important. ''"hen
beariOI !f!>Of.ngium that produCt!8 few the small pore germi-
1."IP~ (JJ).
nates} it. produce a few-
celled gametophyte. so small that it is contained entirely
wi thl n the old spore wall. This gametopbyte produces
onc Ilntheridium. and this Ilntberidium fotms the bulk of
the whole body. Therefore. the small spore produces a
"ery small male gametophyte. W hen t he large spore ger-
minates. it produces a many-celled gametophyte, whlch
burst" through the spore wall and becomes partly ex-
HORSETAILS AND CLUB-;UOSSES :lOS
posed. In thls e.xposed part archegonia nppear, and

therefore tbe large spore produces" female gallletophyte
(Fig. IU7 ).
In Scl<J.ginella. therl'-
fore, the two kinus of
~,.-orp;ans aT£' produced
by difff'Tt'nt plants, and
w(' sp('uk of mall' nnd
femnle ganwi oph)"t(·s.

The connf'(,tion of thf'~(,
two killds of ,!!amC'tO-
phytf's wit h til(' two
kinds (If ~por('s tnust be
k('pt tle.r. The small
spore (mirrmq1orc) pro-
dU(.'t's the male gamrto-
1'h)·to, and the large FICO. IIlT. -J "ruQ)" K.l.llt'I<l"I!\', .. "t ,1.,,JOqHI,,Iln,
'IJOrc (megaspoTe) pm- tU"'WK hUflil lhrllulEh till' ...·,,11 til lilt' fllton-
"J>ON' Iml. amI \~lLrin.. a.r('hr,,<luia I ..) .rtd
duces the female ga- rbiJ.nid~ \ .. , UIIOII it.e.l'.II'JoIIICJ p.rt: ..omewba~
rnctophyte. It must he dU4l;l'lIllllllaUc .
rrmembered, also, that

..-ith this change the gametoph)·[(·, haH' lJ{'("ome much
smaller than they w('n~ before, nnd afC no lon~('r illCj(·pcn -
dent, in the sense of doinf'; chlornphyll ..-ork.
it fo1)0"'5 ihat in the Jiff'-histOf.'· r,f ,..;tlarrinr//n therc' is •
an alt.ernation of the FJ>orophyl(, with two J!:anwHlphrt('~.
How this contrasts with the life-history of an ordinary fern
may be indicated as folio,,".:
Fern: G=:> o-S-o-C=!> o-S-o-C=:> 0-:', etc.
Selaginella: ~>o-S~ >o-,;=;;:::::2::::::>o . etc.
119. Coal.-The ferns, equisetum5, a.nd lycopods were
8.SSociated together durir.g tbe Coal-meaRUr"", and were
the most conspicuous plants in the formati on of coal. The
formation of peat, already referred to (§ 101), indicates the
first stages in coal-formation. During the Coal-measures

there were Yery extensive areas of swampy land ('o"ered
\\;th 8 luxuriant Ycgetlltiorl , consisting principally of fe rns.
equisetums. and lycopods. The deud uodies of these
pl llnt~ at'cumulated in immense d<'posits in the swamp
waters; and when a sinking of the land hrought it under
water, /';(·dimcnts werc deposiicd upon the accumulated
YCI!f"t3tion nnd it. was ,gradually changed into ('oal. Suc-
c('ssh'e rising'S and sinkings of thr 'land fOurfa('(' lH'ought
'ahout nu aiternntion of "('gelation n.nd s{·dimcnts. and so
the coni lies in hed, of ,·.rying thi .. kness. The ferns,
CqUiSl'1ums. and ly('opod=, are often spoken of as Pf'('uliarl~'
usel€'ss plant:;; but "hell onp considers the part they
played in cOHI-formation, nnd the importance of ('onl in our
ch-jlizntiou, it is ('yident thilt no plants hoyc dOlle more for
hUm}ln wf'i£arf'.
The different kinds of coni depend UpOD the amount and
kind of changes in lhi:; uld buried ,'cgeulliono For example,
liard ooul (ullthraciir) has beell changed moet. containing
eighty-fl,'c per cent or more of carbon; while soft (bitumi-
noms ) coal contains only fifty to sE'\Oenty-fhoe per cent of
carbon. It will he remembcred tbnt green plants take
carbon dioxide frolIl the air anu use the rarbon in building
their bodie, (§ 14). Therefore. tbe enormous amount of
carbon t'OIlt u..ined in ('oal deposits wus in the main drawn
from rhe nir by plants. 'Yhe .. conI is burned now there
is mnde a lardy return of carbon dioxide to the air for that
whjch was taken from it millions of years ago.
The ronl-fields of the t'nited States are the greatest in
tile world that are noW heing worked; but the coal-fields
of Chinn are probably e,'en greater. The coni of the t;nited
States is all soft e081. except in the mountain region of
Pennsylvania, where the bituminous coill has heen changed
into anthrncite.
CRAPTER Xl!
GYMNOSPERMS
120. Summary.-The ferns , oquiS<'tums. nnd 1)"'0-

podl; ar(, rrprCb('ntali,-es of (he third fZteul dh·ision of the
plant kingdom, the PI,.,.idQph!/lr., (feTll pl"nl'), Thoir con-
tributions to the progress of plants are very important and
may be 8um marizC'd 11S follows:
(1) Le.a/y sporophylrs.-All Pteridophyt " have leafy
sporoph)'leR. and all Bryophytes have leafless ollrs. so Ihnt
this change is not only great, but al"o complete. The len!)'
£:porophYle means also a. 1!aScular system and Tool., und
therefore lhese structures are introduced by the Pterido-
phytes.
(2) 8porophylls,-The setting apart of ccrtain leaves to
bear sporangia makes a didsion of work betl~cen foliage
Ica I'es ~nd sporoph)'Jls, and the arrangement of the sporo-
pbylls into the distinct cluster known as the .trolTilu8 marks
another advance.
(3) Helcrospory.-The o~casional appearance of hetero-
sporous plants among Pterirlophytes. as Selaginella and a
few other forms. is noteworThy. because all the plaltls of the
next and highest group are heterosporous. AsROciuted
"ith heterospory is a great reduction in the !!ize of the two
gametophytes. which are so small that they project little if
at all Crom the spores which produce them.
121. The four great plant groups.-Three of tbe great
divisions of the plant kingdom ha,'e been considered, The
207
fourth differs from them nil in producing seeds, and bellee

is called S,,=1Ialol1It!ltrs or seed-plants. It mar be well
to give certain prominent ch.aracters that will S{'r\'(' t(J di~
tinguish tht"f'C' fOllT primary ,[::TOUpS. ] t mURt not be sup-
posetl that th('s(' arc the only charactrTs/ nr ('\"(~n thE" most
important one..'i in e\'ery C8S(>, but they arc convenient (or
our purpos('.
(I) 7'lwllopitYlfs.-Thullus bod!'. hut no archpl!onia.
(2) Brynpliyl('s.-Archrgonia, but no ,'at:('ular ~ys{em.
(3) Pt(T,ciopltylcs.- I ·uscular system, but no seeds.
(4.) Sl'l'rmalopit!llfS.-, ccds.
II "'ill Ix> not iced that for tach of the 6..,,( thrcr group'
Iwo ('hllrn('tf'l'S art' ~in'n. one a posilin~ charseter that
belong" to it. the
other II lI<>g:ath-e
cilnra('t('r tha.t dis-
tinguis}lC's it from
t he group above,
and bel'omes the
pOEitiy(' charac-
ler of th'" grou p.
For example, tbal-
~us bodles are
fouod among Bryo-
phytes, and the pro-
thallium of a Fern
is " thallus body;
but plants whose
thallus bodies do
not bear arche-
Ita. IOS.-Acy(':f.d wilhoolumnarltem.-Ait.erS'tll.Ur gonia are ThaHo-
phytes. Also, arch-
egonia are produced by Pteridophytes as well as by
Bryophytes. but archegonium-hearing plants without a
"ascutar system can be only Bryopbytes. Both Pteri-
21 0 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
dopbytes and SlX'rmatophytes haYe " •.scular systems, hut

only the lalier produce St'eds.
122. General characters of Gymnosperms.-The Gymno-
sperms are one of the two groups of seed-plants , lhe most
familiar ones in j,emperate r~giolls being pines. spruces.
hemlocks, cf'dnrs, etc., t.he group commonly called ever-
greens. 1t is an ancicnt group, for its Trpres('ntath'cs were
associated with the giant ciuo-moSSt's and horsetails in
the forest ycgotstion of the Coal-measures. 0nly about
four hundred SlX'rics exist lo-day as a remnant of its former
displAY, although it still forms extensi"e forests. Gymno·
sperms nre very di,'ersc in habit. They are all woody
forms, but they may be gigantic trees, trailing or straggling
shrubs, or high-climbing vinps. There nre two prominent
living groups of Gymno'perms.
F1Q. !!OO.-A eyt'ad ,..itb tuberOWI 01" abort tJW:k stem.
Cycads are tropi<:al forms \lith large fern-like leaves.

Tbe stem is ejther " columnar sbaft crowned witb a rosette
GYMNOSPERMS 211
of large compound lea " es, ,,;th the general habit of tree-
frrns and palm. (Figs. 198 and J 99): or t hr)' are like !(rrat
tul",r; . crowned in the same way (Fi!(. 2(0). Th[" tul)('rous
F[('rtlS nre Ofl{On more or IN;S hllrip<l, :1;0.: in our (lnlr ('rcud
from the {"tuted Stat es .
(Florida). illustrated in
ri!!. :?OO. ] n ancient
•
I ina's ('Yl'ads WC"Tl'
\('fY ahundant, but
now they are rep-
r{''lc'nt£'d by "bout
('i~hl~' sp('('if:s f.I('ut-
FIG. 201 1'''''0 ,·if!w. of lhe III.,Jm 1.1" I")·OMI.
h'r~d through the o ri- IIliVlnPR JU '!!p i t'llJ form JUI,) mlJ1/) cilia.
(,lItul and Q{'cidcn tnl
(ropics. Thrr are {·f'pecinH." int('resti ng in their reRelD-
bbnC'{'s to f(,Tns, nnd som{' of them miJrhl Ut' ruil'ltu.kcll for
forns did they no t bear large seeds. III uddition to their
[erTl-like leaves. they }un '£" in the strUl'luT(' of th(' .stem
m~my fern charact er:;; and th e,\' h3\'(' coiled "Ix'rms with
mnny cilia (Fig. 20 1), as do the ferns. They I\re >"cry
intrreMing to s tudy ; but it jz.;. E.'llsirr to obtain the Gym-
nosperm characters from the ot her ~roup, wh ose forrn~ nre
far more familiar nnd easily obtained,
Conijcrs are the common Gymnosperms, often forming
great fore ts in temperate regio ns, 1"ome of thr form!:! are-
wjdely distributed. as the pines; while some are no "' ,'err
much restricted. a the gigantic redwoods (SeqIWt:a) of tlte
Pacific slope. The habit of the body is quite characteristic .
• central shaft extending to the verr top (Fig. 42). In
m:Lny Cases, the branches spread horizontally, with dimin-
ishing length to the top, forming a conical outline, tIS in tbe
finl. This habit gi>"cs the conifers an app"arance very
distinct from that of tbe other trees.
Another peculiar feature is lbe needle-leaf. These IcaYe5
ha\'e a small surface and very heavy protecting cells, bPiDg
2 12 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTM,y
able to endure the rold of winter (Figs. 30 and 31). As

t heTe h; no I'pgular periud for 1he fnll of Ie'a '"rs, as in the
clE'ciduQlI:' tr<·(:~ . tilt' tn'('~ nrc' Uh\llYS c1otht·d with them,
uud iW lwC" un' c'allrd (""('rg-r('rns. A notuull' {'x('('ptjon to
the p"('r~r("en hohit of ('ot1if('r~ i:; thul of lh(' ("ommon larch
or tamara('k, which f' lwds itR INl.V(,S ('Y{~r." 5(·uson.
TIl(> ~rf'at hod~' of the plnnt is highly or1!unizf'd for work.
with itR r(l()t~. 1'1("111, ~\J1J It'an,·:;;. and un (·lahw'atr Ya~(,1I111r
system ('onll('t'! ing: them all. 'The woou of thr ('onif(,Ts is
pe(,tili:}r in it:-: "Ny r('~lIlar grain. ~plitting ('asily: and Hs
gf'rlrrnlly .. ~()ft " ('hUTU('t(,T is quite djstill('t from the so-
('nlll'd ,I hard \\"o()d~ . " Througlwut the body t h('l'(, are
al~o nUmt'r<lll:; r<~sin-dll('ts, whose ('ontenls gin.' a p<>culjar
aroma to th£, wood.
123. Strobili. -Thc oones horne by the conifers are
w£,I1 kuO\\'ll. and Ruggest nt on('(' the strobili of ('erL.1.in
PteridophyIN~. Th rTf' aT£' two kinds of ~trohili. how€'\'cr,
on(' being the ('onspicuou R se(>d-bearing ('on£'R of common
obscr\"ntion. tbe other much smalier and mueh less per-
sistent cones (Fig. 202) . I n Selagine/la (§ liS). it wili be
remembered, ther£, are two kind s of sporangia in n single
strohillls: but in coniff'J"S these two kinds of sporangia are
in separ ate strobili or cones. In describing the two ('ones
the pine may be used fiS an illustration.
The s',all cone (Fig. 202. d, and Fig. 203. A ) is made
lip of "PC -ophylis thut look like mall scales: and on the
lower surface of each scale there are two sporangia (Fig.
203. B and C), cach sporangium contain.illg Ycry numerous
small spores (mic rospores) . All {'If these structures receh'ed
names long before their relation to the lower plants were
kn own; but. as these names are well knov."'U it is cODvenient
to use them. The small spores were called poUltn grains or
simply pollen: tbe porsngia containing them were called
pollt:n sacs: and tbe sporopbyll beari ng the sporangia was
enlled a stamen. The strobilus or CODe, therefore, is D
GYMNOSPERMS 213
","oup of slamclls; and 10 dislinguish il from tht' olher rOlle

If may be called [he staminate rom:. Jr FO.hould Ix- rt'meln.
f'tQ. Z02.-Tip of pine bnmt:.h .•bo.·ing Cttrlldl.le rUllt'1I of fiMlt )'ellf (Q). IIeI)ODd
ye:Lr (6). and fwd year (t); Alao. cJwtl!J' of Iltaminate Wtlft (4).
bered, boweyer, that "II these structures are found also

among Pteridophytes, tho'lgh they are not called by these
names.
Tbe large cone of tbe pine is made up of sporophylls
A TEXT-BOOK OF' BOTANY
that become very thick and hard (Fig. 204·, .1 ). aDd tbat
are packed clo ely together until they spread apart to let
out the ""eds (Fig. 202, r ). On the upper sid e of ell('h
sporophyll , ncar its ba~€', thpre arE' l wo sporan~j[J (Fi!!'. 204,
B llnd C), in each one of whith there is a single large spore
(megaspore). So large is the spore that it looks like a
FtO. '!OJ_-BtamlnRIC ~Ile of pim": ..t., eeetion of cone. sho ..... ing IIlloropbylb (,uuneDfl)
bell.ring "portmeia (Ilollen 4tlC*); n, IOuDtudin:t.l IleCtion or &taIDr:n. through one
polle.n u.e: C, <:.r~tion of .tamen, ahowina bolh lJOlle.n 1Ift(:a; ll. \he ..-\nee<!
pollen cnUn.-..\!te:r ST~t;1l0&R.
conspicuous c.nit)· in tbe center of tbe sporangium. Tbese

structures also bear old nalDes that lDay be used. The
sporangia were called ovules; and the sporoph)"1J be,!,"ing
them was called a carpel. The large spore was regarded
only as a cavity in the ovule. The cone. therefore, is a
group of carpels; and to clistinguish it from the staminate
cone it may be called the carpel/,aU con..
GYMNOSPERMS 215
11 is ,,\'ideot that the pine-tree. bearing these sporangia,
is Ihe sporophyte in the Iife·histor.\'; tbat i., it is the sex-
Ie» generation. The sporophyte has now bet'ome so prom-
Fw. 204.-C1lI"fJfI1IAte cone of pine, A. eone rare/_\" _rjfJ.OM; R, .\'(1!IllC ~

(IIJ'Ol"OJlhyll) with two O"Weti ('JlOra.IIPa / ; C. old cal'Jlel with UUU\l~ ~.
.VU!T lh:M!ia:r.
inent that it seems to be the whole plant. a.nd it is interelJt-

ing to know what has become of the gamotophyt.es with
their x-Grgans.
124.. Gametophytes. -As the pine is a heterosporous
plant, there are male and female gametophytes. The small
spores (pollen grains) germinate and produce very small
male gametophytes. As in Seiagi1!ella (§ lJ S), only .. few
cells fU'e formed , and these remain in the pollen grain (Fig.
15
203, D ). Such n gametophyte has become so small tbat

it can be secn only under tbe microscope. Among the
cell~ formed. howr\'er ,
are t\\"o sJX'rrn s. These
(
sperms have no ciii!l, and
hellc£' it is e"idcnl tbat
\ hey do not Teach the egg
by swilllrniru!:.
The single Inrge spore
I"
within the onlle (spo-
rangium ) is peculiar in
- 1/
nen!f IN1,\'jng it; that is.
iii::; n(,,'cr sh('d, as are
other s pore:'l. It pro-
dures H man:.. -cellcd fe-
malegametophylc,justas
does Sflorr·nella (§ 11 8);
and on this gametophyle
archegonia are formed
A
(Fig. 205). Since the
FlO. 20."1-.'1. :M'('ti on !h(lwinf!' [hI' rdllth'~ po- large spore is not shed ,
aitiolls or bra.ct Ibl, lK:ale (. ), and ovull" lo)
in " pinc Wilt', rbf' fernule rlUlleumhyll" (g) the female gametophyte
beiug very young: n, enlarpod N!Ction it produces lies embed-
through Ihe (WulfO Ii year laU"I", .!Ibowina tbe
femail.. 8.lllllf.toJ)hYle (17) ilf'.uring Iwoarche-. ded in the center of the
,,"own lal which are being reacbed by the
penetrallnl pollen tubeol (t). ovule, like an internal
parasite (Fig. 205. g) .
It is e,-ident now wby tbe gametophYles of such plants
are not ordinarily seen J for one is within the polleD grain
and the otber is within the o,-ule.
125. Fertilization.-Before fertilization can take place,
tbe pollen grain , wbich develops the male gametopbyte witb
its sperms. must be brought to lhe o,·ule, "Whicb contains
the female gnmetophyte \\itb its "rcbegonia. The pollen
grains (microspores) are ·formed in very great abundance,
are dry and powdery, and are scattered far and wide by
GYMNOSPERMS 217
th. wind. In the pines alld their nllie" the pollell grnin~
art· win~(·d (Fil!. 203. D). so th •.I' urt' 11'1·11 or~"niZ<'d for
WillU (JiHrilJUtion. This tr:ln~fcr of pOUr1} from th(, toItu nll~
J)!all' ('on(' to ~hc carpcllntf' {'onc' is l'ullt'd pollinallfJfl, Llud
the agent of transfer is the wind. ~u nlmnduTlt i~ th~ pol-
\t'll of conifers that it sOlnNinl(,~ falls likt· u Yl:lIow showl'r.
!lull thl' ('I<'('uRionally Te-portl'd ilsitow('r.. {If ",uiphur" f\r('
r{'ull y ~ how{'rs of pollen frnm somr [Off'st ()f ('(tIlifj·r=,. :,nIDe
pollrtl rnll~t
reach the oyu!t·s, and to in~llt(' lhi~ it 11nl:.:;t full
like ruin. To aid in ('atching the fullill~ pollen tl,e scalI'-
lik,' ('arpels of the cone spread apart; alld th,' pollell llTains
,l.:JidiIlg dO\\'II tht.'ir SJOpilJ,:!' ~Ur£u.('~.s ('Ollt'('f in a Ihdr drift
at the hallam of .. nl'h cnrpd, wl)('re 11)(' onJiP" a,,· fOUl.d.
III this position ench of Lhe most f3\,orahly pl.c,·d pollen
~rains hegins to put forth. tube (pollen (ube ) . This tube,
containing the two sperms in its tip, grows through the
o\'ulo, and reaches tho archegonia (Fi~. 205, f). Then the
sperms are discharged, and when they reach the egg
f\.l~ion takes place and fertilization is accomplished.
126. Embryo.-The 008POr(' that ha;; been formed within
the archegonium at once germinates and hegins to form til
young plalltiPt (embryo), whi ch of I'ourse is .till within the
oyule. This embryo continues to grow) ret·ding upon the
female gametophyte that surrounds it. It is el'ident that
this "mbryo is the young sporophyte of th .. next general ion.
127. Seed.-While the embryo is dewloping, some im-
portant changes nrc taking plnce in the o"u\e outside of
the female game(ophyte. The mO$t notable cbange is the
formation of a hard, bony cO"ering, which hermetically
seals the structures within. so tltat further de"elopmpnt ill
checked. In this way the o,'ule (.•porangium) h88 been
transformed into what is called a seed, Lho distinguishing
structure of seed-plants.
U a pine seed is cut open, the embryo (young sporophyte)
may be seen embedded in t he center (Fig. 206); around
it is packed nutritive tissue (often called endosperm), which

is the female gllmetophyte; and outside of that tbere is
found the bony ~ed-coat (festa). In
this condition of sus.p£'ndcd animation
the embryo may continue for a long
time, certainly until the next season,
:F':nl'lir~~;;:;::::~~;:! perhaps for many 5r1150n5. \Ylwil the
emhfyb ( )'tJunk lI\l()-o seed comes into fa \"orabl{' condit ions
rophytt' t t'ntbeJded
in t'ud oJIM'rm (rf'!'" and 1/ awakens," the embryo cscnpes
and grows into the pine-tree. This
malt' jplmf'fOl'llytt'l .
which i~ i"\'~tr.d by
u\\-akcning of the seed is uS\lallo- called
tbe hRnJ leAla.
its p:crminntion ,lI but it must not be
U
confm:cd with the germination of spores and oiisporcs.

The .. germination H of the seed is merely the resumption
of growth by the embryo and its escape from the ,_ccd.
I n seed-pianfs1 therefore f there are t\\"o distinct penods tIl
the gro\\·th of th~ spo roph),te, the period within the seed
(when it is culled an elllbrro). and the period outside of
the seed; and these two periods may be separated from
aile another by a long period of time. For an account of
seed germination see Chapter \'.
12 Timber from Conifers.-Tbe conifers nre the most
imponaut sourre of timber in the United States. yielding
at least three-fourths of our supply. They are usually
called "soft woods" in distinction from the so-called
II hurd woods/ J such as oak; but there are soft and hard
woods ill both groups. The United States is notable for its
varielY of pines, broadly grouped into the soft white pine
and the hard yellow pines. Our principal supplies come
from the white pine forests about tbe Great Lakes and the
yellow pine forests of the Southern States; but the foresls
of the former region baye been cut over so ruthle Iy for so
long n Hme that the SUI/pi)" of white pine is dimimshing.
A [elv years ago the white pine furrushed nearly one-third
of all tbe timber produced by the United States. It is very
GYllNOSPEIUdS 2H)
iml"Ortant to learn bow to obtain white pine with the Irnst

p"-,sible waste, for the usual methods will soon destroy all
of our oil pply.
The pine forests of the South, )'ielding in increasing
amount the \'ery \'aluable timber (,f the hllrd w00d )'cllolv
pines. are "cry ext.ensive. Chid ulnong these yellow pines
is the Georgia pine. being the' principal ~pcciN! oY('r an
fifty to one hundred nnd fifty miles wide and (>xtt~nd~
llr<'8
i1lg along the coa~l region from Xonh Cnrolina to (,3st,f'n)
Texas. This great Southern pine region is produ('ing more
and more limber as lhe supply fro III the Jl,"orthcrn wl,ite
pine is diminis.hing.
Thc coniferous forests mention~d above bdong to the
general Atlantic region, which extend. from the Atlantic
Coasl to the Mississippi Yalley; but tbere is n Pa"ifi" r"gion
extending from the R ocky ~I ounlains to the Pacific Coast,
!til of whose immense forests llTf' ("on i £ers. T}l('sC " 'estern
(orest.s ar<> mainly in the mountains, and lun·(l lx-ell most
wasLCfully treat.ed in cutting for timber, clearing. and per-
mitting the ra\'ages o( fire . Two (amous (\oni(erous trees of
California are the redwood and t he big tree. The former
yields a Yery valuable lumber, and the latter i. the lurgest
American tree. The big trees are found in 8cattf'rf·d groves
along the western slopes of the Sierra !\eYada, a number of
which are carefully preserved. The height of the standing
t rees reacbes 325 feet. but a fallen t.ree is estimBled to have
been over ,100 feet high. The diameter of the trunk Ilear
tbe ground sometimes reaohes 30 to 35 leet.
129. Resin and turpentine.-Tbe cODife"" in general
contain resins, and from certain pines the common resin
(or rosin) and turpentine of commerce are obtaiopd Usu-
ally incisions are made into the lI'ood of the trees and a resi-
nous liquid exudes, whicb is crude turpentine. This liquid
is distilled, tbe oil or spirit of turpentine coming off and
being coUeeted, and tbe resin remaining behind io the stilt.
CHAPTER XIII
ANGIOSPERMS
130. General characters.- This i, the gr('fit~'t !(roup of

plallt~. both in number;;:; alld impOrltlll(,(,. It ('umpris('s
mor(' tlmn 100.000 s~('ie::\. ~ud rorm~ the mo~t ('on!'\pi{'uou~
part of thl' "cgetation of tllp parill. It illcludes herbs.
shruhs. Rnd trp('t-; in profusion . and r€'pr('s('nt~ the plunt
kingd om at its highest dewlopm,'nt. Ther~ i; the greatest
possible Yllri('ty in habii, size. und duration: from minute
floating forms to gigilnti(' tn'm, ; crect, prostrate. and
climbing; aquatir, terrestrial. epiphyti('j from a f('w days to
centurirs in duration.
The most striking feature of the Angiosperms to the
ordinary obsen'er is that. the majority of tbem produce
what e"er~' one recognizes as floU1ers~' and hrnce they are
often spoken of as lIowering plant.s. The production of
flowers, howe\·cr. is not the real distinction of the group,
but it is n Yery prominent feature and suggests the group to
most people bet ter than any other character.
The general structure of the roots, stems. and leaves of
this great group was presented in Chaplers II. Ill , and n -,
so thut there remain for consideration the flowcr and the
structures associated with it.
131. The flower. -It is impossible and unneceSSAry
to define a flo"'er, bui it is not at all difficult to recognize
ordinary flowers. They are objects of such common ex-
perience that no one is' at a loss to understand what is
meant when the word is used. The parts of a lIower may
220
ANGIOSPERMS 221
b,' ullderstood best b)' selecting for description 'om •• implc
fJOW{,T thut has all the tiora! nwmbt'rjol:, U~. ror ('.:\umpl(·, the
iltlltt·f(·Up.
In ~lIf·h n fiowC'r theft' arC' foul' di :o: t ill(,l fo:.('I!'o (If I1H'nlht'l'S
( f\!!:. :!(7 ). Ttl(' ouu-' rmost 1wI Ita~ til(' ('olnl' and til(' form
(If ,":!TIn" }('fln\.:, ("ncJi
IIlf'lllht'r h(_·iIl.(! calh·d
:1 '!'1'IK11. and the wllulf'
"'1 lhe cafYI. Th,'
nf':\{ illrwr :'iN l!' u~u
:·tlly 1 lit, sh{J\\'Y onf',
\\ilh IlIC'lIlh('r:- of 1'('1-
alj\"{'ly ifngc Bize,
d(·/i(,!.ltc t('XI Ul'r, and
brj~ht color. (,tlch
1IH'mhel' 1wing cal1ro
U J,rtal. and the whole
Ill•. zo-. -I'IQIII('r .,i (1(""'.) J: , H'I •• J<'I ; ~. rlf"taJ..;
H'1 the coroila. The U, Ill_men,,; (I. CM1~IJ . \her :-nLo\"ltlkIU It
."N just "'ithjn the co-
mIlo. comprises the stamfns, which produce tht' pollcll.
The rentral set is made up of the ca rlw/8, whic h ('oll tai n
the Q\'uIN, that art' to become ~e('d!'.
The en dj e~ yariaiioIl8 of thc!'t' sepals. 1)I' tlllR. FltunJrn!!f,
and raq~ls. make th E.' differences 1lJll(IJH! flow('T'S, and j1 i8
a..... tonishing in how many < ways the \·u.riatiolls of four parts
ca n be combi ned. I t will be impos... iblc \(1 u("Hcrilw e\'e n
t he ('onspicUOLIS variat.ions and (.'ornhinntions. but (·{·rtain
general tendencies may be pointed out. 11 i.~ ;mportanL
fo r tbe studen t to examine as man" of thl' common flowers
of his neighborhood uS possible, ,,;,d
to discover how they
differ from one anotber ; for it is these floral differences
{hat are most used in classifying Angiosperms.
132. Sepals. - While the sepals generally look like small
green leaves. this is bv no means ah"avs true. Sometimes
they are as brightly c~lored as petals ; ,,~d often they appear
united, so that the calyx is a litlle cup or tube (Fig. 208).

In any case, the calyx is useful in the bud condition of the
flower in protecting Uu..' more deliratr parls \\ithin. Some-
lime. the sepals and the p<'tuls look so much alike thnt they
are spoken of together as the p<'M·anlh. as in t be common
lily (Fig. 274). Occasionally there is only one lIoral set
oUlsidf' the s lll.mens; ancl it has &rOIJl<!' the {'ustom to call
it a calyx. assumin!( thal t h,' rorolla is lacking. In still
other cns('s. there arC' no Aoral memb('r~ out:-icie the sta-
mens: and th£'o t Iw Aowrr is said to be' naked.
133. Petals.-The uttructiyenoss of flow,'", usually
depends" uI.mn their petals, and hence their differellres in
B c
PtG. 2OS.-Flower or tobacco: A. eympetalOUA corolla, cab"': urn-ukr; B, tube oJ
eoroU. eut opt!n and abu'lrill.$; attachmellt of IIllu:neWlj C. the pil!.til. Ibowina
O\'lt.ry, .tyle, ::wd lltignla..-Af'~ ~TKASBl:ItGE.B..
color and form are things of common experience. In many

flowers the petals are entirely distinct from one another
and can be pulled off separately. In many other flowers,
ANGIOSPERMS 223
loweyer, the petals appear to he united so that the coroUIL

"'rome, a cup. urn, buhe, funnel , or the like (Fig•. 20S
md 20m. This condition of the corollu is foIn ("oll~tunt in
h(' highest /troup of Angim;pcrm:o; thut the J,!f(IUp is ('ulh,'d
he Sympctaicr, becausc the corollas urc symw1al"u. (petals
,o~ct h.r ) .
In many flow(,r3 wiLh ~ympt'tulous ('nTollns thc're is nil
lrrcgular ucvl'lopmcnt, so th at lhl' mouth of the tube,
Pre 2f'Hl.--."'ympeUlloWi ROw\!nI: A. blu e~ll: H. phil),,": C, d~,.d-nt!r tl~; /) 'WlP~

drncDD ; E. tODod1hur. .-Af~r G 'LOoT.
instead of being regular, is di\'idcd into two urwqual lips,

a. in the mUlls and man)' otherR (Fig. 209, C-E). f;U{'h
Bowers nre snid to he Inlabiate (t\\'o-li pped) , and on this
account the ~lint Family is nam..ct La/ri a/IE. Such corolla.
may have further irregularities in the form of morf' or
less conspicuous projections a.t t he base railed .pUTS (Fig.
209, E). It must not be euppo""d that irregular growth.
are found only in connectloll with sy mpetnlolls ('orollafl;~
for the sweet pea represents a b'l'cat family in whi('h the
petals are aU sepamte, and yet they are very much unlike;
and in the violet, whose petals are d,stinct, one of them
bas a conspicuous spur.
The corolla is useful ;0 protecting the young stamens
and carpels, but it is slse associated with tbe \'isits of
insects, a subject which will be spoken of Ia.ter.
224 .A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
134. S!amens.-From our study of Gymnosperms (§ 123),

the stamell of the Angiosperm flower i. recogniz('d as a spo-
rophyH bearing sporangia. which pro.-
duee tho small spores (m i('rospore.)
called pollc-n grains. Th E' s tamen of
p Angios}X'rms. howcycr, hll:-' two V(lT:;
distinct Tf'g-ions. Tlwfe i~ a stalk,
whirh is u Hunll.y slC'ndcr and long .
('ailed the filllUl£'1tt; and at t.he top (If
this there is tli(' knob-like sporan-
,rium-bcaring region call"d the anli,fr
(Fi~. 210).
A B A ('ro~~-~('('t ion of a vcry you ng

Flo. 21O. -Frnnl (,·0 tlnd anther usually shows t hat it ('olltninf:
back (11) vie~'11 or ~ sta- four sporangia. that is, fOllr regions in
nUm. I'IbQw}u5: fi\!lmem
(/) amI IlIltlwr (11), the which spores aro formed (Fig. 211).
lAtl.('r iudlldina '~'O llUi-
If!n NlN.-Aller ~nll"-
As the anther matures, the two re-
gions on each side run together, so
Flo. 211.-Croee-tieetion oJ II very youna &Dtber of II lily. mowinc the lour de-
velopina lporangi.a.
ANGIOSPERMS 225
that tht' anthe r com fj 10 {'ontain only two sPOrt' ('ham . .
bers (Fig. 212). These two 'pore ('hamilers lire plainly
f w. 212 --CrOf!,."-1W!Clion of Il II1Jl1ll re Iluther t)f a. lily. ITIII!!h Isrltl"T IbJl., th.t Iho"""
in Flit 211. !lh()willr the ,wo chambers for1lled by the four ,!lllrall&U. aud al.o
Ib,. reJPlm of or..enill, (. ).
B
A C
FtG. 213.-.-\nthen openjt16 bJ' U>f'minal pon'Jt: ..4 . So/.o ' UUIl'; 8 , ArbwlU: C
l"auiftt.....-A .od B • .r~ E)I(OLn aDd Pa.urn.; C. alt« KUlr'Q
226 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTL'-'Y
visible from the outside, looking like two sacs, called po!"
len sacs. Ordinarily , therefore, the Angiosperm stamen
is said to have two pollen sacs.
In most cases the pollen sacs must open so that the
pollen may escape, and the method of opening differs in
different flowers. By far the
most common way is for euch
pollen sac to split open length-
wise, and this line of splitting
is usually plainly seen on the
surface of tbe unopened sac
(Fig. 210 , A). In some cases ,
however, each pollen sac opens
at the top, either by a short
slit or by 0. porc-like op<'ning
(Fig. 213, A. and B ) ; and in
Fla. 214.-fie.etioD of tbf' flower of an
.A /IIu, a , ebay;ill, !leI)"'! (0) . petall' some caBe , as among the
(b ) . tube of a14mens ((') enclosing heaths, this pore-like open-
IIt.)'le (d ) , and o\'ulee (t).-Aller
BERG and SCK)Ilnw. ing may be extended into It
more or less prominent tube
(Fig. 213, C). There are still other special methods of
opening pollen sacs, but (hey are comparati"el,' rare.
In srmpetalous corollas it is most conunon for the
stamens too appear fastened (0 the tube of the corolla (Fig.
208, B) _and this condition is usually described as " stamens
inserted on the tube of the corolla." Stamens may also
appear united, forming a tube, as in mallows (hollyhock,
etc.) (Fig. 214); or they may be in two sets, as in the sweet
pea, in which nine of t he stamens appear united and the
tenth one is free (Figs. 241 and 2 3).
135. Carpels.-It bas been noted tha~ carpels are the
sporopbylls that bear the peculiar sporangia called ovules
(§ 123). There is a s~riking difference, however, between
the carpels of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms, a difference
that gives nallles to the two groups. In Gymnosperms the
.ANGIOSPERMS 227
m·ule. are exposed on the surraee of the rnrJX'I , while in
t1lt· Angio:;!pe rms they ar(' fncl o~d hy tilt' ruqw! u.s in n
r!(I!'>t'U '·f'~.,d. Gymnosperm m{'ani'! S('{·d n!lkl~d ," t\nd
. j
AtI~i o~pt:' rlU mcnns "8{'cd in n Ycss('l " ; ht'nC'C' th(' nalllt,', ' of
th(, !!roup~ refer to this diffeTrI1('C in tht' cnrrt'i::.,
Tho c'arP<'1 of an Anl(iospcrm Rower hn.< I he p;pnNnl
S""f'" of " flask (Fig•. 207 nnd 2;5. A ), The bulbous
bo tlnI1l in which th(' onl\{'s UTe ('ll(·jo!'C.('(1 j:-; c'ullrd tiU' m'(Iry:
Lilt' IH'('k of the fln ~ k. whidl may Ix' ~horl or long. is. cnllt·d
tht' "'.lilt: and upon th e st~· lp . l"itilrT Oil its t o p, which is
ofH'Il kn oh-li ke, or along it!' ~ id {'. tlwf(" i!' a s lx:{' i(dl~' pr('-
par('u :'OuTfuc(' to n·('[·j,·c th€' pol\{' n , kllOWtl as tilt' stigm(J ,
Thi~ sti ~mnti c Bu rfn('e, wh('n rt'fl(i y 10 r('('ch'c lhi..' )loUrn ,
j..:: stick.\"; (he style . unlike fh(l J1C't'k of u flas k. is usually
solid; "0 that the o\'"r.1' is I he onl), pari of I he carpel [IIMI is
l\(1\low. The ovules in nIl o"nry ,·tHY ill numlX'r frorn a
~ill(dp one to a great
number, a.nd they are
bornp in n. "ariety of ~
positi<ms on t he imler
wall of the oyary.
Inmany flowers
t h(' carpels remain
""para te (Figs. 207
and 215 , A ) , as in A
the buttercups; but
c
it is Yery common for FIG. 215. -.... . limpl" PU!tu. (ef,('b on~ a lin"'"
...11 the carpels of a car'J)el ); B lIo d C. comJ>OU.l.d 1)\!llilll (eII4l.b fine
cornJ)l»ed of l!eVenLi ~1" .-Ahf'T Ba:.o
flower to unite in the And ScuJll1lrt.
formation of a single
structure, whose general outline is that of • single car·
pel. That is, it has a single ovary and may have a single
style (Figs. 208, C, and 21;; , C). It is convenient to hal'. a
word to apply to this ovule-containing structure, whether
it consists of one carpel or of several organized together,
22H A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
and such alVord i pistil. A pistil, therefore, is any organ-

ization of (:arppls I hal appear as n single' organ with ODf'
o\'nry. .'\, pistil ('OIllpo~('d of one c'aq)f>l is tulled a simple
pi,'lil (Figs. 207 "lid 215, A), nnd ono cornpo,od of more
than one ('uq')('l i~ n compound pistil (FiJ.{~. 20~. C. and 215,
C). \Vh('n a flower has one pistil, it is n{'('r~snry to d:s·
('O\'('T whf'liH'T it i~ a :;illlpl€' or H compound pi~lil. [llld if it
i~ the Jut t(' T to dt'leriliinc tilt' JlUmb(,T of (·uq)(·i:;: that rntf'r
into its Rtru('t 'lT('.~(Jm(:·times th(' st~'I('~ ure S('pnrntr
(Fig. 215, BL or thf' singlp slyle is cleft more or l(.'~s deeply;
and in eit lw r ('ase thr nnSW('TR to both questions are \'cry
ap parent. But oftPTl the style is single throughout a1ld
does not indi(,ate the numb{~r of carpels. In that case the
o\-ary mtiRt be crnss-scctiOllrd, and if th€' srC:lion rrn:-als
more than 011(' o\'ulc chamber the compound charat'fer
and the number of carpel, nro uSllall,' 'pparont (Fig. 216,
B). ~omC'1 imcR. hOWC·\'C'T. n ('ompoulld onlT~- may htl \'p
only one o\'ulc chamber, and in this casc the number of
Ow A 8
Fro. 216.-Dia¥Tluumacie c~tion of f'Ompouml o"Wf!IIl: _.(. s vne-e.haUlbered
ovule eompoM<i or three carpels: B, 11. tbret'-Chambered ovule.-AIt~ SCIIDU'&K.
carpels may be indicated by the number of rows of ovules

on the ,,,all (Fig. 216, Al.
It is necessary to know something about the structure
of the Angiosperm o"u\e (Fig. 217), That it is a sporangium
containing one large spore (megaspo.re) that is never shed,
was pointed out in connection ,,;th the Gymnosperms
ANGIOSPERMS
(§ l:.?~). On the outside of this 0\"u1. one or t\ro epecia1

('(t'f'rin~,:; arc
d('\·C)OIWd. ruJJ£'d inlrgU7ncnls. Thl'.Iff'illt('gu·
mrnl:;; g:row up about Ihr ovule, but do nn! rompl(>jriy
(,(,,'n it nt the top, lca\~ing (1 littlr oPNting (·ullt·u the
uHcropylc (lilt Ie gate). This micropylt, i~ a ,'(Or.'" important
n
r",o
0/-·
o 0'~ " ~Q
o
o
A B C
FII •. :!17.-IJmsrrtlffimBtic l(1nf~:Itudll\u l "''f'UtJlli "( ~)\' 1J1~~. ,.Iu"rilill ,ou ter (m") and
Inn.. t rH' IIIlo1'trUmflIU•. IIl1crulJyl,. (m). UUC'ellulI {,.!. al\(I mf"IUUPt'"' (""'). tlw
laet oheu «:allell embryu lIa\\: . 1. ('f'e'el u\'ule; 1:1. I)un'..d v\'\df'; C. irl"l!"I"eo.i 1.1\,11)...
fratllTC in thf' ondp !lnd al~o laU'T in Ill,. S('('d. Tht" bod~'
of the o\'ulc within the intt' ~um('ntf: is ('nllNi the' 1JlJceliulI,
and within the IHIC(.> IlUS th(' larg~ f'pon' (mf',gnRJKJrr) lips
embedded (Fig. 217). Th. three type' of ontl,' ,,,"{' shown
ill Fig. :!17: the ere,·t O\oule (A). the r.m·c·d o\'ul" (IJ). and
lhe im'ertcd o\Oule (C). the last bping t1,,· most ,·ommoo.
136. Floral numbeno- In mllll,o {Jow." there i. no
regularit r in the number of membern in eu{'h R<'t. For
examplf:) in the water-iii," petals and stamens ocrtlr in
indefinite numbers; and in the buttercup the same i. trw' 01
stamens llnd carpels. In most flowers. howe\'er, definite
numbers appear either in some of lbe sets or in all of them.
When these definite numbers arc present. they are pro"ail-
ingly eitber three or five; that is. there are either three or th·.
sepals. petals, stam"ns, and carpels; altbough it is very
common to have two sets of stamens, in wruch case they
number six or ten. These numbers appear so constantly
in great groups tbat tbe two grand divisions of Angio-
sperms, called Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, are cbar-

acterized by theID, the former ha dng the parts of i he
flower in threes, the latter in fives. This does not meau
that all flowers of these two dh'ision. ha,'e one or the otber
number, but that, these tire the preyailing numLer.; in caS!'
there is a definite number at all. Kot a few Dicotyledons
hnye flowers ' with the parts in threes, and a "till larger
number have them in fours.
137. Stanililate and pistillate tlowers,-In JUan,' cases
stamens and pistils are not found together in the same
flower. In such cases there are staminate /101I'CrS, that i ,
those without pistils; and pistillate flowers, that is. those
without stamens. These two kinds of flowers may be
borne upon the same plant, which is then said to be
lItOl1lEcious (one household); or upon different plants,
wh ich arc then said to be dia'l'io"s (two households). These
terms are applied indifferently to tbe plants or to the
flowers . eit.her the plants or the flowers being spoken of as
monrecious or direciolls. In a dicpcious plant, therefore J
..I B
f'lo. 218.-H)'pocrnow. flower of P~enIilla (A) , a.od epiCYDO\L! flo~-er 01 appk
(B),-Att~r E.....GL.Ell &nd PR.o\ln1.".
one can speak of staminate and pistillate plants, one bear-

ing fruit and seed and the other not. Many of our common
trees, as \\~lI o'l\'s and pOplars, are direciou ; and JUany more,
as oaks, walnuts, and hickories, are monrecious,
A.."G1OSrEI!~IS 981
13 Hypogynous and epigynous flowers.-I n nlany

ftowe" the sepals. petals. llnd stamen. an' 9(.'('11 to be
F'IG. 2J9. -Dot"tooth rioIel. with hYJ)OCYDou. Bowerw ,Lily Family),
,.
att.acbed under tbe ovary, that is, tbe ovary appears witbin
tbe flower (Fig. 218, A). ucb" flower is said to be-
hypogyntJU3 (under the pistil), and in descriptions of flowers

this condition is often called .Io\·ary superior." In many
other Howers, on tbe other hund, the sopals. petals, anu
stamens all seom to be attarhed to the
top of tbe ovary; tha tis, 1he 0\ ary a p-
peurs beneath the flower (Fig. 21 S, 13).
Ruch a flower is called cpigYllou s (upon
I he pistil). or dt'Rcrib<'d often RS onuy
.I
inferior." This is a YCry important db-

tinction, because it characterizes grea1
groups of plants; for example, all mem-
bers of the Lily Family arc hypogynous
(Fig. 219), und all members of the Ama-
ryllis and I ris Families arc epigynous
(Fig. 220). It is also ill 1cresting to note
tlmt all the plants of highest mnk in
their respective lines have epigynolls
flowers.
139. Flower clusters.-In many cases
a single flower terminates the steID , or
Fla. 2:2O.-8no",·Oake.
witb epi&,.\'DOU, Row- flo\\'ers may ocrur in the axils of ordi-
ers (Amarylli5 Fami- nary lea\·es. But more frequently Bow-
ly) . - After 5Ttu.s-
ers occur in definite clusters, which fifC
characterist.ic and help to distinguish
plants. It is unnecessary 10 enumerate all the forms of
flo,,'er clusters and their names, but Bome of the more
important may be !loted.
One of tbe most oommon kinds of clusters is that in
wbich the flowers arise along nn axis, resulting in a more
or less elongated and often drooping cluster. This is
called a raceme, and the flowers may be. loosely or densely
arranged (Fig. 221). If in such a cluster tbe flowers have
no stalks, and n:;;t di!,!,ctly on the axis, the cluster is called
a spike, as in the common plantain (Fig. 222). If the
cluster is fiat-topped, "ith the flower-stalks rising and
ANGIOSPEruIB
sprt>ading like the braces of an umbrella, it is nn umbel. lUI

in rhcrry (Fig. 223), wild parsnip. carrot, rlr. (Fig. 224).
Flo. 221.-Raeeme 0[ lupine.
II one ~an imagine the flowers of an umbel without any

stalks, so that they would be packed closely togetber at the
234 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA!<-Y
t.op of the main ""is. the cluster is called n head, the roost
notable illustrations being sltc'h plants as the sunflower Or
dandelion, whose so-called
. 1 flowers II nrc compact clus-
ters or heads of numerous

sma ll flowl'rs (Figs. 29S and
299).
Fro. 223.-Umhf!1 01 ciJen")·.- Fro. :r.l4..-UmbeJ of hamlock..-

Alter DUClU..R"nL After ScHllItPEIL
ANGIOSPERMS 285
140. The gametopbytes.- Th. gatnetophyte. of A"gio-

Fperms are eYeD morf' reducNl than t host' of Gymnosp<'rms
(§ 124). In order to S<'<' them .• "",·inl prepnratinnR for the
mirToscopt' arc n(>{·('ssnry. but with tbe he1p of illu~tTntion8
some idea of them may be obtuin,·d. the pollen grain n.,·
(microsporc) thrpe rells arc fnrmpd, and two of tlwtn nrc
male ('dl, or sperm .• ; these tllr('() ('dis rq)res"llt th ... male
gumetopl'Yle (Fig. 225).
Within the large spor"
(mC'gaspoT(') which i.5 I
retained in thr Oyu l (',

se,'en rells uSllally • p-
pcar: and aile of the.e
is an egg, no ar('hf'go-
J-~I(;.Z'15.-Pollen grlLin cOllwnint Flo. 2i>fl.-TIlt' female IPUllol!fflptWt.- ,t!. Iny

II lb~ - ~Hed rn.J,. i'au'lfoto-- ~fOff lertj\iz.ti(.ll~. widun lb<' uld Irw:p-
llhYIC; one ct:1I repf'f':!lil!lIte<J hy .r....'re ",aUeichl Cf"JI".Ot tho-It !luclei aI"""""
it~ nucleU5. tbe two other cell" in • . oue of "'hi~h ~ an eu (f'): tilt! IJOUe)
be-ill&' taBle et'JJL !ube enl«-l"W Lhrou«b Ih" J.Olcmllyh (m) .
nium to contain it being formed. The"" Be' -en cells repre-

sent the female ltametoph~·1.e before f~rtilizatioll (Fig. 226).
The sperlnS produced by the pollen must, reach the egg
within the o,·ule. The stamens thaL produce the pollen
may be in the same Bower as the pistil thllt contains the
ovules wilh their eggs, or they may be in another flower
on t.he sa~e plant, or they may be borne by an entirely
tillferellt. plant. In any event, the first tbing done i. to
transfer the pollen to the pistil. This transfer, that i8,
'280 A TEXT- BOOK OJ!' BOTA NY
pollina.tion (§ 125), is effected in many Angiosperms by

inS<'cts, and bow this is' brought noont will be described
Inler.
Tbe pollen grains 'that reach thc stigma, the specially
prcpar('(j "lIl'f"",· for receidng Ihem, begin to pul out pollell
tul",.. Thesc tubes grow through the
Rtigma and enter Ih() ~tyl('; grow down
th(' styl£' und ('ntcr tla- l'fi\"ity of th('
ovary; rrach the o\·ulc.s aJld enter their
micropyles; and finally penetrate the
onde to the egg (Fig. 227). Through-
out this pr0b'Tess of the tube the mnle
cells lirc in its tip, and whcn the eg~
is reached I hey are discbllrgcd from
Ihe tube and oue of them f",cs "'ilh
the egg. This is the act of fcrtiliza-
tion, Blld through it the egg becomes
nn oospore.
An importa.nt difference between
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms should
be noted here. In GrmnospNms I he I
pollen reaches the o"ules, for (hey nre
exposed; but ill Angiosperms thc pol-
len reaches only the surface (stigma)
f'Ja. 22i'.-DiD.,rrutLlIUltic
of the pistil that encloscs the o,-ules.
rep~ntallon of p4,lIr:n 141. Embryo.-The oospore, lying
t,ubell '1fl1l~lmlinC tlw
t11y\.,; olle cd them e-n- in the midst of the o"ule, at ODce be-
totnn. the O\'1t.ry cavill',
p&llllin.. down it. wnll.
gins to germinate, and forms a young
and r'U('bin,: the lema.ie plnnt or (,lIIbryo. While the embryo
. .m~l~phyt4!' by way of
the miCf'OPl'le. is forming, the o\'ule de"elops a hard
coat outside, and a seed is the result
(Fig. 228). The general structure of the seed and how the
young plant escapes frolIl the seed have been described in
Ohe.pter V.
The two great djyisions of Angiosperms e.re ne.med
ANGIOSPERMS 237
from the peculia r characler of their embryos. I n one
di\·i.ion the root is de\'eloped at one end of t he embryo
and the single cotyledon Itt
I he ot her end. the s«'m
roming out on 011(' side'. I n
the other dh'ision"lhe root
i" de\'elojX'd at one end of
tlw C'JTlbryo anu the' fo'tC'ITI ut
t he other end, two ('ot.'"l('-
dons comi ng out on oppo-
~ilc ~id('s ju~t l)('hind t.he
..:trm tip. Thert'for(', th(' ru;. ~2S.-~t or vinl.... 0111! fill\lr...t.........
ilU. Iill' lllini Ie-I.•. III" uther tbl! ~tn
first di\"ision is callf'd -'10)10- IIr),o ()'IJulig lIpm"I,h)',,) L1.. , t.-
colyll'dons (onp ('otyl('don), r!co\·clo".,.j from the n',..."Offl.-Afte:r
B"ll..l.tl N.
and t he second is ra!Jed 1)1."
cotyledon. (t\l'O cotyledon,). There urc many other differ"
f'U('('S bet \YL't'n l\J onoroty JC"dons and ] )il.'olylt;doJlfl.. but this
difference bet \\'cen the embryos }Jus been sc)ecl",J to form
the names.
The embryos of Angiosperms differ mueh as to the com"
pleteness of their development within the s""d. In some
plants the embryo i. ml'rel), " mass of rells, without any
organization of root, stem. f)r leuf. I n many pllwts, on
the other hand. the embryo becomes }Iil(hlr ue\'e)oped,
shon'ing alJ the principal organs and the plumul~ ron-
taitling ""\'eral wcll..organized )'Ollrlg ICliws «('hapter Y).
142. Seed, -Tbe seed is e"ident}r an antic (sporangium)
containing a female gameiophyte IVllil'li I,,,,, de,·elop<.'<l ..
new sporophyte (embryo). This complex .truetum is
invested by the liard seed-eoat, and i. a protecied resting
condition of thc plant.
T he secd"cont (testa) in Angiosperms i. exc(·edingly
" anable in structure and appearance. Sometimes i~ is
smoo~h and glistenin g, sometimes pitted, sometimes rough
with warts or
ridges. In many cases prominent append·
ages arc produced, ns wings, tufts of ha.i... etc .. which assist

in seed dispersal. a subjert which will be considered later.
143. Fruit.-Ac('ornpanying the cbanges in oyuil's 1n-
"oln·t! in 1h(' formation of f'l(,f'ds, there arC' other ('hanges
in t he ~urrollnding parts frstllting in th(' formation of n
fruit. These ('hanges mny inyolw' only the o\'ary wa.ll. or
tlH'Y filly include also other :,~djnceflt structllfPS; but the
whoir Tl'ziUlling ~1 flirt tlfe', whnten,'r it mn.'" in('Juot'. i~ ('all('(1
u fruit. The' fruils of An~io!iperms ar£' so cxc(·("din~I~·
diw'rse that it will be possible to giv(' only a ycry general
ollllin(~ of the yftriou~ kinds.
For ('onw,"_il'II('t', those' fruits ,,-ill hf' ('onsidf'fed fir!;t
thul r f'pn'!=i:('nt olily t hi' ('rilarg{'d nnd LUodifi('d O\'ur,",
Sllch fruits may he pln('('d in two groups: those that ripen
dr)" finel those t hnl riP<'n fleshy .
(fj DRY F'HnT-.- ] n I},<'so the omr)' "'all not onl.'"
challg('~, but also usually 11(·(.' om{·~ hard or parchment-like.
Dry fruits may olx'n to discharge thei r
~('Ni~. but of(('n wlH'JI t h('f(' is onl~' OJlr
seed in an oyury th r fruit docs not open.
Thu f:: there are two
t!roup~ of dry fruit:;::
t h. dehiscellt (0P<'I1-
iug) and the indehi.-
('ent (unopening) .
Q. Dehisce111 fruits.
-Dry fruits thnt Opell

are in general called
l>OdS. and usually th.y
open by splitting. as
the pods of pens and
beans. T he great fam-
ily to which peus and
Ftc. 2.."9.-Pnd 0( .weel benns belong is named Flc. 230. - Capaule 0(
~d<t:~-Af itU dehiKinc.--Aher
terOlU.T. for its pod, being C ....I.T.
ANGIOSPElUlS 289
,·"Iled the Lcqumino.a:. II legume being a sped.] kind of

pod (Fig. 2::!9). Whel1 n pod i., derived from" compound
pi!':liJ. forming n. fruit of S('\"erll) dllUTI-
he'rs, it i~ more commonly c811N1 tl cO/I--
,~'ul(': snd ('tlr~lIJ(·s differ from one lUl-
(,Ill{'r in t hf' W3~' the cham hers :.lrt'
(1)('11(.<1 (Fil(. 2:30).
I" Illdd, isrrnl jruil.~.-Thf· mo~! rnlll-
nwn form of dry [ruil!; tlw.1 do HOI open
;:'0 1}1[! t in which t ht· modified OloUT)" wlJll
il!n:'-:u;; dH' ~/)liUlry !-It·c·d so rJoS('ly !lUll
Ih{· fruit Jonk;; like a $('('u, lIlHI hi rom
.tllOlJly l'all('J n st'(· I. The {!rain of ('('Tf-'-
al:-: j ..;: !'u('h a s('('d-lik(' fruit, fl.!" is also I he
akl'lI(' of ~un-ftow('rs. dlludpjjon:;, (·tc. J II .. 2J1.-.u.f!tlt' (If
d","ddinn, ....... h ta~
(Fig. nl). I~ allu"" 11110:. "
(2) F1.E·.. wr Fln']T".-ln ~"nH' ('fi~·.s 10I11t , ..... " "urin."
tuft IIf h.na.-After
t iw wllOlf· L)\'ar.r hC'('oJllf'S a I hin-!o>.kiJlJl('(1 Gil.. "
pulpy mll.5S in whirh t)J(' H('rds are ('m ..
Iwdd('o. u:" tilt· grnp<'. currant. ,ltooSC"bcrry, tomuto , ('tc.,
such a fruh being a berry. ~l odifi(:lItions of the lx·rry aT(!
seen in surh fruits 11$ 11w orange
and the lemon, in 'which I h{, skin
is leathery j nnd in such fruits as
mclons and pumpkins. "hi("h be,
come covered wil h n hard rind.
\' cry distinct from these are tbe
.tonf-fruil.~ (drupe.). as peach. plum.
cherry, etl' .. in which thf> oyar." wull
Fm. !!32.---&.c_.tion of peae.b.
lbo"in" vu]p lind IMlJt'
ripens in two IUYE!rs. th(" inner one
formrod ff'()(11 o""&ry .all beingycry hnrd, forming the "stone,"
_lid f!ndtMrint; thf' &eed
and the outer one being pulpy (Fig.
(UrneJ).-.-\!It'I CaAT.
232). In gellNal. Beshy fruits do not
open; but the banana is a peculiar fil'Shy fruit that de-
llli;ces.
All of the fruils mentioned above include only n modi-

fied ovary wall with its contents, but mllny of tbe most
Pto. 233.-RMllbeny: A. ftnw~Nltalk. 9I"ilh cnlyx, FIG, ZH.--..qlrn.\\"I~f'T)·; 1\.11

old .tamelUl, alld fJfOUUlleDl receptaclfl. from enlarJtCd pulpy r~~tade
. 'hic.b the !)4'.rry (a c:luatcr of InulU .tont"-fruh.) ill wbJch llumerOUlJ "mall
hAl been mmo \'oo (LJ).-Afler l1..uL£Y. a.kWlell ATe embeOd~.
common fruits do not answer to this description. A few

of th3 most conspicuous of these "'ill sen'C ". illustrations.
A number of the best-knowll fruits hnye been nnmed
It berries II that. arc Jlot berries as described aboyc. For
FIG.. 235,-Lonptudincl and tn..nIvt!t"8e RCUmu of apple, Mowing tbe fin-celled

O'"V)' (core) mnbedded in the ftesb,y cup of the fiower-.
example, a raspberry is'a mass of very small stone-fruits

that slips from the enlarged top of the flower axis (recep-
ANG IOSPER:I!S
tarle) like a cap (Fig. 233) . A strawberry is a "cry mueh

('lllru'ged and Beshy rccl'plnel". in tho surfaN' of \\ hieb
minute akene. nrc i.a1beddrd (Fig. :!34). A bll\('klwrn' i.
flO! onJy II cylindrical masS! of small stOllC'-fruils, hUI ;IVto
illC'luues the f1esh.\~ rec(·ptucir.
In Eluch rruit~ us applf'~, Jwnrs. nnd qlliIlC(,!~. th{' Ac·sh."
parI is the modified cUjl-like base of the fl o\\w ."rrounding
the ovary, which with its contained seeds is repreflented

by the core (Fig. 235). An enreme case is the pineapple,
in which " whole tlower-eluster has become aD enJarged
tlesby mass, including axis and bracts (.10 ig. 236).
CHAPTER XlV
FLOWERS AND INSECTS
144. Pollination .-Among Gymnosperms the pollen i.

transfe r!sd by the wind , and this is true .1'0 of many
Angiosperm.. But the pre"ailing method of pollination
among Angiosperms is the use of insects as the agen ts of
transfer. This mutually helpful relation uet ween (lowers
and insects is a very remarkable onc, and in some cases
it has become so intimate that they cannot exist without
each ot.her. Fl owers are modified in many ways. in rela-
tion to insect visits, a nd insects are " a riouslr adapted to
fl owers.
The pollen may be transferred to the stigma of its own
flower (sell- pollination), or to the stigma of some other
flower of the same kind (cross- pollina/ioll). In the latter
case the two flowers concerned may be upon the same
plant or upon different plants, which may be quite distant
from one anoLiler. Since flowers are yery commonly ar-
ranged to secure cross-pollination. it must be more ad " an-
tageous in general t han self-pollination .
The ad"antage of this relation to the insed is to secure
food. This the flo wer pro,-ides in t he form of either nectar
or pollen; and insects ,isi ting Bowers may be grouped as
nectar-feeders, represented by moths and . butterflies, and
pollen-reeders, represented by the numerous bees and wasps.
The presence of these su.pplies of food in the flower is made
known to the insect. by the display of color, by odor. or by
form. It sbould be s.ud that the attraction of insecta to
242
FLOWERS AND INSECTS 248
flowers by color has been doubted, since it is claimed thllt

~omr of the common flower-visiting in&'cts arc (,ulor-blind,
but rCliiarkalJly keen of sc('nl. Ho\\'('n~r t im~ tntly he
it SC't'ms to be ~lIffi('icl1t Iy ('slablislH'd I hut
for 8umf' in:-:r('lf',
mony iUt-eC'ls rc('ogniz(' their fCl'ding ground by th(' difo;pluy
of <'olor.
It is Hident that 0.11 ins<'cIs attracted by ne{"tar or pollen
nrf' not suitubl{' fur Hl(' work of pollination. For inst!\lWl~,
ordinary ants arL' (onti of ~UC'lI (ood . hu( !\s Uw)' wftlk (rom
plant to plant an~' pollen dusted upon (hem is u.lmol';t ~t1re
to be brushed off nn t he way and los I. The must fll,·or,.blc
in:o'('c.'t is the ftyinp; one, which ran pus.."i (rorn (fowC'r to
tlowl'r through th(' nir. It will be Rl"('n, tlll'Tf'foT(', thnt.. the
fiO\\'(,T not only must Sf'cure th{' yisits of suitable insncts,
but also must guard agllinst the depredations of unsuitable
Olies.
145. Self-pollination.-It is .,·ident that in many cases
S€lf-pollination is likely to oocur. In some Rowen< the sta-
mens and carpels ar~ so related to one another in posit.ion
that II·hen pollen is being shed some of it may f,,11 upon the
stigma. E\'eo the visit of an insect, which usually results
in cross-pollination, may resu lt in self-pollination.
It must not be understood that only cross-pollination is
really prodded for, and that when self-pollination occurs
it is more or less of an accident. I n addition to the numer-
ous CIlSeS of what may be called accidental seli-polli-
natioll in flowers usua lly cross-pollin&ted, self-pollination i,~
definitely pro,·ided for more extensh·ely than once w ....
supposed. It i. found that many plants, as ,·iolots, for
example, ill addition to the usual showy insect-pollinated
flowers, produce flowers that are not at all showy, that in
fact do not open, and are often not prominently placed.
These inconspicuous closed flowers are called clei.togamoUl
flowers; and in these flowers self-pollination is necessary,
and very effective in producing good seed.
A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTAJo.'Y
146. Yucca and Pronuba.-This i a remarkable case of

self-pollination by means of an insect. ]-ucm is It plaut
of tlie soulbwest-
rrn arid regions
of !\orth Amprica,
find ProTlllba is a
moth; and the' two
nre yt'ry cit'pt'ndent
l1pon ('3th other.
The bell - sliaped
flower:; of Y u.cca
hUIl,l! in great ter-
minal rlu~t{'rs. In
"3eh pendent flower
Fl o. 237.-Tbe pendent flo,.,.~ or ]"UUtl. showing (Fig. 237) tbrre are
~~~O~)(~ ;:::::,:::d the ribbed oVlU"y.-Aftcr six
hunging sta-
mens. and an O\'ary
.../ '- ribbed lengthwise, with a fun-
nel-shaped stigmatic opening
in its top (Fig. 238). The
numerous small o,·ules O('CUI
in rows beneath the furrows.
B
Flo. !!3S -Lonci.tudinal RCtian of aD PIG. 239.-The l}()f;ition of ProruWa OD
oVlU'yof Y.,«G. abo'rinc the funnel· the lJUUDen of ].wa:u wbrn col1ecrtinC
ahaped rucmatie Olw:ninc (.,. and the poll~ Cd) and wben thrw!tina iL
to'WII of OvulK attaebed to tbe ..an ioto the stigmatic fUllDeI (B).-Af·
(o).-Alter Rn.rr and TJlnCAaL tet IUUYaudTa.El.&.t.AL
FLOWERS .AND lNSECTS
During the dny the small female PrM",l", rest. qlli~\ly

wililiu the flower, but at dusk becOlll('S "crr n('lh·~. ~he
Irlwcls down the stmnrnR . and rt.·stillg on ~n O]J(>n pollen
StiC ~roops Ollt the sOI1l('whnt
f'ti('ky }lOlJt·n with her frollt If'gs
(Fig. nfl, A). H olding t},p liltl!'
11ll\!oli{ of pollen :lg'aiJlst her body.
she TIIIlS to the o\·n.r~· t stands
fist ride om' (,f t tiC furrows. nnd
piercitl~ through ill(' wHlI wilh
hrT (wiposito r deposits: an C'gg
in nn o\'\tle. After dC'Jlositinp:
s{'\"craJ eggs in this wn.," , she
Tum; to the top of the o"llry and
l1(>gills to (,Towd into thr funncl-
shapeu sti~rnalic ca\'ity the mass
uf pollen she has colledcd (Fig.
239, H). These 1.I.('lions arc re-
pented sc"ern.1 times, until many
eggs hu \'e been deposited and
r.peated pollination has bren PIO. 240,-A mature eaJ.l"lIl~ (ij
r~. aIJo"'inl IlC'rforatinn.
effected. As n result of this, made hy I.r\'~ uf /'romdJU 11,1
seeds are formed which develop ~llinlt.- After RU.t:.T IitId
TilJ:L~AfIi~.
abundant nourishment for the
moth larvre. which become mature nnd bore their way out
through the wall of the capsule (Fig. 240).
147. Cross-pollinatioo.-In those flowers in \\~hj{'}; crnss-
pollination is the rule, self-pollination is hindered in "
variety of ways. In tbe .8.'le8 about to be considered,
stamens and carpels are together in the same lIower; of
course, in dimcious plants there can be DD such thing 118
self-pollination. It is necessru;y to remember also that
when the stigma is read:' to Te"';i"e the pollen, it excretes
upon its surface a sweetish, sticky fluid, which bolds and
feeds the pollen, inducing the development of pollen tubes.
I n this condition the stigma is said to be ready or mature.

Th e pollen i. mature ,..hen it is ready to fall Ollt of 'he
pollen sacs or to be r(>moyed from them. In obtaillin~
nct"tsr o r pollen ns f00d, the visiting ills("('t T('('Ci\-('::i pollen
on some purt of its body which will be likply to {,OIlle in
contact ,,;Lh the stigma of the next flower yj;;;itC'd.
Cros.5-p(lJJjnalin~ flowers may be illustratf'd undrT t hr('('
hcud:o.. distin!!ui~lH·d from ou(' t1.1l0tiH' T hy tllt·iT Illf·!II(It]._.. of
hinderillg self-pollination; hllt it mUSf h(> UUdCf.;;:f(loJ t hnt
almost ('vcry kind of flower hfi.~ its own \\,!1~' of "()h'in~ Ihe
problem!; of pollination. ] t is an ('x('('edin:;!'iy illl('r(,:3tin~
ami prnfitahle ('xcr('i~e for tht' ~tud('nt to ('x!lIuitlP H,.; many
cross-pollinating flowers as possible', with tilt, "it" " of J('-
tcrmining in ('nch Cfl:;e lie'),," ~l'lf-pollinati(ln j .. hindered,
how cross-pollination is ~('('t1n·d, and ho\\' the \'i~ilS of
unsuitable insect· are discourll~cd.
( 1) Positioll.-In these ca."s the pollen ""01 tho "ig-
rna ure ready at the same time; but their p()~ili(Jn in rrf(,T-
cu(,e to t'Hch oth-
er. or in reference
to some conforma-
tion of the flower,
makes it unlike-
ly Ih3[ the pol-
len will fall upon
the stigma. The
three following
iIIuBtratjons, se-
lected from hun-
dred s, mar be
gillen:
In the family
Flo. 241.-Ro8e acacia: A . kt!el projecting from luUry
calyx. the otheT petaltl harinc beeo l'Ulo~; B. (Leguminosl£) to
protrusion of tip of ..~)'le when keel ilt df!p~ : which the pea,
C. Merion ahQ1rioa poIIitiOb of part.a wit.hia kr!el.-
AJtft' G .... T. bean, etc._, belong,
FLOWERS AND INSECTS
the several stamens and the single carpel nrc in • cluster

enclosed in a boal-shaped stru!'1 ure (ked) fOrlU(·d by two
of the petals (Fig. 2~J). Tho sli~I1l!l iR III Ihe "ulJllllil of
Ihe st)'le ana projects somewhat I)(".nmd rh{' poll ell f;lll'S.
""mo of whose polien lool!cS Oil • hairy ZOllO on the
sf,de below the stigma. \Vhilc the !'ti~l(I(t is not alt(J~
j!'(·t her secure from recciling sorne poUCll, dl(! positioll
d(l{'s nof fn \'or it. The
projecting keel j, I he nnt-
ural landing placo for a
bee ,;siting lhe flower:
and it is s() inserted that
the weight of I h,· in"",·t
Ocprc!\.ecs il. and tho "Ii!!:-
rna tomes in contact wit h
its body. 1\01 only does
the· stil!ma strike the
bndy, but by I he glan-
dng blol\' the surface (If
the style is rubbed again t
the insect; and upon tbis
51 yle, below the stigma,
t he pollen has been shed
and is rubbed off against
Flu. Z42.-Lc:m,rjludinal ~dolJ uf ft01ft!l' oJ
the insect. At the next W •• bO'llriha .. anKle IUlIJlCI_ft btolWf'en lbtl
dTooi)lnc J)('taJ .lUld the IHlIAI·lik" .. ty",:
flower "isiled lhe stigma the .Iicm.llr .hdI is ~ .1.oOve Ole
is likely to strike the pol- IJt&Wf!'lI.af l}MumoftlHo.'yle; t}1~~W
pit i.s III th~ JUllC~ 0( l~taJ .,Id .tJUneP
len obtained from the pre- -AIlL'TGJuY.
vious flower, and the slyle
will deposit a new supply of pollen. It is interesting to
press down slightly the keel of such a flower and see tbe
style apparently dart out.
In the iris or comm(J!] flag, each stamen is in a kind of
pocket between the petal and the petal-like style; while
the stigmatic surface is on the top of a flap or shelf which
11
the style S('nds out as a roof to the pocket (Fig. 242).

\Yilh stich an arrlll1gl'mE'nl it would seCUl impossible for the
pollen to reach the slignul IInaidf'd . The nectar is iu a
lillie pit at the bottom of
t he pocket. As the insN·t
crowds its way into the nar-
rowin~ pocket, its body is
dU""d oy the pollen; and
when if Yisits the next
flo'H'r, and pushes aside the
~ti~mali(' shelf, it is likely
to dc-posit upun it some of
tlte pollen prc"iously re-
(.'l'i,-{·d.
In the orchids, remark-
able for lh t'ir strange and
heautiful flowers, the story
of pollina lion is slil; more
('ompliralC'd. There nrc
usually tll'O pollen sacs, and
the pollen grains are not
dry and powdery, but clin!!:
together ill It mass (polli,,-
ilL"'). which must be pulled
Jo)u ~"3 ,-Fh)"H~r 0( ~in orew.: A. oom-
plCltl Sf)wer. mo'lll;a.ct three broad toe- out bodily. An illustration
pals. tbree nlUTO"'« IJela'" (one al of 11 common method of
whiC'h forulI! the lOll$:: lif' s.ud the much
IllflJ[er "pur). two pollen MeII. bet""eeu pollination may be obtained
".. hieb Ut~M the (lODCIlye 1I1~tic
.urian" (at th~ bottom of wbich the from the common rein or-
upeniug w tho tube ill _0 ); B. more chis (Fig. 2-13). Each of tbe
~l.arpd vi("w of poUell 8IlC1'. Itigruatic
lurface. IUld butto~; C• • poUinium t 11'0 pollen masses termi-
remm'ed; D, a buuon eni.arged.-.\.f- nates in a sticky disk or
II!!(" GRAT.
button; and between tbem
extends the conca,'e stigmatic surface. at. the bottom of
which is the opening ioto the long tube-like spur in the
bottom of whieh the nectar is found . Such a flower is
FLOWERS A);,D INSECTS 2H
adapted to the large moths, "'ith lon~ probosrides which

('un r('1\eh tll<' bOilOll1 (If th(~ llllx'_ A ~ t IIf' flint h I hrustf!
Its proboRcix into ttw tuiw. its iu'u.u i~ pr(,~~l'd ul.!'niTH~t
:ht-' stieky huiton on ca.th si dt·, :-:0 tlut! WIl('11 j. flif':" IlWUV
th{'::\(' hut tons ~rick ttl it::; Iwau auu (h(' IHllI<'11 Ina~~l'~ a;t~
torn out. \\1lCn til(' 1lt':\.L fhl\\('r i!'i \ i~it('d t!lt'Sl' p(llien
nH\s.~·~ are thrll~f, a~n.in .. t lhr !4ti~lml.t i(· :-:u rfat't ',
(:!) {'(lI{~«('a(itr( m(lluril_lf.-lu rll('~(' (':l~'S {IOJ/('t} fwd ~ r i,l!.
m!~ uf tlil' BUill(' flo\\'('r arf' not malllrl' ut till' riaJlW tillie,
This :s fi ('omn)01l method of Jlrt'\'~ lItilig s._·li-I)( ,I1 JIlH.tioll,
alld it i." {"'idcllt that it is (·ff('("in', " "II{'" d,(l pollpu is
bcinj! sllPd. th£' stig ma I !?: uot rt'lldy tll r(-'('t,j\'('; (Jr "lHon 1lif'
sti~JlIa is feudy t.o T(·ccivc. the poll{,tI is not rC'mJy to l.lC'
sh"d .
\\'hen th(' fl()wer~ of the ordinury fi~\\'ort fir!'! Or1('n. I he
sty le 1)(,!lrill~ the Rtil!lna at its tip is found protruding
.1 B
FlO. 244.-PrutOf;YDOU:I flo ..~r of IiIfWQf"t: ..t. fif'llt I't • .,., "'lln I'Iticma h'CfII)tlYII;
B, I!IeC:.lion of A, lbowinfl: "Uutlen. ....·jt.hm t1lf'! (!J(I1"f1ll..; C, M'CIImCl .~. 1Inlb
.ti&ma palfillud anthen. W J>OIJ.idoq lor abed~_-After (.K.\l',
from the urn-like flower. while the four stamens are cU"'ed
down into the tube, and are Dot reAdy to shed their pollen
(Fig. 244, A and B). At some later time, the style bearing
tbe stigma wilts, and tbe stamens straighten up and pro-
trude from t he tube (Fig. 244, C) . In tbis way, first the
receptive stigma. and afterward the shedding pollen sacs

occupy the same position. A visiting insect will probably
find Howers in bot.h conditions; and, while striking agninRt
protruding and slwddi ng pollcn sacs in some flowers, it
strikes ngai nst a protruding 81 igma in other fluwers, and
thus carries pollcn from one to the olher. f'illoh flowers
arc cnllf'd lJT(Jtogynous. which men.ns d pistil fir8t. tI
Mort.. frequpntly, howcYC'r, flow(·ts are "rofaTll/rOlt.'t,
which means <':::ta mcns !irst. 1f For exnmple, when th!'
showy fl owers of thf' (.'ommon firewood, or grcut willow herb.
first open, the eight sh('(lding ,tamens projcct prominently.
the sty le being sharpl)' run'cd downward und backward .
carrying the stigmatic lobC!ii well out of th~ wily (Fig. 24.5,
A}. Later, the 51.amens bend away and I he style .traightrns
..I
FlO. Z4S. -rrolAndrCUII flower of wiU(>w h~b: A. fiul IIlage. with anth4ml in poet-
tion f()r Ihf'ddiJ16t and "tyle eurvm downwaM: B. IIeeOnd Il~. with anthers
put and Iljalllalie 1000 in l'IOeition r()r receiVlllll)ollen.-Aft~r GlUT.
up and exposes the stigma (Fig. 245, B ). The result of the

visits of all insect is the same as in the case of the pro-
togynous fio,,·ers. So many cases of protandrous flowers
occur among common wild and cultivated plants that
illustrations should be discovered easily.
(3) Difference in pollen.-In these cases there are gen-
erally two forms of flowers, wh.ich differ from each other
in the relative lengths of tneir stamens and styles. In
the accompanying illustration it will be seen that in one
FLOWERS AND fNSII:CTS 251
flower the stamens nre short nnd includt'd in t b. tubE-,

while t[1O style is long und projectin!:, with t hr fnur stig.
millie lobes expo""d w(·11 uboyC the romll" ( Fi ~, ~'I G. A),
FlO. 246.-Flo .... ~u Il( lI oWf((I"w: A, f{'l"m ..·ith .hllrt I laJlM!f\II ILtId l or••• ,yle; B ,
f orm wit.b 10 111 JltatuelllJ &lnl ilhort It}le.-Alter OkAY.
In the other flower the relative lengths are exactly reversed,

tbe style being sbort nnd included in the tube, and tbe
stamens long and projecting (Fil(, 246, B ), It "ppeara
that the pollen from the short suunens is morT rff"ctiye
upon the short style; and that the pollen from the long
stamens is more effective upon the long .tyle, The body
of tbe y;"iting insect fills t he corolla tube nnd projecU!
ab<)\'e it. I n \'j,iting fiowers of both kinds, one regioll of
the body recei,'cs pollen from tbe short stamens, and
another region from the long stamens, I n this way the
in""ct is soon ea.rrying about two ba.nds of pollen, which
come in contact with corresponding stigmi.s,
148. Figs.-Pcrhnps ~he most remarkable case of nn

intimate rda! iOflship bet W('(,II ins(_l('t!-; and non-("rS is that
which exi:..t:'l h{'t \\'('('11 a small WU."lP (Bhud(l/lhufIO ) and the
CUILinl\C'd fig The full story is 1(10 imric'alt' and yariahl('
for prt·~(,ll1.',Ii(lll "{'rr, hur I1 "i'l'." gC'nc>ral oUliillf' may #!"in'
some little iUf'1l of th(' sitltuticltl. TIle flowt'rti or lh(' fil!
arc borm' ill a ycry [K'('uliar way. ' ''hat i~ <::1I1('u a fig: is a
hollow slru('tUf(' (Fig. 2H, .4 ) , <'omplelel,' t'i";,,d except
for u minute oJx'n-
ing Ht the fop. Dnd
h('aring f'mall flow-
l'TS in largE' num-
hrr::; upon the inn('r
wall (Fig. 241, B).
Figs arc di('('ciotls,
S(J that SOIue t rres
bear only fig" with
staminate flowers
(Fig. 247, C), and
others only figs
wifh pi"tillafe flow-
:PIO . 2-17.- 111e fia ~ .-i. hr~Jt(:_b l~riTIIt It. fig: B. ser· ers (Fig. 241, D).
lion of tis: IIho ... in« ft'lweN< within; C. ;otltmifUl.le
8o..-er: D. "i.tilbt.t~ fto'tl-er.-Arter WOMI1H..O.
The lig that bas
been culth'ated for
, 'ery many centuries in roun(ries about the ~f{'diterranenn
is the pistillate tree. In order to make it fruit properly,
fig-beurin~ brnnch('s from staminatc trees arc hung in the
pistillate tT('('S. Thf'~«:' sUlmin3.te figs w('rc called wild H
figs" or caprifigs. and the process of placing them on the

pistillate t.·ee WlIS called r.apri{ication.
Only in reel'nt times has the meaning of this very
ancient procc:. become known. As tbe plants are dioociollS,
cnp~i6cation is e\idenUy bringing the staminate flowers
near enough to tbe pistillate flowers to secure a t ransfer of
tbe pollen. As botb kinds of flowers are enclosed in the fig,
FLOWERS AND IN ECTS 2~8
it i~ cndrllt t.hat neither rhf' \vind nor an ordinnr.,· insect

('an transf"r tho pollen. Thi, i, plk('tl'll b.,' tho >mall fig
wu~p that pa.l"~l'S it:.; wllol(' ('~i:O:(('I1rf' within til(' fi~. hs
n'n] hom!' i:.; the- :o:taillinut(' fil! « ('n!,rifi~ ), IllU..l lllt.'f(' it
its f'~hry:( aud di('·:::. ~('n('r:\tj{tfl fig
I.
f POt';i[S TIt<, fI{'\\ of
:\'a "pB ('fawl Ollt of t he old fi~. and {'IIl('rill~ (l.llutIH'r (Ill!'
thut iR youn~ (.i<'posit the·ir {'K/.!:-: IlI1(J eli", unci jo:.() on . A
t'1 ~Itnitlatl·
fig:-t r('(_' u:-1unll~' lipH.r" I liff'\' (·rop..: (If ('aprifi~s N1Ch
Y(':lr, the tl"f'f' m'\TT ilt'inj:!'; \\itililut :1 l'rnp: :lIal ~n thn'('
p:<'n('rntions (If fip: \\'a~p.;: un' prndll(,(,u ill tlw )'l'ur, Gild til(.'rc
IS alwAYs fl home' for tht' lll.
\\' h('n a bfltt1('h b(' ariIl~ ~ t :L1n;lIat(' fi,l!'f:! j~ pltH't·d ill lL
tret' b('arin~ pislillnl(' OtH · ~, Ill(' yOIlIl~ wasps crH\\ling: out.
(If tlw forIller clltrr th(' Intl(,f, whith al this Slnc;{' c,lo:olt,ly
T£'srmhle t he ('nprifl1!~. Huyinp: ('nie'rNl, tilt' WRJo(j)8 find
tIH' nl~'ln\s in a trap, for til(' fllnn'r strtl('ttl rf' ~ urC' :luI'h thut
tll<'y ('8.nllot dt'po~it ('g~~ pr('pr' rI .v . Hut t"('ir hodj{\s arc
('(IYC'rNl with JJOllrn from tht'ir farlm'r hOHlt', llllU funning
al'(JII11JJ])ong the pj:.;tillntl' fl(}wf'fF. tiJf'Y }.olliuatr thpI!) Yf'ry
('ompl(,tely. As n ('onseq upn("f'. th" pi,lillnle iiI< ripens,
forms numerous st.·ed.;;;, alld a("'Juin~s I.},(' }.IN·uljar nutlY
fhl"or that charncll'riu's if.
;'istiUure figs rip('n wit )lout thi~ pr(J('('ss, hut l}WY do
not set s('C"d nor u('quire' rht' ('ha rJt (,IC'rj,~tic flnnl1', rwr ('ut}
they he dried for shippinc;. TIl<'.I' ,","l (Hlly be USf·J ."
fresh ligs. and are not at all the ordinfiry fig~ (If ('(lWlTJr rce ,
knolm as Rmyrna fil'" IJuring (he last ~'rars of the past
centuT)' the Cnitf'd Stuj(·:; UC'PllfltnCni of ,..t.1!n(·ultu.re.
after S<.'vernl failures , surc(~('d(·J in im rodu('iTl!!; tli!' fig wasp
into California, so that real Smyrna figs are now being
grown in our own count ry.
149. Hybrids.-In the transfer of pollen by wind IlDd
insecUl, some of it may reach sti!!mns belonging to n dHfer.
eDt kind of plant. If this plant is nearly relaled (0 the one
that ha3 prod uced the pollen, fertilization may reault.
When the seeds formed in this way germinate, they produce

plants thnt are called hybnds; that is. plants whose two
parents belong to differ,'nt species or races. The hybrid
usually ~ ho\\' s son) £' ('(Jrnbinulioll of th e ehuracters of both
parents, but it may b(-, n:ry difi'prl'llt from citht'T.
In this wuy new kind s of plants often a ri se in nature.
and adnl.l1tagt' is tu.kt·1I (If Ihi.; fatl to proulH'C' new forms in
cultinuion. This c ros:-I-polli n'L'lt ion bl'l \\(-'('tl plants of differ-
ent. kind st resu lLing in l'To...;...-f(·rtilization, is ul"uulty spoken
of si mpiy as cros~lIgl and I he u~(' of ('Tossi ng in producing
new rorlTl~ will be spok(,11 of morf' fully in the ('hapter on
plant bret'ding. An illustratioll of \\"hul ii" (l'lf':lnl by hybrids
may be oLl..uined Crom torn. There ar(' se\'eral races of
co rn that differ in tht:' c'olor of the grnim:. which are white ,
yellow, rpd , or lead-I'olorod. If a white race be cros..'led
with" rod racp, the resu lting ears will be hybrids. and \\'ill
vcry likely show uoth colors ill the same car. ,rhen the
grains are sown and produc£' new plant s. these plants !ire
hybrids and will sbow resemblances to both parents.
CHAPTER XY
SEED-DISPERSAL
150. Reasons for dispersaJ.-1 f all seeds drnpT><,d about

the parent plants, then' 800n would lIot ht.~ r00111 t..'fiou~h
for allY mOT(, to ~ro\\'. and lhnsr that did ~ro", would in-
trrfrr(' with 01lC another p;criously. It is of nd\'llnt.ngc
"nth to tht' pan'lIt plant and to till young plants f()r lilt."
~·ds to he sr.'llterc·d beyond lhf' f {,11Ch of such ril'8Jry.
Al"cordingiy, then.' are mnny ways by which SN!ds are dug-
pcrF;('d, and ~(,)metim€'s th('~' nrC" l'urrird to ):,!;rrat diAtan('cs.
\\"hen fruits. 0lwn to disdlar~(' s(l('d~. th(' ~('('ds lh('rnseh'f?'s
an' Sr!l.ttCTf'U; but when fruits dn not o pen , tile fruit itRelf
is transported.
151. Dispersal by discharge.-ln ""me plant~ therr is n
mC'C'hanirnJ dischar~(' of s('rd~ pro\'id('d fur in the st ruct.ure
of lhe .eed-yesse!. such
fruits of Len being railed
Pro. 2.fS.-Tbe fruit 0( vbret di!t- FUJ. 2«9.-'1M pM" of • wild bean OAlltu)
~& .aeeJ.a. - After BAJ.I.r rwiJ1inc in di&cbArcina 1MIedI. ~ All«
B.uu.oM,
256 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA!<Y
sling-fruits. In tbe yiolet and t he witch-hazel. when tbe

seeu-\'csscl spli t., ite! \\'uHs prc=,~ upon the seed:-:. ~o th at thc \'
nrc pinch(·d OU1, ns a muist npp l ('-:;;t~('d i:-: proje'('H'ci hy king
pres,ed bel\\con the thumb "lid tl!c fill!:")" (I·il!. 2~S ).
When the poJ of the wild ucan uursts, th£' two \~dn's twisi
"ioiclit Iy UI.d throw
t h" " 'od- (F ig. 2~!l) .
In til(' t ouc'll - !lI('-
not or lIlt' lnJ.}:-;:um.l
a !==lrain i:-. den,l-

oped ill t 11(' f!ro w-
in1! wul1 (If thl"
St"c·t!-VCi::I:-{'1. S(I I hat
which
at fuplun'.
may b(' brought
FtG. 2S().-Win gt'd fruit of maple.-After KU:-' I.ll. about hy slight
prr;;.o::u r(', tile pi('('(':"
suddrnly ('url up and throw th e :;:;('('d:;:. T hr- :o:quinin1!
cucumber is so nam('d b('('uuse it bCC'om('s w' r~' much
distended with water. which i$ finnlly fon'ibly ejec ted
}'te. ~51.-Winnd !!Md o r BIQ"nO",.:n . -Aher SnUU[,RGEIl.
along with t he mass of S<.'Cd. In tropical forests there

are plants whose larg~ seed-vessels explode "it h a loud
reporL.
SEED-DISPERSAL 257
Th is method may be regardod as t he poorest of ,,11 the
method:; oi di:o'persal, for at til(' "('r~' l~st no !'i:("(·d"'"essel
tan disc'har!!,_' its sN'dfi Illon' than n v{'ry :::hort c..Ihnunec.
152. Dispersal by currents of air.-~ l al1;· ",~·d$ UN' so
li.cht u.s to lx' ('n rrif'd nhout In- Cllrr('tlls of nir. Orditilltil\".
lUIWt.'\·('r,Ih<:' wind-disp('rsrd ~(·pd:-; or fruits dt.'n·lop ~p('rl~ )
!lpp('·II(.Iage~ to !lid in tht'ir HiC"hl . wliic'h
('Ornll lOIl('F't umollg
Hff' \Yill~~ :mel tufts of h!lir.
For (':\:l.Inpl('1 win}!!o! art: UI'-
"0101"<] hy the frui t of ma-
1'1, '" (1·i",. 2.; U) "nu l'lrns, ulld
II.'" till' S("{·ds of ('ohtlpu nBd
it:-i allirs (ri~. 2.-,1). Plllrll£'R
allli tufts of IlIdr ~lr(' Li(''''''-
FIC. ZS2.-:\kt"nelll or dande.lirm wilh Fu;, 2J3.-Akefldnr.~ lrith IWI .

tuIu t.d' bair.-Alter Kl:H."Lft. of 1aU.-A(ler MKl((;R.•
oped by the seed-like fruits of thistle, danddinn (Fig.

252), and maoy of [heir rellttin:s (Fig. 253); llnd by the
seeds of milkweeds (Fig. 25{), willow berbs (Fig. 2,,5), etc.
On plains, or level slretches, where winds ure strong, a
curious habit of secd-<!ispersal has been dC"eloped by
certain plants known as tumbleweeds or field rollers (Fig.
256) . T hese plants are profusely branching annuals with
25 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA.l 'Y
a small root system in light or sandy soil. When the work

of the season is oyer, r.md the absorbing rootlets ha\'e
BhriI'clcd , t he plallt is
easily broken from its
Flo. 2r»4.-..~ of milkweed with FlO. 255.-Betd of wil1 !)~' bt"rh Wi th tuft
tuft-of b.ir.- Ailcr GR.,'-. of hair,
SEED-DISPERSAL 259
root, by" gust of wind , and i. trundled nlong the "urfnce

lik(' n lij!ht wickcr ball, the ripe Sl'ed-I"s-'''(,I, dropping their
~('(·d:-: hy tbf\ wny. In cas(' of un oh!'ltru(,lioll. f'U(.!J us u
f"TlN'. {!rrnl ma8SeS of th('${' IuJnhlew('{,(js mIl." lw Rft'n
i(ldlIt'J IIp:n.inst the wind ..,'urd side.
Thb met tH,d of di:"lJ)('rf':nl i1' far tT.lCIr(' rfTC'ctiy(' than I hl'
me('hanical di'sc-hurge; bur it i." fitflll, aud its rang(' usunJly
i~ not ,'cory grl'u,t. Thist le-down rnuy 1)(' flmtH·d ililo h
n£'ip:huoring field, nnd 9. $trong willd mu_\" (.'urr~ (hc' ('(,)0")-
p"ratil'<I.I· hClI\',I'-II'ingcd frllits of th" maplr and lho rllll
::;onH.' distance; but at U(·:::t t.he scnttpring is only o\'('r B
Iwighborhood .
153. Dispersal by currents of wate r.- )r""y ",.,.ds lit('
buoyant .. or bf'comt' 80 nftt'r soaking in wnlN, Ilud m:ly lM"
currird gn:>nt distances by curr('nts. ]-"'or l'xampll' . thl'
bunks and flood-plains of streams may n'('C'i\'{> H{·{'df> from
3 wid{' 3Te!!, df'pE'ndcnt on th£' ('xt!..'ut of til£' drajllU~(' !-IYl-ltem.
Al ong th(· lower strl"tches o f ri\'('rs such as llw Mi ss.i~si ppi ,
the ~Ji ssouri, or til(' Ohio, almost {'\'ery fI('a..~on rl{>W plants
are added to those growing along tl;p banks, and snme
of them may ha"e come from great distances. "fhiR kind
of distribution , therefore. may beCOIU(" almost continental
in extent,
Still more far-reaching is the diRJX'rsal brought about
by oceanic currents. both b} wa,'eK currying !:K'cds along
the coast, and also by the deeper eurrents Ihat c"tcud
from continent to continent or to oceanic islands. It has
lx...,n found tbat many l!eeds can endure el'cn prolonged
soaking in sea~water and then germinak, From a :!cries
of experiments, Darwin eSlimated that at leMt fourteen
per cent of the seeds of British plants can retain their
vitality in sea-water for twenty-eigbt days, At the
ordinary rate of mo"eLlent of oceao currents, this length
of time would Permit seeds t<> be transported over Ii tholtl!llnd
miles, It is thought that the appearance on island. of
201) A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA~Y
certain plant s belonging to nn adjacent continent ruay

oft(~n be ('x plllinrd iu this Wll)",
154 , Dispersal by animals,-Only a few ilJlI,tr:l tioll,
of this ,"cry Inr.!!:(' f:ubjc(.'t r' all U(' !-!i\ ("1). '\" au_'r-hird~ art'
grf'ut rarriC'rs of s('{'d~. whic-h an' l'OTi-
lainl'd ill til(' TlIud c lill~in~ 10 thpir frN
V a nd It,f!'s.
pontls
Thi ~ mud
is \I$Uall !'
sc,(·dl'i of yurious plants.
from rile 1,nrd{'r~ of
('(lmplt ·t('l~· fiUpd with
Urw 11:1'" no f'llll-
('('ption of 1h(' number until it j.; 3dually
('omputt·u. Th(' following (':>\lr~l('t from
D urwin 's Origin 0/ .'Species illufitraH's this
point:
", look J in Fehnl!lry . three tnblf>Fponnfllls of

mud {rom Ihrt't, difft,t"('111 poinL'" li('!wtlth the water,
on the eJ ~(' of a li ttle l"KltH.I.
The mud ,,11(:1l dri("(j "cig+K!t.i
Fl o 2.57 . -AI:~n(t only III OllIiC~: I kept it ('ov-
of Sm1lli!<h II~ ered up in my study (or six
dlett ..... ith blu-hed
.. "pendll~.-Af~ weeks. puUiru; up u.nd ("oulll iug
tet K &ltSt:R. f'1l('h phUlt a.s it ~rew; t.he plflllts
were of IlltUlY killds. and were
nlt~('tber 537 in number: and yPt the \'iscid mud
was all eontnincd in a breakfast ('upl"
Wfiter-birds are generally high and

strong fliers, and the seeds may be trans-
ported thus to the margins of distant
ponds and lakes, and so become ,'ery
widely dispersed,
In ffitl.U)' cases seeds or fruits or heads
develop grappling appendages of "mous Flo. 256.-Akene of
beqar - ucltfl ..... ith
kinds, forming the ,'arious burs, which bArbed appeodacea-
-lUter-BUL.
Jay hold of anjmals, brushing past; aDd
so the seeds are ctispersed, Common illustrations of
fruits with grappling appenda.ges are Spanish needles
SEED-DISPERSAL 261
(Fig. 257), beggar-ticks (Fig. 25~). stirk spcds, etc.; find

~irnibr uPJlf'1H1:l~(,~ nn.' deycloped in connection with tlw
w\ uJurre-s of ('urkl(~-bur
(i"iJ(. ~.;!j, . 1\, burdock
(1',1'. ~5!\. HI, ("c.
Flt'~hy fruilS arC' at...
(ru(,tin' a~ fooJ to ('('f-
win i)il'ci... :.tHU trHUlI-

rIlnl~. .:\I:tny of the
~l'PU:i (such us tho:o:;{' of A B
g:rnp{':"') may he' able to Flo. 2!.Q.-lfe.tl>! flf I'QIC_kJ~-hur fA) and hurrlllCI.
(/$ "h""'lllit ([ral'l'lUlI _1'1".'II<la&- of lh"
rt·sist thr :Jt l!lcks of th£' ill\·"lul'r·.... Afl(!r h."K"'l.tl.
dIQ{·~tiy{, fluid!-i aud ('S-
tupc from tht' nlimt.'ntary tract in n condition to germi-
naIl', Ai'-' if to attract the attentioIl of fruil-rating ani-
mal,. fleshy fruits usua lh' bt'rome urip:JllJr rolon-<l \lhen
rire. so th~t lbey a re plainly seen ill co;,tru.t \I;th the
foliage.
CHAPTER )..'\"1
MONOCOTYLEDONS
155, Classiftcation,-The Angiosperms are so numerous

thai it r(,quires much time throu,e;h 5e'v('ral s('ason~ to get
acquainted fairly weiI wit h thE-In in anyone Ilf'ighborhood.
The elementary student should begin at onee to cultivate
this acquaintance by learning to recognize the most promi·
nen( groups and the most common repreFicmllri,-('s of carll
group. For example. there should be no difficult,· usually
~Jon()cotyl('don 01' a
in recognizing whet.her n gi "('11 plant is l)
Dicotyledon: since the floral number. the venatiOll , and the
slem arrangement of vascular bundles \\'ill determine tbat
in most cases.
In each of these two great dil'isions of AngioslX'rms.
however, there n.rc numerous famill:c8, a.nd one !':hould be-
come acquainted early \,;th t,he most. conspiclIous fumilies
of "neighborhood. For example, a "ery conspicuous
family of the Monocotyledons in every neighborhood is
thM which "ontains the grasses; but in eYer~ neighbor-
hood there n'ill occur also ten to twenty other prominent
families of Angiosperms that deseryc recognition.
A [amily is made up o[ mailer groups called genera
(singular genus). For example. in the great family to
which the asters belong, tbe different aster~ resemble
oue fLO other more thau they do any other members of the
family; and so there is the aster g,mus. In the same family
the different goldenrods are grouped together in a golden-
rod genus. The different kinds of aster Or of goldenrod
l>f\'
MONOCOTY L1l: DOS'S 268
an' call ed >pecies. Therefore. Il !(roup of !'('Int"d "])('('".
fllrm:o:.' u genus; and a group of frinwd rtt lI(Ttl form .. tt /(,mil!/_
An :u'quuintallt·(, witlt tlaC' plant .... "If U t1t,j:.::hhtlrhood ~h(l\l ld
tWldn by Il'uTHing- HI rf'('l'g'ni zl' IInl l1H.· l'l'ly 1I11porlIJIlt falltllu.'s
hut IjJ:...:(I ('{)nspjcll(lu~ t.llld ('OnlIfI(JlI J,!('lwrn auel . . ,I(.cj( ....
The t('{"hni('ni name of n planl is Iltl' ('4111111111:1111111 (If 11:-\
~f'f1('ri(' and sp<'('i fir lI:tml'~. tit!' forB)!'r ulway:o; iWIII,l! \\ntH'u
lir .. t. For ('x3wpl(", (/1I{'r{"(/.'~ a/l,(I j", d,(, IWfli(' of I II(' ('()UI~
IllOIl "hitl' oak, (j tlrrrus iwiflg til(' IlIiIlU' flf till' l!f'I1UJot 10
whidl nil oaks uelung. ulld alba the spt.·('ific minlt' thnt
dj,..tinl!u i ~ t. cs thi~ oak from (ldl('r oaks. XII or/1I'1' f1MIH'~
an' 1lP('pssary. us no two W'nt' fa ()f plU l ds ('Ull Ilt'ar t he' .. amr
n:.tnl(·, und no tW(J !'pc'{'i(_'~ of U 1:!'f'llu:"t l'an hl1\'(' Ihl' ~umc
mU'lIC'.
Thr sO-t'allrd .~/ anual,') o r K qp. lUI' bllok ... lhut ('onluin
d('~niptjons of plants. ~o u r rull!!('u Ihat lll)l' \\110 knows
the meaning o f the h ' rm s us(:d (":.til find {lit· nalIJ{' of uny
plant uC'scriUC'U. Ability l't uS(' sll('b U llltillllal i~ \'c' ry
d(':-:ir1l.ble to ('ulth'ute, fur it is til(' most It('r\lndl' alld
eff(>(·th·e method of fOl'millg a ~l)('akll1R' a( '~ ltlailitafl('(' with
plallts.
J56, Families of Monocotyledons.- Abou1 forty nHm()-
cotyiruonou8 familir·s arc f(·(·op;rdz('d. t·olltri.illin~ Ilurn('rou~
gene-In and abou t twenty thousu lJu f;JI(.(·jr:-. Four flll1li M
lic:3 \\; 11 be sclet'tcd, \\"hieb inl'ludt· Ill(' ~r(:'at mujority of

~lonocOtyl(ldons; and the:-;e ~dlOUld 1)(' rl·('o_t!nlZ(·d !II Ri_t;hL
These families a re (,O Il FT)iC'u()u!' in numbrr:-. elr ill af'I}('urnn('c
or in usefulness; and for any or all of t!Je~ charart('rl'l lht',\
desen'c acquaint.ance.
157. Grasses.-Thc Grass Fnmih' (Grami"M) i, one of
the large;t groups of plants. It L~ \\'orld-,,;de in It' dis-
tribution. and is remarkable in it, di,pluy of indiddual
plants, often gro,,;ng so densely over large areas as to (orm
a close turf.
The Bowers are \'cry simple baving 110 calyx or corollt..
18
aod the grnin is the characteristic seed-like frwL The

flowers ocrur in small close clusl.,". and associated with
them ar~ peculiar bract chaructcri':-:lic of the familv
(Fig. ~60 ) . For ex.ample. these hra('ts form the so-called
chaff of wheat and 01 hel
cerellls, where they persist
and mote or less enn.· lop
the grain. These litt Ie
cilisters of bracleate flow-
ers arc arrangt·d to form
either a loose and spread-
ing general cluster, as in
red lop and oats (Fig.
262)/ or else a compact,
spike-like cluster. as in
timotby and wheat (Fig.
261).
When the uses of
grasses are considered it
t
B become~ eYident tbat this

Fro.260.~at8: .~. p..,.tofaAo"'I!!r-cl~tl!!r. is by far the most impor-
lIhowin, I he bMlcts. in the a...UJfII of ""hich
flo'KOf'II npllelU": B. a single fio'tl'et, "'itb
tant. family of plants t.o
iUi I!!llve1opinv; bract, three tltamens. and man. It is possible to
pi8til wh~ m'ary bean t ...o plum08l!
8(yles.-A£ter 8.ul.L()s. suggest only some of the
conspicuolls forms.
(I) CEHEALS.-Thi- group includes those grasses tbat
are culli"ated for their seed-like fruits or grains. and they
represent the chief interest of agriculture. What cereals
mean as u food-supply for the world is too well known to
need explanation. The most extensi"e1r culth'ated cereals
are a follows: .
Wheat.-This is certainly the best ' known and most
valuable of all cereals. The original home of wheat is
unknown. for it hilS been culthated from the very earliest
times. It is " crop peculiarly adapted to regions of cold
MOKOCOTYLEDO~S 265
winters, and hence the gT'f'n.tCf't supply ('om('~ from trl1l}X'r..

ate r£'gion5. The 'Xorthrrn rnittd Stnh's and Cll1Uldn hu\'t'
\"1\:"t nr<'u:< (':';I)('('iflll~' wdl-:J.dapfl"d tu thr rUll1nHioli of
whf'!Jt; and in 1~n9 (Iu~t

('('n~u:o)tlw l"nitrd ;-':l l.lt('~
a\olH' prnduc'(,(1 morl' thall
()fie-fourt h of t h(" wheat of
ill(' world. Iwing the ,!.!n·at-
{'~t \Yh(_'at-pt'odl1cin~ ("(1\.111-
try. In thhOi prolilH.'tioll

01(-' chid n'I1eat-grDwing-
:-:tntr~. in tiw orc\(lr of tlidr
out Jnlt , W('fl' ~Ii nn(,!'I)ta.
:\orth Dakota, Ohio , and
South ]Jakota.
The yarirtirs of wheal
nrc \'{' r~' nUll)('rOll~, anel
nrw ont'$ are constulItf"
being prodllred in lh;'
effort to ~N the "en' b,"l
\'arirly for e\'cry co~binu
lion of climate and soil.
There a rc spring and win-
ter wheats, bearded and
beardless wheats (Fip:. __
I
261), soft and hard wheats, fJ G. !.~Ahe~:'~;:I::n~I:U:H~~~bML
Md wheals of various col-
ors. \Yin t.er "'heat is sown in the fall. fWU hf'nrf' must
be a variety able to endure the winter; while $priH,It wheat
is SOwn as early in the sprin~ as possible. ,t;jnc'C' \\·ju?at
grO\\'s best during the cool part of the yeat, it is very
conveniently related to the corn crop, which makes its
chief growth during Lt.e warm momhs. The time' of bar-
vesting varies "itb tbe latitude, ranging from early in
May in Texas to August in some nonbern States.
206 A TEXT-BOOK OF nOTA~Y
Oais.-Oat, may I.e dislinl!uished from wheat, rye. and

barh'Y lly t tiP flow('r ('IUSll'r.s hC'illl! 100:\(' and spreading (Fj~.
:!6:! ) . ra.tlH'r thaJl in ('ompa('t cylindril.'ul
clu!-:I(·rs (s pikt":-O) , Jt ai:-;(J ha~ lw{'n eulti-
\'urt'd from [lu,- £no,,[ !Ulf'i('n( tinH's. and
t(l-(by 111(' t'lIiu'u :-\1:\.I4..'S nlill RlI ...sia pro-
du("(' Tilt' ,l!rt'aj('si ('rops. (hI ;': are' u~ll:dly
(·nrly ill llw ~priTig a:-; I,C),,:-.;ih}('.
:-'0\\ 11 :I.s
dl"Tlopill.[!; b(· ~t ill tlip ('l.nler w('nthrr;
nile! in Horthl~ rn 1:IIitlld('~ Ill(' ('rop m3-
tllr(';o; iII ninety d!l.n; or less. Ont~ dll
not rc'quire' so rich Roi l as wh('ut. and
f'H •. :!t1:! . -Ortl"

Aflf'r n\lLI.<l ~
he:l1c(' can be iIrown

sl1('('ef:;.sfully whcrr
wheat would not
thri\·o. In 1~9 9 the
roi led :'tales pro-
duced more bush-
els of oats than of
wheat.
Ryc.-This cere-
al does not seem to
h.\·e been so long
in culti"ntioD as the Flo. 263.-Ryf:
MONOCOTYLEDONS lltl7
(llh."" (Fig. 263). ]l iR exton.i,..l.,· culth'''i<'d in Xorthcm

Europ('; !lnd Russin i~ Ih(' l!r('nt{'~t ry('-prt)dItI'JTl ~ (,·oHnt ry
in diP world, prnd lll'iTlI! !non' hu:-<hd~ of ryl' thaT! tilt' I Ilil('(l
:-:1It1('~ rr()dtH·(' ~ ott:-:.IH·!": of \\!H'ut. TIl(' ry (' {'f'0p of till'
l"fli(ed :-;tnt('~ i. . "pr~' suwll (·wll(l:lmtin" .,· , be·jug' 1( ...... duUl
0lIP-lwcl11y-nflh .'l~ l:lrg-r :1S th(' "ht'lll I'rop, .alal If'S~ daHl
qnf'-lhirti(·th :\:-' large us tht' oat rrop . .Hyt' f~n l l C"row ill
fpp;inn ... ton ('old for \\ )If'at alHI on
(-<tlils too poor (,r an~' otll('f ~r:lill ;
in fart it d(J('!"o' not Ihri\"(\ w('11 iTl
ri('h !'c.ib. Tlwfr nrf" sprin~ fllld
winlt'r YariC'tic!". Th{, Intt er i:\ the
(ltH· rhi('Hy ('uhintt('d, u(;jn~ ~O\\'lI
ilJ (he fnll nnd h8ncs)(·d usulIll,' ill
June.
B"rley.-Thi s is one of the 1110,1
nnciC'nt of (,l'ft'uls in cultinltifln;
and. as it grows wild in \\'pst('rn
AFia. this is thought to U~ iI,
original home (Fig. 264). It gro\\'>
through " greater range of lati-
tude than any other cerea)l jts cul-
tivation extending from I celand
and 1'\or'\\'8)' 10 India. It d"llland ,
in geneml the well-prcparc·d .lId
well - drained soil neccssar~' for
wheat. lis growing period is
sborter than that, of wheat, for n G. :;~; II ~1:~J·t'ttll.:,:~,.r LJt-
jt is very common to S()W it after
and to han'est it juSt before "pring whent. III tilt' l 'niled
States the hatley crop in J899 was nearly lhroe timeR as
great as that of rye, California produrin~ morc than (Joe-
fourth of it, and Iowa, Uinne:;;ota, and \Y iseonsin following
in order. While barley is used in k'(..J.illg. a5 grain , hny,
and straw, its most conspicuous use is by brewers in the
process of malting; and the best mailing barley io toe

world is grown in eastern England.
Garn.-Indian corn, or maize as it should be called, is
peculiarly an American crop (Fig. 2C5). It is thought to
be of American origin and
was cui ti "aled by tbe nati Ye
tribes long before the coming
of Europeans; und four-fifths
of the corn of the world is still
produced in the United Stales.
The plllnt yaries in height from
d warr "nricties less thun two
f"ct, to large yurieties fifteen
or t went)" feet in ri "cr bot-
toms, and even thirty feet and
more is reported from the \Ycst
Indies. The stumin,,!e nnd pis-
tillate flowers occur in separate
cluster on thc same stalk; that
is, the plant is monrecious.
FlO. !!65.--Corn. -Arter LSCLE.1l
The stamina.te cluster is nt
Alld IJM"'~"TL. the top, and is caned tbe tas-
sel; while the pistillate clus-
ters (enrs), with their enveloping bracts (husks), occur in
the axils of leans. the long styles forming tbe so-called silk.
The prominent groups of corn are dent corn, flint coro,
sweet corn. and pop-corn; aod each of these bas many
varieties, differing in certain qualit.ies and also in color,·
white or yellow grains pre'·ailing. Most of the field corn
produced in the United States is dent corn, recognized by
the indentation at the top of the grain . . The best soil for
corn is n rich loam that does not bake during drought,
the plowing being deeper than for any other grain. Most
of the world's corn is produced in the northern States of
the ~ljgsissippi Yalley; and there plan.ting is done in May,
MONOCOTYLEDO:-IS 209
and the crop matures in ahout five months. The great

rom-producing Stales in their ordf"r nrc Illinois, l own, Kan-
BAS, ?\ebraska, :\Jissourj, and l lldiunaj and ill 1 99 thC'sc
SUltos produced nearly three-fifths of the entire crop of the
l'nited States.
Aside from its use as a food for mnn find domp"tic
nnimu.ls, ('urn. it is said, ("nters into the prt'paratitll1 of
mort' I han H. hundred differellt article·s" in whit·}) tilt, iItU'h.Iol,
tlw outer part of the stalk, the pith, and the rul .. nr" \1'1"1.
)Inst of the starrh of the Lnill·d Stat(·~ rom,', f"'1ll corn,
and much of the whisky and tIll' uko-
hoI. I r1 addi t ion to the variouR Tsces
(If fiE::lcl ('orn, the sugar-containin,l! sw{'('t,
('orn, lI~ed in mark£'ting tlnd l'unnillJ:.
with its wrinkled grains and short grow-
iug period. is well known; and also the
smulJ-cn.red and fl intr pop-corn.
While ('orn is not seriously injured
hO' rusts (§ 84) as arc the other COfl'-
als. its most common di~e3s(, is srnul,
which appears as tumor-like swcllings
(on sulks, leByeS, and ellrs) full of
.pores that look like black powder.
Smuts arc related to the rusts, and
their attack on corn has not been pre-
"ented so sueceas(ully as have their
attacks on other cereals.
Rice.-Rice is said to form the prin-
cipal food of one-half the human rIlee
(Fig. 2(6). A native of the East Indies,
it is cultivated now where,'er the proper
conditions are present. It needs a sub- Fl~~~~j~:
tropical climate, and & moist soil tbat
can be flooded artificially at certain seasons. Far the
greatest amount of the rice of the world is produced in
270 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT,INY
India, Chinn, Japan, and the Enst Indie,; but our o,,-n Gulf
Slates nrc' dowlnpil1p; tho industry rapidly. The Carotin.
rje'c i:.; ~:lid to he 1 he be:,t in the market, and before tllP
(,h'B '\'fir :-:'OUI h Carolina. wns OUT great riCl"-prouucing
f-;l~t('. ]11 lSnn, hO\\,(·q'l'. Louis iana prouu<.'eu mOTe tlwn
twiN" a ~ much TiN' n...; all t he other Gulf Htat {'~ ('omuim'd.
South C'amlin!l \'('!11,!! S(·C'Oflll. ]{j(.(' in the husk is ('s llrd
padel,' ; :1Tl(1 Ihi~ i_", till' g<'I1(,I'!1 1 lInIn(_' :d:-:o for ricc in Inrlia.
(:!) ~ t:c;:\H - CAXI;:-..-Th(' ordinary ~lIg:lr of {'ommC TCl' i,:o:
(':lIH'-~lIgnr, which i~ obtail1£'ti mostly from sugar-cnn£>;
hut in EurOIK' it is ou-
uin('d larg(·ly from h('('t~.
:--:ugar-{'[IJl c is a tropical
onci subt ropical gras,. a
!loti,'c of the En,l I n-
ui('s. but is ('ulti"st('d
\\ Iiere,-er there i~ II wurm
(·Iimatc, a deep rich soil.
:'lnd abundnnt m oisturr.
The plant is about the
heigh t of rorn. bu t has a
much more slender stem.
~lnd
bears nt the summit
a .. ery large and spread-
ing flower cluster (Fig.
267)" It s cultinttioll is
usually carried 00 in large
plantations, our greatest
sugar-producing Slate be-
iog Louisiana. When!.he
canes (as the stems are
Fu•. 2tl';'.-::-u~:lue.-Afler W08IilDLO. called) are mature, they
are cut, stripped of their
leaves, and crushed. Associnted ,,-ith the production of
sugar .s by-products are the .. arious sirups or molasses.
NONoC'on'LEDONS 271
111 lOO;}. thr ,C'rf'!\t('~t su,c-nr-prtldu<'in,g- rt'1!'inn..; (If th£' wnrld

:-ll1l1d ill the follow in g: ordt~I': Cuh:). J :L\ !\, H:t waii:lIl hl:uui.;:.,
nrh l I .oui~j un:l.
(:0 1.\" '. P\'"Tl"HE. _-\\'0 ]I ",)" (;H_"'''''''J>.;,.-Thi~ ~puJ>
illf'llId(·~ nllrlll'r{lU~ .1~T:I""O:I'''' that IUI\'(' h{'('11 ~l'lt,(·t,.d fr,r
(,t'l'l:lin (.'nmhillatitlll'" (Ii qU:tlili(.·;;':.
j ... one' (If t Ill' 1l1tt~1 fa-
111"\1"; g-r:l..';::-(·~
fo r :III
1111':'[' IHtrp{I:oOt· ... : red lilp
l ' a promiIwnt l1a,,-1 lIf('
!!"ra .... ; :l!l{j timothy j,
om' (Ii Ill{' lu·.;;t lillY
~r:l;,,"'I·'.
(-0 H\~lllqn.-11l
I ropical and ~Ubl ropi('-
ul ('OUtlt rips the hU,I!l'
~ra;..; ...(·_,,; (.'allf'd hamhoo ..
a rC' (·xtr('m(· l~· usdul
(Fie'. :2uS ). ."Olll<' S lW -
ch~~ rNt('h SCy('u tv to OIl('
hundred fe~t in' bci!?lll
nnLl a foot in diamrH>r.
forming regulur gran-..
and fOI'('~t ~.... Their n"!rv
hard. lifIht , aod tou~il
st.(>m~ arc put to inn u-
Fu;. :..Itib.-U$1uh•." \her 1.:\ •• Llft ,ud
merable UBeR , includinr
house,building. bridge-
building, light wi r kc rwork. and wcs\'illfr of \'n rious kinds
The mallufacturt' of fishing-rod .. from split bamboo is wei
known; but the ordjnary fisbjn,:t-pol('s arc Kt('m~ of 11. kine
of bamboo that is n8.ti,~e to our ;-'\ oulhern " tates, where j '
covers extensive areas ~hat are calltod can{"-Urukes.
158. Palms. -The Palm Family ( Palflw'c(u) is (be I,:"C&
tree group of the Monocotyledons. Although palms IU1
272 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA}.'Y
characteristic tropicnl and subtropical plants. they are such

well-known. hr3 uliful. and useful forms 3::; to deFrn'(' promi-
nent mention. The habit of the body is \"Pry familiar.
FUl. ~69.-A common flUl-palm.
being a conspicuous feature in eyery tropical landscape.

The usually tall. unbranched, columnar trunk bears at its
summit a crown of huge lea"os, which are of either the
pinnate or the palmate type. Besides these palms, there are
low form and branching forms, while lhe rattan palm
MONOCOTYLEDON'S 278
ha,-r climbing, rope-like st~ms thnt .ometimr" berome hlln-

drl-ds of ft.'f"t long. f'1)('ci€'~ with pnl!lInt{' It'a "l'~ ar£> ~p()k('n
'If fl.=- fUIl-palmf', til(' palmetto of I}I("' :-:'lHllhtrn ~tH1<'S bt·inJ;r
nn il1u~tration (Fi~. 2n91. ll1ld n1.. . o !hr' \'f' r~' inl('T('I'liu5!;
Flo. Z:O.-Tbe Waa1:u.bcu•• palm; • fan-palm of Ibt' u~rl n~lIiofi (If Suut.buu
<A.fiforuia a.ad adjacent .-\ri.lOlla.-From World TtMiaJl .
Washington palm of the desert region of Southern Cali-

fornia and adjacent Arizona (Fig_ 270); the others are
2i4 A TEXT- BOOK OF ROTA~ll
fear her !,!Jlm" (1'il'". 271 ). TIl!' flower rlu.<lor" lire cnor-
maliS, (':It'll rlustN ellt' I (J~('d nt fi rst in 3. hllgr hrart, whirh
is Ofl('11 hard. In l1~rfuln('ss to 1I1an Jl(1 1J1(1l1oc,(,tylf'-
donous fllmily{'xt'('{'d~
tilt' paimc:: ('X('('pt tlif'
~I'afo':-:(,R. ~()me (If t h"
pl'ominenl i'lr)('ci('s nrl'
:~=-- fflJlnw. . . :
Th e (·(Jcnnll.t-paim
i:oi the mo~t wiudy
tli:'<trihutt'cl palin, u(,·
illf.{ flllitid in all trop-
irn l ('ount ries, and
11('\'€'r \,('ry far frol11
the ~('n, cxcC'pt a ..
planted b)· man (Fil!.
272). It, .Iruder
trunk . about two feN
in dinmcter, ri;ol.es to
a heigh t of sixty ( 0
one hundred fee(
a.nd bears a crown
of down ward cun'·
ing pinnalr leaves.
FJiO, 271.-A fenther p"lrn. dt)8eiy n,>inlNI It) the
dll.te-p.um . -After ESOI.I;tt anu .1'1!4!'<'Tt.. The COCOllut of corn·
merce is wel l known,
It is rcn ll)' U SLOne-fruit (! 143) . in which the o\·.ry wall
hn s ripened in two In~·e.rs: the outer a fibrous husk, carre-
spondjllg to thl' flt'sh in 8 peaf'h: the inner a hNn:y bony
I"yor. \Y hcll on sale. the OUler husk has usually been
st ripped off. end at one end of the bony coat three round
blac k scars are seen. which indicate that the pis(i1 is
made up of thrce .carpels. All partS of the plant are
used , not on ly (he nuts and the oil from them, but al a the
leaves, the root , the snp of t.he y oung parts, etc.
AIONOCOTYLEDONS 275
Thr da/c·l)(llm fiudf' its mn ... t ('(ln~(,l1i~1 tWin!' in

Arahiu. but i~ nJ.;() (':\ ({'nsj " p!:' {'ulti'-:th'd ill l lllr\il{'rIJ Afri('o
(rig. :!;-:fJ. 1t 1)f'(·OJll('.... U rc ry br~w {n't', t"n\'ill~ In :1
hill. dry (·Iimaj(· ano ~:lIldy :o\oil: :11101 thi~ lu:d,(· ... it 111-
ndll:d,I,' ill ~t'lllilrOpi(':d Ut·..;PI't n·J.!:i\lfl~ Tilt, ('llormOIl~
YII·ld IIf a ~indt' tn'l' i ... ill<ii!':il('d hy Ilu' fac'J lli:11 It I~ 11!11~
lin·1] :tnd l}l:lI it may yipld :{OU tu [,OU pOlllHi .. (If dall.·"
in a ~1;1g-lt· :-O{':l:--otl. (;rc'ht inlt'rt, ... t :t1I11t' h4'!" III till' (al'(
111:tt till' datp-palm promisp~ 10 b{'C'OIlH' {'(l llllllt'rrwily till·
I,orlnnt in ('C'nuin regions (If Culifornin ami .-\rizowl. tilltl
~I'''m (libl'T\\ ;";(' tl, h{' J,(11i(·)r ....'1' frt'IH [III lIf.!r1l·llltlJrn. J pfIlnl of
.-iew, since it thri"es in 3n,· amount of heat and drought,

tnd ean endure more alk;li in the soil than Bny other
,rofitable plant. This is the palm of the BiLle and of
mcient writings in general. Its habit is shown in
Fig. 271.
276 A TE.,,(T-BOOK OF BOTA.'ilY
Th. soga-polm is 11 nath-e of the East Indies_ and is

extensively culti,-at<'d there_ I t has an extraordinarily
no. 273.- Bue of a dat~. IIhowin&' two fruit du.a:u~n a.ad the tnl.Dk
etlIheatbed by old leal buN.
MONOCOTYLEDONS 277
Inrge pith. which is fill~d '''ith starrh: and snmNimrA. it

b ~nid, ft..:- much as 700 pound5 (If pith art' 01HUi llt'u from
tl sinj!ie lTC'('. This starch r(;"ll('he~ t.:urolK' ami Amt'ril'll 111
thp form of sago.
Tht_~ 1i~t of palms and of t h(,lr lll"{' .... j ... U "('r~' lon~ <lUf';
hut th(, illu~ tratiol1 s given \\ ill :oll<!\\ til!l! li1(' family ('ou-
~i .. ts of forms u~(·d for t ile gr{,DIP"'l \ n.rit'ty of pllrpofolc8 hy
million!" of pC'opi("
159. Lilies.- lll tlw !'lrLu'tUrf' of its flOW(.'N th(' Lih-
F.mily (Li/iacra) Dilly I", n'/!"rdru 11.' 11i(' l,l'pir"1 fanlll)'
of Monocotyledons. \\"i lh lim'" liS thr definile fl,nvrr
number, with n
brigh lly ro lored
aud often con-
spicuous corolla
or perianth. and
with the O\'nr::'
superior (§ 138).
there is no rea-
SOil why most of
the members of
the family should
n ot be recognized "1 1'",. ~H.-Th .. .. hil" nr- M.·
easil;- (Fig. 274 ). doon!!. Ill, A. flrowl'l' ·
du... r('r; II. 1I,,~_-A1~
Xearly all of I B UAll. L()'"
tbem are terres-

trial herbs ; and
they nre notabl v A
forms with bulb; . rootstocks. ftc .. which enable them to
put up rapidly at the toming of a fa "orable season. Th.
family is better known for its beauty than for its usefulness.
Among tbe well-known wild and eultimted forms are tril-
liums.lily-of-the-\·slley, numerous true liIies .tlllips.dog-tooLh
violet (Fig. 219) , star of Bethlehem. and hyacinth ; while
asparagus and onion are the most common useful forlDB.
The families most likeh' to be confused with the lili,"

nre the Amaryllis Family- (AmaTyliidaccQ') and Ihe lr"
Fa mily (IritLorca ') , but ill both of thest' thr O"UfY is inf.eri llr
(* l:lS ) llnd "PI"'"'' benmlh Ihe Ilow(·r. Among tilt,
u.mnryll.is form ~ (I ho ~(' wilh six ~t3nll'n~) are narcj~su,
(irH'ludin~ daffodils and jonquil:-l, ['nowdrop. ~nowfluk(·
(Fil!. :!20) , tub('ro~{', and c('ftain so-t"ullpd liii(,R. Amotll!:
th e: iri" forms ( tho~(' with thl'(,(, :-:tnIlWI1!") an' iri.;:: (in(' iuuin,1!
the \'Urioll .';'; n:1~s) (Fig. 242 ), (' f O('US. nnd g-ludiolus.
lGO. Orchids.- l n number of ,,,,,cies the Orchid Famil.\·
(Orchiduuu) is til(' grt'!liest farnil~' of the :U ono('oty l<·don ~;
h\ll orl'hids arc comparutiv('\y Tal'£' plant~. not extcusiy(,ly
dis! rihul{·u. and ofu'n H'ry Dlll('h rC':,tricted . Jn llrlll:1i
numbC'l' of indi vidual pl:lllt~ the,\- are Ilot to bf' ("ornparrd
wi th the grasses. Of ('yt'n with til£' liJjcs, Th£',\' aT(' noteu
for lh('ir femn rkably irr('guln r fiow('rs , whose bizarre fo rm,..
and brilliant coloration nrc as~oein L {'d \\ith in sect yi:sits,
I n faet. the on'hids Illuy he said to hun" ~p(:'cialized in
ad:lpt!llion~to in~('('t~ (*
147 ). Tlw~- can alwuy.:o. be recog-
nized among ;\Ionocolyledons by I'wir inf(,l'ior o\'ury and
by the rem~rkable modificmion of one of I he ""t:us (ap par-
('ntly the lo\\"est 011(,). whieh alw a~'s diffrrs from the oth('r5
in size and form. and is called the lip. Sometimes the lip
is like an inflaled pouch or sac. as in the lady-sl ipper
(Fig, 275); nnd often it dc"elop:;; a conspicuous hollow
"pur (Fig. 243 ). The great display of Ihe family is in the
tropies. and the re man)' of them are perrhing plall!S (§ 41 ).
The tropical forms art" most prized as greenhouse plant~,
and a good collection of orchids in bloom is exceedingly
att.racti\'e,
Yery little u.... has been made of orchids, the best known
useful product being ,-nnilla. which is extracted from tbe
fruit of a climbing orchid' native in Mexico.
161. Other useflll Monocotyledons.-T,,·o useful and
well-known Monocotyledons do nol belong to any of these
Flo. 27~.-l:&dy-.JippeTL-Aft.er OI880!II.
J9 279
280 A TEXT- BOOK OF BOTANY
grent and representnli\·c fnmilies, and they deserve to bt,

mentioned in this general SU rYl'),.
The banana helongs to a small family most neaTly
related to th t' orchid)':,; and, although a tropical plant, it is
coming into common usC' ns a foliage plant on ,uN·OUllt of jt~
Flo. 276.-A b:w4.n.a plant.-After ESGLrn a.od P!l.\.!'.-rL,
beautiful len,-es, associated with its relnti,-e the cnnna.

It grows from ten to forty feet high , although it is nn herb,
and bears II cro,m of ,·ery large, pinnately ,·eined len,·es
(Fig. 2(6). From finy to one hundred and fifty iruits are
produced in a single cluster, and a plant bears only once.
:MONOCOT,LEDOl<S 283
There nre mnny Yn.ri('ties o f balHuin.s: hut the ~I nrtinifl\h.
with larl!(.' yellow fruit , i 9 the (111(' 1110 ... 1 ('Xll'Tl ... jn·h· ('ul1l-
'-nLNl. The chi(·f hnllana-prl1d\l('ing f{'!-dllll-; :\rt' lhf' \\"('st
l ndit";'; nnd ('('nulll .\ mf'ric'n: hut 11:1l1tlIu\S un' j:fllwn also
In florida. Lnui:.-ian:1, nnd l':difurrll!l.
Th(> pi'1l'tl)lph i~ dI'Y(·!lIp<·d 1,.,' :l 11)\\ plalll Pl'tl,ltll'in~ a
Infl of :-iliff. :"wtlrd-.. hnpt·d 1":1\'(''';, in tht, ("'nll'l" III wllll'h a
:';'IIl~h' puwappll' nri:-<e ..: ( ri ,!.!. 2 7i L 11 i:-< II 11:41 I\(' {If tnll'lf.:.a.1
Fw. 271.-.'\ pin~Apple plnnl.-f'rnm Ovtl(lfllJrll n/ "" ...1""1<1(1
Amrrira, and ou r supply conw:-: c'hi(·fl,\' from lllf' '''cost

Indios. B ahama Islands. and Floriua. T he nature or this
peculiar fruit has been described (§ 143) .
CHAPTER XnI
D IOOTYLEDONS: ARCHICHLAMYDEE
162. The two great divisions of Dicotyledons.-Tlw

Dicotyledons are a much larger group than the Mono-
cotyledon~ , containing more than 200 families and about
100.000 species. ~Jost of them arc easily recognized by the
floral number fi,.. or four, the net-yeined leayes. and the
arrangement of the Yllseular bundles of the stem in .. hollow
cylinder. There are t\Yo great diyisions of Dicotyledons:
the A rrhirhlomydffr. whose sepals n.nd Pf'ta1.~ are either Want·
iog or entirely separate; and the 8ympl'talcr. whose corollas
are sy mpeta]ous (§ 133). Thi s is by no means the only dif-
ference , but it is the one used to form the names.
The Archichlamydere (·omprise about three-fourths of the
families and three-fifths of the species of Dicotyledons, aod
the group is so extensi "e and intricate that only a slight
acqunilltun\..'e with it is possible at fi rst. Five conspicuous
families or groups are selected on account of their repre-
sentath'e character and common oCCU rren ce.
163. The tree group.-In the lo,,-er stretcbes of the
Archichlomydere there nre a number of small families that
include our most common bard,,'ood or deciduous t rees,
aod this assembl.ge of conspicuous forms may be considered
together. witbout selecting any special family. T hey in-
clude elms (Fig. 44), sycamore, walnuts. hickories, oaks
(Fig.43), chestnuts, ~<iUows, poplars (cottonwoods), birches,
beech, etc. These t rees nre all characterized by their simple
and :nconspicuous Bowers, which are usuaUy moo<Ecio1.ls or
2S2
DICOTYLEDONS: ARCHICDLAMVDEAl 2 S
direcious (§ 137) and wind-pollina!t..:!. A Yery character-

j<itic Hower-cluster occurs in JIl!UlY of thl'S(" formR, lX'lOg n
fo\pikc-li kc cluster, bu t h:l.\"i ng tOllspicu()llS ~l'ult·s (lr hraels
sublcnding indiyidual flowers or s!Huli group", of fiOW('fS.
It is called the
a.men' or cal1.-in:
and familinr illus-
trations ure foun d
on willows (Fi~.
27SL cottonwoods.
hirchps, and aldC'r!l:
(Fig. 279). BOlh
staminate and pis-
t iUntc flowers, or
only one kind , may
be in aments.
In higher fami-
A B
lies with more con-
spicuous and usual- FIG. 27M, ,,(killS or ~~ill1~t:.: A, ,UUluuaIC; H , lllr
ly insect-pollinated
flowers, other common trees occur, as t.he tulip-tree (white
poplar), magnolia, lin-
den, maple, buckeye,
box--elder, locust, sweet-
gum, and tupelo (black-
gum) ; and among the
Sympetalre the Mb be-
longs. The very names
of these trees suggest
the characteristic form"
of our great deciduous
forest l which once ex-
A tended in almost un-
Flo. 279.---<&t.lrin. or alder: A . braach with
ttaminate (ft.) and pi.tillat.e (81) cadcinll: broken sweep from the
B. piatillate ea'tIrin in 1,he next y_,- (when
\be _ _ are riJ)e).-Aher W,uawi'G. prairies to the Atlantic
2 4 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
CoasL The beauty and Yariety of this forest is ODe of the

distinguishing characters of the "egelation of lhe lllilod
States, anu its au use is equally characteristic of our e~rrly
hi tory. This gre"t f"rest region of deciduous trees is
spoken of iu general as the Atlantic forest; und in it tilt"
conifcr!:i arc sparingly represented, either mixed through it
or ill small patches. In the rich soi ls of the central States.
ns in Ohio, I ndiana, Illinois. Ke ntucky, Tennessee, and
Missouri, the deciduous forest reaches its culmination in
variety, \'igor, u.nd purity.
Only one-fourth of our timber eomos from these hard-
wood trees, 1 he otlier thrf"('-fourths being supplird by f'oni-
fers (§ 128); and among them the oaks arc the 1l10,t useiul,
furnishing more than ollc-half t he hardwood timber. l'iext
in import.ance, so far as output is concerned, a.nd in the fol-
lowing ordef, firc tulip-tree (white poplnr, furni shing the
so-called poplnr lumber), maplc, elm. poplar (cottonwood ),
li nden (basswood), sweet -gum (red-gum), ash, chestnut,
birch, hickory, black wnlnut , sycamore) etc . In actual
murket yulue of the lumber, that is, the comparutj\·e value
of the same amount of lu mber of each kind, the order i., as
foll ows: black walnut, elm, oak, ash, tulip-tree (while pop-
lar), ches~nut, maple, sweet-gum (red-gum), linden (b",,·
wood), poplar (cottonwood), etc. Of CO:JTSC this order of
output :1nd of value canllot be a fixed one, but it serves to
indicate the situation at tbe last census.
It).!. Buttercups.- The Buttercup Family (Ra111mcula-
celt'), usu!llly called the C'rowioot Family, represents " ery
well the herbs witb the simpler flowers that belong to the
Archichlnmydere. Taking an ordinary early spring butter-
cup as a.n example, there nre {h'e green sepals, lh'e yellow
petals, numerous stamens, and a little head of numerous
carpels growing as separate pistils. This last character,
the distinct carpels, is quite an important feature; and
flowers that have it are said to be apocar'fJ0'U8 (Fig. 280).
DICOTYLEDONS: AllC'nrrRLA:\l YnE..£ II 3
It nll"! not he th('ught thnl in Ihi. ["lIIi1y and its ,iii." th.
sepul:- and the petals nn~ nlway::= jtl~t (]"(> in llundwr; for
FI!:. ~).-AI"IC1J,TPOIJ!< flu"'" r .If r. ll\llr,·rrlll' ...h""init tht' b(!1\(1 0' dl.ri lw! ""fT'C'I.
-.\fh'r U"ILI.(,".
I hf'~' may hr mm'C' nlln1f'TOU.'" nlld rna.,' I'P{,HIIH' j'n'n ill"

ddillilf'ly IlUII1CTI)US-, as in the \\atN-lily. Ulb('r \H·I'~
B c
Fro E .-Pknren and poda or the Munard Fa.mily: A . clWlk!!' of 80wen and
yount pods; B. ripe pod; C, opening pod .hn ..ina aeeda at 1Mbed lO the w..
part.ltioo.-A1ter W A.lUUlfo.
286 A TEXT- BOOK OF ·BOTANY
known representati"es of the family are clematis, anemone,

hepatica, marsh marigold, and peony (Fig. 2Di); and also
the spurred lark'purs and l"olumbines. Closely related' to
this family nrc [L 111lLniJf'f of smaller ones, that share ils
general "harocters, and that contain such "'miliar plants as
May-apple , water-lilies. I)arberry, bloodroot, poppies, etc.
Ken".\" related (0 the buttercups is n peculiar family,
('ont.aiJlinf.! s('Yeru.l ,yell-known plnllts, und kno\\~n as the
Mustard Family (Crnci/era). The flowers ure peculiar in
ha ving four srpais in two sets, four petals in onc set,
six unequal stamens (two short and four long), and one
carpi'l whose onlTY js dh·jdcd by a 'I false partHion."
gi"ing to the pod (long or short) the appearance of being
made up of two carpels (Fig. 281). Kot only is the family
to be recognized by t his singu lar floral st ructure, but also
by its morc or less pungent taste, which r~8('bcs nn extreme
cxprcs:.ion in rommcrciul mustard, which is made by grind-
ing to powder the seeds of certain species. Among the
members of the family that are prized ci"ther for ornament
or fOf use are stock. sweet alyssum, candytuft, wallflower,
watercress, horseradish, Dlustard, cabbage, turnip, radish,
etc.
165. Roses.- This famil y (Rosacere) is one of the best-
known and most useful families of the temperate regions.
Many of the flowers ha\"e a structure that suggests t.hat of
the buttercups, but the family is so extremely ,-aried in this
respect tlmt no general doseription can include them all.
In addition to such beautiful ornamental forms as the roses,
the family conta.in a remarkable collection of valuable
. fruits. These fruits may be considered under three heads:
(1) BERRIF.s.-Jt so happens that · none of these are
true berrie, but. their real nature has been e"-plained (§ 1(3) .
Strawberries are so hardy that they may be grown in
almost any pert of America, from Alasb to Florida (Fig.
234). The common cultimted ,-srietie. hs'-e been derived
DICOTYLEDONS: ARCmCnLAM1DEE 9 7
from n wild species native along th~ Parifir ('oast 01 Amer-

icon !\nd introduced into culth-ation from Chili lIOout two
('(,nturics a.go. The renl cuhil'ation of .s{rtl"l.x_lrri(~s ill the
l"nit{'d Rlatcs, howcyer, rn'gnn ahout ~ixty years ago, but.
did not reath la"go proportion" lIntil aftN the Civil War.
Since that lim(' the ~rQ\\'th of the industry hal:! IW('ft mar-
\,{_,Iou:;, thousands of variC" . ics hsYiug' 1'1('('11 d{'vrlop('(l nnd
It'SlNI. ily means of rdrip:crator tTulIsportulion stru\\'-
hrrric-s begin to corne north, from ('xt{'n~h'c plantatiolls in
tlu· Gulf StaleR. in F('hrunry j nnd Inl t-r. 8rt'ftfl £u,rtll1.:-r north
supply tho demand until 4Go '!(Jrll! Iatitud,' i, n'ach{~l.
Tho plants propagll'" h)' rUlln('.. , (~ 23). II'I,i('h ore put
forth !l.ftcr blooming und strike Tocll; unci tile new plnnts
thus started, either transpiutltNl or allowrd to rrmnin. bear
the next j'~ar. Thesc runn('r-propa!;nted plant. an' ""t out
rither in the sprin~ or in 1au· summf'r. and arc prott'rtc-d
through the willter l-y SPT(':ldin~ upon thpm ~traw (mu lrh-
ing). The very common wild strawberry docs not seem to
lend itself t.o improvement.
R aspberries are grown more extensively in the north·
easlern United States t han elsewhere (Fig. 233). The or·
dinary red and black variet;es haw bcen d,'riwd from
nath'e American plants, whirh arc mOte hardy than those
that bave been introduced. The red rasplx-rry is cs",'cinlly
difficult to ship, and therefore the hlack ra'plX'rr.\' is much
more "aluable commercially. A peculiar propagating habit
of raspberries is takcn advantage of in their rultimtion, In
the wild forms, late in the season, tbe tips of the bending
stems (canes) tako root and gi\'e riRe to ncw plnnls; in culti.
vation tbis putting down of the tips is done artiErially.
Blackberries belong to the Sllme genus (Rubu~) lUI the
raspberri s, and bave only recently become prominent as
CUltivated fruits, although in their wild Atllle they ba\'e
been known and prized from the earliest times. Since tho
finer cultivated varielies ba\'e been introduced, b]"ckberry
288 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT~'Y
culture has deYelop<'d rapidly in importance, and is suited

to almost all soils.
(2) Sl'OXE-FRUrrs.- These valuable fruits are usually re-
garded as belonging to a single gcn!!. (Pru1lUS). The pecul-
iar ripeni~g of the oyory illto fleshy and stony layers I""
been explained (§ 143) (Fig. 232).
Peaches originated in China, where they have been cul-
ti vafed from remote times, and came to Europe by wny of
Persia (hence the nnme Prun us Persica), and from Europc
to America . T he b<"1lltiful flowers usually appear Ycry early
in spring,ll11d hCTlcc they arc nhrnys in danger of lale frosts.
On this Ilccount peach culture is at,ended with great risk.
and on ly those regions nrc f,,"omble in which blooming is
likely to be hrld back and Inte frosts are rare. Curiously
enough, th e risks are greater in the South than in the
Xorth . It follows that the great commercial supply comes
fro", only a few regions. One of these is the Great Lakes
region, the prominent areas heing in l\ew York and Cansda
along the southeastern part of La ke Ontari o, along the
.outhern shore of Lake Erie, and on the eaSlern shore of
::'ake Michigan (the Michigan" fruit belt "); a second great
region extends from tbe shores of Long Island Sound to tbe
Chesapeake Bay region; a third is northern Georgia and
Alllhama; a fourt h extends from southern Illinois across
Missouri into I\ansas; and a fifth is almost the whole of
Califomia that is not mountainous, P erhaps the best-
known peach-growing States are Maryland, Delaware,
Georgia, Michigan, and California. In a popular way
peaches are grouped as clingstones and freestones; hut
there are in termediate forms, and the same variety may
he clingst.one one season and freestone tbe next. Certain
smooth-skinned varieties are called nectarin...
Apricots are intermediate between peaches and plums,
resembling a smoot'h peach (nectarine) in e;"ternal appear-
ance, and ha'~ng tbe smootb stone of a plum. They alSl!
DICOTYLEDONS: ARCB1 C'flI,AM'rDE4i: !l 9
ori:;!inated in Chinn or Japan. :.wo thr cl:ing<'TS in ('ulli~

\aliun arl.! the same as thost· of tht, 1)(·!lI·I1. TIlt' IIpTiC'tll
!w.:.;'tH'\'l'T df>,~elop('(l ('omlllf'r('ial ilIlpt1rlHllf't' itl lh4' Plls\l'rn
l'lli",d ~tatl·s ex('('pi ill !I ff'W plal'('s, 11~lluhly ill .\"t·" \ .lr~
JIl {':difurnia. howe\'"cr. it j.-: cHIP of thl' Illfl:o't iltlpllrl:tnl {'CIIII·
ttH'T('ial frl1it~ of til(' :-itat(·, iUl\'illl! ht'i:11 introduf'l'd 1111(1 it
hy th(' ~Iis~ioll Fat hrri'i.
1)lunt~· 9.l'e (If ~() m:ul\' kiml ... rll:lI r1l(,\, ('all hnrdh- tJ<'
r-.pokrll uf all to~(t hrr. 'i'iu' Illltlwr(lU~ \ Il~j('1 il'!" Illn't- "w't'll
cieri\'t'd from at lrast 1 hn'(' :;:IK·cies. 0111' Ellr(lp(·un. nne
J!tpnll('R('. and (111(' nutin'. TIl(' Illf':-.I {· '\':tt' n~in'I_\· ,:r:rown
and (:onlmcrciull.v importullt plum ... :,r(.' fn'fll Ill!' E1lropc'un
sf('rk: und lh{' two gl'(,;ll 11Tf'3." of j'ultj\-:JUrHl nn- ('JJJiforniu,
and th(., .\'nnhru!-'t{'rn ~tnl(.'R nortil of 1\·lIllsyhulli:J. and
\\'('51 to tile Great Lakes_ i n CnliforniH Ih<.' J,nl~1f irrdt1!oilry
has h(>€on rXlensi \'<.'I~' dc,'clop(od, u prunr ht·ill.l' ~iJnply 11
plum t hat has drirci R\\'P{'l (wit hout f('rrtlf'lItal inn) wil hout,
rem()\"ing the 'tone (pit).
Chrrrics ar(' of ~\-ernl ,'arirt j(,s. dl'ri ,'("(_I from two Eurn-
pean species, In J,!'enrrai th(,y art' l'1as:.;ifif..'d a~ ~(llir ('h('r-
ries, \\'hirh are largC'ly grown in til(> ('n~r{,rrJ l 'nirNl Suites.
espe('ially western .\' pw York . for ('lwninS!; ami :,W('{'i rlwr-
rirs, whirh arc most cxtcnsh'C'ly ('UllinH('d (JII tilf' PUf'iflc
Coast. There are a number of mtth'(' fo'lx'{'j{'r; in the l'nitNJ
States. and among them the blu('k du.'fry funli .. llf'flI 1 tirnbpT
much \.·aJued on a.C(,Ollnt of it.., beaulY wlif"fI fy)Jj_<;},(>u ,
(3) PO"E-rRt:I1's.-The p"('uliar chara(,ter of t.hi. In'"
of fruit bas been explained (§ H3 ) (fiJ(. 2:15) . ulld the lIame
has been used in that of fruit ('ulture in ~(·rH'rnJ. ",hic}.
is called pornolof/y. The following form. all 1.)('lon~ to the
genus Piru8.
Apples have been culti\'ated from the most nncient
times: a.nd the thousauds of yarieties Iw\'e all ('0001(" froUl
two wild species natjve to southwestern A:-:iu and adjacent
Europe, one gidng rise to the common apples, the other
to the crab-apples. This is the most important fruit ("

the tcmperl1tf' f('gion~ , and .Korth Amocica is ihc greatmH
apple-growing region of the world. For commercial 'pur-
poses there must bc a combination of such featu res as pro-
Flo , 282.-The common pear: .", fl ower cluster; B. !eCtiOD of a Bincle 6o"'eT;
C. :teCtion o f .. fruit (COl"" indicated by dOlled o uttine).-After WOUIDW.
ductiveness, qualil;·. and long-keeping: aod the best region

of the COU ll try 10 produce all tbese extends from KovaScoti n
to Lake Michigan. Otber important commercial regions are
Virginia, the Plains. Arkansas and the Ozarks, and the foot-
hills of the Pacific Const. Ench year these regions produce
about OllP hundred million barrels of apples. When first
introduced into tbis countr)', the apple was prized eWIlBy
for the manufacture of cider and "inegar; but it is used noW
more extensively tban any other fruit OS a fresh and evapa-
DICOTYLEDONS: ARCillCBLAMYDlUt 2!)l
rated fruit. Apples arc usually propagated hy budding and

~raf(ing (§ 24) the desired nlrictr on hardy roung (rt~'s
P«~ar8 nr{' chieOy dcriv«:>d {rom a singlt' EurulX'nn 8J)('riC'!I.
and w('r(' introduced into thi~ country by 11ll' {,!lrlil;~t &'t-
tl(·rs (Fig-. ~82). Their most ~ucceS$ful ('Ulli\'ntioll i ~ itt
[he '\orll!l':lstern States (from Xt'\r Enl!}:wu In Ihe Greal
La~w~ ) and 011 th(' Pa('ific Coast. In till' ('(,tltr«1 ~tut(·to:
l'xtcn~in" pl.'ar ('uIture is att<'ndC'd wit h ~rr81 ril'k on Ut'('ount
of n dnn~('rous disease known UR 1)('nr-lJli~llt (lr fir(·-hlifrht.
the' lesyes turnjng brown or blu('k n~ if ~(·orf'lwd. This
is one of the bacteria l dispasPs (§ 77 ). l"nJikl' 1110"t rruit~.
pt'nrs ar(' "l'ry much impro \'cd whl'1t pic'k('d gTc'en and
ripened indoors.
quinces are "'ell kn own. but haw not I)('en dneloped in
variety or in ('ommercial importan('e at; ha"(, npph'f; and
pea", this probably bping due chieffy to the fal't that Iho)'
cannot br ('a!('n Ta w. Thf' most importnnt (lujn('l' oTc},unJlt
in the rnited Slat.es art' in western :\'ew York.
166. Legumes.- This is by far tho ~palc't family (1""911-
mino..,) of the Archichlamydr",. and iR (·ltioll_,- diRlinguisltcd
by its very irregular Bowers and its pods, which ar£' ucri\'E;:d
from n single carpel and become more or les:; olongated and
sometimes remarkably conspicuous (Fig. 283). It is the
peculiar pods (legumes) that hi,,·e gj,'cn name 10 the fam-
ily. The ordinary flowers , represented b~' the swot't pea,
werc thought to resemble a butterfly, and bpn('e wer. said
. to be papilwno.ceoU8. The upper petal (standard) is the
largest., and erect or s preading; the two lateral )X·tals (wing')
flre oblique and descending ; while the IWo lower petals are
coherent by their lower edges and form a projectiPIl boat-
shaped body (keel). ,,·hich encloses the stamen.. and pistil.
The relation of tbis structure to pollination by insects has
been described (§ 1.17). ~his family , in its irregular flowers
adapled to insect-pollination. holds the same position among
Archichl.omydea> that tneorchid3doamong i\JonocotyJedon.s.
292 A TE.X'T-BOOK OF BOTANY
In so yast a falllily it will be impossible to enumerate all

the forms that ure wllil kn o wn on llt'('ourH of their common 01'-
CUTTrU('C' or lIfol('fuinl'ss. hut some ofthem may he mC'flIionpd
Thf' 5 \\'('('t P('ll. wislnrin. and lupine' SUg'!!C'SI the' num('rou . .
herbaceou s forOiIi with showy llo\\(·rs. 1n lhi:; fn.mily abo
FlO, Z83.-A I~a:uminou~ plant A, flower" and po<u; n, petal! separAted to show
st:lIldnrd 1o), wiug" ( h ), and keel f~uLl~ (d.-Aller WossmLO.
are found t he numerous sensitiyc plauts (§ 17) character-

istic of south"'estern arid regions (Fig. 284). Among the
trees the following rna:r be mentioned; common locust.
prized for bOI h its showy flowers and its yaluable timber;
honey locust. beset wit h conspicuous thorns (Fig. 60); red-
bud. wilh numelous pink flowers appearing upon the naked
branches in early spring; and the singular coffee-tree.
Among the useful forms. the so-called forage pl!lJlts are
important; that is. 'Plants used for pasturage or hay, just as
are the grasses. The most common of these is clover, I>
DlOOTYLEDOXS: ARCHICllW)IYDEA: 295
~('nus (Trifolium) containing man~' ~J){'(·i ('s. The' most im·

T)(,rt!UH one to th£' furm(l r is tilt· ('ornnhln n·d rluY('r. afford-
IIII!" \.Hluahlt"> paSllll'ag<' and d on'r II!...,. :wd :iI!,>{I tfBllnn'lug
tht' ~(lil (~ 77 ). The
.-;malll·r whil(, c:lo"e-r
j .. al"o :J. ypry fa-
lIlili:lr plant u:'....oei-
'th'd wil It ,e:ru5:o'('s
ill I!lWIl~, pa~tur(,:;l,
t'te,: and it~ flow-
(of:: llr(' ('spetially
:1 t I racti yc to orcs.
,;I/al;a (llIc('rne) i,
Hlwtjj('r important
forage plallt rrlaicd
to the do\'cr;;;, und
j;s p~pe('juJJy "!llult-
hi,· in Lhe \Yest
where irrigaiion is
,·rnployrd. It is a
nn t i "C of western
Asia. has long been
cultimwd in Eu-
rop€> , and \\as in-
troduced into Cali- FIG. 284.-1\ ,ooelllliu, 1.111n! s hm'nne f~ UI~.n4pic:u·
i"
fornia about the OWl tio"·~r • ... uh nUII.ler"U/! . ltUllf'fl~. and tl ... lIIrMi-
live pinnatel) compound h:a"e.. -A(ulf Ibn.•
. middle of the last ll11d t'CHt: ........ N.
century _ Since then
it has become the most extensiwly grown forage plant in
Lhe arid regions of the Pacific and Rocky ~Ioulltain :-\taLes.
Besides t he forage plants, the ""rds of ONtain 01 hel'!l are
"ery familiar as food. The culti,·atcd peas are natives of
southern Europe and Asia, and ha'·e been culti"ated for
many centuries. They are dhinguished "" garden peas aDd
field peas, th.e latter being rather a forage plant. The two
294 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA..'lY
types of garden peas are tbose with smooth seeds and tho""
wilh wrinkl,·d seeds, the former being earlier and hard.er
(hence most common in Ihe market) , the laller bet\cr '"
quality_ Beans are of muny kiuds, but the common beltn of
Europe docs not "u('('red well in the t- nitrd !:'tntes. Our
cOlllmon garden and ficld beau is the kidllr)' bc"," , whic'h
rearhed the l"oil ed f'LUICS from Soutb America b;- way or
Europe. Th£' limn bean is lliso of ~outh Amcri(~an OrI-
gin, and is mORt f'xt{'llsivcly grown in California. Pean ut$,
(goobers) are curiously dc\"elopcd and \"ery familiar pod;.
After the flower lUl!:\ fallen. itE. stem bend:::. downward and
pushes th(' young pod into th(' ::w.. ndy soil. where it matur(';"
and hence is ~om('lim('s culled groundnut. l"\('Yeral l)f (JUT
native legumes :l].~o huyc this c:uriou5 habit. The peanut.
is thought to be a nati"r of Brazil, and is now I1row11 in
all warm regions of the world. In the l'nitrd ~'tatrs it
has breome an important c:omnwreial crop of tIl(' Southern
States since 1866, being ("biefly grown in \"irginia, Xorth
Carolina. Georgia . and Tennessee; the annual yield being
four million bushels.
167. Umbellifers_-Tbis is the highest family (umbelli/-
ercr) of the Archichlam;-d.a', and the name has been "'g-
gcsted by the fact that t he small Bowers are Dla_ cd in
flat-topped ('Iusters called umbels (§ 139) (Fig. 224). Tbe
family is distinguished also by Ihe fact that the ovaries nrC'
inferior (§ 138). In general tbey are perennial herbs oi
north temperate regions. Parsnips and cICrrots are the
thick tap-rools of two of the species, and celery is thr
blanched leaf-stalks of another. Some species are chnrac-
terized by their aromatic folia.ge or fruit. as coriander, fen-
nel , and caraway; and one species yields the deadly hem-
lock.
168. Other useful Archichlamydelll.-Many well-known
ornamental plants "do not belong to the representative fam-
ilies described above, as "iolets, pinks, geraniums, nastur-
DICOTYLEDONS : ARrBJCHLAMYDE& 295
UUIT1!5, fuchsia I etC'.; and som(' very uSC'fui plnllt~ ahm

l><>long to scaltcred families. These' latter may I... group,·lI
., follows:
(1) FlDERS.-Thc fiber plants un' nUlnl~rou". hut Ilu'rp
ar£' t hrN'v['ry conspi('uotls on('s IlmOIlJ,:: the AI'C"ilirhlltmvtil'f{'.
CoUcm.-Thc {'olton plant is b~' fur die' 111O'i1 imJ~rtnnt
fibrr plant grO\nl. being cu lti yated O\'('r:J. ,trrt'utt'l' un'n Iwd
u:-i('d for ,\ larger numb('r
of purposes than any
other fiber plant (Fig.
2'5). The culli " ated \':1-
rif'firs hayc originated
from :.p\·c:raltropical sp('~
,·ioR. but in the l 'n il<'d
Sta t,·s (be Sea I slund
oot(on alld the upland
cotton nrc gro wn n J mo~t
exciu';'·ely. The genus
(GossYI)ium) b{']onl!s (0
tbe \I allo", Family (.l!"/-
""cpu) . to which the hol-
Iyho('k and the hibi,cus
also belong. the most ('on-
spicuous poculiari ty of
2N!t.-nle (!fJltun i'ulltll .II t!tlW..,.lftC
the flower being the ap- rTf.hralll:h; IJ, fmit (tJ(JU) bunlldl ; ", ~
parent coalescence of the 1Ii'ith 6loc!.nll (liul).-Alter W(WIIilLO.
numerous stamens into a.
centra l column (Fig. 214). The capsul" (holll of the cot-
ton plant contains numetous sN>dr;;, whic·h arc' ('oyrrrd \\;th
long hairs (lint) that are the tolton til.... rs (I'il(. 2S5. C).
At maturity the bolls burst , and the lint protrudes in a
fluffy, cottony mass (Fig. 285. B). The ('Olton-gin " .... in-
vented to separate the lint from the ",·ed •. and the revolu-
tion it brought about in the cotton indu try is well known.
The Sea Island cotton, with its long and silky fibers, is
20
296 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTAKY
the mo,t ,"sluable yariety, reaching its greatest perfection

a Jo m~ til(> ('oust rpgioll of ....;out II C'nroiinu, Georgia, all J
FJoriJa . Til{' upland ('otton ii') C'ulti"utcd o\"(~r a wider nrt'a.
bUl is b~' no meuns of:-;o nne a grade, lll1~OO , the gr('au'sl
cOllon-growing- Rtut('~. ill tlie' order of the number of nert . .
uJlder (.'ultiYUliofl, were Texns. Georgis, Alauama, Mis~i ... -
sippi. and ~outh Carolina. There are yalua.ble by-produ(·t ..
from I f1(' (>ot ton plant, the seeds yielding the well-known
('ot ton-l"('('d oil.
Flax.-The fiber of flax forms linen thread and cloth.
and 1h(' extent of its usc is second only to lhat of cOl·
ton . The species used is n
"mall annual (Lillum) nati,·.
about the ~I editerrancan, and
cuiliyo.ted from the very ear-
liest times (Fig. 2 6). The
fibers arc found in the stems,
which are subjected to a series
of pro('esses for separating the
fibers from lhe other parts,
The oil yielded by the seeds
is the well-known linseed oil,
used in paints, yarnishes, etc.
Russia is t be greatest flax-
grmdng country in the world j
but for excellence of fiber Bel-
gium excels, where it is nsed
in the manufacture of the
famous Brussels lace. In the
United States flax has been
>'<0. 2S6.-TheBax .tant.-After long cultiYl.lled in many State,
B.uLL,,., for its oil; but only recently
has its culth'ation for fiber at-
tracted attention, and that cbiefly in Michigan, Wisconsin.
Minnesota, and Washington,
DICOTYLEDONS : ARCBlCBLAJIYflE.E 297
R emp.-This we-H-known filx-r ('ClOl(,S frotu nil annual

plunt lIfltil"{' to soulht'rn A~iu. bill hHl~ ruilj,:dt'd in
l:unlpt'. and 31:;;0 n:lLuraliz.ed in till' t'l litt'C1 :O:ll.ltl·" l1 i1! ~""7)
It is a member of the !\ettle Family (Urticacere). As in

flax , the fiber" ust'd occur in the superficial r~gion of tIll'
stem I outside I h(' regu lar wood fibers. The most ('xtensiw'
culth'alion of hemp is in EUfOpeUJI Russia: and it j ..
somewhat eulth-awd in the l"niled Rtates, ('speeiatly in
Illinois . .\Ii ssouri. and ]\entu('ky. The nam e is applied
also to uny fiber that S(' rves the same purposes as tru('
hemp ; for t'xump}c, 1\'lnnila hemp. which is ohtained from
8 spccirs of banana 'which is lIat h"c in the Philippine I slands
and cxtensi\'C'ly cultivated thf'rr.
(2) BErmH::s.-The conspicuolls berrie not mentiollrd
are the currants and 11H' goo~eb('rri('s. which arc members (Jf
a small fami ly (8urijTagacm) do,el), relat od to the Ro...
Family. These f"mili.r plants belong to the Sfilne genu"
(RibcB) and are nntiws of the 0001 temperate region s.
Therefore. their chief cu!ti"fition is in nort hern Europe and
in the Xorthern Vnitrd f4tutes ano Canada. The ordinary
varieties of \\'hitc and fed currants are weB kno'w-n and
well cultiyated in Ihis country, but in no country has the
gooseberry been developed to such size and quality a in
England.
(3) GIl.,PES.-Grapes are true berries, but they are so
important as to desen'e separate mention. The genus is
Viii. ; and it gives name not only to the family ( r itacf<rJ.
but, also to the culture of grapes (viticulture). The eultiya-
tion of grapes for t.he manufacture of wine and raisins is as
old as lhe -liistory ot mnn. The ,.anelles eultlyated 1n fhe
Old World all belong to a single species (Vitis vinifera) ,
whjch i now extensively grown in all countries bordering
on the Mediterranean, and north 10 central Europe. This
Sll.me European yine was introduced on the Pacific slope by
the early miesionariE'S; and now, exee'pting a few famous
regions in Europe. California leads in the production of
wine and raisins, ha\'ing the largest vineyards in the world.
In the northeastern States, however, native varieties have
mOOT1"LEDONS: AnCUlCffLAMYDEJl!: 299
been dO\'cloped, more for what nrr cfilled dr ..... rl purpol!C8

lh:m for wine and raisins; ~wd lhj~ ('uhur~ hn.'t r('ut'llC'd its
hiehcRt }X'rf(,(·tion in Xc\\' York. ~l'" J(.'rl'l'Y. ll:lrylanli.
Yirginia. and Ohio. ]\'0 l'ulti\'8tf·d plunl i...; 1I1llu·kpd In
more diseuses Own tht' grupe, nor hn\'(' fitly plullt JI ..t~I\st.~
!x'en more fully studiC'u.
(·n ('n'rton; FH('ITR.--Th('s(' fruitf;. :_111 hC'Joll,l.! ttl a Nin-
gIl' J:"(·nu.~ (['ilrm;), whose ~1)('r'ir8 JUt' :;;hruh.'l or ~nlnll lTt>(·~,
Ilntiws of tropical anJ suhtropic·nl .'\"" (Chlllu. lndlll) .
Thl' dtrous fruils are num('rou~. uut thp thTl'€> rOrTll~ ('hit·,Oy
{'ult.i,·ated in the United States and e{)mmon ill murk~ts nrc
a~ follow8:
Ora11(Jcs are extensively rulti,'atecl in the l'nit('d Htatt'S
in ('entntl and southern Florida, the delta rr~ion of thr
Mississippi, and California. All the varieties are dc'ri""d
from a single species (Citru., A urolllium) , ancl may !:w
!trouped as bitter oranges and 5W('('t oran,gf''''. thj· latter
!:wing the chief market form. The wrr popular "c,,'<.lle...
navel oranges of California wen' introduccd in 1~70 from
Brazil by the United States Department of Agriculture,
being a chance seedling \·ariety.
A closely allied species «,ilmA ,wbili., produces the
varieties of mandarin or kid-glove orangc.o;. True manuarins
are smaU find Hght orange ju color. and a.rc flot so much
prized in mllJ'ket as the dark orange or reddish forms kno\\'n
as tangerines.
Grape-fruits are e"tenaively cultivated in Floridll nnd
California. all the varieties, most of which haw ori,lrinatro
in Florida, coming from Citrus Dccu.nwna. a natin' of the
Malayan and Polynesian Islands. The original and bPst
Mme for this fruit is pomelo . ..Ithough it is sometimrs railed
shaddock 88 well as grape-fruit. In reality. the pomelo Or
grape-fruit is tbe common round-fruited form of ihe
markets, while tbe shaddock i. a \'ery clifferent. plnnt ..,itb a
pe9.l'-shAped fruit.
;lOO A TEXT- BOOK OF BOTANY
Lem.,llS also are culti,·atcd in Florida and California

but the) afe not :-'0 hard~' as th(' orangr, and henet:' tlH'ir
culti'-atioJl is more T{·:·;tri{,ted. The chjcf foreign 'S1l1'-
pl~' ('OrrJ0'S from Italy, :':pain. and PorlugaL The It-mu ll
i~ !l. Y3rit'fY of the tiiron (Citrus 11u'dica): and unotiH·r
Yorif'lY is the lime, which furnishes t he commercial linw-
juice,
(.5) T".', .-1'lIe tea planl i, n shrub nali,·. 10 ,uh-
tropical A:-:ia. nnd its dr;c·d if'uy('s arc onr of the most inl-
pona.nt ar\i{'h"~ of rom -
meree (Fig. 288)_ It I""
been ('ulthnted in China
nnd Japan for many ceu-
turi('~. and in the last crn-
tury extcnsiye p l nntatiot\~
"-ere !'~faDl1shed a!so in
India. Ja,'a, and Cf'yJoIl .
Ther£' are three dislinl't
pickings in a season;
so:ne of the young I.ell,·e,
are picked in April for
a fine qUlllity of ten
(young hyson) which can-
not stand shipping to a
distance i the ordinary
picking for the general
Fta. 2 .-Flow('rilljl; branch o! Il,~ tes
pl:wt. -A(ter H.\J.l.LQs.
market begins in May:
and later there is a \ hird
picking. which mokcs a low-grade tea. Different qualities
and eolors are produced b~· the different treatment of the
ame lea Yes. the numerous "arieties being either green tea.
in which tbe lea ,-es are roasted quickly, or black tea, in
which they are dri~d slo\\-ly until they are almost black.
Out ide of oriental nations the chief tea drinker are the
R ussians, the British, and the Dutch.
DICOT'fLEDONS : ARCnI C'1I LA)J ,DEE 801
(6) (110C'OUTE.-C'horo!ntr i. "ht:li",·t) frum the,."roo

of thr Cficno-trC't," , n naliw' of ~l ('xi(·(I. whit'h WIll" imr(ldtlt'('d
into Europc' by the :-\panian.l ... . aml b llow c'\llti\'illl·d in nil
trnpi('al countries. TIle' fruit i:- !Ihuut (II(' si7.t' (If 11 t;rr1nlJ
{'ul'lImher :md ('ontllin~ lIunwrOlis lar~{' fIal st·"d .. t'mlH'thh'd
in it::, flesh. The 5('('U:-; nrr cru~h('d to a flll(' pa~H', \\ hic·h is
hf':ttt..J nnd run into mold.... ('0("(1 i~ (li-tnilL('(1 from (·hoc..('"
lila' by Tf'tnllving from il :,IIII\(' (If ih uiL
CHAPTER xnn
DICOTYLEDONS, SYMPETAL1£)
JU9. General characters.-Thc Rympetahr include the

families of highc,! rank. about fifty in number. among
which there urc many WE'll-known plants, and Rome of
great use. The r('present.ative families are easily recognized.
and five of them will be presented, "ith which a real ac-
quaintance with t.he Sympctalre ma,': well begin.
170. Heaths.-In this family (Erirflcell') the re nrc often
ten stamens, in two set,. so lhat there are fi,'e cycles of
fioral parts: and lhus such forms are easy to distinguish from
the following fUlniIies, in whose flowers there are only
four cycles. Heaths are usually woody plants, often shrubs,
sometimes trailing. occasionally trees. One of the most
peculiar and constant features of the family is that the
anthers usually open at the top and generally by terminal
pores (§ 134) (Fig. 213. B and C). The species belong
cilleRy to the cooler regions, often being the prominent
vegetation in cold bog. and on heatbs, to willch latter they
give n!lme (Fig. 289) .
Trailing arbutus. bearberry (kinnikinick), heather, rho-
dodendron (Fig. 290), azalea, mountain laurel, winter-
green. and corpse-plant (Indian pipe) are familiar forms;
willIe huckleberries, blneberries, and cranberries are staple
fruits. T he cranberries grow wild in mossy (sphagnum)
bogs in tbe cool iemperale regions of boU, America and
Europe. Two kinds usually appear in market: t he small
S02
DICOTYLEDONS : SYMl'ET,u..!! 808
r ra" berry, obtained from \\lld plllnfJ<; Hlld tho Illrl(e tmn-
l ('rry, {'xLensi"cly cultivated in Rt"'('r:ll :\ortlwrn Stale's,
,.... pt:cinlly in Massachusetts, :\('w J(,fS<'Y. and \\· i ~conf'in.
FIG. 2S9.-H~t.h plan~ A. IJ1/V'Iia; lJ 8nd C. two .~iee e,f ra-Ihpc.-Al_

DttCDE.
Huckleberries, a market name that i~c1udc. blueberries,

Mye Dot as yet been culti"ated for commrrdlll purposes,
but are picked from wild plants, large arellll of which are
30.Jc A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
sometimes protected. In ~l ainc, (he protected "blucberr\"

barrens 11 is said to include all aren of !lboUl 150,000 acres.
FtG. 290.-;\ flower--clUS-ltT of rhodndendron.-Alter BooIL&n.
171. Nigbtshades.-This great family (Solanau/J!) in-

cludes plants with morc or less conspicuous and regular
tubular corollas. The Bo,,'crs haye four cycle, a character
which distingui hes this family from the fonner one; and
regular corollas. a charRcter which distinguishes it from the
next one. Perhaps fhe most familiar illustration of the
general type of Bower is the morning-glory, which belongs to
DICOTYLEDONS: S'fMPETA.L..£ 8011
1 small r~lnied family. A VN.'" ,:enerul ft'uture of the

[lig:htshaul'~ is lill'ir rank-scented foliu!!(', t Itl' 1~':L\'('!oi Ilnd
l-'w. !!91.-l:Irallcb of Lliom-ft.J1pl .. (!'Ui:hlllhad,. Family). .. htJ~·inc thun':f'1I and

fruit.-Aftt-T B,ULWS.
'ruits of SOIUE' of them iJ('ing vcry poisonoHs, Amon~

he iamiJiur plants are capsicum (r£'d pepper), ground
·herry. belludonna. mntri-
nony "ine. heniJane, petu-
lift. and thorn-apple (jim-
Ion-weed) (Fi~,'·s. 291 and
!92); while the three fol-
o"ing are of great com-
nerciul importance:
Potalo.-Thismost corn-
}'w . 29'2. - Thorn - apple
non of all ,·egcto.bles is tSiabt.t..tk ,.·..roily.;
)ften called Irish potato. A, looptu!Unai fle('tl(m
QlIIC]tl'~;IJ.~
>ecnusc of its general usc (If th~ fruit (lIur).-AJ-
1e1'" H"U.unf.
n Ireland; but it is a na-
,iYe of the mouDtainous
'egion of America from southern Colorado to Chili. Like
lorn (maize), potatoes were found in cultivation by nati,'es
upon tbe discovery of America, and were introduced into

Europe by th~ Spanish conquerors. probabl~' from Peru.
For ncarly two l'pnturics, hOW~yerl their importance 'ww
not appr(>ciatrd; but now tbere uTe t.C'n limes as many
bushels of p()tal o~s produc·ed in Europe as in (he United
Siales. I he entir~ Euror",an crop being sHid to aggregate
mor~ bush~L, than Ihe enlire wheal crop of Ihe world. New
York is uur great potato-producing tn.l(', There arc hUTI-
dreds of varieties, Jlew ones replacing old ones every year;
but lh~y are all d"ri\"pd from a single species (Solanum
tubcro6um). It should be remembered lhut I he"" tubers
are subtrrraneall stems (§ 2i) enlarged fiR drpositories of
starch. the stem structure being indiculed supcrficill.lly
by tbe eyes (bra"t. with axillary buds). In planting, tbe
tubers ure cut in picccs. each piece containing one or two
eyes and 8S much of the food-supply as possible.
Tomalo.-The tomato was once called lo,·e-apple. and
was thought to be poisonous. It is grown more extensively
in North America than elsewhere; and in the Cnited Stales
there is no vegetable so extensh'ely grown for canning, about
300,000 acres being required to produce the annual crop.
The principal (omato-gro\\'ing States are :\Jaryland. New
J ersey. Indiana , and California. The numerous kinds vary
in form and color, all coming from a single species (ltyco-
persicum esculentum). which is nati \'e to the _,\ndean region
of South America,
Tobacco.-It is weU-kno\\-n that the Indians used tobacco
long bc10re t.he discovery of America . but. never excessively
(Fig. 208). From Amerioa its use was introduced into
Europe , gradually extending to lbe Asiatic nations, until
now the Turks and Persian are tbe greatest smokers in the
world. In the unit.ed Stales tobacco culture began in Yir-
gioia, at the first settlement of the colony; and it became
the leading industry also of Msryland. Xortb Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia, 8.Ild Kentucky at their first settl~
DICOTYLEDONS: !1YMPE'fAL.a!. 307
ment. To-day F lorida, Connecticut, r'enn")'l\'ania , and
Wisconsin lead in the production of the finer gmdes: while
the Rtates produ(,ing the ot her grud('~ Rrf', in lht'it order,
]\cntucky. \ ·irginia . Nortb Carolin", Mnr."llIlld, Ohio, 1n-
di~na. and Missouri. The finest tobtLc('o in thf' world is
~t()wn in Cubn. that from Floridn ranking £;('('onu; whll(' the
lobn('t"o of 13ornco, Ccylon, and I h(> Philjppill{' lsltllll.h~ is
not much inferior. The growinp: plant is hand~olTl(" with
showy fluwers. and is oftC!1l used l).l) Iln OrnlllU('1l1nl plnut.
The si ngle sJlCcies is !\r1cO liull(l To~
borum, llnd is of South American
origin.
172. Labiales.-This family (&,- /J
bial(£) has reteh'cd its name from
its two-lipP<'d or bilabiale corolla
(~ 133 ). This does not mean that
all plants with bilabiatc flowers !.K'-
long to thi; famil)'; but if this char-
acter is associated with square stems
and opposite leaves, and also Itith
an O\'l1ry so de"ply lobed that it
looks like four little nutlets in the
bottom of the Aower, the plant can c
be reglU'ded a a member of the fam- F,O, :.'93,-C.tmp (llml F'UJ'~
ily) . A. HowClf'-clunef"; II,
ily (Fig. 293) . The foliage is usu- AllaJe 80."": r. pi.llI.
a lly aromatic, and the family is com- abllwiha the deeply four~
lobed o".ry.- After 8.u,..
monly called the Mint Family. Many
common ,dId plants a.nd garden herbs
will be recognized as belonging he re, familiar names being
sweet basil, pennyroyal, la vender, mint, hoarltound, hys-
sop, savory, marjoram, thyme, balm, sage, rosemary, cat.-
nip (Fig. 293). etc.
173. Madders.-Thi. very large tropical family (Rubia.-
~) is represented in our flora by only a few forlIlS, such
as bluets, buttonbush, partridge berry, etc., which may be
rccogniwd generally by the regular tubular corolln, the

inferior o\'ary, aJld the Boral numbcr four. lI ow('\-l~ r . th"
tropical fl1rmbers of t hE' falllil~' yh·ld t W(I illlpOrl~lJlt product s
that should lIot C'I'{CHp<' mention.
C"llre,-Th" ron'" .. plant (CoJiea ambicn I i, :t nativc
of Ara bill 1I1lU A"y~-:iTlitl, !lnd is a slt:'Jl(J('r In't' bf.'('(lllIinl!
fiftoen tn I w,'n ly-fi"o f("'1 hip:h (Fil:_ 29i ), bUl rardy nllowpd
to h('('OIlI(' finn' 1liun latlf dud "('i~ht ill c'uili,-;nioll . Tbr
fruit is u <.lark s{'urJ('l h('ITY (Fi J!.
:.!HS) containing two lwr11-likl'
s('(' d ~. whieh nrC" nnlinarily ('!lllcu
COffN'I-bt.'flIlS ( F'i~. :.!~IH '. The u~£'
}1L., 2D-I.-TIle coffet'-cne. Flo. m.-FruiuJljI; branch of coffee.

After a.HUON. AIter BAILLO~.
of ('offee call be traced back in Arabia for only about five

hundred years, and its use in Europe ex"tends over only
haU that time_ Coffl'" plantations have been established
in regions of high annual temperature (r8llging from 60"
to 90"), Brazil producing more coffee than all other coun,
DICOTYLEllOl(',: SnIPETALM 309
Irip.s comhined. Ot her

prominc1It roffN'-grO\\-
ing.coulltrirs urc ~1t..'xi
('0. CClltral Am ril'll.
Java. f'umatJ"!1. JJlflin.
Ceylon. Ar~hi~. H,,-
\\':liian Island:" fwd t 11('
""" ;( Inui c.. or 1 h,·
11I:.m y thousalld tOIl~
~hip l)('tl from the~(.·
(·ountri('~. tht' l'nil{'d
~tnt('~ ("onf'UJljp~ Ilf'!lrly
one- half. !\ \'crn~ing (Jyt'r
flint' puund"" .'l Y(,1lr for
each inhabitant. )lochn
L
11(.;. !!DIJ.-Cuffee-I,L:t.nl II, fl o1lM'11I& branch;
y, ""-IT,.: r,MI<llwlI(lf I"'rn; D.~'"
(colfee-bMln.).-..Hru \\ OMWr..o.
('offee romes from Arn-

bia. while t1u.' fI(lurc(;'S
of the ollwr kinds arc
usually illdicuted by lbe
names.
Cinchona, - This is
the name of n genus
cont:l.ining nUmeruus
sJX·cies of trCf'8 that
grow in South A moriell,
chiefly alonl( the past-
ern slopes of the west.-
ern mount"ins (Fig.
297). The bark yields
Pta. 297.-F1owmna: branch of a cincboaa
plant..-Af_ BAll.I.O!C. the well-known q uiniIle,
as well as other alkaloids, and is commonly called Peru·

vian bark. 1t is stripped from the trees by the Indians
and carefully dried. Although the 1"'0' arc becoming
more scun'p every year, no attempt hus tM'('n mflde to
cu lti,'ate them where they are nstin'; btl! in Ju"a. British
India , Ceylon, Japan , and Jamaica there are ('xtensh'e plan-
tations of cinchotlh.
l B. Composites.-Thi. is the high.,t family (Com]>",.
itw) of Dirotyledol1ti, anq c-ontains HlP most numerous
species. l'omposiLes arc found c,'erywhere, but arc most
numerous in temperate regions, where they are usuaJly
herb,.
The name of the family suggests the mORt conspicuous
feat.ure; namely, the organization of the numpl'QUS smnll
flowers into n compact head which resembles" single flower,
formerly called a ("om pound flo'wer. ~o common are the
Composites thul th,· general structure of the head should
be understood. Taking the head of Ar?lica as!l t~·pe (Fig.
298. A). the outermost set of organs consists of more or less
leaf-like bracts or scales (involucre), which resemble sepals
(not sccn in figu re); within t·bese there is a circle of flowers
with conspicuous yellow corollas (rays). which are split
abo\'e the tubular base and flattened into a strap-shaped
body (Fig. 2lJ8. B), aud mueh resembling petals; within the
ray-flowers is the broad expanse called the disk. which is
closely packed with yel)' numerous small tubular flowers
known as di,k-flou·er8. If a disk-flower be remo\'ed, it will .
be discoyered that the o\'ary is inferior. and that arising
from it, around the tubular corolla, there is a tuft of delicat"
hairs (papplU) which represent the sepals (Fig. 298, 0).
This pappus surmounting the akene (§ 143) in COmposites
may be lacking ; it may be a tuft of hairs, as in Arnica,
thiBtJe, and dandel!on; it may be a cup or a set of scales;
or it may deyelop grappling appendages, as in Spru1is.h
needles (Fig. 257) and beggar-ticn (Fig. 258). Most of the
nrcOTYLEDONS: SYMPETALiK 811
heads of 'composites hayc lhe general slruclul'I! described

for Arnica; but in the dandelion and its allies Lbe disk-
Flo. 298.-ArftM:n: A. plant bearinc an open bead, mo-ml the COIUpiCUOWi "Yl"
and diU; B. r.y-Bower; C. dld·8owc.-Afur HoP'hl.ut.
flowers are like the ray-flowers, with conspicuous strap-

shaped coroU .... (Fig. 299).
21
Some of the well-known forms, either wild or in culti-

vation , nrc ironweed, ageratum, blazing star. goldenrod,
dais)" aster, e\-erlast.ing, rosinweed (compass plant ), ,rng-
FtG. 299.-Dandelion ~ .4. two flo9."er--stal kl!. one head being clOMd and t!howiq
the doubl,= involucre, tbe othu Ollen and ahotrin& all the coroll.as fl't.nI.p-ch&ped.
B, aina:le flo'ff~; C, alo:erwt: D. receptacle. ll'ilb alll&ie p.ppu.-~ariJi& akene..-
Mter STR4SBl.:'RGI:Il.
wet"d. cockJe-bur. zmnia. sunflower, dahlia cosmos, mari-

gold. chrysanthemum, tansy, sage-brush. burdock, thistle,
and dandelion. The only plant extenSively used for food
is lettuce.
li5. Other useful Sympetalse.-Some well-known plants
that are not included in the families gi,-en above, but tbat
N COTYLEDO)[S: SDlPETALE 818
!hould be recognized as .ymp<'talir , ate honrysurklr, rIder,

lobelia, bluebell, prinuos(', murIljll~-#!lory. lihH', milk\\('{~d,
(!C'tltian, phlox, mull('in, !'nupdr~\~IJII. nut! \l,rlU:TU1. ~onw
additional prom:lwlltly useful Jll:lIIl~ nrC- H.~ rollowi';:
Sliwa 7)Olato l>t>long~ to tlu' ~am(' A"(·llu . . (/pomlTo) n.... thr
morning-~Jorr. ha\ojng IOlig tnl.iling' ~ICl1JS und rlusler:o: (I(
thf' \\'(.'>lI-known lurgt" oblong liT ('IOI1!!Rt4·d root~. It i<.t lIot
known whrlhC'r it is l1!lliy(' to tIl(' Lu:-ot 1 1Illit·~ or Alllt'ri,'u.
but it is ('xtctl!:5in'iy l"ultinitt·u in ull wurlll ('olilltrit·.·. 111
lh£' CnitC'd Rtat(·s Ihf.' ('ulti\'uti(ltl of tite !-i\\"(I(.'t polatn :lS n
commrrciai ('fOP is ronfim,d airn(l"t {''''·hl~in·r.\' 10 till' !'lIuth-
prn Rtalcs. but imporfant ar<'llS n.TI' ((Hllld ui-.o in Sf'\\" Jl'l'-
sPy, Ohju, Inui,ullu, 8nd
l llinois. The v!lrirlics
called yams in the Sou t h
ar(' all sweet potatoes,
and the name really Oc--
Jonh'" to a "cry different
plant.
Olivc.-The oli" e-trrc
has be n known and cul-
t ivated from t he most
ancient times, and has
entered largely into the
life and customs of 11cd -
it.erranean peopl es (Fig.
3(0). It is t hought to
be a native of southern
Europe ·and Allia ~tinor,
and thrives best in dry
climates such as those of
Fro. 3OO.-floweri..tl« branch of oliYe.
Syria and Assyria. It is AJUJr n.. u.z.,oY.
cultivated also at the
Cape of Good Hope, in Australia, and in California. It
is a very long-lived tree, a thousand years ha,;ng beeD
814 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTA~ry
reported for some indi,·iduals. The oil obtained from the

fruit is in as common usc in Mediterranean countries as
butter and lard in the Coited States. The products
that reach this country are olh'('-oil and pickled oliyes;
but dri£'d oli,·cs also arc much used in certain olh·c~grow
ing regions.
GOloRD F1n:1Ts.-Thc tropical and subtropical famil~'
(CucuTbilacca') that is popu larly called ( he Gourd Family
contains numerous fOI'IDS lhul are used by l ropical peoples
not on ly as food, but alf'o in the mnnufacturp of Yariotls
utensils . Th£' fruit is ('harnctf'riz(·d by its very large sizp
nnd liard rind, und the flesh \\;lhin is often edible. The
best -knowll edible fonns in the l,;nited States are as fol-
lows:
n -lIicrmel O1l is a nati". of t ropical Africa, and hilS beer,
('uiti,·nied frOID the most aneicnt limes. There is no coun-
try where wntermelon culture is conducted on so extensh'e
a s('ale as in t he l 'nited ~tatcs. The chief commercial sup-
ply ('omes from the Southern States. the so-called Georgia
\,·atermclon being the best -known yftri€'ty; but a Yery large
melon industry has been dcYCloped also in Colorado.
Jl usk",elolls all belong to 11 single species (Cucumis
Me/o) , which is nnih'e to the warmer parts of Asia . but is
now culth·.ted all oyer the world. It is said that one-half
of the muskmelon crop is grown in J\ew J ersey ; but ill
(he western markets bliehigan and Colorado are yery im-
portant centers. T he two general t.,·pcs of muskmelons
u.re t he furrowed type . with hard rinds, known as canta-
loupes; nnd the netted type, with softer rinds, known liS
nutnwg mclons. Two important ,·arietie. of nutmeg mel-
ons !la"e been dC"eloped .-ecently: the Osage melon, from
southwestern lllichigan; and the Rocky Ford melon, from
Colorado.
Ctlc'L1nbers belong to the same genus as muskmelons,
and are derived from a species (Cucum SatiVU8) native to
DlCOTYLEDONS: SY.lli>E'l'ALE SIll
southern .we.. They are grown in an pIIrts of the UniWd

States, alld their extensive usc as pickles, etc .. is well
knQwn.
Pumphns were cultin,icd by the Jndi an" in their fields
of maize, ns thry an' now, amI UIf' pnlbl1bly of tropif'uJ
American origin, althvugh no wild plnllt:' l\r(' known. ~oml'
squashc., belong io the sume "jA'cics (CuclirlILla J'CIRI), IoUI
ot hers arc of Asiatic odgin.
CHAPTER XIX
PLANT BREED!NG
170. Detinition.-The purpose of plant-breeding is to

improyc (,tdli\'ateci pIHtlt!:i. just as the purpose of animal-
bTl'f'lii'ng i... to improyt-'" domeF-ti{'at~d animals. Creal pro-
gress hus been maciC' in til{' twien('{' of plant-brecdjllg, so
thut it jf-; possible now in many rasC's to ofecd for certain
drsir('d improven\{~nts with great confidence t.hat. they will
be sN·ured. The skilful plant-breeder not onl." must knolV
how to make plants grow. but he must know also the laws
connt'cl('{1 with th{! r('production of plants.
J 77. Variation. -The fact with whi"h the plant-breeder
starts is that plants IOnd to \"ary. If all the seeds from one
parenl planl are sown . the plan Is that come from them
will all resemble lIw parent in a general way; this handing
down of simi larities from one generation to the next is caned
heredity. But ",lwe there is t his general resemhlance to the
parent. there are \·nriation, . one or more of the new plants
perhaps resembling the parent. less than the others do. 1t
is this faet that makes plant~breeding possibl~; and instead
of relying upon nature 10 present to him aU the "ariations
he needs. the plant-breeder by changing conditions increases
the {.endency of plants to "ar.'" . and also by crossing multi-
plies variations. The important thing is to obtain as many
and as wide yariat.ions as possible.
178. Vegetative propagation.-If among var:l'ing plants
there appears one tbat is desirable. it may be possible to
propagate it vegetatively, that is, ,,~thou t using the seed.
S16
PLANT-BREEl)fNG 817
Ruch propagntion is much more cort.ain , for propagation

by sc'ca introduces ,'a riatiuns. ."lIHl(· planr" fU'(' prClpngnt{"d
naturally in this wny, as thclS!' with thil,k,"ll<,d lJnd('r~rnund
shoots (roolsto('k~, lubPr;,;, hulh:.;) or wit Ii rUIlIlt;'rs (slruw ...
[,erry, etc.).
Others nrC' propn::atN) by arlifit'iaJ ml'lhoc):-;. }~OT C'x.
ample , cuttings. oflell (':111(·<,) Hlips, nrC' pic','I'~ of tlU' plnllt
that urc fuulld t.) 1)(' ailll' to grcl\\ \\"11('1) pllt in tIlt' soil, 1\:-1 or
gt'flloium.'i. gralx··rincs. ('(c. E,'rn JI'!!\ei-l lIIay ht· uM,d u.~
('lIttings. as in tlit" Iwp::0llia; and (·llllin~.s (If lb· potHl(llul.)('r
:lrt' llsC'd in its propap:atiolJ. ('r(Jff,ot urt' ('U II ill,l!;:o; inst'Tlt·d in
plants (§ 2-1) (Fig. 55" /llld if is ('lIrnlllOll (or lilt' plant in
which a graft jg ill~('rH·d (Mock) to difff'r from tll(.· plnlll t.hat
is ueing grafted on it. s('curill~ amOll1!' oj IIt'r 1I1i1l~s ~n'ult'r
hardiness and a !"\nxin~ of timr; for (·xarnplt·. jl i~ rornmon
to graft pears on I1l1iHl'(' .'itOl'k. iilUldill{l i.'1 a ntru·ty of
grafting in which only htllJ:-; from Ill(' d('~qr('(1 \'!lril'IY are
grafted upon stocks. Graftin" Hnd I",ddill~ are wr)' ,"Olll-
mon in the culth'alion of {rC'(' fruitl'l. Layrritl(l C'ousif'ts
in bendin_e: down a stem to lhe J!round and (·o\'{·rin,t! it for a
short di~tancc with soil; wlwn ro(lt~ slrikt.· into tilt:' t'oii from
u cO\'ered joint, the rOflll('('tion wilh til(' pur(,llt planl i~ cut,
and a new plant is thu, "brai»",l (§ ~;l ). Tl,i. prnt·,·ss is
common with su('h plants aR g'o(Jst.'iJt.'rrif's! blacktwrri('s, ett.,
and resembles in a general way the natural method of
propagation by runn."'.
179. Crossing.- The artifioial production of hybrid.
(§ 14.9) is used extcl1sh'ely to secure new ,""riNieR which
may be desirable. The process eon,ists in removin!!= the
yOllDg stamens fmrn the flower to be operated upon; at the
proper time placing upon tbe stigma pollen from the de-
sired plant, nnd covering the flower or flower-cluster thll8
poUinated with a gauze or paper bag to pre,'eDt the ap-
proaeb of any other pollen. The seeds tbus obtained nre
cnrefuUy collected and planted , and tbe new plants observed.
Among them there may be found one or more with a desired

variation, or at least the beginnings of it. These plants are
preserved and the others dest royed. Often many thousands
of young plants are thus started, and most of them de-
stroyed.
180. Selection.-When Ii desired variation has appeared.
the work of impro"ing and {'stablishing it must follow.
This i:, done by rm'unR of selection. and it in"oh'es great care
and palience. Th,· selected plants are carefully guarded, no
foreign pollen being allowed access to their flowers. Their
seeds are plant~d , and among the new plants thut come up
those showing the de ired variation are prcsen'ed and the
others are destroyed. This selec·tion goes on generation
after generalion until only the desired "ariety is produced.
It is then said to be estaulished, and can usually be de-
pended upon to produce ils kind.
E"Cll after a "ariety has thus been ('stublished, great
cure must be used in selecting from the uest plants seeds
for planting. or the ynriet y will .:I ran down." It is a great
mistake to suppose that sC('ds from inferior plants will do just
as well for sowing as seeds from the best plants. Farmers
ha"e learned this in selecting I heir seed-corn, seed-wheat,
ct('.; and their success depends upon their ,,-ise selection of
the seeds 10 plant. It is important to know that in this
seleclion of seed the character of the indh'idual plant that
produces it is the import.ant thing. To select ior planting
the largest ears of corn from a pile of corn does not. result so
well as i.o select in the field the plants that produce on the
a "crage I he best ears.
The process of selection is being applied also in the
development of "arieties that resist certain diseases. For
example, in " field that has been ra"aged by some disease
a few plants may ~ found that ha"e resisted the attack
successfully. This means that the yariation in these plants
is a \'ery desirable disease-resisting power. Starting with
PLA!o'T-DREEDlNG 819
these plants, t herefore, selection may be able to develop

a race remarkably free from this purt icular discllBC. This
m<'thod of comb.~ting discnSl' mar ""m~t.imes prol'v morc
effecti"e than allY attempt to "Il\'e the plant.'! thai ar,· suh-
j{'('( to it.
Tlw .Iory of the deYelopmenl of tbe best-known ,"sri ••

ti('~ of ('ultivated plant!'> il-' n \'ery int('rcsling OOt" tt'liiug
ho"- promising Yllri{'lj(,s haw' Vt-'Cn djs(,o\·p,.(~d, lind witb
what wonder-fu l pntiNJ('{' thpy have been dl'\'('lor~ into
usefulness. The recent grenl illcrell" in knowled!(r of Ihe
prinripl,'" of plnnt,· brrrding hns made Ihe d"\'e!opmcnt of
drsirnhle varieties more definite nnd rapid thun it has ever
been before.
CHAPTER XX
FORESTRY
181. Definition.-The term forestry is difficult to define,

for it inrludes mu('h morC' than is usually s uppc.s('cL In
general. it is the managf'ment of fOf('stS. so thot they may
serve their purpose; but the [>urpose of !1 for<"t includes
1nany things. Forestry does not denl with indi\'idual trees,
but with UI1 aSHemblagl' of trees; pNhaps it '\"QuId be best
defined as the management of tJ'Qodland. There' fire two prom-
inent aSjX'C'ls of forestry. Forests furnish wood crops . as
wheat-fields furnish wheat crops; !lnd from this standpoint
forestry resembles agriculture. But forests also hold im-
porta.nt relations to ('limstC', wat('r-~llpply, ('tc.; and from
thls standpoint tbey are to be considered as features of the
earth's surface.
182. History of forestry.-The history of forestry in
e,·cry country has been the same. At the first settling
of a country by ch·i1ized people, the forests were looked
upon /l.S impediments to agriculture, and Ole clearing of
the forest was a part of pioneer work. As forests cO\·er
most of the best land, this pioneer clearing wns necessary.
After agrieult ure bee8IDe cstabli hea, forests ceased to be
regarded as impediments. and came to be prized as tbesource
of timber suppl!·. They were wastefully taysged for thls
purpose, the best trees being culled out, countless young
ones destroyed, and· fires compledng the reckless waste.
European countries passed through this stage many years
ago, and the United States is just emerging from it. When
320
FORESTRY 821
this wasteful use of forests has proceeded so far that the

disastrous conscqu('nccs are in plnin sight, the {ol"f'st ry 8tn~('
begins, nnd the proper maoagcm p l1l of forests is (·stn.blisll('u.
In European countr;('s for('~';(ry has been Jong cstnbli~lt('d
and has hecome highly dOY('loIK'cl, O"Il<'rially in Germany
and France. In the l"nitcd Slates the Gu\"t'rnIllI'nt hus
est.ablislwu n Bun'uu of Forestry, aud cCTuLin Rlut(.\S have
adopted a definite forest poli(·)".
183. Supply forests .-Thi. Mille 11ll. hOt'n "U!(I':,'sied
for those forests lIsed primarily as a ~()un:(' of wood-supply.
The crop of wood diiff'rs from ordiuary crops in flint it is
naiuml growth and nt'eds II long period to mature. The
prlibJem is to (Iotain us much wood from riw fon·sl as pos-
f;iblt' yenr aft('r )"NH , without diminishi1Jg its producth'~
ness; in othrr word~. to usc it nnd preserve it ut the same
timr. There is n U('s( Lime for tutting, tbat iff, hILT\'csting,
in the Ijfp of each kind of trpp , n time dctermilwd by its Hi.e
and I he qualil.v of its wood. The forest hahit - the grow-
iIlg of trees rlosc togrLi1('r-secur('s t.he lofty flyrometrkn l
trunk , with branrhf.'s l"urried high, the mo~t fu\'orable form
for use. Trecs that are II ripe" not ollly can but shou ld
be rcmowd. that the younger ones may come to vigorous
maturity. In this way a. ('ODlinuous succes.~ion of suitabJe
trees becomes ready for rcmoya l , and every lrre in tile
forest is given an opportunity to do its best. The thought-
less cutting of trees usually secures one good crop from a
forest; while a forest managed by a forester yields Ii suc-
cession of good crops.
When the forester takes charge of Ii forest tbat has had
no management , he first removes Ibe undesirable trees;
but the lumberman would remove the most desirable.
The forester knows. however. that in this "'ay the quality
of the remaining trees will be impro\'cd, and in the long run
he will get a larger and better crop. The cutting is 80
arranged that the openings left will gh'e opportunity for
seedlings to develop; so that in n forest properly managed

the re are trees in every stage of development, from seed-
lings to those ready to be cut. Such management is berng
adopted not on ly in large forests thai nre pronlinent sources
of wood-supply, but, a lso on illdi"iduai farms. where the
wood-lot is us carefully managed as t he grain-field. De-
tailed plans for such mannp:('ment can now be obtained from
the Bureau of ForC'Rtry or from ~t atc foresters. 5:0 that
ignoranc'e is no longf"r any ('x('.u8e for mismanagemellt.
1 ~ . Protective forests.-ThiR MD1{' has bf'en suggested
for those forC"!'lts that are uS('d primarily as fI soil ('o\'er.
Such forests nrc ulied also as supply fnn-sts , but their chief
purposf' is to coyer the- Roi l. ForestI"' are grent n·gulators
of water-flow, retaining the water of rains and i('tting it
pass gradually into the streams. Whe" they nre removed,
dt renm ~that formerly contniJwd n. ~tcady suppl~o of wate r
ore subject to alternations of flood und extremely low wntC'ro
When foresls are remoyed from waler-sheds and the head-
wnterR of rh'ers. this result becomes disastrous. The hea.d-
waters of prominent rhoen:: are gCllcraJI~- in mounta.inous
regions i and the ITmovn.l of forests there results nOT only
in Booded ri\'ers, bu t also in slopes stripped of th!'ir Boil and
deeply gullied. I n such fI-gions, therefoT<', tbe forest both
regulates the water-flow and protects th soil.
In consf"queuce of these facts, the Go\Oernment has set
"part certain forest areas upon the bead-waters of the prin-
cipal rivers as forc t rescrYB.tions. These reservations are
guarded from fire and from ruthless cutting, but are CUt for
timber under proper forestry management. ESpeCll11ly nre
such f('se.rvations imperative in the \Vest where irrigation
is necessary, which must depend upon a steady supply of
water from the mountains. On January 1, 1905, there were
sixty-t.wo such reser\·.ations in ,-a.nous parts of the ' Vest,
including O\'er sb.ty-three million acres. States also bave
establi hed forest rescc\"atiollS, most prominent among
FORE.~TnY 323
"'hieb are l\ew York and P~"n • .v"·8nia; whil. AJichigllll ,

Minnesota. and other SImes Hre follo";ng their exalllple .
.185. Reforestation.- lll Ullin_\, n_'glOriS whert~ fon'sts
hn "c been rcmo,'cd l'(Jlnpi{'l('iy, und nn the lre(']c-8.'i prniriefl
and plnjn~. trees must bf' ~lart('d aud a r(lr~1 N)\"('r ~rl\du~
ally dp\·pioped. ] JJ EUTopf'nn ("ounl rjpfoI. WhpT£· mnlly hi))
"'0!",8 had been cI,'nre<! nf 1111 trOt" ulIll tlte .nil!(ullit'd und
wtlsh('(j uway. rC"{flrl'sIlHinn h:uoIi 1.Jt·(·1I c'ondul't('d on u IUTg('
Elc'alp, )l an~' fi hilly Oric'lltai ('nulllry. now hurrf'II, WUh on('('
ror{:'st~(')nd and frrtilt', Qtl. PUi('l"lillC', WhUKf' stTf'UI1IS lin\'('
dis:ljJ[K'nr('d. and ~h·sop()1tunis . Oll('(' U f!urUl'll \\'U I{'rNj by
lh.e EupilI'llH·S. but JlOW a u{'!o;('rl.
]n the rnjt,.d .~I:lte$ ('Xlf 'US;W' rrfCltl".Rtllliun jOl; f('quirN'J
only on the prairi('!' nnd pluin~, wlwTe fu,tiw· m{'Il.",un~s nre
tuk{'ll to ~timtlI3t(' trer-pJanting: and p!,r},nps ('\'('l1ll1n lJy
some real forests mH~' be dpvelolX'd ill tht'sc trt'e!(-s,\I r~Kio1l8.
It rna:' be well to rail "ttpntion 1<> the filet thnt Irrc-plnnt-
in~. sllch as" Arbor DHY " stimtllul(·g, i~ nOt forf'~try ; uno
that the rrnl prohlem of ro",.try in th., ('oiled Stutrs t <>-
dtly is lh(: proper lllnl1ngrmf'DI of f'xi,sljng fOff'stS.
CHAPTER X.,]
PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
186. DefinitioD.- The earth '8 surface presents such di-

vers<' conditione for "Innl life lhat plnnl' hceome grouped
fi('l'ordjng: to tbe ('onditions fa"ofuble for their ~ro\\"th.
These group" of plants. Ih'ing together in ~imilar ('ondi-
tions. RTf' ralird plant associaHons. or sometime'S plant so-
cieties or plant communiUc. For examplf'. a meadow is a
plant association growing in conditions that frn'or c(,rtain
grasses; a forest is an association growing \\ here certain
trrcs al"(> fUVOff'cI , etc. In these a~..o('iation:; grn~R(,t-l und
trees are simpl~' the conspicuous tq"'s: uul numerous other
plants, which the same conditions fayor. arc as..~ociatctl. with
them. Each plant association, therefore, indirales a special
set of conditions for plant growth, and to diseo"er these
conditions is a "ory important kind of field work.
187. Water.-\Ya(er is probably the most important COD-
dition tbat determine_. plant associations. The avai lable
amount of water for plants varies in different areas, from
the "ery small supply in deserts to tbe abundant supply in
swamps and lakes. The character of the soil has a very
important effect upon water-supply; for some soils retain
wat<!r and others do not, so tbat w~ is called tbe waler-
level is of valJ;ng depths (§ 39) . X ot only are the amount
of water and the depth of the water-level important, but
also the substances .tbat the water contains in solution,
whlcb may prevent certain plants from gro"ing and permit
others.
PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
I n any gh-cn area the amount of ilvailah1e water Inll'"

rIot remain the same. For example. the rnar~inf: llf p(Hld"s
nUL~' slowly cncroll('h upon tht:' (lllt'll wH1rr ,: pOlich.; OlAy Ix"-
h('('ome cotlYf;,'rtc-d into bo~~: nud bUJ!~ into dry ~r(lttlld . In
Iii:" dr3inagroperuliorls aflO n~nW\ ::tlt,( r(_)r<':-.(~ Iltnll tins IIIud('
(·huugcs in tll(' wUH'r.supply o\'('r t'xtl"lI:.;in· un'us. All of
thes£' changes ill\'oln' tltt' dl'Rtrll(,lioll of (lId plnnt 1lR.~Ot.·Ul·
lions and I hr ('omi'l#! in of n('\\ ()1lt'S.
1 8. Temperature.- TlH: h'I1I1l('I'!dtJrt-' of lhp flir utal of
the soil during the g rowing ~['U~IIII iK H'ry important in
d('termininp:: t 11(· prrs(>IlN' of diff('rC'llt J,\ulIls ujlon nil.'" nrf'u.
For each kiud of plii.llt t h('r(' is \\ hut tnay i)(' couliN.) n Zl'ro
t(,mp(,rature, belo\\' n'hich it is [lot ill flIP lwbil of \\·ork-
ing. The' suc('r~"ion of pianir-: during a singlt· ~ro" iug S('fi-
son illustrates the distribution or plnnil" by Il'mp(' rntuTc,
spring plants being ub)r 10 f'ndurf' A'tf'atrr ('nld thall ('an
those of the summer. Thi:;; distrihutioJl in tint(' itlClicZltC"S
the more important distrihution in ~I)H('C thnl is brought.
about by differcl1('C's in temperature.
Perma nent changes in tlw tel1lprral UTe of B r('~ion, nf..
feeting the distribution of plant as.."<)ciutiollS, arl' e\'ident
only in tracing the hisLo ry of planls back into whol are
called geological limes. At certain Iimps arctic conditions
prevailed in regions now t.emperate, llnci this had nn im-
mense influence on plant life.
Plant associations are not deteTmill~ b:y onc rundition,
but by u combination of conditions. The simplest iIIustra-
t ioll of this fact may be obtained by combining the WIll;,r
and t he te mperature conditions. For example, if there is a
combination of Sellnty waler with high temperature, a de-
sert is t h.E!-Jesu lt; but if t he combination is abundant water
and high tempe ratur e, luxuriant "egelation is the reAulL
Since t ile possible combinations of water-supply, tempera-
ture, and other condi tions are endless, it is eddent that
there are very numerous plant associati')QS,
,
,
~
326 A TA'l:T-BOOK OF BOTANY
189. Light.-All green plants cannot have an equal

amount of light, and some have learned to live with a less
amount than others. I n a general way this d ifference is
recognized in the terms lighl-pla1l1s and shade-pIal/Is, and
it permits plants to grow in stru la. For example, in a
foresL association the taIl trees form th e highest Slrat urn;
below this there may be " stratu m of shrubs. then tall
herbs , thcJlo low herhs, t hen mosses and li chens growing
close to the ground. If a forest is cleared. the remaining
plants of the associatio n are "ery much affccted; and if a
forest enrToac}ws upon ano ther association it is sooner or
later destroyed. The de"elopmeut of t.he ,'ernal habit
in ('onnpction with deciduous forests . whkh wa...:: described
in § 27, i~ u m{'uns hy 'whi ch certain plants avoid the forest
shad. and secure t he forest soil.
190. Wind,-In regions of strong and more or less
continuous wind , as near the seacoast, around t he Great
Lakes. and o n the prajriC's and plains. thiF (,oudition has
much effect upon t b. character of tbc pl ants. Wind is a
great arying agent , and increases the loss of ,,,uter from
plants by t ranspiration (§ 15), so Ihat plants exposed to it
must be able to check tran.piration.
191. The great groups of associations.-For conn"njence,
the very nume.rous plan t associations are grouped on the
basis of their wate r-tiuppl;'. Such a cia -ification is not a
nat.ural one, for no single condition determines an a so-
eiation ; but for general purposes it serves well to introduce
tbe associations to observation, On this basis tbere are
three greal groups (If a 'ociations, as follows :
(I) Hydrophyt... - Th e name means "water-plants, "
and applies to those associations with an abundant water-
supply, growing in water or in very wet soil.
(2) Xerophyles.-The name means " drought plants,"
and applies to those' associations ,,;th a scanty water-,mp-
ply. True xerophytes are exposed to dry soil and air.
827
(3) M cBophylcs.-Bciween lbe two extremes of the wa-
ter-supply there is a great middle region of medium ""uter-
sup'ply J and plants of thcst!' medium eonditiolll't art" nWBfr
phytes (H m(.'<iium plams ") . It i. Hident thtlt me,oph)"te.
pass gradually into hydropbytes on the Olle "ide lind I!lto
xerophytes on the at her.
CH.APTER XXU
HYDROPHYTES
192. AdaptatioDs.- When n plant Ii,'cs entirely or par-

t.ially submerged in water, its SlrurlU fe differs in many
wllYs from that of nil ordinary land plant. and these ad-
justment$ to water lif. arc call"d adaplations. On part'
under water the cp idprmis is thin and permit.s absorption,
so that in a completely submerged plant its wbole surface
absorbs. When this is the case. the root-system is much
reduced in extent as compared with n land-plant of the
same ~ize, for it is not the only organ for water absorption.
In submerged plants t he rigid tissues are less developed
than in land plants, for the buoyant power of wllter helps
to support the plant. This faet ma)' be illustrated by taking
from the water submerged plants tbat seem to be upright,
with all their purts 8pread out; upon remoyal they collapse,
not being able to support (hemsch·es. Water-plants are
also usually provided ,,;th air-ehambers and pa sage ways
that the air may be free to reach lhe working cells.
A few of the most characteristic hydrophytic associa-
tions are gi"en as illustrations, sotne of which occur in
almost eyery neighborhood.
193. Pond weed associations.-Water-illies and pond-
weeds are conspicuous members of these associations, the
former \\;th floating lea,-es (pads) (Fig. 301), the latter
often entirely submerged. Associated with them are nu-
merous other forms "ith floating or submerged leaves.
The plant.. are anchored by their roots and rootstocks in
S28
8SO
BVDRornVTES Hill
the mucky bottom: and c,'en when the,' do nOI selld Iro"08
up 10 the surface of the watN . th"y ~"'tnlly send up the
flowers lhat they may opel! in
the air. I n parks and gr<'('n-
houses, tbe great water-lily of
the Amazon (1'ie/oria rerrill ) .
t he largest of all the wat pr-
lilies, is commonJy seen (Fi~.
302). Floating and subnwtgl'd
h.'aYcs are very different ill
form, and when both kim!,
occur on the same plant th('
contrast is striking (Fi~. 303). J ICl. :iO.l-~ub~~1 alWl ~aJ
194. Reed swamps. - The ~~~,:~~~;:;;-:II."UllffeUP.-
reed - swamp plants are tall.
"'and-like forms that grow in Ihe shallow ltIiU'¢n .• of ~mnll
lakes and ponds (Fig. ~O·I). Prominent among Ihl'm oro
cat-tails, bulrushes, and wild rice ; and lLolSOcinled with thclW
tall forms the arro\\'leaf is often found. This (I,'<emhlogc
of plan ts fOrolS the usual bjgh fringe along swampy shoTt,",
and tbey have been called the pioneo ... of land 'rgetn-
tion; for their growth and the entangled drtritW! make the
water more and mOre shallow, until filially the reed plants
are compelled to migrate into dPeper waler. In tlli. way
small lakes and ponds may bec'ome poOl·erted fin<t into
ordinary swamps, and finally into wet meadow!;. In.tnn<·PJI
of nearly reclaimed ponds may be found, lI'here Lulru.hes,
cat-tails, and reed grasses sull occupy certain wet spots.
but are shut off from furl her mj,,'l'lltion.
195. Swamps.-Ordinary swamps are occupied by £.edges
and coarse grasses, giving them a meadOlt-Uk .. appearance.
Such swrunps ofte.]} border reed .,,·amps on the land Ride.
and encroach upon them as the reed plants build up land.
With the sedges and grasses numerous other swamp-loving
plants are found .
196. Swamp thickets.-A grolvLh of shrubs or 10;"

trees may invade t.he sedgy swamp, giving rise 1.0 n. thick'tt.
These shrubs and trees are of very uniform type, being

mainly willows, alders, birches, etc.
Thi series of associations, from pond weed associations
8.14
336 A TEXT-BOOK 011' BOTANY
to swamp thickets, is a very natural one, each one oftsn

passing gradually into the next.
197. Peat-bogs.-This is a peculiar kind of swamp
association, characterized by the abundant f,'1"owth of the
bog- or peal-moss, and developed in undrained swamps.
Growing out of the springy moss turf there nrc numerous
peculiar plants, such as heaths (Fig. 305) and orchids, and
the curious carnivorous plants (§ 20).
198. Swamp forests.-Often trces encroach upon peat-
bogs, and a swamp forest is the result. The chief types in
this case arc the conifers, and on this bog-moss foundation
there occur larches, certa.in hemlocks and pines, junipers,
etc. The larch or tamarack is a very common swamp
tree of the northern regions, usuall y occurri ng in small
patches; while the larger swamp fo rests are composed of
dense growths of hemlocks, pines, elc. (Fig. 306).
199. Salt marshes and meadows.-The salt marshes and
meadows near the sea.coast arc well knowIl. They lie
beyond the reach of urdinary flood-tide, but the waters are
brackish. In tbese marshes occur certain characteristic
salt-waler grasses and sedges, gi\-ing the meadow-like ap-
pearance; while associated witb them there are numerous
succulents, that is, fleshy plants, characteristic of brackish
water.
200. Mangrove swamps.-This is the mos t vigorous salt-
wa.ter association. Ma.ngrove swamps occur along fl.at
tropical seacoasts where the waters are quiet (Fig_ 307).
The mangrove is a tree of curious habit, ad\'ancing slowly
out into the water by means of its prop-roots and pecnliar
seeds. The seeds germinate while still upon the tree, so
that the embryos hang from the trees and then drop like
plumb-bobs into the muck beneath, where they stick fast
and establish themselves.
CHAPTER SSW
XEROPBY'I'ES
201. Adaptations.-Thc adaptations of plants to ml'(ot

drought are numerous and striking. Tho m"alter "upply
of ,,'ater a\"Uilable for the plant must not escapo from it
too freely, and bence most of the .pt·cial adupt.ution. are to
check the loss of wa ter. In addition to this. there is often
developed water-storage tissue, which ael~ lL'Ii a rrscr\'oir,
recei\'ing water at a time of supply nlld doling it out accord-
ing to the need s of the plant.
Drought conditions vary in diff~rent TC'gi oIlS, aod may
be grou ped under tbree heads: ( J) Po.triblr drou9ht, which
occurs at irregular intervals. Or whjch in some ~aaon8 may
not occur at all; (2) periodic drought. wbi"h occurs al rPllular
interv.ls; and (3) perennial drought, which is a constaDt
condition, as in arid or desert regions. For the first con-
dition plants are poorly prepared , but by "ariou8 temporary
etped.ients may resist until the drought ceases. For the
second condition plant. are well prepared, enduring the
regu larly recurring drougbt as definitely as a regularly re-
curring winter. In tbe third condition plants not only must
end ure drought, but also must be able to work in such con-
ditions.
Some of the conspicuous methods of protection against
drougbt haye been described (§ 17). These should be kept
in mind when the following illustrations of xerophytic IlS8O-
mat ions are considered.
887
838 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOT!L~Y
202. Rock associations. -Certain plants are able to li"e

upon rocks and boards exposed to direct sunlight. The
conspicuous form:;. are lichens and mosses. which "nrC'
found very commonly splotching rocks (Fig. 30 ) and old
fences. AS$Ociated with them are often cre\ice plant,;,

which end their roots into crevices and so gain a foot-
hold.
203. Sand associations.-The plants grouped togetlier
on dry. sAndy ground are quite different in appearance
from others. and such areas may be found in almost every
neighborhood. at least along strcum. On certain bord ..rs
of the Great Lakes and on scacoa ts a!, intere. ting suc-
cession of sand associations occurs. Kearest the water is
the beach with such a poor display of plants that it looks
bare. .
Beyond the beach are the dunes, which are hillows of
nand that have been formed by the prevailing winds; and in
XEROPHYTES 839
mnny cases they are conlinuall)' chnulling their form and

are. frequently moying landw:lrd (Fill, 309). In the ClUM' of
the¥ moying dunes n }>('('ulinr in>€' of \Oegetntion is d("-
manded. \'ery few plants ur£' nb)(' to lin' in fmch Re"err
condition., and these plants hal'e del'c!oJX'(lat leu t tll'O pt~
culiar characteristics. One is that thry arr snnd~bind(,Ni;
lbat is. the underground structures are extremrly {n,f-
reaching, gh'ing til!' plants n firm an('horn~C' in the shifting
sand. A s soon as enough of dl£' Rnnd-bind{'r'" iU\\'f' eEl-
tablished themseh'es, • "hifting dune beromes It fixed one.
Anolher characteristic of such plant" is lhat they "1'1) able
Fu•. 309.-DI.lIle. of un Michip.!l ~Dc:rOtletutl:& I.ud""ard. in lbill a80 di'l"l"tdDC

Calurne-t ltiv('r .
. to grow Up througb lhe sand .fter lbey hlt,'e been engulfed.

Along certain coasts where Dlol-;ng dunes encroach upon
ftlrms and "iUages Ilnd tbrcnten to engulf (hem, great at-
tention has.been given to checking them by means of sand-
binding plan ts.
XE:ROPHY'l'ES 841
The region of dunes may gradually p""" landward int.o
sandy stretches or fields , tOVered with tufted graascs,
shrubs, and Ion- tree,
204, Plains,- l 'ndcr this head Ur(' included great arc ...
in the interior of continents, wlll'rc dry air and wind pn·\,ail.
The plnins of the l"nitf"d States {'xlf'nd from about tbf' Ollt~.
hundredth meridian ,,'estn-ard to the foot-hills of til(' H(I(·k\-
~lountains. $itnllur great aT(,JlS ~lr(' rl"prt·~~ut(-d lJy th~(."
steppes of , iberia. ulld in t 11(> inH.'rior of nil ('outin('lIts.
On the pl(1in.< of the (: nited titatcs tilt' Charlll'tcristic plant
forms are bunch-grassl's, t hat is, gru..%{·!i whith grow ill ,ufts
and do not form turf; and the low I(rtl)'ish shrub. calle""
sage-brusb (Fig. 310).
205. Cactus deserts.- In passin~"outhwurd on the plain.
of the Ullit<'d States, lhe cOlld;tions 3re o""en",,] to ""comt
drier, until the cactuR deserts nre rcached (Fi!(. 311), Thi
region begins in western Texlls, );~W :\h!xi('o. Arizona, and
Southern California, and strrtrhes fur ""uthward into
~exico. This vast arid region ha.' de,'eloped a (K'culiar
fiora, which contains our most highly specialized drought
plants. Tbe numerous forms of cactUI! are the most char-
acteristic, and tl.ssociated "it h them art' the yuccas Slid
aga,'es, Not only are the adaptations for checking tran-
spi.ration and for retaining water of the most extreme
kind, but also there is developed a remarkable arDillture of
spines.
. 206. Subtropical deserts.-ln thesc areas drought COD-
ditions reach the greatest extreme in the combination of
great heat and scauty water-supply. J t is evident that such
a combination is almost too difficult for plants to enduI'C.
That the very scanty vegetation is due to lack of water.
3nd not to lack of proper materials in lbe soil, is sholV,ll by
the fact that wbere Wolter does occur oases are developed,
in which luxuriant vegetation is found, The desert which
stretches from Egypt across Arabia may be regarded as a
typical one; and the Desert of Sahara is another well-known

illustration. .
207. Thickets.-Xerophytic thickets are the mQst
strongly developed of all thicket growths. They are spe-
cially characteristic of the subtropics. and may be described
fiB scraggy, thorny, and impenetrable. Such thickets are
well dL'played in Tex"s. where they are called" chaparral";
and similar tbickets in Afrien and Australia are spoken of
as It bUl5h IJ or I I scrub." In 0.11 of these cases the thicket is
of the same general type, and is one of the most forbidding
areas for tra \·c1.
208. Forests.-The most common xerophytic forests of
the United States consist of conifers, especially of pines.
They occur along the rocky slopes of tbe mountains, and
on the ,'ast sandy areas that border the Great Lakes and
cnver the Gulf States (Fig. 312).
209. Salt steppes.- ln these areas. not only are the
drought conditions continuous, but the ,,"ater is alkaline.
The snIt steppes are interior dry wasles which probably
mark the site of old sea basins. I n the Unit,ed States one
of the most extensiye of the salt steppes is the Great Salt
Lake Basin. Another extensive alkaline waste is known as
the Bnd Lands, whicb stretches over certain portions of
Nebraska and outh Dakota.
210. Salt and alkaline deserts.-In tbese areas tbe
wate.r-supply i at its lowest ebb, and therefore is saturated
\\;th the characteristic salts of the soil. No worse com-
bination for plant setidty can be imagined than the com-
bination of Bcanty water-supply and abundant salts. In
consequence, such areas are almost, if not absolutely, devoid
of vegetation. As illustrations, t he extensive desert of the
Dead Sea region and tbe Death'. Valley in southern Cali-
fornia may be cited. .
CHAl'TER XXlI'
MESOPBYTltS
211. Gen eral cbaracters.-:\J(·""ph,l'ICR include Ihe rorn-

mon YcgettUion of teIDp€'Tutp rf'gjPJlS. Tlw condjtions 01
moisture are medium, prrcipitntion i~ in genf'r1l1 ("\'{'nly
distributed , and the soil is rich in humus. 'I'hi. mny be
regarded as the normal condition for 1,l<mt.. 11 i. certainlv
the arabl< condition, and best adapted to the plan18 wbi('t,
men cu/ch·ate. " 'hen for the purpo"". or rult;,,"lioll xcI'(\-
pb)iic area .. are irrigat<'d. or h.'·drophYlic arellS are drained,
it is simply to bring them into mesophytic ('onditions. Con-
spicuous among mesophytic associations nre the following :
212. Meado)'ls.-This term must be restrirtw 10 natuml
meadow areas, and should not be confused with artificial
areas of tbe same CUlme under the control of man. The
appearance of such an area harrJly necd. de.rriprion , llJl the
vegetation is a well-known mixture of grasses find flowering
herbs, tbe former usually predominating. l'ueh meadows,
of large or small extent, lirc wry common in ronneetion
"itb forest areas and on the flood-plains of streams (Fig.
313).
The greatest mendon's of the Vniled States are tbe
prairie8, which extend in general from the Missouri ell8t-
ward to the forest region of lIIino;. and lndiana. The
vegetation of the prairies is usually eomposed of tufted
g asses and perennial flowering herbs (Fig. 314). Unfor-
tuna tely most of the natural prairie has been replat'ed by
f&rms, and the characteristic prairie plants are Dot ea&ly •
84Ii
seen. The flowering herbs nrc often ,'ery tall and coarse;
but hav~ brilliant flowers, as asters, golden rods, rosin\veeds.
lupines, etc.
The origin of the prairie has long been a vexed question,
which has usually taken the form of an inquiry into the
conditions which forbid the growth of a natural forest.
Prairies are of two kinds at least: tbose due to soil conditions
and those due to climatic conditions. The former are char-
acteristic of the Eastern prairie region, and appear in scat-
tered patches through the forest region as far East as Ohio
and lientucky. They are probably best explained as re-
presenting old swamp areas, which in a still more ancient
time were ponds or lakes. All the prairies of the Chicago
area are eYidently of this type, being associat,ed with former
extensions of Lake Michigan.
The climatic prairies are characteristic of the West-
ern prairie region, and are more puzzling than the others.
Among the several explanations suggested, perhaps the
most prominent is that which regards the absence of a
n.. tural forest on the Western prairies as due to t.he prevail-
ing dry winds. The extensive plains farther West develop
the strong and dry winds that sweep over the prairies, and
this brings extremes of heat and drought, in spite of the
character of the soil. In such conditions a see.dJing tree
could not est.ablish itself. If it is protected through this
tender period it can maintain itself afterward . These prai- .
ries. therefore, represent a sort of broad beach between the
Western plains and the Eastern prairies and forests.
213. Thickets.-Mesophytic thickets are not so im-
penetrable as xerophytic thickets (§ 207), and are usually
developed as forerunners of forests. An iHustration of this
may be obtained by noting the succession of plants on a
cleared area. After SIkh an area has been cleared of its
t,reos, it is overrun by herbs that develop rapidly from the
, seed, the so-called .!irewee<! usually being conspicuous.
349
"
Following the herb associations, there is a gradual invasion'

of coarser herbs and shrubby plants, forming thitkets;
and finally It forest growth may appear again.
214. Deciduous forests.-Deciduous forests are especially
chllracteristic of temperate regions, the deciduous habit
being an adaptation LO the regular recurrence of winters.
Eow the conifers contrast ,,;tl, the deciduous trees in this
regnrd hns been de"crilx'd (§ 19) . The method of shcdi:ling
leayes (§ 18), the characteristic autumnal coloration (§ 18),
and the cultivation of the vernal habit by certuin as.~o
ciated hcrbs (§ 2;) huve all been considered. The decidu-
ous forest is known as the ctimux "egelation of the temper-
ah' regioll" . replacing all other associations if the conditions
become f,womble . E"en a forest of conifers is gradually
rrplaced by a deciduous forest wheu the conditions become
mesophytie.
Deciduous forests m'l)' be pure or mixed. A common
type of pure forest is t,he beech forest, which is • daTk for-
est, the Wide-spreading hrancbes of neighboring tr~..s o\'er-
lapping so as to form a dense shade (Fig. 315) . In such
• forest. therefore. there is little or no undergrowth. An-
ot her pure forest , which belongs to drier areas. is the oak
forc.t. which is a light forest . pennitting access of light for
lower plants (Fig. 316) . In such a forest. therefore, there
is usually mo re or less undergrowth. The 1,'pical American
deciduou forest, howeyer. is the mixed forest , made up of
many variet.ies of trees, such as beech, oak, elm, walnut,
hickory. maple, gum. etc.
Deciduous forests may be roughly grouped also as up-
land and flood-plain (river bottom) forests ,the former being
less luxuriant and containing fewer types. ·tbe latter being
the highest type of forest growth in its region (Fig. 317).
A few general illustrations may be given, which will en-
able the student to characterize the forests of his neighbor-
• hood.
.
{
J
.I
I
.
1
<
~
Flo. 3J7.-A mixed riVet bottom fora:t. in northern DliDoiL
S52
.MESOP!lYTES 8~8
In northern minoi .. the upland forest is gon rallv made

up of wh.itc and red oaks and sheUbark hickory; ,,1;ile tbe
Ilood-plrun forest contains twent)" to twenty-th'c tree forms,
prominent among which are tbe elms (white and slippery),

linden (ba swood) , cottonwood, ash, silver maple, box-clder,
walnut, and willows (Fig. 318) .
. Farther south, from central Ulinois, Indiana, and Ohio
southward, as well 88 in tbe Alleghanies, tbe flood-plain
forests are the riebest known, cont:ilning, in addition to
tbe forms enumerated aboye, such prominent trees as syca,.
more, beech, sugar-maple, tulip-tree (white poplar), buck-
eye, hackberry, honey-locust, coffee-tree, etc.
In Michigan and Wisconsin the upland forest. consist
prominently of beech, sugar-maple, and hemlock, a char-
acteristic mi.:<ture of deciduous and e"ergreen trees; while
the flood-plain forests are scarcely at all developed.
,.,'"
MESOPBI"TES
. In tbe Alleghany region find New England I h, upland

forests ' B're '-cry {!xtensin' and complicult'd . ,:rnding from
~he rich flood-plain forests of the lower I~'·cl. to tl](· .trINI~
xerophytic forests (pines Ulld bluck "aks) of lit. higbtr I,v-
cis, and dominated uy variou. ouks. chestuuts. and hir~
aries.
The flood-plalU forest s of Xew England fi'" 1101 so rieh
as those of the Alleghany n'gi" n ulld the trlMlli "'""t,
!II(·
dominant forms being elm.
linden, ash, mnplc J sycn·
more. t.ulip-Iree, etc.
2 15. Tropical forests. -
The forests of the rainy
tropics may be regarded as
the climax of tbe world's
vegetation (Fig. 319) , for
the conditions favor cnn-
stant plant acti "ity at tl,e
highest possible pressure.
Such great forest growth.
are found within the region
of the tirade-winds, wherr
tbere is heavy rainfall . grent
hea.t, and very rich so: l. as
in the East Indies, and
. a.long the Amazon and its
t~ibutaries. So abun-iant
is tbe precipitation that the
air is often saturated and
the plants drip "'ith the
moisture. . . . FlO. 320.-A IUtta>-{lOin.l-.i _, 01. rain),
The stnking cbaracterlS- tropialJ 1m.1.-Alter fscunIpc ....
tics of the great mixed trop-
ical forest are as follows: (l) There is no regular period fot
tbe development or fall of lea,'es, and hence Lber. is no time ,
356 A TEXT-BOOK OF BOTAlfY
of bar~ forest or of forests just putting OUt le&\'es, Leaves'

are conLinually being s hed and formed, but the trees ,,1,"''IY8
appear in full foliage, (2) The density of growth is rei:na,rk-
able, resulting in a gigR.ntic jungle, ,dth plants at every
level, interlaced by great vines and aO\'ered by perchiDg
plants, (3). ueb forests display not only an immenS<' num-
ber of indh'idunl plant", but also an extraordinary num-
ber of species, (4) The various devices for shedding tbe
abundant rain from the leaves gi \'e t o them a very charac-
terist.ie appearance, Prominent amoDg them arc the gut-
ter-pointed leaves, the tip being prolonged as a sort of
spout and the \'eiDS depressed, the whole surface of the leaf
resembling a drainage system (F ig, 320),
INDEX
AbsorptioDl 7<:' ~. ArehicbJa.myd.." 282.

Adaptation , 328, 337, A1tcomyeete5, 1-46.
Air pores, 16~. Ascus. 146.
Air roots, 82. .4Mimibtion. 88.
Air 5pa~, 18. .M8ociAtions, 324; 1M! Plant ...,..
Akene, 239. ciatioO&.
Aleurone groins, 9. Axil,42.
Alfalfa, 293.
Algre, 98, 165; blu"",,recn, 9S ; B!lCtcri3., 130; d~ , 134, laG;
brov.'U, 116; green, 102; red, 124. (cnnouUJ,(ifJ!\. 134; uit~u 6:1·
Alga-~ke Fungi, 144. ation, J34 . las; reproduotion,
Alternation of gene.rations, 183; 132; mrilJtunce. l33; I"OOI-tube""
(ern, 196; liverwort, 171; MOSS, des, 136; "pores, 133; .c.ructUI'8,
180. 131.
AmaryUidAcere, 278. Bamboo,271.
Ament, 283. Banana, 280.
AngiOfiperms, 220. Blltk, M.
Annual rings, 54. Barley, 2;17.
Anther, 224. Baaidia. )r»5.
Antberidium, Bryophyte, 184 ; Ba.sidiom.veet_. 1M.
fem, ]93; Fucus, ]24; Ih'erwort, Bast, 51; mol, 74.
]69; mildew, 145; mOM, lnj Bean, 294.
'CEdogonium, 110j Peronospora., Berry, 239, 286, 298.
143; red Algte, 127; Sehgir.ella, Big tree, 219.
204; Vaucheria, 112. Blaekbarry, 287.
Antboceroo, 173, 183. Black knot, 147.
Antitoxirr, 135. BIsde,6.
Apples, 289. Bluebarry, 303.
Apricots, 288. Blue-green Alp. \lIS.
Arbor Thly, 323. BogmOllll, Illl.
Archegonium, Bryophyte, 184; Bracket Fungi, 156.
conifer, 216; fern. 193; liverwort, J3mncbae, 1'001. 76
169; mOlll, 177; SelagineUa, 205. Brown Alp, 116
857
358 INDEX
Bryophytes, 183, 208. Coal, 205.

Bud, 67; accessory, 69i adventi- Coconut-palm, 214-
tious, 70; nxilla..rYt 68; flower. Crenocyte, 111.
68; leaf, 68; nnked, 69; a:aiy, Coffee, 308.
35, 69; tcnninal. ns. Compa.ss plnnt, 29.
Budding, 31i; of cella, .138. Composillc, 310.
Bulh, 66: oolf-buriuJ, ()7. Composites, 310.
Bulblet, GG. Cone, cnrpellate, 214; staminate.
Buttcl'(,up, 28·1. 213.
('on fen's forms, j h..
Cactus desert. 341. Couifers, 211.
Calyx, 221. Conjugate ComlS, lit. .
Cllmbium, 53; ('ork, 54j roots, 75 . Conjugation, 107.
CtlIlln-}OUPC, 314. Coml Fungi. 157.
Cnprificntion, 2tj2. Cork cambium, 54~
Caprifig, 252. Com. 268.
C'p"ulc, 239. Corolla, 221.
Carbohydr'.lte. IS. Cortex, 50.
rn.rpcl, 226; Angiosperms, 221 j Cotton, 295.
Conifut'S,214. Cot~·lcdon. 85; escape cr., ::_.
C.tkin , 283. Cmnberry, 30";?
Cedar-apple, 152. C""",ing. 2M, 317.
Cell, 15. 103. Cross-pollination, 245.
Cellulooc, 103. CrueifeN£, 286.
Cell-wall, 103. Cucumber, 314.
Cereal, 264. Cucurbitacere.3 14.
Ghap"rml, 344. Currnnt, 298.
Cheny.289. Cutic-Ie, 26.
Chlorophycere. ]02. Cutting, 317.
Chlorophyll, 22. C'yanophyeere, 98.
Chloroplast, 17. I().I ; Spirogy"" Cycads, 216.
113. Cytoplasm, 104.
Chocolate, 30 I.
Cinchona. 309. Darlingtonia, 37.
Citron, 300. Date-palm , TiS.
Citrou8 fruits, 299. Deciduous forest, 350.
Cladophora, 108. Deciduous babit~ 32.
Clay, 77. Desert, {'<.ctus, 34l; snlt and a}..
Clinging roots. 81. katine, 344; subtropical, 34.1.
Clo\'es, 292. 0;..1_. 88.
Ctui>-m068,200. Dicotyledons, 50, 230, 282; em-
Clus~PJ 151. bryo, 237; Sympetalre, 302.
INDEX 869
Differentiation, 102. Pe ..._pora. 1.3; rod ~,
Digcstl o~, B7. J~; nt@1"', 1.52; Spil'tlC)''', J14;
DionfC:'.40. Ulothm, 107.
~.Bba8t;, bac..1.erill, 134, 135. Fiber, ~.).
Disk,310. Fig, polUruuion, 252
Dotted luct, 53. Fj~worl , poUin1l1 i()!\, 240.
Downy mildew, ]42. Fil:loInent, Z'.!.a.
DJ"086r8,38. fLu.2Il6.
Drought. 33i. Flower. 220; npoc.rlJOu" ~Ij
Drought plants, 326. bilnhiate, :"'2:1; Ckol.8f~(lmou..
Drupe, 239, 288. 243; (,Iwrtelli. 232; di(e<"iWtI.
Dune, 338. 230; Ep~·n()lL8. 231; hy(lO(tV~
1l0m~. 231; in8l'C'u . 2"~; mUll.,;","
Eetocarpu8, 120. (·jQUS, 230: tlnlwd , '!:!'.l: nllmber¥.
Egg, Augiospenns, 235 i CEdogo- :!:"'9; lm.pilioll~)lU'. 2nl: pun.il...
nium, 110. late. ~M>; protandrou", 2SO: p~
Embryo, 85; Angiosperms, 236; tOJ,:ynou8, 250; lItatWnaU!, 230;
Conifers, 217. tlYlllt)cLa ious. :t"'..3.
E[ldol'lpenn, 80; Conife",,218. Folingc 1C.'H'68. :l-I.
Enzyme, ForP"t. deciduous, 3.50; prolftct.iv\'l,
Epidennis, leur, 15, 24; )lu.rchall- :~22 ; f"CtolCr\'a.tiOtl8. 32'1; IlU pply,
tia, 167; stem, 50. 321; tropical, 355; xeraphYlM1.
Epipbyte, 82. 3~4.
Equisctum, 197. Fore:stt)., 3'!O.
Ericacem, 302. Frond, &4, 187.
Evergreens, 33. Fruil.,231i.
FuC\lS, 11~ . 122.
Family, :!6Z. Fungi , 1211, 165.
F.I,89.
Fe.rmentation, bacteria, 134; Gn.OlCLaJlJ!iUm.. 122.
yeasts, t38. Gamete, ]07.
F~ru8, 1&'l; aDtheridia, 193; ar- GarneLOpbytc, 171; A~.
chegonla, 193; fertiJiutioD, 105; 235; Conirer, 21.=i; F~Jui!ettlUl,
gametophyte, 193; genern.l c.har- 2'00; fern. 193; Lyoopc.diw:u.,
a.cters, 184; leaves, 187; !ife- ::.'02; Se.lagioeUa, 204~
history, 1 7, 196; spenns, 104; Genus, 262.
"""rongia, 191 ; "",,"'phy1e, 187, Geolropisn,OO.
195; vascular system, 188. GennillAliou, conditions. SOi 860d,
Fertilization. 107; Angi01pCnn,
236; conifer, 216; fern, 195;
Focus, l24j Ih·erwort. 169;
I 84., 21 .
Gills,ISS.,
Girdling. 55.
Mucor, 142; <Edogonium.., 110i GIceocapaa., 98-
24
860 INDEX
Gooaebeny. 298. Invo!uCJe. SIO.

Gourd fruit. 314. Iodine, source, 120.
Grafting. 56. 311. lri_.218.
Grafts. 311. Irish mOfB, source, 126.
Grain, 239. Iris, pollina.tion, 247.
GraoUuete. 263. Irritability. 90.
Grape. 298.
Grape-fruit, 299. Jungermannia, 172.
Grusses.2G3.
Oreen Algre, 102. Keel. 247. 291.
Green felt, Ill. Kelp. 117.
Oreen slime. 101.
Gro'w th, lea.f, 23; root, 76; stem, Labi~tre. 223, 30'1.
59. Labi.re.. 307.
Guard--ceUs, 16. Laminaria, 1.17.
Gulfweed. 118. Lawn gnl88, 271.
Gymnospenns, 50, 207; genet''" Layering, 47. 317.
character, 210. Lear, arrangement, 5; autumnal
oolors,33; Bryophyte, 184; de--
Hair. 26. ciduoUB, 32; evergreen, 33; iall.
Hay grass, 271. 32; {em, 187; foliage, 34; fonn, 7;
Head,234. growth, 23; gutter-pointed, 356j
He&tbs. 302. horizontal, 9; ID08llic, 13; motile,
Heliotropism, 93. 30; night position, 32; parts, 6;
Hemp. 297. profile, 29; prot-ection, 24; ram ,
Heredity. 316. 32j relation to light, 8; I"08etta
HeterocYlit. 100. habit. 11; sbsdiug, 10; special
lietero.spory. 201; Selaginelli. 204. (Onn8, 34; structure, 15; vena--
lio_taiLs. 197. tion, 6; water te3el"Voir, 29.
Host. 129. Leafy axis, ertICt, 181.
B.oustonia, pollination, 250. Let>fy liverworts. 172.
Hucklebeny. 303. Legume, 239.
Humus, 77. Legumes.29L
Hybrid, 2S3, 317. Leguminosm, 239, 291; pollination,
Hydropbyu.., 326. 3"...8. 246.
Hydrotropism, 90. Lemon, 300.
Hypoootyl, 85; escape of. 89. Liana,~.
Licben, 160.
Indusium. 191. Life-history, moss,176; mUlJbroo~
Insects and fioW'enJ, 242. 153; red Algle. 127; rusts, 149;
Integument, m. Selaginello, 205; UIot.brlx, 107.
Internode. 41. Lile-relations, 3.
INDEX 861
Light, plant tIIISOciationa, 326. Noctar, 36, 242.
·LiJi..,.." '1;17. NeedI&lea".., 211.
Lilies, !Z77. Nepont.heo, 3.'I.
Lime,300. NigbUlhad... »I.
Liverworts, 165. Nit~ fixation, 13·1, l36.
Luoome, 293. Sode, S, 41.
Lyoopodium, 202. N08tOC,OO.
Lyoopods, 201. NuceJlutl, m .
~ude ua, 103.
Madders, 307. ='utmcg toolou, 314.
MD.ir.e, 2()8. Nutrit;orl,3.
Ma.le ceD, 235.
Mandarin,299. 0."', 266.
Mangrove swamp, 336. IDJugonium, 108.
Ma.ple sap, 58. Olive, 3 13.
Mare!umlu., 167. Oogonium, F\lCUII, 124; nlildew,
Meadows, 345. 145; ~m . J 10; J'erono-
Megaspore,. Angiosperm , 235i coni- """no, 143; red Alp, 12tl;
fer, 214; SelagineUa, 205. Vaucheria., UZ.
Meoopbyll, 17. Ooopore, 107.
Meeopbytes, 327, 345. OmnS", 299.
Microbe, 130. Orchid....., 278.
Micropyle, 229. Orchida, 278; pollinatioD, z.tB.
Micro.1='Ol'e, conUem, 212; SeJa- Q,gan, 3.
ginella.,205. Oscillatoria, 100.
Mildew, 144; downy, 142. Oem"';', 79.
Midrib,7. Ovary, ZZ7.
Mold, black, 139. Ovule, Aogiospenn, 228; cooller
Monocotyledons, 50, 56. 230; 214.
c.l&ssifica.tioD, 262; embryo,
287. PafuIade layer, U .
Morel, 148. Paliaade tiMuc, 17.
Mosaic, 13. PaIms, 271.
Moss, 175; flower, 177; groupe, PappUS, 310.
181. Parasite, 120.
Motile leaves, 30. puture gnI!II, 271.
MUCOT, 139. P .... 293.
Mushroom, 153- Peaeh, 286.
Muskmelon, 314. Peanut, 294.
Mwrtard Family, 286. Pear, 291.
Mycelium, 140. l'eal, 170; bogo, 3311.
JlycorbiIa, 150. l\orianth, 222.
362 il'IDEX
Peronosporo, 142 Pollen-tube, Angiosperm, 236;

Petal, 221, 222. conifer, 2 17.
Petiole, 6. Pollin.ation, Angiosperm: . 242 '
PJueopbyreoo , 116. rooifer,21i.
Phloem, 52; root, 74. Poilinillm, 248.
Pbot06rniliesis. IS, 87. Pome, 289.
Phototropism, 02. Pomelo, 299.
Phycomycetes, 144. POlnoiOf(Y, 289.
Pileus, 155. Pond-S<'um, ] 13.
Pine. timber. 218. Pondwced a.ssoci!Llioo , 328.
Pineapple. 281. Pore Fungi , 156.
P-irtt8. 2S9. Potato, 305.
Pistil, :?lS. Prairie, 345.
Pilcher.pliLlIl, 35. Profile leaves. 29.
Pith. 50: roy, 0 1. Pronuba and Yucca, 244,
Plains, 341. Prop-root , SO.
Plnnt fiSBOChLtiollS, 324; cactus Protection. leaves, 24,
dCgert, 341; deciduous forest, Proteid. 88.
350; l1Ul.llgroy C SWtunp, 336; Prothnllium. 193.
mead()\\', 345; mesopbytic thick- Prnt.hnllus, 193.
et, 34Si 1>el\1-00g, 336; pinin, ProLopi..u.sm , 87, 103.
341 ; pond weed. 3')..8; reed- Pnme, 289.
swamp. 331; rock, 338; sah and Prunlls. 288.
a lkaline desert, 344; salt marsh Pteridoph,)ies, 183, 207 I 20€,
and mcadow, 336; salt steppe, Puffba.II,I58.
344; sand, 338; SUbtropical Pumpkin , 315.
desert. 341; swamp, 3.31 ; s\nmp Pyrenoid, 114.
fOredl, 336; swamp thicket, 332;
tropicfll forest, 355; xerophytic Quince, 291.
fares!., 344; xerophytic thicket, Quinine, 309.
344.
PI"nt-breeding, 316. Raceme. 232.
Plasmolysis, 115. Rain, ieaYes, 32.
PL... tid, JOi. Rsuuneulscere, 284,
Pleurococcus, 102. Rtt.spberry,287.
PluUl, 289. RAy, 310.
Plwuule, 86; escape of, 91. Renction, 9~.
Pod,238. fu>ceptocle, 2-10.
Pollarding, 70. Red .o\Jgre, 124.
Pollen, 242; Angi06perm, 224; Redwood, 219.
conifer, 212. Reed swamp, 331.
Pollco-sac, 2'26; conifer, 212. Rerorestation, 323.
INDEX
·Reproduction, 3i ll8e.'C:unt, 107; Sal, 111lU'8b, 3.'16.

blu<>-green Algre. 101; red A~... &lit nleILdo\\' , 3.~ .
. 1:N;' Bextlt\t, 107; v'-ogetn.ti\,e Salt ''''p!'''. au.
·muJtiplication. JOI. ~iU1d. n .
Reservtltious. forest, 322. Sand-hiuder, 339,
Resin , 210. Sup, u...8l't'nl. fii ; lJ\up\o. 51 .
R~pim.ti()lI, S1, StlprophYll', lZU.
Rhizoid. 167. Snrp:n5l'tIUl , 119.
Rhizome. 1.i3: self-buritLl. G7. Surrucenw.. 35.
Rhodophycerc, I_:!·L SeIdl' , 26. :W.
Rib, 7. &iorl .•50.
R iOOa, 172. Soouring rush, 19S,
Riooiocarpus, 172. Sea trUuC(' , 116.
Rice, 269. Seed. nlJtlOrplioll of ..... "ter. M;
Rockwood, liS. Anj;tiospenu , 23;: ('onifef, 217 ;
Root , 71 i Ilb80tption, 78; air, 82; diltpcrsal . 255; ~nniltl1uQnJ ~-1"
Ixlst l 7oJ ; brauch, 7(i ; cambiufl1. 2l8: lI:Lru(,rllre. ,\t
i 5j clinging, 1; cuttinp, iO; Seed...dj$prJ'Sll. 2M; ,,;r, 2.57;
growth, 76; diameter increase. animaL,. 2M; ditlC_h.nnte, 21,5;
75j hair, 7-i ; internal structure, watet,2.W,
74; phloem. 74 ; primary , 71.: ScL'lginella, 203.
prop. 80: flCCondary. 72; 8pe<'illf &·Ic..'1,tiou.3t>o..
(onus, 80: tap, 72; "M('ulur ScU.. Lurisl. 07.
cyljoder, 74; wlller, SfJ; l"ood, lSclf~poUiIl8ljolJ . 2 ;3.
74; xylem , 74. Sctunth'c pWllt. ::Kt.
Root.-cap, 73. Sepal. 221.
Root-cuttings, 70. Sequoia. 211. 219,
RootAuogu.s, 159. Rhaddock. 299.
Root-hair, 14, 78. Shade-pla.ut , 3'l(;.
Root,..pressu.re, ,~ . Shoot. 41 .
Rootstock, 63; self-burial, 61. Sie,,£' plate. 5.1.
Root-tube",l"", 1:!6. Sie,'e veWlel. S3.
R""""",,,,286. Siphon £omLS, J 16.
Roses, 286. Societies. 3'2:4.
Rosette-habit , 11, 28. Soil. 'ii.
RubiB~. 307. 80""""",.., 304,
RunDer.47. 80"",. 191.
Rost., 149. Spec ..., 263.
Rye, 266. Spenn. Angiosperm. 235; conifer,
216; cvcad, 211 ; Cern, 194;
Sse Fungi, 146. fil'eM\'ort, 169; moM. 177; <Edo-
Ssp-palm, 276. gonium, liD; red Alp, 126.
364 INDEX
Spennatopbytea, ~ StipuJe, 6.
Spike, 232. Stock, 56, 317.
Spirogyra, 113. Stoma, 16.
Spongy tissue, 18. Stone-fruit, 239, 288.
Sporangium, Angifl8penn, 224' Strawberry, 286.
brown Alp, 121; conifer, 212; Strobilus, club-m0S6, 202; coniferr
Equisetum, 109; fenl, 191; 212j Equisehlm . 198; Lycopo-
Mucor, 141; red AJgre, 126; dium , 202; Selaginelia, 2fJ3.
Selaginclla, 203. Sly1e, ZZ7 .
Spore, lOG ; AngiOBpenn, 224 , 235; Subooil, 78.
brown A1gro, 121 ; Equisetum, Subtropical desert, 341 .
199; green Algre, 100; mildew, Sucker, 70.
145; CEdogonium, lOS; red Aigre, Sugar--eane, 270.
126; rus ts, 149 , 151; sWimmingJ Summer spore, ]49.
106 ; Vauc:heria, ] 12. Sundew, 38.
Spore-case, moss, 180. Swamp, 331; forest, 336; thicket,
Spore-fruit, mildew, 146; red 332.
AIgm, I26. Sweet potato, .113.
Sporopb)'Il, 207; Equiaetum, 199. Swimming sporr. 106.
Sporophyte, 171; AnthoceroB, 173; Sympet.alre, 223, 282, 302.
(..'Ouifer, 215; cJu\rm068, 202;
fem, 187, 195; Jungorm&n.nia, Tangerine, 299.
173; leafy, 207; Lycopodium, Tap-root, 72.
202; Marchantia., 170; moss, Tes,300.
179. Temperature, plant asaociatio~
Spring fto,,'ers, 67. 325.
Spur, 223. Tendril. 35, 48, 60.
Squash, 315. Testa, 85, 218, 2Z1.
Stamen, 224; Angiosperm, 221; Tetraspore, 126.
conifer, 2]2. ThsIlop.b ytea, 165, 183, 208.
Standard, 291. Thicket, mesopb:,rtic, 348; xel'(>.
Starch, 21. phytic, 344.
Stem, 41; annual, 53; climbing, Thorn, 35, &'2.
47; di.rection, 42; erect, 42; ex... Timber, conifer, 218; hardwood.
temaJ. stnlcture, 41; growth, 59; 284.
internal struoture, 50; ~rennial, Toadotool, 183.
53; prostrate, 45; special forms, Tohscco, 306 . .
59. Tomato, 306.
Steppes, 344. Tra.cheary vesaels, 52; annular, 52;
Stigma, 227. dotted, 83; pitted, 83; IIpirai.
Stimulus, .90. 52.
•Stipe, 155. Transpiration, 22.
INDEX S65
Water, abeorptioD by root. 78;

'Tree group, 282. abeorpllou b)' 000<), 86; plant
TroP;~ 'fo""t. 355. uaociatioOl, 324...
Truille, 147. Watermelon. 314.
. Tuber, 65~ oelf-!'uri.l. 67.
Water pIAn.., 3'26.
Twnble..-.e<i, 257. Water rt!IeJ"\'oirs, in planta, 2V
Turgor. 104. pollut.ion of, 1O'J..
Turpentine, 219.
Wa.t.er~root, SO.
Twiner, 47. W.ter-lP""ul, 70.
Wboa', 26~.
Ulotbrix, 105. 'VbeaL I'\18t, 149.
Umbel. 233. White pine, timber, ~HS.
Umbelliferre, 29-1:. Wind, plant a880CU\LioM, 326.
Wingo, 291.
Vacuole, 115. Wil1ter IfPOre, J50.
Variation, 316. Wood, 51; root, H.
Vascular bundle, 51. Wound&, healing, M.
VaaeulAr cylinder, 50, 74.
Wrack, liS.
Vucular system, 76j fern , 188.
Vaueheria, 111. XerophytCS, 326. 33'7.
Vegeta.t.ive multiplication. lOl. 'Xyiem, 61; root, 74~
Vegetati,'e propagation, 316.
Vein, 18, 53.
Yeut, l38.
Yellow pine. timber, 21.8.
Venation, 6. Yucea. pollinAtion, 244.
VenUl fiy-traP, 40.
vernal bab;" 67. ZypPOre, 1()7.
Viticulture, 298.

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TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT- BOOKS

~HN ~ (pULTElL A. M., PH. D.

A. f. NIGHTINGALE. PH. D. LL. D.

T ext-Boo k of Botany. 12mo. llIW!trsted.

D. Appleton and Company, New York

THE several editions of Plilnt StUJb~., designed for uso

of Botany separately, but rather to deyelop them all in their

1. Occurrence of plants.- Plants form the natural cover-

thought that plants are alive and at work is important

tions; and a plant with several organs bas so many delicate

Arrangement.-Leav s appear upon the sLelll8 ot

Fla. 1.-l..eAl acrar:agement: A. ~ or alternate ..eaves; B. oppom.UI (eyclie)

in others. In certain plants only one lea! appears at each

will iornl a spiral winding about the stem (Fig. 1. A). As a

nch 8 leaf is SlUd to be palmately ..eined (Fig. 2, B, illld Fig.

incline to broader forms than len,'es pinnately "cined or

cannot be eo,'ere<! by a gCJleral rule , except t hat' it ~ks

are JeM'es so constructed that tbey can sbift their po~itio

light; but if it be turned around so as to bring the other

are the largest, and the upper I~M'es gradually diminish

a cluster or rosette of leaves at the hase of the stem (figs.

Ifhe overlapped base is not c"pnndpd so much a.3 tho ox-

struction of a leaf-mo8aic. A general mosaic arrangement

in which all the leaves are referred to a single plltne, shows

by a wall: and in the epidermis chese cells fit closely to-

tribution it is evident that stomata are definitely 'related to

are irreg~l"r in form, and 80 loosely arrru:ged as t? leave

This explains why leaves are adjusted in so manY' ways to

,"; t" night, this st.ncb disappears, the

15. 'l'ranspiration. -\Vater is being evaporated con-

amo unt of water gi\'eJl off by a few leaves i notetl , some

wit b cl\,£nitely spaced lines, preferabl y five millimeters

t JI tion concern them.

(1) The epidermis may be regarded as an ever-presenj

. active mesophyll cells would soon lose all their wl}ter. In

tion, exposing only the ends of elongated cells, which staJld

(3) The cuticle, which is often developed U pall tbe

clear; and doubtless they may sen'e other purposes also,

(6) The roselle-habit (§ 12) is a very common method of

(7) Water reservoirs are common in leaves l\l\d other

such a plant grows in the shade t he lca,"es do not assume

into very numerous small leaflets, sometimes very small ,

leaflets fold togeLher, Lhen still others, until finally all

Motile leaves also shift their positions throughout the day

~'~~:::~::~~=et~~b= 18. Fall of leaves.-Many shrubs

there i~ no regular annual fall of leaves. Such leaves en-

hght, but they produce leaves reduced in size and "~thout

bog plar,t (Fig. 34), but is not so elaborately constructed

",,0. 34.-Leavee of the common Fill. 35.-Leaf of a lkIuthern pitcher--p1.u.nt.

.nsect trap than are the leaves of SaTracenia. In t hese

Tbll species of Nepenthe. from tbe oriental tropics, very

pitcher- FJG. 37.-Leaf of NepenIJ/e8, show-

elaborate pitcher with a lid (Fig. 37) . There is t he same

21. Reiation to other organs.- The stem is connected

Branc11'es as well as leaves appear at the nodes; and there is

it hOB de"eloped into 6 great "arict}' of Iorros or' habits.

Flo. 42.-An Au.trian pine.

jng borizontally from it (Fig. 42); wlule in other trece, as

tree ha§ a general conical outline; in the latter case it has tl

Flo. 43.-An o&k in ~intM oondiUOll.

acquainted with the common trees or' " neighborhood and

rerled at any angle, often horizontal. alld som tim f\'Cn

FlO • .,...-An ehn to (a)i&p..

~'~~:::~::=etb= 18. Fall of leaves.-Many shrubs