Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Branches and Campuses
BIÑAN CAMPUS

Instructional Material

in

GEED 10023

Understanding the Self

Prepared by:

Cheryl Joyce D. Jurado, LPT, MEM

Faculty, PUP- Biñan

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 Preface

This instructional material is intended for my personal use to facilitate students in

my class in Understanding the Self (GEED 10023) and a ready reference as well. This is

designed in accordance to the enhanced course outline presented and is divided into

various major topics which pertain to the philosophical, psychological, biological,

sociological perspective of the SELF as well as the contemporary studies such as the self

to its external world (e.g. material self, digital self, etc.). Moreover, this is not suitable for

distributions or commercial purposes.

The content of this instructional material is based from the compilation of various

references and online resources as mentioned on my references. Along with this

material are PDF files/ links for activities and lectures via power point presentations

or films/ and thru other online platform, that will be sent to students enrolled in this

course during the orientation process.

Furthermore, this instructional material is intended for educational purposes only

on the said subject.

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 Course Overview
Understanding the self- course is envisioned to facilitate the exploration of personal

identity issues and concerns that will arrive at a better understanding of one’s self, other selves,

and the world beyond the self to improve a better quality of life. Understanding the Self is primarily

intended for the tertiary level as part of the General Education Curriculum. Nevertheless, this may

also be used as a reference material for other courses in teaching the meaning, importance, and

essence of life and the self and other selves. In preparing this instructional material, the following

general objectives were considered by the instructor: 1.Gain deeper understanding of the various

perspectives of the self in the different fields of discipline; 2. Acquire the role of the self, other

selves, and the self towards the external world; 3. Reflect on personal and social issues and

concerns; 4. Reflect on the past self, the present self, and the future self; 5. Identify the different

forces and institutions that impact the development of various aspects of self and identity; 6.

Examine the different influences and factors that shape the self; 7. Demonstrate an insightful

thought in interpreting one’s self by developing own theory of the self; and 8. Apply own

philosophy of the self and function for the better quality of life.

At the end of each chapter, evaluation activities are given to enhance the cognitive

learning of the students. Suggested enrichment exercises are also provided to make

Understanding the Self more interesting, meaningful, and enjoyable.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Diagnostic Activity 1 in Defining the SELF 5
Lesson 1: Defining the Self
Personal and Developmental Perspectives on self and identity 6
Activity 1 9-10
Diagnostic Activity 2 in Understanding PHILOSOPHY 11
Lesson 2: The Self from Various Philosophical Perspectives 13
Activity 2 16
A. Other insights of various scholars 17
B. Summary of the SELF CONCEPT according to:
B.1. Classical/ Ancient Philosophers 23
B.2. Medieval Influence/ Christian Philosophers 26
B.3. Contemporary/ Modern Philosophers 28
C. The SELF in the Western and Eastern thoughts 33
Activity 3 32
Activity 4 36
Lesson 3: The Sociological Perspective of the Self 37
A. The Self as a Cognitive Construct 38
B. The science of SOCIOLOGY 42
C. Importance of Sociology 47
D. Scientific Perspectives of the Self 48
E. The Self, Society and Culture 52
Activity 5 51
Activity 6 62
Lesson 4: Psychological Perspective of the SELF 64
A. Finding and Creating the Meaning of Life 70
B. Unfolding the Mental Self 74
C. Unfolding the Emotional Self 78
Activity 7 64
Activity 8 83
Lesson 5: The Physical and Sexual Self
Activity 9 96
Activity 10 99
Activity 11 110
Lesson 6: The Material Self 110
Activity 12 114
Lesson 7: The Digital Self 117
Activity 13 119
Activity 14 121
Lesson 8: The Political Self and Being a Filipino 133
Activity 15 140
Lesson 9: The Future Self 151

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*A written Letter to my FUTURE SELF (before reading the content of the module, write a letter to
your FUTURE SELF and keep it, try not to revise or edit across time or all through out this course
and particularly this material)
Lesson 1: Defining the Self: Personal and Developmental Perspectives on self and
identity
LESSON 1
DIAGNOSTIC ACTIVITY 1
Self - Concept Diagnostics:
A. Diagnostics 1-5
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise, write disagree.
__________ 1. We are what we are right now because we want to be like this.
__________ 2. We can be whatever or whoever we want to be.
__________ 3. Our parents (or family members) can only influence use while we are in
our growing years.
__________ 4. Our tendencies are completely controllable.
__________ 5. There are still many things that we haven’t discovered about ourselves.

B. Do you truly know yourself?

Answer the following questions about yourself as fully and precisely as you can.
1. How would you characterize yourself?
2. What makes you stand out from the rest? What makes yourself special?
3. How has your self transformed itself?
4. How is your self connected to your body?
5. How is you’re your self related to other selves?
6. What will happen to yourself after you die?
C. Analysis
Where you able to answer the questions above with ease? Why? Which questions did you
find easiest to answer? Which ones are difficult? Why?
Questions Easy or difficult to Why?
answer?

Lesson 1: Defining the Self: Personal and Developmental Perspectives on self and
identity

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 An Overview of Self/Identity
The self is a topic that is often talked about but largely goes unnoticed. Every time the ‘I’
is mentioned (e.g., I will go to school, I hang out with my friends, I like to eat burger) the self is
highlighted as the “actor.” Further, the pronoun “me” is usually used as the object, (e.g., tell me
about it, give me something, it makes me feel awesome). Noticeably, the self composes both the
I as an actor and the me as the object. The focus on the self is even more evident in the functional
word variations of I and me used in everyday language depending on purpose (e.g., my, mine,
myself, etc.).
The consciousness of the existence of the self has been almost automatic or reflexive. Thus
people are almost unaware of it that in our everyday lives, we are constantly acknowledging it.
Scholars (i.e., theorists, scientists, philosophers) in different fields have attempted to explain
and thoroughly expound on several issues and controversies about the nature, existence, and
dimensionality of self. The most prevalent among issues on self are on nature vs. nurture, identity
vs. self, and dimensionalities of the self.
Nature vs. Nurture
Some insist that the self is predominantly a product of natural processes to which people
are inherently predisposed. The natural basis of the self is anchored on biology and explains that
human traits are passed from one generation to another. These transmitted traits serve as a
blueprint of the self and predisposes one to certain self-expressions (e.g., attitude, behavior,
tendencies, etc.). In this stance, the self is studied structurally and functionally, from the molecular
level of the entirety of human physiological systems. Genetics, for example, contribute so much
information about the descriptions of the self. This field of biology primarily deals with heredity
(transmission of traits and characteristics from one generation to another) as a process, as well
as with the characterizations (similarities and differences) of organisms.
The other side, meanwhile, argues that the self should be principally viewed as an
outcome of various nurturing factors in the context of one’s life. Social sciences have provided a
number of insights and explanations about the self, both on the micro and macro levels. Different
social sciences stress how group life (formal and informal) affects an individual’s behavior and
attitude, and emphasize on the impact of various social institutions to the self-construal of a
person.
While the issue about the predominance of either nature or nurture are still unresolved,
one can safely assume that the self is a product of nature and nurture.
Identity vs. Self
Self and identity are topics that remain popular not only among psychologists (even
authors of psychology articles) but also among other social scientists like sociologists, cultural
anthropologists, economists. Noticeably, the terms “self” and “identity” have been loosely
interchanged in various literatures. Many people believe that there is a very thin conceptual and
functional distinction between the two concepts and thus perceive them as synonymous.
Based on lexical definitions, the two concepts are distinct and can be delineated.
Consider, for example, the definitions provided in Merriam-Webster Dictionary of the term

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identity: (noun, iden·ti·ty \-den-tə-tē, ə-, -de-nə-\) “the qualities, beliefs, etc., that make a
particular person or group different from others… or the distinguishing character or personality of
an individual.” On the other hand, the term self (noun) refers to “the person that someone normally
or truly is... or the entire person of an individual.” The definitions provided suggest that the
demarcation that separates the two fall on the social representation of the term (i.e., known to
others, or only known to oneself refers to the total characteristics or quality of a person both known
and unknown to others (but known to oneself).
A comprehensive definition that underscores the distinctions and overlap between self
and identity was given by Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith (2012, p. 69) stating that:
Identities are the traits and characteristics, social relations, roles, and social group
memberships that define who one is. Identities can be focused on the past – what used to
be true of one, the present – what is true of one now, or the future – the person one
expects or wishes to become, the person one feels obligated to try to become, or the
person one fears on may become; together, identities make up one’s self-concepts
variously described as what comes to mind when one thinks of oneself.
Dimensionalities of the Self/Identity
The identity of a person is highlighted by a dominant trait which makes him or her
distinguishable from others. Imagine, for example, a situation where you are trying to describe a
person (whose name you cannot recall). You will find yourself thinking of remarkable traits that
will make other people identify or even guess who you are talking about. You may start describing
that person using physical attributes (e.g., tall, dark, fat, etc.). However, this attempt may be
unsuccessful because in many instances, the physical descriptions that you are giving can also
be seen in other people unless the physical description is so unique and specific to that person
(e.g., the tallest guy in the school, around 7ft). In most cases, the identity of a person can be best
depicted using certain traits that would set him or her apart from others (e.g., the most arrogant,
the most timid, the noisiest, etc.). Unfortunately, you will find it difficult to describe a person who
belongs to the so-called “average” category. As the term implies, average connotes that one is
just like everybody else in the group. In this case, several observable traits should be combined
to effectively describe the person (e.g., the tall and dark guy in the class who has a regional
accent…and dressed up like…).
Developmental and social scientists have identified social factor as an agent of one’s
being. The social factor refers to the influences of significant people in one’s life. It primarily
includes the family in which most of the basic attitudinal and behavioral attributes of individuals
are shaped. It is referred to by many social scientists as the nursery of human nature. In this social
group, an individual does not only acquire biological characteristics (through heredity) but also
learn, both directly and indirectly, certain behaviors and characters. Thus, similarities in manners
and attitudes are found in the members of a family. During the waning stage, or the stage in which
the child slowly gains independence and withdraws from strong parental (or family) attachment,
he or she starts identifying with other people outside of the family. At this time, the child associates
with peers or playmates, referred to as the peer group, who will also eventually shape one’s
character. This stage can be critical for some children, especially if the values that they acquire
challenge the foundation of behavioral characteristics that they initially learned from the family.
As the child extends the horizon of his or her social connections (i.e., school, church, neighbors,
friends), more and more characteristics are integrated. The process of building up one’s identity

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becomes more complex and dynamic, but all these things happen unnoticeably and, in many
instances, unconsciously.
Social factors are strong foundations of one’s being. The characteristics that were
acquainted from the influences of the social groups during the formative years are integrated t
form one’s identity, or uniqueness and similarities with others. Psychologists refer to this process
of character and traits integrations (or forming of identity) as the formation of personality.
Personality, therefore, is the individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. It is said that
no two people would have an identical personality, and that every individual is unique. One may
share commonalities with other people (e.g., manners, appearance, bearing, etc.) but will still
possess an identity that sets him or her apart. Consider, for example, a case of identical twins
that were raised separately by different parents, educated from different schools, and grew up in
different neighborhoods or communities. The twins may share several common characteristics
because they were born out of a single zygote (combined sex cells of both parents) which carries
their parents’ DNA blueprints. The similarities may also go beyond physical characteristics and
manifest in some manners and dispositions (e.g., eating patterns, impulsivity, etc.). Despite these
similarities, the twins will still develop individual identities that make them distinct from one
another. One may be assertive, and the other can be timid; or one is sociable or friendly while the
other is aloof. Thus, identity does not connote exclusivity or outright difference against others;
instead, it refers to the sets of characteristics that make one a distinct individual.
The extent to which social factors influence one’s identity or being is inarguably
encompassing. That is, the characteristics of significant others in a person’s life can vitally impact
his or her distinctiveness. These influential social groups shape one’s identity through modelling,
imitation, and traits integration. Meanwhile, a less o the obvious factor simultaneously affects
one’s being or character. It is the natural force called the environmental factor. Unlike the social
factor, the environmental factor broadly includes the physical and communal elements present in
everyday surroundings, and are invariably dealt with by individuals in a specific geographic region
or area. This factor covers not only the physical properties of the surroundings (i.e., climate and
temperature, forms of land, etc.) but also the larger society or community, as well as the
expectations and norms operating in that particular locality or place. For example, a person who
grew up in a city where competitiveness and resiliency are needed in order to survive would tend
to adapt to that kind of environment by consciously strengthening certain traits and skills that will
manifest competitiveness (e.g., communicative, intellective, etc.). In the process, the harnessed
characteristics become an integral part of his or her identity.
Other factors also significantly contribute to one’s identity or being, some of which already
operate at the time of conception (in the mother’s womb), like the hereditary factor. As discussed
earlier, heredity is a biological process by which certain traits and characteristics are passed from
one generation to another. Compare with the two previously discussed factors, heredity can be
referred to the non-negotiable factor. If one has the choice whether or not to adopt the influence
of social groups and to change or improve one’s environment, heredity is relatively fixed and
permanent. It readily dictates one’s physical attributes (e.g., height, complexion, hair, etc.), some
cognitive traits (e.g., I.Q.), and some other personal characteristics (e.g., emotionality, tendencies,
etc.) upon birth. This factor will be thoroughly discussed in the succeeding module.
Of all the factors of identity, the most controversial perhaps is the person-volition factor. It
refers to the inclination of a person to form and construct a specific identity that will set him apart
from others. Such factor emanates from within the mentality of an individual, brought about by the

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aggregated social-life experiences. Social scientists like sociologists may refer to a person
exhibiting person-volition factor as deviant or non-conformist. Being one is not necessarily
negative; in fact, some of the people of this type turned in to become trend setters, revolutionaries,
discoverers, and inventors.
As explained in this section, identity is a product of a complex process of combinations and
integration of traits and characteristics from various possible sources. Some of the traits are
acquired consciously and voluntarily while others are obtained unconsciously and involuntarily.
Now, try to test your awareness of you own identity.

LESSON 1
ACTIVITY 1
Instructions: List down at least five (5) of your traits under each of the categories provided below.
Then, identify the possible source/s of these traits by ranking the influence of the different factors
(4 being the highest, 1 being the lowest).

Factors of Self or Identity

Traits Social Environmental Hereditary Person-Volition
Physical
appearance
(e.g., tall, has
pointed nose,
stout)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Emotional
expressions
(e.g., warm,
cheerful,
irritable)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Interpersonal
relationship
(e.g., caring,
friendly, aloof)
1.
2.
3.
4.

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 5.

Instructions: Read the articles referenced and answer the items that follow.
1. Holt, J (2014). Is there such a thing as the self? Prospect Magazine, 413-421.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13604 810701669173
2. Oyserman, D., Elmore, K. C., & Smith, G. C. (2012). Self, self-concept, and identity. In
M.R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity. (pp. 69-75). New York
& London: The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v10n03_13_pgs. 69 – 75
1. List down three things that you significantly learned from the readings.

2. List down three things that are still unclear to you.

3. List down three questions that you want to ask about the readings.

Lesson 2: The Self from Various Philosophical Perspectives

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LESSON 2
Diagnostic Activity 2: Understanding PHILOSOPHY
A. What is Philosophy:
The Alligator River Story
Once upon a time there was a woman named Abigail who was in love with a man named
Gregory. Gregory lived on the shore of a river. The river, which separated the two lovers, was
teeming with man-eating alligators. Abigail wanted to cross the river to be with Gregory.
Unfortunately, the bridge had been washed out. So she went to ask Sinbad, a riverboat
captain, to take her across. He said he would be glad to if she would consent to go to bed with
him preceding the voyage. She promptly refused and went to a friend named Ivan to explain
her plight. Ivan did not want to be involved at all in the situation. Abigail felt her only alternative
was to accept Sinbad's terms. Sinbad fulfilled his promise to Abigail and delivered her into the
arms of Gregory.
When she told Gregory about her amorous escapade in order to cross the river, Gregory
cast her aside with disdain. Heartsick and dejected, Abigail turned to Slug with her tale of woe.
Slug, feeling compassion for Abigail, sought out Gregory and beat him brutally. Abigail was
overjoyed at the sight of Gregory getting his due. As the sun sets on the horizon, we hear
Abigail laughing at Gregory.
All five characters are listed below in alphabetical order. Rank each character (1-5)
according to their behavior as well as their level of responsibility in this situation with 1 being
the worse behavior and 1 being the most responsible. Your ranking on the same character
will not necessarily match. For example, you might rank one character a 2 on behavior, but a
5 on responsibility. Justify your rankings in the spaces provided after each character.
Character Behavior Responsibility Justification
Abigail ________ ________
Gregory ________ ________
Ivan ________ ________
Sinbad ________ ________
Slug ________ ________

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
a. Greek words “philo” (love) and “Sophia” (wisdom) = love of wisdom
b. The most general way of thinking about the meaning of our lives in the world and
reflecting deeply on what is true or false, good or evil, right or wrong, and beautiful or
ugly.
c. The study of the basic ideas about knowledge, truth, right and wrong, religion, and the
nature and meaning of life.

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 d. A system of values by which one lives
e. A method, a journey, an intellectual activity of learning how to ask and re-ask questions
until meaningful answers appear.
f. Learning where to get data, how to relate materials, double check claims, reject claims,
fortify arguments.
g. Analyzing (taking apart), and synthesizing (putting together)
h. It is the study on how we understand our existence, and how we come to know what is
real, good, and true.
i. It is an academic discipline and so has branches that focus on specific areas.
j. It aims to discuss questions such as what is real? What is truth? And even what is
beautiful?
k. And how do we come to know what is real, true, good, and beautiful?.
l. Philosophy overall aims to question assumptions we make about our lives and really
dig in to the details of “why we think what we think and how we choose to act.” It can
get complicated at times, but it can also help a person to see more clearly that there
are other ways of looking at the world than is our hand.

• Suggested movie to further understand philosophy “ Bad Genius”

ABSTRACTION
The history of philosophy is replete with men and women who inquired into the
fundamental nature of self. Along with the question of the primary substratum that defines the
multiplicity of things in the world, the inquiry on the self has preoccupied the earliest thinkers in
the history of philosophy: the Greeks. The Greeks were the ones who seriously questioned myths
and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality and respond to perennial
questions of curiosity, including the question of the self. The different perspectives and views on
the self can be best seen and understood by revisiting its prime movers and identify the most
important conjectures made by philosophers from the ancient times to the contemporary period.

Socrates and Plato

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 Prior the Socrates, the Greek thinkers, sometimes collectively
called the Pre-Socratics to denote that some of them preceded
Socrates while others existed around Socrates’s time as well,
preoccupied themselves with the question of the primary substratum,
arché that explains the multiplicity of things in the world. These men
like Thales, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Empedocles, to
name a few, were concerned with explaining what the world is really
made up of, why the world is so, and what explains the changes that
they observed around them. Tired of simply conceding to mythological
accounts propounded by poet-theologians like Homer and Hesiod,
these men endeavored to finally locate an explanation about the nature
of change, the seeming permanence despite change, and unity of the world amidst its diversity.
After a series of thinkers from all across the ancient Greek world who were disturbed by
the same issue, a man came out to question something else. This man was Socrates. Unlike the
Pre-Socratics, Socrates was more concerned with another subject, the problem of the self. He
was the first philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning about the self. To
Socrates, and this has become his life-long mission, the true task of the philosopher is to know
oneself.
Plato claimed in his dialogs that Socrates affirmed that the unexamined life is not worth
living. During his trial for allegedly corrupting the minds of the youth and for impiety, Socrates
declared without regret that his being indicted was brought by his going around Athens engaging
men, young and old, to question their presuppositions about themselves and about the world,
particularly about who they are (Plato 2012). Socrates took it upon himself to serve as a “gadfly”
that disturbed Athenian men from their slumber and shook them off in order to reach the truth and
wisdom. Most men, in his reckoning, were really not fully aware of who they were and the virtues
that they were supposed to attain in order to preserve their souls for the afterlife. Socrates thought
that this is the worst that can happen to anyone: to live but die inside.
For Socrates, every man is composed of body and soul.
This means that every human person is dualistic, that is, he is
composed of two important aspects of personhood. For Socrates,
this means all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect
to him, and the body, while maintaining that there is also a soul that
is perfect and permanent.
Plato, Socrates’s student, basically took off from his master
and supported the idea that man is dual nature of body and soul.
In addition to what Socrates earlier espoused, Plato added that
there are three components of the soul: the rational soul, the spirited soul, and the appetitive soul.
In his magnum opus, “The Republic” (Plato 2000), Plato emphasizes that justice in the human
person can only be attained if the three parts of the soul are working harmoniously with one
another. The rational soul forged by reason and intellect has to govern the affairs of the human
person, the spirited part which is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay, and the appetitive
soul in charge of base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are controlled as
well. When this ideal state is attained, then the human person’s soul becomes just and virtuous.
Augustine and Thomas Aquinas

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 Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the entire spirit of the
medieval world when it comes to man. Following the ancient view of Plato
and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine agreed
that man in of a bifurcated nature. An aspect of man dwells in the world and
is imperfect and continuously years to be with the Divine and the other is
capable of reaching immortality.
The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living
eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. This is because
the body can only thrive in the imperfect, physical reality that is the world,
whereas the soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with the all-transcendent God. The
goal of every human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life
on earth in virtue.
Thomas Aquinas, the most eminent thirteenth century scholar and stalwart
of the medieval philosophy, appended something to this Christian view.
Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is
composed of two parts: matter and form. Matter, or hyle in Greek, refers to
the “common stuff that makes up everything in the universe.” Man’s body is
part of this matter. Form on the other hand, or morphe in Greek refers to the
“essence of substance or thing.” It is what makes it what it is. In the case of
human person, the body of the human person is something that he shares
even with animals. The cells in man’s body are more or less akin to the cells
of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a human
person a human person and not a dog, or tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, just as in
Aristotle, the soul is what animates the body; it is what makes us humans.

Descartes
Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy, conceived of the
human person as having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise,
The Meditations of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much
that we should doubt. In fact, he says that since much of what we think
and believe are not infallible, they may turn out to be false. One doubt
(Descartes 2008). If something is so clear and lucid as not to be even
doubted, then that is the only time when one should actually buy a
proposition. In the end, Descartes thought that the only thing that one
cannot doubt is the existence of the self, a thing that thinks and
therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thus, his famous, cogito ergo sum,
“I think therefore, I am.” The fact that one thinks should lead one to
conclude without a trace of doubt the he exists. The self then for Descartes is also a combination
of two distinct entities, the cogito, the thing that thinks, which is the mind, and the extenza or
extension of the mind, which is the body. In Descartes’s view, the body is nothing else but a
machine that is attached to the mind. The human person has it but it is not what makes a man a
man. If it all, that is the mind. Descartes says, “But what then, am I? A thinking thing. It has been
said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a thing that doubts, understands (conceives), affirms,
denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perceives” (Descartes 2008).

14
Hume
David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, has a very unique way of
looking at man. As an empiricist who believes that one can know only what
comes from the senses and experiences, Hume argues that the self is
nothing like what his predecessors thought of it. The self is not an entity
over and beyond the physical body. One can rightly see here the
empiricism that runs through his veins. Empiricism is the school of thought
that espouses the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed
and experienced. Men can only attain knowledge by experiencing. For
example, Jack knows that Jill is another human person not because he has
seen her soul. He knows she is just like him because he sees her, hears
her, and touches her.
To David Hume, the self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. What are
impressions” For David Hume, if one tries to examine his experiences, he finds that they can all
be categorized into two: impressions and ideas. Impressions are the basic objects of our
experience or sensation. They therefore from the core of our thoughts. When one touches an ice
cube, the cold sensation is an impression. Impressions therefore are vivid because they are
products of our direct experience with the world. Ideas, on the other hand, are copies of
impressions. Because of this, they are not as lively and vivid as our impression. When one
imagines the feeling of being in love for the first time, that still is an idea.
What is the self then? Self, according to Hume, is simply “a bundle or collection of different
perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux
and movement.” (Hume and Steinberg 1992). Men simply want to believe that there is a unified,
coherent self, a soul or mind just like what the previous philosophers thought. In reality, what one
thinks is a unified self is simply a combination of all experiences with a particular person.
Kant
Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of impressions was
problematic for Immanuel Kant. Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume’s
account that everything starts with perception and sensation of
impressions. However, Kant thinks that the things that men perceive
around them are not just randomly infused into the human person
without an organizing principle that regulates the relationship of all these
impressions. To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the
impressions that men get from the external world. Time and space, for
example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is built in our
minds. Kant calls these apparatuses of the mind.
Along with the different apparatuses of the mind goes the “self.” Without the self, one
cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence. Kant
therefore suggests that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all
knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality. In addition, it
is also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons.
Ryle

15
 Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a
long time in the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an
internal, non-physical self. For Ryle, what truly matters is the behavior that a
person manifests in his day-to-day life.
For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a self as it really exists is like
visiting your friend’s university and looking for the “university.” One can roam
around the campus, visit the library and the football field, and meet the
administrators and faculty and still end up not finding the “university.” This is
because the campus, the people, the systems, and the territory all form the
university. Ryle suggests that the “self” is not an entity one can locate and
analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all the behaviors that people
make.
Merleau-Ponty
Mearleau-Ponty is a phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body
bifurcation that has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an
invalid problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the “self”, Merleau-Ponty
instead says that the mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be
separated from one another. One cannot find any experience that is not an
embodied experience. All experience is embodied. One’s body is his opening
toward his existence to the world. Because of these bodies, men are in the
world. Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian Dualism that has spelled so
much devastation in the history of man. For him, the Cartesian problem is
nothing else but plain misunderstanding. The living body, his thought, emotions, and experiences
are all one.

LESSON 2
ACTIVITY 2
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise, write disagree.
1. Different philosophers hold the same views about the self.
2. Philosophers used empirical and rational lens in explaining the self.
3. Philosophy of the self as explained by modern philosophers is more relevant than that of ancient
philosophers.
4. Philosophical views of the self are a useful guide to having a better life.
5. Philosophy of the self should only be studied by older individuals and not by younger
generations.

Philosophy of the Self

16
(*Insights from other REFERENCES, that will also be of great help in understanding further your
philosophical perspective of the SELF according to the ANCIENT/ CLASSICAL up to the
MODERN/ CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHERS – for COMPARISON AND ANALYSIS)
Philosophy is often called the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields of study
began as philosophical discourses. Ancient philosophers attempted to explain natural and social
phenomena, coming up with their own definitions of how the world works and what factors
contribute to such phenomena. Thus, it was inevitable to come up with various conceptions of
what it means to be human, and in so doing, the different definitions of the self.
The self has been defined as “a unified being, essentially connected to consciousness,
awareness, and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational choice).” Different philosophers
introduced specific characteristics and meanings of the self, which, over time, transformed from
pure abstractions to explanations that hold scientific proofs.
Classical Antiquity
The ancient philosophy of the self can be traced back from one of 147 Greek aphorisms
prominently inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delhpi – know thyself (Greek: γνῶθι σεαυτόν,
transliterated: gnóthi seautón). This aphorism (or principle) was Socrates’s guiding principle that
he imparted to his students. Since Socrates as a guru preferred to engage his students in endless
discussions, it is said that he had never written down any of his ideas but instead untiringly
articulated concepts and principles with his students. Socrates believed that the real self is not
the physical body, but rather the psyche (or soul). He further posited that the appearance of the
body is inferior to its functions.
It was Plato, Socrates’s prized student, who thoroughly expounded on Socrates’s ideas of the
self. Plato’s conceptualization of the self was profoundly introduced in his dialogue, Phaedrus,
which has been popular text for many decades in the subject of philosophy. The main idea in this
dialogue is that the truth can be distinguished in two forms: the metaphysical realm (mind) and
the physical world (body). Plato suggested that the self is fundamentally an intellectual entity
whose nature exists independent from the physical world. Plato bifurcated the truth or reality into
two: the ontos (ideal), the ultimate reality which tends to be permanent

17
And spiritual, and the phenomena which refers to that manifestation of the ideal. Compared to
ontos, phenomena is imperfect, impermanent, and inferior.
Plato’s idea of truth about the human self was even more expounded and formalized by
his prized student, Aristotle. While Plato emphasized the separation of the ideal and phenomenal
existence or being, Aristotle suggested that the ideal is subsumed in the phenomena. Aristotle
called the ideal as essence and the phenomena as matter. He also emphasized that the two co-
exist and are co-dependent; the essence provides meaning and purpose to the matter, and the
matter provides substance and solidity to essence.
The philosophy of the self has been defined through two distinct lens: empiricism and
rationalism. In empiricism, there is no such thing as innate knowledge; instead, knowledge is
derived from experience – either perceived with the five senses or processed with the brain. One
knows things because he or she has experienced it through sensory and bodily responses. On
the other hand, rationalism argues that there is innate knowledge; however, there are different
sources of innate knowledge. Rationalism explains self from the standpoint of what is “ideal” and
“true,” and not rooted in what is felt by the senses or body. Conclusions are derived through logic
and reasoning. Some philosophers applied empirical views of the self; others used the rational.
From classical antiquity to the contemporary era, philosophy of the self has evolved. From
the teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, renaissance and contemporary philosophers also
defined the self according to personal and historical contexts. As stated by Fromm, “You can only
understand humans in the context of their history.” This line is appropriate in understanding how
philosophers have shaped their own viewpoints of the self. The ancient philosophers explained
the self from their conceptual understanding of the world since scientific evidence was hard to
obtain due to the lack of measure. Contemporary philosophers, meanwhile, have incorporated
science to their theories in the light of the technological advancements that they have been
exposed to.

Towards Modern Philosophy

Socrates and Plato have explained the self from a theoretical and logical orientation.
Aristotle was an empiricist, deriving views of the self from physical and scientific underpinnings.
St. Augustine incorporated the views of Plato to his religious philosophy. John Locke, David
Hume, and Immanuel Kant were empiricist philosophers; while René Descartes was a dominant
rational philosopher during the Middle Ages. Among contemporary philosophers, majority are
empiricists: Gilbert Ryle, Patricia Churchland, and Maurice Merlaeau-Ponty have incorporated
biological and neuroscience in their philosophies.
The varying philosophical standpoints can be thus summarized as follows:
Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description
Classical Antiquity
Socrates Idealism Socratic • Knowledge is the
Philosophy personification of good while
ignorance is that of evil.
• Self-knowledge is the ultimate
virtue. As the ultimate virtue, it
will lead to ultimate happiness.

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Plato Idealism Dualism and • Moral virtue is rooted in the
idealism intellect and leads to happiness.
• Wisdom and knowledge lead to
virtue which lead to happiness.
Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian • Ideal is found inside the
Philosophy phenomena and the universals
inside the particulars.
• Ideals and ESSENCE and
Phenomena is MATTER.
• Matter has no form. Essence
has no mass.
• Matter and essence need each
other.
Middle Ages
St. Augustine Platonism Neoplatonism • All knowledge leads to God.
• Only the pure in heat can see
God.
• Love of God, faith in Him, and
understanding of His Gospel
will ultimately leads to
happiness.
Renaissance
Réne Rationalist Mind –Body • “I think, therefore, I am.”
Descartes Dualism • The mind and soul can exist
without the body.
• Establishing the distinction of
soul from the body can make
people believe in the afterlife
and the soul’s immortality.

John Locke Empiricist Theory of • It is in consciousness alone that

Personal Identity identify exists, not in the body
and soul.
• There is a distinction between
man and person.
• The soul may change, but
consciousness remains intact.

David Hume Empiricist Skeptical • All knowledge passes through

Philosophy the senses
• Separate ideas can be joined in
the mind.
• There is no self, only a bundle
of perceptions.

Immanuel Rationalist/Empiricst Metaphysics of • Reason is the final authority of

Kant the Self morality.
• There is inner self and outer
self.

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 • The inner self includes rational
reasoning and psychological
state.
• The outer self includes the body
and physical mind, where
representation occurs.
Modern Times
Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of •“I act, therefore, I am.”
Mind •The mind is not the seat of self.
It is not a separate, parallel
thing to our physical body.
• The mind is a category mistake,
brought about by habitual use.
The only way it can affect the
other is through the external
world.
Patricia Empiricist Neurophilosophy • A fully matured neuroscience
Churchland will eliminate the need for
beliefs since “they are not real.”
• The physical brain gives us a
sense of self.
Maurice Existentialist Phenomenology • Both empiricism and
Merleau- Empiricist of Perception intellectualism are flawed in
Ponty nature.
• “We are our bodies.”
• Our bodily experiences do not
detach the subject/object,
mind/body, rational/irrational.
The table shows how philosophers view the self from different standpoints. It must be
remembered that in studying the theories about the self, one should take into account the
philosophers’ orientation and historical background. Many other scholar study and explain the
self. Through their ideas, you may examine yourself and determine whether you fit into the given
descriptions.

BRAWNER p. 6-9
The Philosophical View of Self
Socrates: Know Yourself
Socrates is principally concerns with man. He considers man from the point of view of his
inner life. The famous line of Socrates, “Know yourself,” tells each man to bring his inner self to
light. A bad man is not virtuous through ignorance; the man who does not follow the good fails to
do so because he does not recognize it.
The core of Socratic ethics is the concept of virtue and knowledge. Virtue is the deepest
and most basic propensity of man. Knowing one’s own virtue is necessary and can be learned.
Since virtue is innate in the mind and self-knowledge is the source of all wisdom, an individual
may gain possession of oneself and be one’s own master through knowledge.

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Plato: The Ideal Self, the Perfect Self
According to Plato, man was omniscient or all-knowing before he came to be born into this
world. With his separation from the paradise of truth and knowledge and his long exile on earth,
he forgot most of the knowledge he had. However, by constant remembering through
contemplation and doing good, he can regain his former perfections.
Man who is an exile on earth has a guiding star, a model, or a divine exemplar which he
must follow to reach and attain his destiny. In practical terms, this means that man in this life
should imitate his former self; more specifically, he should live a life of virtue in which true human
perfection exists. Happiness, which is the fruit of virtue, is attained by constant imitation of the
divine exemplar of virtue, embodied in man’s former perfect self.
Immanuel Kant: Respect for Self
Man is the only creature who governs and directs himself and his actions, who sets up
ends for himself and his purpose, and who freely orders means for the attainment of his aims.
Every man is thus an end in himself and should never be treated merely as a means – as per the
order of the Creator, and the natural order of things. This rule is plain dictum of reason and justice:
Respect others as you would respect yourself. A person should not be used as a tool, instrument,
or device to accomplish another’s private ends. Thus, all men are persons gifted with the same
basic rights and should treat each other as equals.
René Descartes: “I think, therefore I am”
Descartes states that the self is a thinking entity distinct from the body. His first famous
principle was “Cogito, ergo sum,” which means “I think, therefore I am.” Although the mid and the
body are independent from each other and serve their own function, man must use his own mind
and thinking abilities to investigate, analyze, experiment, and develop himself.
John Locke: Personal Identity
John Locke holds that personal identity (the self) is a matter of psychological continuity.
For him, personal identity is founded on consciousness (memory), and not on the substance of
either the soul or the body.
Personal identity is the concept about oneself that evolves over the course of an
individual’s life. It may include aspects of life that man has no control over, such as where he grew
up or the color of his skin, as well as the choices he make. Like how he spends his time and what
he believes.
David Hume: The Self is the Bundle Theory of Mind
Hume is skeptical about the existence of the self, specifically, on whether there is a simple,
unified self that exists over time. For him, man has no “clear and intelligible” idea of the self. He
posits that no single impression of the self exists; rather, the self is just the thing to which all
perceptions of a man is ascribed. Moreover, even if there were such an impression of the self, it
would have to remain constant over time to constitute identity. However, man’s impressions vary
and always change. Even attempts to have impressions of the self must fail for all these attempts
are really just occasions for one to notice perceptions. Put simply, a person can never observe
oneself without some other perceptions. Thu, Hume asserts that what we call the “self” is really

21
just “a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed each other with an
inconceivable rapidity.”
The Christian or Biblical View of Self
The Holy Bible
“God created man in His image; in the divine image He created him; male and female He
created them God blessed then, saying, “Be fertile and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it. Have
dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds in the air, and all the living things that move on the
earth.”
Genesis 1:24-28
According to the Holy Writ, man, following his redemption by the Savior from eternal
bondage, now shares in the infinite merits of his Redeemer and has become not only the inheritor
of the new earth but also the heir of heavenly kingdom. Thus, it is appropriate to think of the “self”
as the multi-bejeweled crown of creation – the many gems thereof representing and radiating the
glorious facets of man’s self that include the physical, intellectual, moral, religious, social, political,
economic, emotional, sentient, aesthetic, sensual, and sexual aspects. This imagery is shown in
Figure 1.

St. Augustine: Love and Justice as the Foundation of the Individual Self
St. Augustine believes that a virtuous life is a dynamism of love. It is a constant following
of and turning towards love while a wicked life is a constant turning away from love. Loving God
means loving one’s fellowmen; and loving one’s fellowmen denotes never doing any harm to
another or, as the golden principle of justice states, doing unto others as you would have them do
unto you.

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• SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS INSIGHTS DISCUSS BY DIFFERENT SCHOLARS
ABOUT THE PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

A. Ancient Philosophers
1. Socrates
a. Athenian
b. Classical Greek Philosopher
c. Founder of Western Philosophy
d. First moral philosopher of the
e. Western ethical tradition of thought

Socratic Paradoxes
a. No one desires evil.
b. No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.
c. Virtue – all virtue – is knowledge.- virtue-all virtue
d. Virtue is sufficient for happiness
e. “What I do not know I do not think I know = I know that I know nothing. Wisdom
was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance”
f. “Wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance”
“ Wise person is the one who knows what he doesn’t know”
Lao Tzu
a. Chinese Taoist Philospher
b. “Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom;
mastering others is strength; mastering yourself is true power.”
c. Value of self knowledge
d. “Without knowledge of oneself, there is no knowledge of God.”
e. Once we know ourselves, we may learn how to care for
ourselves, but otherwise we never shall.
f. The state of one’s soul
g. determines the quality of life
h. It is not identified of what we own, social status or even our body
Self – Path
Good:
a. Wealth
b. Status
c. Pleasure
d. Social Acceptance
Bad:
a. Poverty
b. Death
c. Pain

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 d. Social Rejection
How to be good?
Morally good? = HAPPINESS
a. One supreme good = VIRTUE = moral excellence
b. virtue – courage, justice, prudence, temperance (morally good behavior/character
= excellence – extremely high quality)
Virtuous person - The one whose character is made up of the moral qualities accepted as
virtues.
Virtue
a. It alone secure one’s happiness.
b. Knowledge – virtue – happiness
c. When we have knowledge of
virtue, we become virtuous.
Evil Acts
a. Evil is the result of ignorance.
b. If one truly know what is evil then one can refrain such action.
c. An individual who commits an evil act is one who is ignorant , not knowledgeable
about virtue
d. It is better to suffer an injustice than to commit injustice
No wise man believes that anyone sins willingly or willingly perpetuates any base or evil
act; they know very well that every base or evil action is committed involuntarily
Such individual tarnish their souls and condemn themselves to perpetual unhappiness.
THE SELF
a. Dualistic - personhood
b. Everyman is composed of body and soul
c. Body- imperfect, impermanent
d. Soul- perfect, permanent
We take care of our soul at the expense of our body.

2. Plato
a. He termed “eudaimonia” meaning fulfillment

Special Kind of Therapy

1. Subjecting your ideas to examination rather than acting on impulse
- If you strengthen yourself knowledge, you will not pulled around by feelings.

24
 2. Let your lover change you
- “True love is admiration”
- The right person for us help us grow to our full potential.
- A couple shouldn’t love each other exactly as they are right now.
- They should be committed to educating each other. Each person is
seduced to other into becoming a better version of themselves.
3. Decode the message of beauty
- “Everyone likes beauty to all things.”
- Ugliness – damage characteristics
4. Reform Society
- Fulfilled people not military power
- Athenian society focus on rich, aristocrat, sports and celebrities.
- Substandard rulers prevent people from
- voting until they started to think rationally.

SELF – CONCEPT (Tripartite Theory of Soul)

Three Components of the Soul
1. Rational Soul
- Seeks truth, facts, and logic.
- The mind.
- The real soul.
2. Spirited Soul
- Emotional soul and the heart
3. Appetitive Soul
- Physical desires
- Desires to eat, sex, protect yourself
- The body
Since reason knows what is GOOD, a human being whose soul is in HARMONY acts
for the sake of the good.
*Quiz/ Assessment Portion at the END of the UNIT
(below is OPTIONAL)
Movie Guide

• Apocalypto
• Birth of a Nation
• Crimes that shooked the world
• (Documentary Film)

25
Reflection Paper

• Critique Paper
• Summary and Critical Analysis

B. Medieval influence of Christianity

1. Aurelius Augustine / St. Augustine / Augustinus
a. Came from an ethnic/indigenous group fom North Africa/Algeria,
Roman African
b. He greatly influenced the development of Western Christianity
c. He was greatly influenced by the writings of PLATO
d. Known as man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took to
defend Christianity against detractors
FIRST SIN
a. Confessed in his book entitled “THE CONFESSIONS”
b. The human person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the grace of Christ.
Hedonistic Lifestyle
a. The belief that pleasure or happiness is the most important goal in life.
Beliefs in the Doctrine of Christianity
a. He defended Christianity against detractors
b. He schooled pre-Christian philosophy
c. He became one of the first Christian Ancient Latin Authors with a very clear vision
of THEOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
d. He saw the human being as a perfect unity of two substances
Elements of Human Being compose of:
a. Body
b. Soul
Soul
a. The soul has no partial dimensions
b. Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reasons, fit for ruling body
Libido
a. Affected human intelligence and will as well as affection, desires, and sexual desire
b. Original sin- transmitted to descendants = sin of Adam inherited by all human
beings
Original Sin
a. Transmitted to descendants sin of Adam inherited by all human beings

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“We are composites of body and soul. For although soul and body are two things, and neither
would be called a “man” if the other did not exist for neither would the body be a man if the soul
did not exist, nor in turn would the soul be a man if a body were not animated by it.”
THE SOUL – Part is in control
THE BODY – essential vehicle for the soul
- Distinct from each other but work together, it does not make 2 persons but as ONE
human being.
- The soul must be capable of understanding instructions given by God and a deliberative
function and obedient function.
- The soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with all the transcendent God.
Can be attained by living on earth in virtue.
THUS the SOUL being rational, moral and capable of understanding is to be the ruler of
the BODY.
SELF – CONCEPT
a. THE BODY AND SOUL – is capable of understanding the instruction given by
GOD=obedient function and deliberative function
b. THINK and CHOOSE
c. SOUL can stay after death ,if attained by living on earth in VIRTUE
d. Important WILL- ability to choose GOOD and EVIL (free to choose)

2. St. Thomas Aquinas

a. Italian Medieval Thinker
b. Most influential thinkers of medieval scholasticism.
c. His family descendants of Emperors: Frederick I and Henry VI – still
considered lower nobility.
d. He is the youngest of 8 children
e. He was a witty child- had received a good soul
f. He was sent to Abbey of Monte Cassimo to train among
Benedictine monks (5 yrs. Old – 13 yrs. Old)
g. At University of Naples, he secretly joined the Dominican monks
h. Teach Theology in the University of Paris – earned Doctorate in
Theology
i. He is a prolific writer
j. Died at the age of 49 (1274) because of illness.
k. He studied Aristotle’s work (discussion Natural Philosopher) and adopted the ideas
about A Man’s self - concept.
l. Natural Revelation = REASON
m. Supernatural Revelation = FAITH = Divine faith and reason complement rather
than contradict
n. God – maker of human and earth
o. The soul continues to exist after the death of the body.
p. ADOPTED Aristotle’s CONCEPT the human consists of

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 q. GREEK TERM HYLE and MORPHE
r. ENGLISH MATTER and FORM
THE MATTER
a. Greek word – “Hyle”
b. Common stuff that
c. makes up everything in the universe
THE FORM
a. Greek word – “morphe”; essence of the substance or thing
b. IT IS WHAT MAKES IT WHAT IT IS
c. What makes a human person is his soul, his essence – the soul is what animates
the body, it is what makes us humans.
d. Matter can’t exist without being configured by form, but form can exist without
matter.
SELF – KNOWLEDGE
a. It is dependent on our experience of the world around us
b. Rejects views that the mind always act, never sleeping, etc.
c. We don’t encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves, but rather always as
agents interacting with our environment.
Just because we experience something doesn’t mean we instantly understand
everything about it.
“Experience that something exists doesn’t tell us what it is.”

C. Modern/ Contemporary Philosophy

1. Rene Descartes
a. Father of Modern Philosophy
b. French philosopher, mathematician, scientist
c. One of the most Notable intellectual representative of the
Dutch Golden Ages = invited by Queen of Sweden to teach
and lead a school (1956-1650)
d. died because of Pneumonia
e. He said he did not believe that one must refrain from tears to
prove oneself a man. (Experience: fatherhood and losing
child) = as his turning point of changing his works from
medicine to a quest for universal answers.
SELF – CONCEPT
a. Cogito Ergo Sum – I think therefore, I am.
b. The fact that one thinks should lead one to conclude without a trace of doubt that
he exist.
c. SELF – two combination entities:

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 d. Cogito – the thing that thinks (mind)
e. Extenza – extension of the mind (body)
f. The body is nothing else but a machine that is attained to the mind.
g. Human person has it but it is not what makes man a man. If at all, that is the mind.
But what then, am I? A thinkingthing. It has been said “But what is athinking thing?
It is a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, desires, wills, refuses; that imagines
also, and perceives.
“If one is skeptical of existence, that is in and of itself proof that he does exist. Not simply
prove and sensed – something that I thought I was seeing with my eyes is in fact grasped
solely by the faculty of judgment which is in my mind”
THREE TYPES OF IDEAS
1. Fabricated
- Ideas are inventions made by the mind
2. Adventitous
- Ideas that cannot be manipulated, like one changed by the mind
3. Innate
- Ideas made by God in a person’s mind
Descartes also improved Aristotle’s Foundationalism
a. All Philosophy is like a tree
b. Metaphysics is the root, Physics is the trunk, and all the other sciences, the
branches that grow out of this trunk, which are reduced to three principals:
medicine, mechanics, and ethics.
c. By the science of morals, I understand the highest and most perfect which
opposing an entire knowledge of the sciences, is the last degree of wisdom.
d. This explains his relationship between his mind and extenal world, and senses
are only a limited value – naturally without his senses, he would not be aware of
the wax at all, but without a judging mind, he would only have a muddled
understanding of it.

2. David Hume
a. Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is
best known today for his highly influential system of
philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism.
b. Hume's empiricist approach to philosophy places him with John
Locke, Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes as a British Empiricist.
c. Hume strove to create a total naturalistic science of man that
examined the psychological basis of human nature. Against
philosophical rationalists
d. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all
human knowledge is founded solely in experience;
e. Hume thus held that genuine knowledge must either be directly traceable to objects
perceived in experience, or result from abstract reasoning about relations between

29
 ideas which are derived from experience, calling the rest "nothing but sophistry and
illusion", a dichotomy later given the name Hume's fork.
David Hume’s There is no self
a. Hume’s Thesis: There is no soul, it is an illusion created by our unfounded trust
in cause and effect. Because our consciousness is constantly changing there is
no ‘self’ which remains the same.
b. Hume’s first attack on the self argues that there is no impression of the self. And
if there is one, it is constantly in flux and hence there is no constant and non-
changing thing which we can call the self.
c. Hume says that in an extremely deep sleep with no dreams that our perception
of self ceases to exist. This means that if we remove all of our perceptions there
is nothing left, no self. This brings up the question, what is it then that we think
we are perceiving when we perceive the self.
d. Without memory of previous cause and effect relationships repeatedly
happening we would not have made the conclusion that there is a self. Hence,
there is no consistent unchanging self.
e. SELF CONCEPT= made of impressions and ideas
f. Impressions- are basic objects of our sensation, core of thought
g. Ideas- copies of impressions
h. SELF is the totality of a person’s conscious life
i. Believed that SELF can be turned ON or OFF like a machine
3. Immanuel Kant
a. German philosopher who is a central figure in modern philosophy.
b. Kant argued that the human mind creates the structure of human
experience, that reason is the source of morality,
that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment,
that space and time are forms of human sensibility, and that the world
as it is- "in-itself" is independent of humanity's concepts of it.
c. Kant's beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary
philosophy, especially the fields
of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory,
and aesthetics.
The Inaugural Dissertation of 1770
a. Kant's model is a response to a purely material based inductive model of the self
proposed by Hume. Hume's self is a passive observer similar to watching one's
life pass before as a play or on a screen. Hume is a strict determinist, no free will.
The final determination for Hume then is the self is a fleeting linking of objects by
our memory to objects. Any concept of self is simply memory and imagination.
Hume is not totally a behaviouristic precursor but his imprint is noticeable.

30
 b. Kant however has a rationalistic motive and posits that the mind is actively
manipulating data through acts of synthesis. The model contains a flaw,
Transcendental apperception should have been placed in inner sense. Overall
the case remains for Kant's use of synthesis from faculties in the mind for unifying
objects, representations, experience, and consciousness into a coherent
reference to the self has implications in present day cognitive psychology
(Brooks 2004).
4. Gilbert Ryle
a. British philosopher.
b. Some of his ideas in the philosophy of mind have been referred to
as "behaviourist." Ryle's best known book is The Concept of Mind (1949),
in which he writes that the "general trend of this book will undoubtedly,
and harmlessly, be stigmatised as 'behaviourist'."
c. SELF CONCEPT: PUBLIC SELF- Physical Self
d. PRIVATE SELF- Soul
The Self Is How You Behave: Ryle
a. The mind/body “problem” is to simply deny—or ignore— the existence of an
internal, nonphysical self, and instead focus on the dimensions of the self that
we can observe. No more inner selves, immortal souls, states of consciousness,
or unconscious entities: instead, the self is defined in terms of the behavior that
is presented to the world, a view that is known in psychology as behaviorism.
b. According to Ryle, the practical implications of this doctrine are profound and far-
reaching. Human bodies are in space and are subject to the mechanical laws
which govern all other bodies in space and are accessible to external observers.
But minds are not in space, their operations are not subject to mechanical laws,
and the processes of the mind are not accessible to other people—its career is
private.

5. Maurice Merleau – Ponty

a. Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a
French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced
by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger and all famous
philosophers.
b. The constitution of meaning in human experience was his main
interest EMPIRICIST and RATIONALIST act as one.

The Self Is Embodied Subjectivity

a. The philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty articulated the phenomenologist
position in a simple declaration: “I live in my body.” By the “lived body,” Merleau-
Ponty means an entity that can never be objectified or known in a completely
objective sort of way, as opposed to the “body as object” of the dualists.

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 b. According to Merleau-Ponty, if we honestly and accurately examine our direct
and immediate experience of our selves, these mind-body “problems” fall away.
Consciousness must be reckoned as a self-contained system of Being, as a
system of Absolute being, into which nothing can penetrate and from which
nothing can escape. On the other side, the whole spatio-temporal world, to which
man and the human ego claim to belong as subordinate singular realities,
is according to its own meaning mere intentional Being, a Being, therefore, which
has the merely secondary, relative sense of a Being for a consciousness.
LESSON 2
ACTIVITY 3
A. Write S for Socrates and P for Plato
1. He was born prominent and came from a wealthy family
2. He was sentenced to death for he appeared to be leading a political war
3. He thought that the soul is the inner being the inner self which is the heart
4. He believes that the message of beauty will reach harmony
5. He viewed the society for its wrong values
B. Write T if TRUE and F for FALSE
6. Know thy self motto conceptualized by Socrates
7. To become a virtuous person, you should have knowledge about virtue
8. The appetitive soul the imperfect and impermanent body
9. The personhood of one’s self is composed of two according to Socrates it is the SOUL
and the BODY
10. True wisdom is the meaning of your life.
ESSAY: How to be an excellent human being (10 pts.)

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 The Self in Western and Eastern/ Oriental Thoughts
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. differentiate the concept of SELF according to Western thought against
Eastern/Oriental perspectives;
2. explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts; and
3. create a representation of the Filipino self.
INTRODUCTION
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of
the “self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people in the
Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represent
Europe and Northern America. It must be understood that this distinction and the countries
included was politically colored at the time the aforementioned concepts were accepted and
used in the social sciences. Furthermore, it must be reiterated that while countries who are
geographically closer to each other may share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors
that create differences. In the Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying
perception regarding the “self.”
ACTIVITY
Two sides of the Same Planet
Write top five (5) differences between Western and Eastern society, culture, and
individuals in the table below. Cite your sources.

WESTERN EASTERN

ANALYSIS
Do you agree with the differentiation between the West and the East? Where can
you find the Philippines in the distinction? What are the factors that make the Philippines
similar or different from its Asian neighbors? Is there also a difference between regions or
ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines?
ABSTRACTION
There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyse the perspective of
each culture and country about the concept of “self.” You can see it in their literature like how
one culture depicts a hero or a villain in their stories. You can see it in their social organization

33
like how they see their boss or their subordinate. Artworks, dances, even clothing may show
you clues about the “self.”
In this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly
influenced the mind set of each nation or culture. Since almost all the theories about the self,
which were discussed in the previous lessons, also came from the Western scientific research,
we will highlight the Eastern thought in this lesson.
First is Confucianism. Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of
how one should properly act according to their relationship with other people; thus, it is also
focused on having a harmonious social life (Ho 1995). Therefore, the identity and self-concept
of the individual are interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or culture,
sharing its pride as well as its failures (Ho 1995).
Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the characteristics of a
chun-tzu, a man of virtue, or noble character, is still embedded in his social relationships (Ho
1995). The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein
personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many, making Confucian society also
hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society (Ho 1995).
The second philosophy is Taoism. Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the
universe. However, Toaism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can only
state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical
view of almost everything. Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by
Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how
to attain that life (Ho 1995).
The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the
universe, one of the forms and manifestations of the Tao (Ho 1995). The ideal self is
selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it is living a balanced-life with society and
nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric ideas
and thinking about equality as well as complementary among humans as well as other beings
(Ho 1995). In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will not be restricted
by some legalistic standards but because you are in harmony with everything.
The third belief if is Buddhism. There are various groups who have adopted
Buddhism; thus, you may find differences in their teachings with our discussion but more likely,
their core concepts remained the same. The self is seen as an illusion, but born out of
ignorance, of trying to hold and control things, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also
the source of all these sufferings (Ho 1995). It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self,
forget the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with the world, and to renounce
the self which is the cause of all suffering and in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana (Ho
1995).
The self or the individual is not the focus of the abovementioned Asian or Eastern
philosophies or beliefs. Even with extended discussions about how the self should wok,
Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a bugger context. In striving to become a
better person, one does not create a self above other people or nature but a self that is
beneficial to his community as well as in order and harmony with everything else. As for

34
Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out of the center
of the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.
As previously discussed, Western perspective does not discount the role of
environment and society in the information of the self but the focus is always looking toward
the self. You compare yourself in order to be better; you create associations and bask in the
glory of the group for your self-esteem; you put primacy in developing yourself.
One can also describe that the Western thought looks at the world in dualities
wherein you are distinct from the other person, the creator is separate from the object he
created, in which the self is distinguished and acknowledged (Wolter 2012). On the other
hand, the Eastern Perspective sees the other person as part of yourself as well as the things
you may create, a drama in which everyone is interconnected with their specific roles (Wolter
2012)
Several studies showed that Americans, for example, talk more about their
personal attributes when describing themselves while Asians in general talk about their social
roles or the social situations that invoked certain traits that they deem positive for their selves
(Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011). Evaluation of the self also differs as Americans would
highlight their personal achievements while Asians would rather keep a low profile as
promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness that disrupts social relationships (Gleitman,
Gross, and Reisberg 2011).
The Western culture is what we would call individualistic culture since their focus
is on the person. Asian culture, on the other hand, is called a collectivistic culture as the group
and social relations that is given more importance than individual needs and wants.
By valuing the individual, Westerners may seem to have loose associations or
even loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name of the game and they are more likely
straightforward and forceful in their communication as well as decision-making. Eastern or
oriental persons look after the welfare of their groups and values cooperation. They would
also be more compromising and they tend to go around the bush in explaining things, hoping
that the other person would “feel” what they really want to say (Qingxue 2003)
Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if they see that the
individual can rise above everything else. Because everyone is on their own in the
competition, one can say that they also promote ideals that create “fair” competition and
protect the individual. Asians, with their collectivistic culture, out more emphasis on hierarchy
as the culture wants to keep things in harmony and order (Qingxue 2003). For example,
Westerners would most likely call their bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first name.
The boss can also be approached head-on when conflicts or problems about him arises. For
Asians, we have respectful terms for our seniors and a lot of workers would not dare go against
the high-ranking officials (Qingxue 2003).
It must be emphasized, however, that these are general commonalities among
Western cultures as compared to Asian or Oriental cultures. In the case of the Philippine, we
can also consider the colonization experience for differences and similarities with our Asian
neighbors. We might also find variation among provinces and regions due geographical
conditions.

35
 With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety between the Western
and Asian perceptions may either be blurred or highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in
diversity, peace is also possible through the understanding of where each of us is coming
from.
APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT
Create a representation, diagram, or concept map of the SELF according to
Filipino culture. Provide a brief explanation of your output. You can also cite books and researches
about Filipino culture, self, and identity to further elaborate on the topic.

ACTIVITY 4 (UTS OFALIA) p. 23-24

INSTRUCTIONS: Read the different statements below and answer the succeeding questions.
In answering, take note of the three discerning points between empiricism and rationalism.
Rationalism Empiricism
The primary and most superior source of The only source of genuine knowledge
knowledge about reality is reason. about the world is sense experience.
Sense experience is unreliable and Reason is an unreliable and inadequate
inadequate route to knowledge. route to knowledge unless it is grounded in
the solid bedrock of sense experience.
The fundamental truths about the world can There is no such thing as innate knowledge
be known a priori: either innate or self- because knowledge is derived from
evident to our minds. experience is a tabula rasa, a blank slate.

1. When you are studying or reviewing lessons, are you more likely to take the rationalist
viewpoint or empiricist viewpoint? Why?
2. How do you apply empiricism and/or rationalism in studying your lessons? Be specific and
concrete. Try to remember your habits and how you make sense of the lessons.
3. Is it possible to make use of both philosophical approaches? Why or why not?

Add question, What is your self philosophy?

Reflection Paper: Spiritual Belief , My spiritual self.
Diagram: Illustrate one’s belief and influences of the school of thought discussed.

36
 Lesson 3: The Sociological Perspective of the Self
The Self, Society and Culture
Sociological perspective of the SELF: The Self and the external world
a. Across time and history “The self” has been debated, discussed conceptualized by
different thinkers in Philosophy.Then eventually, social sciences had new ways,
paradigms to reexamine the true self (true nature of self).
b. Thinkers settled on two components of the human person and the relationship of the two
is less important than the fact that there is a self.
Relationship of the Self and the external world
a. Example: famous Tarzan story – he grew and never had an interaction with any other
human being but apes and animals. He acts like apes – in effect of sole interaction made
him just like one of them.
b. We may be gifted with intellect and the capacity to rationalize things but at the end of the
day – growth and development are truly products of our interaction with external reality.
Social/Sociological Perspective
a. The self from contemporary lit and common sense is alone and separate.
Social Constructivists
a. A theory of knowledge according to which human development is socially situated and
knowledge is constructed through interaction with others.
b. It believes that reality is constructed through human activity.Members of society together
invent properties of the world.
Knowledge
a. It is also human product, and is socially and culturally constructed, individual create
meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.
Learning
a. It is a social process – meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social
activities.
We ourselves play different roles, act in different ways depending on our circumstances. Are we
conscious of our shifting selves? The self is capable of morphing (transform) and fitting itself
into any circumstances, it finds itself in.

Marcel Mauss – A French anthropologist

Anthropology
a. Study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space in relation to physical,
character, social relationship and culture.

37
Moi
a. Refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, his basic identity, biological givenness.
Personne
a. What it means to live in particular institution, family, religion, nationality, how to behave on
given situation and influences from others.
Thus if one finds himself born and reared in a particular culture, one definitely tries to fit in a
particular mold. If a self is born into a particular societyor culture, the self will have to adjust
according to its exposure.
The self and the development of the social world
a. One is believed to be in active participation of shaping the self.
b. Most often thought as humans are passive actors in the process of shaping the self.
c. But recent studies, indicate that our growth and development engaged actively in the
shaping of the self , the unending terrain of metamorphosis – transformation.

George Herbert Mead and Lev Vygotsky

a. Human person development according to language acquisition and interaction with others.
George Herbert Mead – American philosopher, psychosociologist
Me – Social Self
a. how we believe the generalized other sees us, it is what we learn through interactions with
others
I – Social Self
a. Response to the me
b. Thinks about what those things mear.

Lev Vygotsky – Russian psychologist, cultural and historical psychologist

a. Child internalizes real-life dialogs that he has with others (playmates, primary caregivers,
family etc.) they apply it to their mental and practical problem later. Along with their social
and cultural realities.
b. Example: Disney Cartoons

Jean Piaget - developmental psychologist (his study leads to develop the I and ME of G.H. Mead)
a. Through language and role play as the child develops

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 b. EGOCENTRISM= CHILD- EGOCENTRIC- don’t know how to view others, but as a child
grows perception of others become more important
c. Certain people could influence our perception of SELF and on certain periods of LIFE
Three Distinct Stages (Child become a social being)
1. Preparatory
a. Child interacts to others through imitation, cooking, play, use broom, etc.
2. Play Stage
a. Aware of social relationships
b. Children’s tendency to pretend play as othe people.
c. Example: play as doctor,mommy, daddy
Role Playing/Taking
a. Taking act based on the perceived point of view
Compared to Stage 1
a. Child able to respond not minicking but creating social interaction.
3. Game Stage
a. Development- consider attitudes, beliefs, behaviors of the individuals who are closest to
them.
b. Generalized other/society as a whole people act on what they personally believed but
actually acts broadly more on what others expects them
Multiple roles, concerned on the reactions of others on what they do
One becomes who he is because of his family
a. Human person learn ways of living and therefore their selfhood by being in a family.
Human Person
a. A child enters a system of relationship
b. Thus became a social being

39
Sociological Perspective of the “Self”: The self as Cognitive Construct
William James – American philosopher, psychologist
a. William James was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and
conceptualized the self as having two aspects – the “I” and the “me”.
b. The “I” is the thinking, acting and feeling self.
c. The “me” on the other hand, is the physical characteristics
d. Self-concept is what basically comes to your mind when you are asked
about who you are

Carl Rogers
a. American Psychologist and founder of humanistic approach

CONCEPT OF SELF-SCHEMA

The schema is not limited to the example given. It may

also include your interest, work, course, age, name,
and physical characteristics, among others.

Three reasons why self and identify are social products:

1. We do not create ourselves out of nothing.
2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm and reinforce who we
think we are.
3. What we think is important to us may also been influenced by what is important in our
social or historical context.
Two vital factors in creating our self-concept
1. Social Interaction
2. Group Affiliation
Two types of self that we can be aware of

40
 1. The Private self or your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings
2. The Public self or your public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation
of yourself to others
Three other self-schema of self-awareness
1. Actual self – is who you are at the moment
2. Ideal self – is who you like to be
3. Ought self – is who you think you should be
Self-Awareness
a. It may be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our next course of
action.
b. It can keep you from doing something dangerous.
c. It can be too much that we concerned about being observed and criticized by others, also
known as self-consciousness
Self-comparison
a. One of the ways in which our social relationship affects our self-esteem
b. According to Social Comparison Theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness
of our behaviors, as well as our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other
people
Downward Social Comparison
a. The more common type of comparing ourselves with others.
b. As the name implies, we create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those
who are worse off than us
Upward Social Comparison
a. Comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us.
b. While it can be a form of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this actually felt lower
self-esteem as they highlight more of their weakness or inequities
Self-evaluation maintenance Theory
a. It states that we can feel threatened when someone out – performs us, especially when
that person is close to us
Three ways to react on self-evaluation maintenance
1. We distance ourselves from that person or redefined our relationship with them.
2. We may also reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which you were
outperformed.

41
 3. We may also strengthen our resolve to improve that certain aspect of ourselves.
Narcissism
a. A trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness

What is Sociology?
THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
Human beings are “social animals” needing others for existence. Thus, they reply on
groups for growth, nurturance and development.
Sociology studies man not as an individual but in the context of how he relates with others
in a group, needing other people to survive and vice-versa. Because man lives in varied
environments where there are differences in cultures, beliefs, and practices, he needs to adjust
and understand such variations.
Sociology traces its beginnings to as early as the 18 th century. Since then, it has evolved
into one of the most important social sciences of our time.
This chapter focuses on the nature and scope of sociology, the relation of sociology to
other social sciences, “sociological imagination,” history and development of sociology in the
Philippines, sociology in contemporary times, the major theoretical perspectives used by
sociologists and the importance of sociology.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
“No man is an island.” A human beings entire life is spent with groups. From infancy to
adulthood, man has close contact with groups that give his life support and meaning. With the
problems, confusions and complexities encountered in modern life, man has to rely more on
groups for support and satisfaction of his needs.
Sociology, as a field of study, is concerned with the study of people in a group or social
context, not as isolated individuals. It promises to help man understand what is happening to him
in relation to his environment and why certain social phenomena occur.
Sociology explains human behavior in relation to social interactions among individuals
which cause or influence their behavior. It is a body of related generalizations about human social
behavior which were taken into account using scientific methods.
SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE
Sociology is derived from the Latin word socios, meaning companion with others, and
Greek word logos, meaning study of reason to describe the new science of social life (Hess,
1988). Based on the discussion about the nature on sociology, we may define it as the scientific
study of human interaction and the products of such interaction
The human group is the subject matter and central concept in sociology. Sociological
study focuses on the nature of human groups and the products of group living.

42
 As an individual interacts with others, the development of traditions, values, group
customs and standards of behavior are brought about. These elements are present in every group
and much sociological analysis is given to them. More importantly, these elements constitute the
basis on which human social life is organized and perpetuated.
How human beings act and why do they act as they do? These are the ultimate questions
that are the concerns of sociologists. The sociological approach differs from supernatural,
philosophical or literary points of view in two respect. First, when sociologists study human
behavior, they view it fundamentally as “social” in nature. Second, in the study of human social
behavior, sociologists use the scientific method.
As the science of society, sociology studies a wide variety of current issues and problems.
Sociologists only gather objective data but do not initiate reforms. As a discipline, sociology takes
a neutral position, carefully avoiding bias that would affect sociological findings and conclusions.
Sociology views problems objectively and scientifically.
Sociology as a science tries to analyze and explain the patterns of group life and discover
the basic structure of human society and the forces that lead to social change. In scientific
investigation, sociological concepts are used as tools for analysis. Hypotheses, theories and
generalizations are formulated following the scientific method.
SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Sociology, as discussed earlier, is a science that studies the behavior of people on
societal level. However, aside from sociology, there are other disciplines that focus on the study
of human behavior – anthropology, geography, psychology, economics, political science, history,
and humanities. The focus and emphasis of these social sciences are on the different aspects of
human behavior serving as tools for adaptation in a given milieu.
The social sciences are generally similar in that they all use the scientific method. The
goal of sociology, like other social sciences, is to understand human behavior as this occurs in
social life.
However, unlike the other social sciences, sociology focuses on and emphasizes the
different aspects and varieties of human behavior. The other social sciences (anthropology,
history, economics, political science, psychology, geography and humanities) study only
particular areas of human behavior.
Sociology and the other social sciences differ in the details and special techniques used
according to the subject matter they study.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
Simultaneous during the period when Western society was experiencing sweeping and
historic changes, sociology as a science was also growing in the early part of the 18 th century.
This was the Era of Enlightenment, the death of the old order, the stage for liberalism and reliance
on the scientific method.
Borrowing techniques of observation and analysis from other disciplines, sociology
improvised the validity of its information making it scientific in character after 50 years.

43
 The development of sociology as a science was encouraged by the administration of the
scientific method in natural science and the exposure of Europe to different cultures of countries
it has acquired as colonies.
Early sociologists possessed a multi-disciplinary orientation and deduced ideas from
philosophy and the biological and physical sciences.
Between 1760 and 1825, Henri Saint-Simon based his ideas on the science of society
on the law of nature. He discussed his ideas with Auguste Mote, then his student and secretary.
It was Comte who coined the term “sociology.”
The sociology course was first taught in the United States (1876), in France (1889), in
Great Britain (1897), after World War I in Poland, India, Egypt, and Mexico (1925), in Sweden
(1947), and Paris (UNESCO, 1954).
Throughout its relatively short history, sociology has frequently been referred to as “the
science of society.” Society, in this case, refers to the behavior of any group of organisms living
a common interdependent life through interaction and interrelationship. Thus, the development of
the broadly-stated subject matter of sociology which focuses on human social behavior, with
emphasis on an individual’s behavior in relation to others or human interaction.
Forerunners of Sociology
Sociology as a science owes its present esteemed status to the following people who
contributed much to its development.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology is known for his positive Philosophy (1855) in
which he organized the social and scientific achievements of his time. This he did amidst the
chaotic 19th century, or the unsettling time for France’s intellectuals. The revolution of 1789
deposed the French monarchy and Napoleon Bonaparte failed in his efforts to conquer Europe.
Amidst these turbulent times, Comte considered how society can be improved. He developed the
first complete approach to the scientific study of society. Before Comte’s scientific studies, the
nature of human behavior was viewed through various systems of social philosophy, some of
which later evolved as specific social sciences. In Comte’s hierarchy of sciences, sociology was
considered as the “queen of the sciences” and its practitioners “scientist-priests.”
Comte used the method of positivism, emphasizing the techniques of observation,
comprehension and experimentation in the development of knowledge concerning the nature of
society and human action. Comte was responsible for the development of a new approach
in the study of total or while societies.
Comte was also interested in two major social concerns:
(1) The law of dynamics which is the study of social change and
(2) The law of statics which is the study of social order.

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Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
Harriet Martineau, and English sociologist, translated Comte’s works. She observed
British and American social practices and customs. Martineau’s book, Society in America,
scrutinized American religion, politics, child rearing and immigration with emphasis on race, status
and gender and the effects of law, trade, economy and population on contemporary society’s
social problems. She was a feminist, an early advocate of women’s liberation. She was also
interested in religious tolerance and the emancipation of slaves.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Another important contributor to sociology is Herbert Spencer. He did not feel compelled
to correct of improve society. His aim was to enable people to understand society better. Spencer
had an “organismic” view of the nature of society. He saw society as a living organism with specific
parts or organs, each performing specific functions. Thus, he systematically defined the various
areas of study within sociology, namely, social control, politics, religion, family, stratification,
associations, communities and the society of knowledge.
Spencer was heavily influenced by the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and
emphasized the Darwanian notions of natural selection and the survival of the fittest in his analysis
of human societal evolution. He also felt that sociology should be concerned with the total society,
emphasizing the ways in which each part is related to other parts and how change in one part can
affect change in another. Likewise, Spencer thought that the major focus of sociology should
be social evolution rather than the suggestion and implementation of strategies for social
improvement.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Emile Durkheim, the son of a rabbi, was educated in France and Germany. He had an
impressive academic reputation and was one of the first French professors of sociology. He is the
best remembered for his notion that behavior must be understood and comprehended within
a larger social context.
Durkheim recognized that sociology was the study of society and stressed the importance
of studying societies as total units or entities (the sum of various parts such as the political,
religious or family systems). The combination of the various parts produced an entity which is the
society itself.
For Durkheim, the group or society is the central object of sociological study. He was
likewise considered as one of the founders of a major sociological system of interdependent parts,
each of which plays an important role so that the total social system may be maintained.
Durkheim’s theoretical work on how suicide rates vary in countries is considered as one
of the important contribution to sociology. In his work, Suicide (1897), he stressed that the causes
of suicide are the cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness of religious and occupational groups.
His other contributions to sociology on the aspects of social behavior were on the areas
of crime and punishment, religion and the workplace.
Max Weber (1864-1920)

45
 Born in Germany, Max Weber (pronounced VAY-BER) took his early academic training in
economic and legal history but gradually an interest in sociology. He encouraged his students to
use verstehen (German word for insight or understanding) in their works. Weber thought that to
comprehend social behavior, people must understand the meanings attached to their
actions.
Weber’s legacy to sociology is the key conceptual tool: the ideal type. An ideal type is a
model that serves as a measuring instrument against which actual cases can be evaluated.
Max Weber is widely recognized as one of the founders of symbolic interactionism
which focuses on social life and human behavior from the standpoint of the individuals involved
in day-today interaction. It assumes that each social situation brings certain ideas about human
beings, their behaviors and attitudes. These ideas determine why and how people act. Through
actions, gestures and words (symbols), the meaning of events and situations are, therefore,
communicated. One must go beyond the knowledge of age, civil status, social class and so forth
in order to fully explain people’s social behavior.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Most of Karl Marx’s life was spent in exile although he was born and educated in Germany.
He went to France after his paper was rejected in Germany. It was in Paris where he met
Friedrich Engels who became his longtime friend.
Marx and Engels attended the Communist League (a coalition of labor) in 1847. The
following year, they wrote the Communist Manifesto which urged the masses (proletariat) to unite
and overthrow capitalist societies (bourgeoisie). Marx attempted to return to Germany but was
once more deterred He proceeded to England where he wrote a number of essays and books.
Karl Marx was one of the earliest and most important proponents of the conflict theory
(to be dealt with later in this chapter). But his landmark in sociology was his research on group
identification which influences an individual’s place in society. This later became the focus of
contemporary sociology.
Marx had an evolutionary model of society. He believed that societies undergo fixed number of
stages – ancient, feudal and capitalist: For Marx, the history of civilization is the history of class
struggle and conflict is the main source of social change. Classes, according to him, are
always economically based. Opposing interests always arise between those who own and control
the means of production and those who do not. In each period of history, Marx contends that the
exploited and unpropertied class recognizes being exploited and thus revolts against those in
power. Thus, in a capitalist productive system, the laboring class (proletariat) revolts to overthrow
the owners of production (bourgeoisie). Therefore, this revolt signals the outset of a classless
society.
Georg Simmel (1858-1918)
German philosopher George Simmel obtained his doctorate from the University of Berlin
in 1881. He was among the pioneers who recognized, designated and analyzed the impact of
social differentiation, expansion of social groups, structure of the economy and other
developmental and environmental influences in the development of the human personality.
Simmel suggested that an interesting subject for sociological research would be small groups.
This suggestion was largely neglected until after World War II when Robert Bates and his

46
associates did a series of laboratory studies of small groups. The research enlightened aspects
of interactions in small groups although its validity is vague.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is important because its study allows us to obtain information about society and
the different aspects of life in a factual manner. With the aid of sociological information and inquiry,
we are able to understand society more objectively. Likewise, we learn to apply scientific
information to our daily lives and problems. Through scientific methodology, we learn to note
many examples of objective and non-objective uses of data. From this, we develop the capacity
to see through some of the folk, traditional and conventional wisdom of our society (Horton &
Hunt, 1985).
The most important function of sociology, however, is when superstitions and
misinformation are replaced by accurate knowledge about human behavior. When people’s
beliefs are rooted in scientific data and analysis, the result and interpretation we obtained are
more accurate.
For leaders of the community, entrepreneurs and government officials, results of
sociological investigations are useful in that they can help plot causes of action for the good and
betterment of society. Likewise, social order may be maintained through data obtained from
sociological researches. Prejudices are also discarded as experiences are broadened in the study
of sociology and make us become more understanding and tolerant of the way others live and
practice their cultures.
Nowadays, sociologists have become involved in various social research studies and are
being employed by government, industrial, social, civic and religious agencies all over the world.
Likewise, contemporary sociologists are often employed in universities and colleges doing
research as part of their jobs. Most often, the focus of their research work centers in issues that
concern society like drug addiction, rape, social and racial inequality, poverty, family concerns
and other related topics. The formulations of regulations and policies out of patterned behavior
will help members of society understand better what is going around its immediate vicinity and
facilitate easy adaptation in the community.
Those who work outside of the academe are employed in government agencies studying
issues as population growth, crime, delinquency and child welfare. Still, some others become
clinical sociologists solving everyday problems of individuals, families, groups and organizations.
Likewise, others are found working with corporations and become consultants or are directly
involved in developing effective personnel practices formulating policies on effective customer
relations, marketing and advertising.

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Social Sciences
OTHER SCIENCES UTS OFALIA p. 30-35
Scientific Perspectives of the Self
Science has invested much of its efforts in understanding world phenomena, especially in
explaining how basic life forms have evolved to more complex organisms, such as human beings.
Science is defined as the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of
the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.
Scientific approaches to the study of the self are classified into two: physical sciences and social
sciences. The former focuses on biological factors that make up the human body, the underlying
growth and maturational mechanisms, and environmental influences that contribute to human
development, the central focus of which is the self. On the other hand, social sciences are
concerned with institutions, cultures, and the interpersonal relationships of people living within
society.
Biological/Physiological Science
Science has made great advances in explaining human beings. Beginning with the tenets
of Aristotle and his scientific approach to the study of human experience, to evolution by natural
selection posed by Charles Darwin, human development, individuality, and the self have been
defined, described, and analyzed according to specific mechanisms.
From a biological perspective, scientists and doctors explain on how genes from both
parents contribute to the characteristics of their offspring through genetics. In fact, the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a self-replicating material resent in nearly all living organisms, is a
unique identifying part of every individual. It is the main constituent of chromosomes and the
carrier of genetic information. No two individuals share the exact same DNA. In forensics, DNA is
regarded as a crucial evidence in the resolution of a crime; in medicine, it has been used to
determine the paternity or maternity of an individual as well as make way for the intervention and
treatment of diseases. The human genome project, carried out for over ten years (1990 – 2003)
was implemented for the purpose of mapping the functions of genes as well as exploring the
interactions of nucleotides and their effect on biological processes. This project is beneficial to a
wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the medicine. Moreover, the study of these minute
molecules have advanced the evolutionary study on biological reflex, cognition, affect, and other
aspects of the human body.
The study of the human body from a physical perspective paved the way for a fuller
understanding of the self, as consciousness, a fundamental core of the self, is influenced by inner
dynamics and environments.
Neurophilosophy, attributed to Paul and Patricia Churchland, is concerned with the
association of the brain and the mind. In order to understand the workings of the human mind,
people must first understand the brain, its functions, and wave activity. They further argued that
the philosophical notions of free will, common sense, and conscientiousness must be explained
in the context of neuroscience as advances in this field seemingly converge with how people think,
feel, and behave. Human consciousness, worldviews, beliefs, and other attributes are distinctly
connected to brain physiology and functioning. Thus, how the members of the millennial

48
generation, for instance, process information, imbibe beliefs and values, and manifest behaviors
in their specific contexts have a neurological basis.
A related standpoint was proposed by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, who aimed to unite
idealism with empiricism. While his overarching framework focused on phenomenology, he also
used empirical studies and research to supplement what philosophy failed to cover. With his
specific theorem “we are our bodies,” he attempted to incorporate the physical and the
psychological aspects of the self. For Merleau-Ponty, the understanding of the world should not
be unidimensional; the “self” is a product of both isealist and realist standpoint.
Psychoneuroimmunology describes the shaping of the self as similar to how the human
immune system function. The human body is made up of nucleotides, the composition of which
makes up the DNA. In the context of the immune system, the human bodies “rejects” harmful
foreign matter and builds up on the existing molecules, leading to a healthy bodily system.
However, at times, foreign matter that enters one’s system can be helpful to body maintenance
and thus becomes a permanent fixture within the body. In the context of the self, individuals
capitalize on their innate attributes and are likely to reject environmental factors assumed to be
harmful to the body and its well-being. In discovering oneself, a person is likely to imbibe external
experiences that are seen to be helpful and reject those that he or she does not like or derive
pleasure from.
Natural science is a fountain of information in understanding oneself, especially in the
fields of biology, medicine, cognitive neuroscience, and even chemistry. However, the journey to
self-understanding will not be complete without examining the effect of social factors in
development.
Social Sciences
While physical science tries to understand the physical nature of people, social sciences
are concerned with human functioning in the context of society and social institutions. Psychology,
sociology, anthropology, politics, and economics are some of the social sciences that have
contributed to the study of the self.
Psychology, defined as the study of human behavior, sees the self as a theoretical
construct. In fact, the development of the so-called Science of Self roots from various theories
and principle. In many theories (e.g., social and personality psychology), the term “self” has been
used as an object of several psychological constructs (e.g., self-awareness, self-construal, self-
esteem, self-efficacy, self-regulation, etc.). Such usage of the term does not only indicate an
acceptance of its existence but also signify its importance in characterizing human psychological
and personal attributes. In the area of personality, for example, self-awareness describes the
consciousness of individuals about their strengths, weaknesses, potentials, as well as the
underlying factors that contribute to such aspects of the self. Perhaps, the closest scientific
depiction of the self is expressed in the self-concept. It is a description of how one looks like,
sounds like, and behaves like. It is an implicit personality theory that one holds towards oneself.
A number of theoretical perspectives to explain the self have been introduced.
Psychoanalysis, as proposed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on the “unconscious” as a core
element of the self. Freud likened the human psyche to an iceberg, whose small tip represents
the awareness of the individual and the large part submerged underwater is the “unconscious,”
influencing behavior unbeknown to the person. Behaviorism, another school of thought,

49
maintains that the study of behavior should be made from an observable and measurable
perspective. It largely attributes behavior to environment conditioning. A revised framework of the
behavioristic perspective is the social cognitive theory, which considers behavior as a function
of the environment and internal attributes. Lastly, the humanistic perspective draws its
assumptions from the observed criticisms of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It believes that
every individual has the ability to reach self-actualization and transcendence, and that each
person is inherently good or possesses something that is good. The humanistic perspective
deviates from the psychoanalytic framework as it focuses on the strengths and inherently good
nature of people, instead of the repressed desires of the unconscious in psychoanalysis. From
behaviorism, it posits that man has a choice and free will and that he is able to overcome
environmental boundaries through human agency. In studying the self, all three schools of thought
in psychology explain the nuances of selfhood.
Sociology, meanwhile, is the study of the collective behavior of people within society and
focuses on social problems encountered by individuals. It does not see a person on his or her
own, but rather, the impact of social institutions and relationships within society on one’s thoughts,
feelings, and behavior. It provides tools for understanding the human experience and society.
Specific domains of study within sociology includes family, crime religion, poverty, education, and
the like.
Anthropology is the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space
and in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture. Whereas
sociology is focused on present societal concerns and factors that shape human behavior
collectively, anthropology focuses on the evolution of individuals and their societies, as well as
specific cultural tools embedded within generations. The progression of human groups, cultural
revolutions, evolutionary behavior, and advancement of cultural tools are discussed in
anthropology. In studying the self, anthropology examines the developmental advancements
society has made and how they have impacted people who existed within that society. The
millennial generation, for example, witnessed the birth of the internet. Having experienced the
transition between the analog and digital technologies, they are more adept in using these tools.
Thus, to understand one generation, the events and milestones that define this age must be taken
into account. The past generations should also be observed.
Political science, in contrast, is concerned with the participation of individuals in
establishing a government and making political choices. It is not particular about political
affiliations but rather, the factors involved in how one arrives at his or her political choices and
behavior. In studying the self, one’s participation in government, ideologies, and advocacies are
seen as significant contributors to his or her selfhood.
Economics describes and analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services. The manufacture and consumption of goods, the state of finances and
purchasing power, and their equitable distribution to society shape the self. Economic activities
affect people’s value systems and sense of self.
The section outlined the contribution of the sciences in self-understanding and self-
discovery. Physical sciences focus on the influence of one’s biological makeup while social
sciences highlight the role of community and society to oneself. It reiterates the issue of nature
and nurture discussed in the first section.

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ACTIVITY 5
My self Through the Years
Paste a picture of you when you were in elementary, in high school, and now that you are
in college. Below the picture, list down your salient characteristics that you remember.

My Elementary Self My High School Self My College Self

ANALYSIS
After having examined your “self” in its different stages, fill out the table below:

Similarities in all stages of my Differences in my “self” across Possible reasons for the
“self” the three stages of my life differences in me

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 The Self, Society, and Culture
LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should able to:
1. explain the relationship between and among the self, society, and culture;
2. describe and discuss the different ways by which society and culture shape the self;
3. compare and contrast how the self can be influenced by the different institutions in the society;
and
4. examine one’s self against the different views of self that were discussed in the class.

INTRODUCTION
Across time and history, the self has been debated, discussed, and fruitfully or otherwise
conceptualized by different thinkers in philosophy. Eventually, with the advent of social sciences,
it became possible for new ways and paradigms to reexamine the true nature of the self. People
put a halt on speculative debates on the relationship between the body and soul, eventually
renamed body and the mind. Thinkers just eventually got tired of focusing on the long-standing
debate since sixth century BC between the relationship of these two components of the human
person. Thinkers just settled on the idea that there are two components of the human person and
whatever relationship these two have is less important than the fact that there is a self. The debate
shifted into another locus of discussion. Given the new ways of knowing and the growth of the
social sciences, it became possible for new approaches to the examination of the self to come to
the fore. One of the loci, if not the most important axis of analysis is the relationship between the
self and the external world.
What is the relationship between external reality and the self? In the famous Tarzan story,
the little boy named Tarzan was left in the middle of the forest. Growing up, he never had an
interaction with any other human being but apes and other animals. Tarzan grew up acting
strangely like apes and unlike human persons. Tarzan became an animal, in effect. His sole
interaction with them made him just like one of them. Disappointedly, human persons will not
develop as human persons without intervention. This story, which was supposed to be based on
real life, challenges the long-standing notion of human persons being special and being a
particular kind of being in the spectrum of living entities. After all, our selves are not special
because of the soul infused into us. We may be gifted with intellect and the capacity to rationalize
things but at the end of the day, our growth and development and consequently, our selves are
truly products of our interaction with external reality.
How much of you are essential? How much of who you are now a product of you society,
community, and family? Has your choice of school affected yourself now? Had you been born into
a different family and schooled in a different college, how much of who are you now would
change?

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What is the Self?
The self, in contemporary literature and even common sense, is commonly defined by the
following characteristics: “separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary, and private”
(Stevens 1996). By separate, it is meant that the self is distinct from other selves. The self is
always unique and has its own identity. One cannot be another person. Even twins are distinct
from each other. Second, self is also self-contained and independent because in itself it can exist.
Its distinctness allow as it to be self-contained with its own thoughts, characteristics, volition. It
does not require any other self for it to exist. It is consistent because it has a personality that is
enduring and therefore can be expected to persist for quite some time. Its consistency allows it to
be studied, described, and measured. Consistency also means that a particular self’s traits,
characteristics, tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same. Self is unitary in that it
is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run through a certain person. It is like the chief
command post in an individual where all processes, emotions, and thoughts converge. Finally,
the self is private. Each person sorts out information, feelings and emotions, and thought
processes within the self. This whole process is never accessible to anyone but e=the self.
This last characteristic of the self being private suggest that the self is isolated from the
external world. It lives within its own world. However, we also see that this potential clash between
the self and the external reality is the reason for the self to have a clear understanding of what is
might be, what it can be, and what it will be. From this perspective then, one can see that the self
is always at the mercy of external circumstances that bump and collide with it. It is ever-changing
and dynamic, allowing external influences to take part in its shaping. The concern then of this
lesson is in understanding the vibrant relationship between the self and external reality. This
perspective is known as the social constructionist perspective. “Social constructionists argue for
a merged view of ‘the person’ and ‘their social context’ where the boundaries of one cannot easily
be separated from the boundaries of the other” (Stevens 1996).
Social constructivists argue that the self should not be seen as a static entity that stays
constant through and through. Rather, the self has to be seen as something that is in unceasing
flux, in a constant struggle with external reality and is malleable in its dealings with society. The
self is always in participation with social life and its identity subjected to influences here and there.
Having these perspectives considered should draw one into concluding that the self is truly
multifaceted.
Consider a boy named Jon. Jon is a math professor at a Catholic university for more than
a decade now. Jon has a beautiful wife whom he met in college, Joan. Joan was Jon’s first and
last girlfriend. Apart from being a husband, Jon is also blessed with two doting kids, a son and a
daughter. He also sometimes serves in the church too as a lector and a commentator. As a man
of different roles, one can expect Jon to change and adjust his behaviors, ways, and even
language depending on his social situation. When Jon is in the university, he conducts himself in
a matter that befits his title as a professor. As a husband, Jon can be intimate and touchy. Joan
considers him sweet, something that his students will never conceive him to be. His kids fear him.
As a father, Jon can be stern. As a lector and commentator, on the other hand, his church mates
knew him as a guy who is clam, all-smiles, and always ready to lend a helping hand to anyone in
need. This short story is not new to most of us. We ourselves play different roles, act in different
ways depending on our circumstances. Are we being hypocritical in doing so? Are we even
conscious of our shifting selves? According to what we have so far, this is not only normal but it

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also is acceptable and expected. The self is capable of morphing and fitting itself into any
circumstances it finds itself in.
The Self and Culture
Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one’s context
seems paradoxical. However, the French Anthropologist Marcel Mauss has an
explanation for this phenomenon. According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne
and moi. Moi is a person’s basic identity. Personne, on the other hand, is composed of
the social concpets of what it means to be who he is. Personne has much to do with what
it means to live in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a
particular nationality, and how to behave given expectations and influences from others.
In the story above, Jon might have a moi but certainly, he has to shift personne
from time to time to adapt to his social situation. He knows who he is and more or less, he
is confident that he has a unified, coherent self. However, at some point, he has to sport
his stern professorial look. Another day, he has to be the doting but strict father that he is.
Inside his bedroom, he can play goofy with his wife, Joan. In all this and more, Jon retains
who he is, his being Jon – his moi – that part of him that is stable and static all throughout.
This dynamics and capacity for different personne can be illustrated better cross-
culturally. An overseas Filipino worker (OFW) adjusting to life in another country is a very
good case study. In the Philippines, many people unabashedly violate jaywalking rues. A
common Filipino treats rod, even national ones, as basically his and so he just merely
crosses whenever and wherever. When the same Filipino visits another country with strict
traffic rules, say Singapore, you will notice how suddenly law-abiding the said Filipino
becomes. A lot of Filipinos has anecdotally confirmed this observation.
The same malleability can be seen in how some men easily transform into sweet,
docile guys when trying to woe and court a particular women and suddenly just change
rapidly after hearing a sweet “yes.” This cannot be considered a conscious change on the
part of the guy, or on the part of the law-abiding Filipino in the first example. The self
simply morphed according to the circumstances and contexts.
In the Philippines, Filipinos tend to consider their territory as a part of who they are.
This includes considering their immediate surrounding as a part of them, thus the
perennial “tapat ko, linis ko.” Filipinos most probably do not consider national roads as
something external who they are. It is a part of them and they are a part of it, thus crossing
the road whenever and wherever becomes a no-brainer. I another country, however, the
Filipino recognizes that he is in a foreign territory where nothing technically belongs to
him. He has to follow the rules or else he will be apprehended.
Language is another interesting aspect of this social constructivism. The Filipino
language is incredibly interesting to talk about. The way by which we articulate our love is
denoted by the phrase, “Mahal kita.” This, of course, is the Filipino translation of “I love
you.” The Filipino brand of this articulation of love, unlike in English, does not specify the
subject and the object of love; there is no specification of who loves and who is loved.
There is simply a word for love, mahal, and pronoun kita, which is a second person
pronoun that refers to the speaker and the one being talked to. In the Filipino language,
unlike in English, there is no distinction between the lover and the beloved. They are one.

54
 Interesting too is the word, mahal. In Filipino, the word can man both “love” and
“expensive.” In our language, love is intimately bound with value, with being expensive,
being precious. Something expensive is valuable. Someone whom we love is valuable to
us. The Sanskrit origin of the word love is “lubh,” which means desire. Technically, love is
a desire. The Filipino word for it has another intonation apart from mere desire, valuable.
Another interesting facet of our language is its being gender-neutral. In English,
Spanish, and other languages, the distinction is clear between a third person male and
third person female pronoun. He and she; el and ella. In Filipino, it is plain, “siya.” There
is no specification of gender. Our languages does not specify between male and female.
We both call it “siya.”
In these varied examples, we have seen how language has something to do with
culture. It is a salient part of culture and ultimately, has a tremendous effect in our crafting
of the self. This might also be one of the reasons why cultural divide spells out differences
in how one regards oneself. In one research, it was found the North Americans are more
likely to attribute being unique to themselves and claim that they are better than most
people in doing what they love doing. Japanese people, on the other hand, have been
seen to display a degree of modesty. If one finds himself born and reared in a particular
culture, one definitely tries to fit in a particular mold. If a self is born into a particular society
or culture, the self will have to adjust according to its exposure.
The Self and the Development of the Social World
So how do people actively produce their social worlds? How do children growing
up become social beings? How can a boy turn out to just be like an ape? How do twins
coming out from the same mother turn out to be terribly different when given up for
adoption? More than his givenness (personality, tendencies, and propensities, among
others), one is believed to be in active participation in the shaping of the self. Most often,
we think the human persons are just passive actors in the whole process of shaping of
selves. That men and women are born with particularities that they can no longer change.
Recent studies, however, indicate that men and women in their growth and development
engage actively in the shaping of the self. The unending terrain of metamorphosis of the
self is mediated by language. “Language as both a publicly shared and privately utilized
symbol system is the site where the individual and the social make and remake each
other” (Schwartz, White, and Lutz 1993).
Mead and Vygotsky
For Mead and Vygotsky, the way that human person develop is with the use of
language acquisition and interaction with others. The way that we process information is
normally a form of an internal dialogue in our head. Those who deliberate about moral
dilemmas undergo this internal dialog. “Should I do this or that?” “But if I do this, it will be
like this.” “Don’t I want the other option?” And so cognitive and emotional development of
a child is always a mimicry of how it is done in the social world, in the external reality where
he is in.
Both Vygotsky and Mead treat the human mind as something that is made,
constituted through language as experienced in the external world and as encountered
in dialogs with others. A young child internalizes values, norms, practices, and social

55
beliefs and more through exposure to these dialogs that will eventually become part of his
individual world. For Mead, this takes place as a child assumes the “other” through
language and role-play. A child conceptualizes his notion of “self” through this. Can you
notice how little children are fond of playing role-play with their toys? How they make
scripts and dialogs for their toys as the play with them? According to Mead, it is through
this that a child delineates the “I” from the rest. Vygotsky, for his part, a child internalizes
real-life dialogs that he has had with others, with his family, his primary caregiver, or his
playmates. They apply this to their mental and practical problems along with the social
and cultural infusions brought about by the said dialogs. Can you notice how children
eventually become what they watch? How children can easily adapt ways of cartoon
character they are exposed to?
Self in Families
Apart from the anthropological and psychological basis for the relationship
between the self and the social world, the sociological likewise struggles to understand
the real connection between the two concepts. In doing so, sociologists focus on the
different institutions and powers at play in the society. Among these, the most prominent
is the family.
While every child is born with certain givenness, disposition coming from his
parents’ genes and general condition of life, the impact of one’s family is still deemed as
a given in understanding the self. The kind of family that we are born in, the resources
available to us (human, spiritual, economic), and the kind of development that we will have
will certainly affect us as we go through life. As a matter of evolutionary fact, human
persons are not one of those beings whose importance of family cannot be denied. Human
being are born virtually helpless and the dependency period of a human baby to its parents
for nurturing is relatively longer than most other animals. Learning therefore is critical in
our capacity to actualize our potential of becoming humans. In trying to achieve the goal
of becoming a fully realized human, a child enters a system of relationships, most
important of which is the family.
Human persons learn the ways of living and therefore their selfhood by being is a
family. It is what a family initiates a person to become that serves as the basis for the
person’s progress. Babies internalize ways and styles that they observe from their family,
babies learn the language. The same is true for ways of behaving. Notice how kids reared
in a respectful environment becomes respectful as well and the converse if raised in a
converse family. Internalizing behavior may either be conscious or unconscious. Table
manners or ways of speaking to elders are things that are possible to teach and therefore,
are consciously learned by kids. Some behaviors and attitudes, on the other hand, may
be indirectly taught through rewards and punishments. Others, such as sexual behavior
or how to confront emotions, are learned through subtle means, like the tone of the voice
or intonation of the models. It is then clear at this point that those who develop and
eventually grow to become adult who still did not learn simple matters like basic manners
of conduct failed in internalizing due to parental or familial failure to initiate them to the
world.
Without a family, biologically and sociologically, a person may not even survive or
become a human person. Go back to the Tarzan example. In more ways than one, the

56
 survival of Tarzan in the midst of the forest is already a miracle. His being a fully human
person with a sense of selfhood is different story though. The usual teleserye plot of kids
getting swapped in the hospital and getting reared by a different family gives an obvious
manifestation of the point being made in this section. One is who he is because of his
family for the most part.

Gender and the Self

Another important aspect of the self is gender. Gender is one of those loci of the
self that is subject to alteration, change, and development. We have seen in the past years
how people fought hard for the right to express, validate, and assert their gender
expression. Many conservatives may frown upon this and insist on the biological.
However, from the point-of-view of the social sciences and the self, it is important to give
one leeway to find, express, and live his identity. This forms part of selfhood that one
cannot just dismiss. One maneuvers into the society and identifies himself as who he is
by also taking note of gender identities. A wonderful anecdote about Leo Tolstoy’s wife
that can solidify this point is narrated below:
Sonia Tolstoy, the wife of the famous Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, wrote
when she was twenty-one, “I am nothing but a miserable crushed worm, whom no
one wants, whom no one loves, a useless creature with morning sickness, and a
big belly, two rotten teeth, and a bad temper, a battered sense of dignity, and a
love which nobody wants and which nearly drives me insane.” A few years later
she wrote, “It makes me laugh to read over this diary. It’s so full of contradictions,
and one would think that I was such an unhappy woman. Yet is there a happier
woman than I?” (Tolstoy 1975)
This account illustrates that our gender partly determines how we see ourselves in the
world. Oftentimes, society forces a particular identity unto us depending on our sex and/or gender/
In the Philippines, husbands for the most part are expected to provide for the family. The eldest
man in a family is expected to head the family and hold it in. Slight modifications have been on
the way due to feminism and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) activism but for the
most part, patriarchy has remained to be at work.
Nancy Chodorow, a feminist, argues that because mothers take the role of taking care of
children, there is a tendency for girls to imitate the same and reproduce the same kind of mentality
of women as care providers in the family. The way that little girls are given dolls instead of guns
or any other toys or are encouraged to play with makeshift kitchen also reinforces the notion of
what roles they should take and the selves they should develop. In boarding schools for girls, your
women are encouraged to act like fine ladies, are trained to behave in a fashion that befits their
status as women in society.
Men on the other hand, in the periphery of their own family, are taught early on how to
behave like a man. This normally includes holding in one’s emotion, being tough, fatalistic, not to
worry about danger, and admiration for hard physical labor. Masculinity is learned by integrating
a young boy in a society. In the Philippines, young boys had to undergo circumcision not just for
the original, clinical purpose of hygiene but also to assert their manliness in the society.
Circumcision plays another social role by initiating young boys into manhood.

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 The gendered self is then shaped within a particular context of time and space. The sense
of self that is being taught makes sure that an individual fits in a particular environment. This is
dangerous and detrimental in the goal of truly finding one’s self, self-determination, and growth of
the self. Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted and not dictated by culture and
the society.

Unfolding the Social Self

“No man is an island.”
This module focuses on the social aspects of the self. As social beings, individual interact
with others and relate themselves to other people. Social institutions and environments
significantly contribute to one’s identity and self-development. Among millennial learners,
technology and the internet have significantly influenced their social environments and,
consequently, their sense of self. In this module, the cultural, digital, and economic aspects of
one’s life and how they influence a person’s social self will be put to light. This module aims to
provide learners with a deeper understanding of themselves through a socio-cultural perspective.
Section 1
This section discusses the social and environmental factors that shape oneself. This
includes environmental systems, cultural orientations, and other social factors that play a crucial
role to one’s social self.
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end this section, students are expected to:
1. explain, elaborate, and give examples of ocial factors that shape the development of oneself;
2. create a conceptual diagram of how these social factors are intertwined and interactively
influence their sense of self; and
3. analyze and evaluate one’s social behaviors and identify ways to manage them effectively.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. Culture is important in the development of one’s social self.
2. People you do not know do not affect your social self.
3. One’s behavior is affected by the people around him or her.
4. Social institutions have an influence on people’s lives.
5. People don’t need other people to survive.
The Self and Its Social Agencies
Human development is largely influenced by membership in crucial social groups that
shape various aspects of the self; from belief systems, values orientation, and behaviors. An

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individual is born into a family and toward the end of his or her life, he or she is evaluated in the
context of his or her contribution to the society, the quality of his or her social relationships, and
how he or she has touched lives of people whom he or she has directly encountered.
At the beginning of life, one already belongs to a social group: his or her family. It is the
most pervading influential social group that impacts the self in its entire course of development.
The views one holds about the world, values upheld in making choices and decisions, and the
habits and persistent behavior one carries have been formed in the context of one’s family and
home environment. Parents are one’s first teachers; from a very early age, it is from them that
one creates initial impressions of the world beyond his or her home, and the first barometer in
determining which acts are good and rewarded and those that are unacceptable, for which one is
reprimanded and punished. As one’s family grows, his or her siblings become his or her first
friends and playmates. Relationships with siblings harness one’s socialization skills, particularly
in play moments and quarrels which help shape one’s conflict resolution skills that he or she can
carry throughout his or her life. These consistent family experiences are crucial in shaping of one’s
social self.
Next to family, schools and the general academic environment form a significant part of
the social self. Worldviews expand as one gets exposed to more people in different social learning
environments. Knowledge and social skills gained from mentors, relatives, and peers contribute
to how the social self is harnessed. The information gleaned from books, lectures of mentors, and
insights from classmates are assimilated and imbibed consequently in the inner recesses of the
self. One’s knowledge of the world is shaped by collaborative learning peers. Values of social
harmony, emotional sensitivity to the needs of other people, and behavior with regard to the
personal spaces of others in the environment are just some learning insights that are inculcated
in one’s social self. Roughly, about a third of people’s lives are spent as students in educational
institutions. The experiences an individual gains in an academic environment shape his or her
social self as he or she embarks on the next stages of development.
Aside from one’s family and school environments, communities also shape one’s social
self to a large extent. From an anthropological and sociological perspective, one’s cultural beliefs
and practices are influenced by what communities and societies dictate. Values such as respect
for the elderly, persistence and dedication for tasks, and love for one’s country are often the
products of communal settings one belongs to and societal expectations imposed on him or her.
Specific practices such as attending worship, avoiding conflict and strife with others, taking part
in rituals and ceremonies such as weddings, baptisms, and other religious activities, are
embedded in one’s social self as communities and the society have developed shared meanings
with regard to these milestones. Religion, politics, media, education, and the government are all
social institutions that directly impact one’s social self. The social self inevitable changes as one
accommodates and eventually assimilates beliefs promoted by the society as he or she thinks,
appreciates, and behaves according to standards set by micro and macrosystems.
Culture
According to Edward Taylor (1871), “culture is the complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as
a member of society.” Based on this definition, one can conclude that culture has a great impact
on a human being, and this is manifested in his or her thoughts, behaviors, and expression.
However, culture is highly relative; it varies in terms of geographical, traditional, and individual

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contexts. A dominant characteristic of culture is that it is socially transmitted and learned by
groups of people, bound by ethnicity, geography, and personal orientations.
To further understand the nature of culture and its influences on oneself, the following
models illustrate how culture and its influences on oneself, the following models illustrate how
culture functions in relation to one’s social self.
Bioecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1935) Bioecological systems of Development explains an
individual’s social development, using biological, environmental, and ecological lenses. The
theory explains the bidirectional influence of individual systems to each other and posits five
specific systems that shape an individual’s sense of self. These systems are as follows:
1. Microsystem. This system refers to the institutions and social groups that the individual
has direct contact and interaction with, including families, peers, schools, religious
institutions, and the immediate community.
2. Mesosystem. This system refers to the interconnections among aspects of the
microsystems affecting the individual. Pragmatic examples of this would include parent-
teacher associations (PTA), parent and peer connections, and community relations,
among others.
3. Exosystem. This system refers to the social setting that an individual has no direct
interaction with but nevertheless affects his or her development. An example of this could
be the work setting of one’s parents where a major company decision that results in the
loss of job of either parent will have a significant impact to the child.
4. Macrosystem. This system encompasses the larger cultural context in which the
individual resides in. A cultural context may include the socioeconomic status of his or her
country, issues of ethnicity, societal values embraced by social institutions, cultural beliefs
and practices handed down from generation to generation, and how all these affect an
individual’s behavior and opportunities in the society. An example of a macrosystem would
be the Phillippines as a third-world country where there is a notion that life can be better
when one works abroad. Acceptable values which are defined by the society that are
handed down from generation to generation is inexplicably imbibed by the individual.
5. Chronosystems. This system focuses on patterns of environmental events, including
sociohistorical events from a specific to a general context. For example, one’s graduation
from college would entail changes in his or her social self as he or she is expected to work
to help his or her family and contribute to the society. Social events which push forth active
citizenship also influences the social self in a very vital way.
The following diagram shows how all these systems go together and influence individual
development:

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 Individualism-Collectivism Model
Another model that highlights the impact of culture
to the self is the Individualism-Collectivism model
proposed by Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayawa
(1991). According to the model, individualism as an orientation focuses on one’s individual
attributes and personal distinctiveness. People who are individualistic are observed to be
competitive and self-reliant. They are likely to

be independent in achieving their personal interests rather than becoming dependent on a group.
On the other hand, the collectivist orientation values relationships and harmony. People who are
collectivistic prioritize interests to maintain healthy relationships. They are likely to be adaptive to
other people, and cooperative in group tasks.
The Philippine society is traditionally perceived to be a collectivist one because of the idea
that Asian nations adhere to a collectivist mindset. In the context of collectivism, collective
interests are prioritized over personal ones and the functionality of relationships is maintained
through practices that would benefit everyone. For example, choosing a career that would fulfill
the expectations of the entire family and being non-confrontational with thoughts and beliefs that
are opposed to what the group accepts are some aspects of collectivism. In the Philippine context,
practices like staying in one’s family home, attending mass or going to places of worship in groups
and even the inappropriate practice of sharing the achievements of others just because they are
a relative or even simply because they are also Filipinos showcase a collectivist mindset.
Veering away from tradition, the Filipinos are no longer tightly bound to strongly collectivist
practices. Due to the rise of globalization and the influence of different nations with individualistic
mindsets, the Filipino society also adapts perspectives leaning to the individualist orientation.
Many Filipinos strive to be independent and self-reliant, with goals matching one’s individual
needs. This is evident in behaviors that break away from the collectivist outlook: moving out of

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one’s parent’s house after graduation, choosing a career based on one’s personal inclinations,
and the like. Although these oppose the traditional mindset of always adhering to what others ask
of an individual, these behaviors show the capacity of an individual to think for himself or herself.
Notions of individualism and collectivism show how the self is directly influenced by the
society and its standards. Being part of social groups impacts one’s thoughts and values and also
affects one’s social behavior.
I vs. Me
One’s behavior when he or she is alone differs from his or her behavior when he or she is
with others. Different situations trigger particular behaviors because of differing social
expectations. In being alone, one does not need to keep up appearances, which is different when
there are others observing. This is what Herbert Mead (1934) posited in his theory of the social
self. He posited that the self is divided into two parts: the “I” which is known as the unsocialized
self, and the “Me” which is known as the “socialized” self.
According to Mead, the “I” is who an individual really is. It is one’s opinion of himself or
herself as a whole. The “I” is manifested when one acts naturally for his or her own motivations
and not because of others. On the other hand, the “Me” is the awareness of how others expect
one to behave. This is also known as the social self. This part of the self, according to Mead, is
the careful and the conscious. When you know that there are people staring at you, you are likely
to take note of what others would think about you, and thus adjust your behavior according to
what you think is acceptable to other. Based on Mead’s model, the state of the actual self is
achieved when the “I” and “Me” becomes congruent.
These different models present ideas on the process of the self’s social development. It is
important to note that culture plays an important role in one’s social development. Studying these
models helps in understanding oneself and other people. It is not ideal, however, to generalize a
certain culture based on these models. Individual differences should always be considered and
respect should always be fostered among one another.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

Activity 6
Answer the following questions cogently but honestly. Write your answers in the space provided.
1. How would you describe your-self?

2. What are the influences of family in your development as an individual?

3. Think of a time when you felt you were your “true self.” What made you think you were truly
who you are during this time of your life?

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4. Following the question above, can you provide a time when you felt you were not living your
“true self”? Why did you have to live a life like that? What did you do about it?

5. What social pressures help shape your-self? Would you have wanted it otherwise?

6. What aspects of your self do you think may be changed or you would like to change?

Instructions: Using the worksheet below, define what thoughts, beliefs, values, habits, and other
behavior (both positive and negative) you acquired by filling in the spaces in the table. You may
also use a separate sheet.
Group/Institution/ Beliefs/Values/Behavior Your BVB
Event (BVB)
1. 1. 1.
Microsystem 2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
1. 1. 1.
Mesosystem 2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
1. 1. 1.
Exosystem 2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
1. 1. 1.
Macrosystem 2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
1. 1. 1.
Chronosystem 2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.

Process Questions:
1. What beliefs, values, and behaviors do you consider to be helpful to your social self why?

2. What beliefs, values, and behaviors do you consider as detrimental to your social self why?

3. What new insights about your social self do you have at this point?

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 Lesson 4: Psychological Perspective of the Self

The Self as Cognitive Construct

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. identify the different ideas in psychology about the “self”
2. create your own definition of “self” based on the definitions from psychology; and
3. analyze the effects of various factors identified in psychology in the formation of the “self.”
INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the previous lessons, every field of study, at least in the social sciences,
have their own research, definition, and conceptualization of self and identity. Some are similar
while some specific only in their field. Each field also has thousands of research on self and
identity as well as related or synonymous terms. The trend of the lessons also seems to define
the concept of the “self” from a larger context (i.e., culture and society) down to the individual,
However, it must be pointed out the modern researches acknowledge the contribution of each
field and this is not some sort of nurture vs. nature, society/culture vs. individual/brain, and other
social sciences vs. psychology debate. Psychology may focus on the individual and the cognitive
functions, but it does not discount the context and other possible factors that affect the individual.
For students who take up psychology, discussions on theories, and development, among others
actually take at least one semester and there are still more to be learned about the concept of
“self.” This lesson provides an overview of the themes of psychology regarding the said concept.

Activity 7
“You” Through Others’ Eyes
This activity has two parts that try to compare how we look at ourselves against how
people perceive us depending on how we present ourselves to them. For the first part, list ten to
fifteen (10 – 15) qualities or things that you think define who you are around the human figure
representing you.

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 For the second part, in the space below, write “I am _______________ (your name). Who
do you think I am based on what you see me do or hear me say?” Pass your paper around for
two to three (2-3) minutes without looking who writes on it. As you fill out the paper of your
classmates, write briefly and only those that you observe about the person. Do not use any bad
words and do not write your name. After the allotted period, pass all the paper to your teacher
who will distribute them to the respective owners.

ANALYSIS
Compare to what you wrote about yourself to those written by your classmates. What
aspects are similar and which are not? What aspects are always true to you? What aspects are
sometimes true or circumstantial? What aspects do you think are not really part of your
personality? Write your answers below.

ABSTRACTION
In confidence or in an attempt to avoid further analytical discussions, a lot of people say,
“I am who I am.” Yet, this statement still begs the question “if you are who you are, then who are
you that makes you who you are?”
As mentioned earlier, there are various definitions of the “self” and other similar or
interchangeable concepts in psychology. Simply put, “self” is “the sense of personal identity and
of who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).”
William James (1890) was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and
conceptualized the self as having two aspects – the “I” and the “me”. The “I” is the thinking, acting,
and feeling self (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). The “me” on
the other hand, is the physical characteristics as well as psychological capabilities that makes
who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and Resiberg 2011; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). Carl Roger’s

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(1959) theory of personality also used the same terms, the “I” as the one who acts and decides
while the “me” is what you think or feel about yourself as an object (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg
2011).
Other concepts similar to self are identity and self-concept. Identity is composed of
personal characteristics, social roles, and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who
one is (Oyersman, Elmore, and Smith 2012). Self-concept is what basically comes to your mind
when you are asked about whou you are (Oyersman, Elmore, and Smith 2012).
Self, identity, and self-concept are not fixed in one time frame. For example, when you are
asked about who you are, you can say “I was a varsity player in 5th Grade” which pertains to the
past, “a college student” which may be the present, and “a future politician” which is the future.
They are not also fixed for life nor are they ever-changing at every moment. Think of malleable
metal, strong and hard but can be bent and molded in other shapes. Think about water. It can
takes any shape of the container, but at its core, it still the same element.
Carl Rogers captured this idea in his concept of self-schema or your organized system or
collection of knowledge about who we are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011; Jhangiani and
Tarry 2014). Imagine on organized list or a diagram similar to the one below:

The schema is not limited to the example above. It may also include your interests, work,
courage, age, name, and physical characteristics, among others. As you grow and adapt to the
changes around you, they also change. But they are not passive receivers, they actively shape
and affect how you see, think, and feel about things (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011;
Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).
For example, when someone states your first name even if they are not talking about you,
your attention is drawn to them. If you have a provincial language and you hear someone using
it, it catches your attention. If you consider yourself a book-lover, a bookstore may always entice
you out of all the other stores in a mall.
Theories generally see the self and identity as metal constructs, created and recreated in
memory (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012). Current researches point to the frontal lobe of the
brain as the specific area in the brain associated with the processes concerning the self
(Oyserman, Elmore, and Smth 2012).

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 Several psychologists, especially during the field’s earlier development, followed this trend
of thought, looking deeper into the mind of the person to theorize about the self, identity, self-
concept, and in turn, one’s personality. The most influential of them is Sigmund Freud. Basically,
Freud saw the self, its mental processes, and one’s behavior as the results of the interaction
between the Id, the Ego, and the Superego.
However, as mentioned earlier, one cannot fully discount the effects of society and culture
on the formation of the self, identity, and self-concept. Even as Freud and other theories and
researchers try to understand the person by digging deeper into the mid, they cannot fully discount
the huge and important effects of the environment. As in the abovementioned definitions of the
self, social interaction always has a part to play in who we think we are. This is not nature vs.
nurture but instead a nature-and nurture perspective.
Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, G. H. Mead (1934) argued that the self is
created and developed through human interaction (Hogg and Vaughan 2010). Basically, there
are three reasons why self and identity are social products (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith 2012):
1. We do not create ourselves out of nothing. Society helped in creating the foundations
of who we are and even if we make our choices, we will still operate in our social and
historical contexts in one way or the other. You may, of course, transfer from one culture
to another, but parts of you who were will still affect you and you will also have to adapt to
the new social context. Try looking at your definition of who you are and see where society
had affected you.
2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm are reinforce who
we think we are. We also need them as reference points about our identity. One interesting
example is the social media interactions we have. In the case of Facebook, there are those
who will consciously or unconsciously try to garner more “likes” and/or positive “reactions”
and that can and will reinforce their self-concept. It is almost like a battle between who got
more friends, more reviews, and trending topics. If one says he is a good singer but his
performance and the evaluation of his audience says otherwise, that will have an effect
on that person’s idea of himself, one way or another.
3. What we think is important to us may also have been influenced by what is important in
our social or historical context. Education might be an important thing to your self-concept
because you grew up in a family that valued education. Money might be important to some
because they may have grown in a low-income family and realized how important money
is in addressing certain needs like medical emergencies. Being a nurse or a lawyer can
be priority in your self-schema because it is the in-demand course during your time.
Social interaction and group affiliation, therefore, are vital factors in creating our self-
concept especially in the aspect of providing us with our social identity or our perception of who
we are based on our membership to certain groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). It is also inevitable
that we can have several social identities, that those identities can overlap, and that we
automatically play the roles as we interact with our groups. For example, you are a student who
is also part of a certain group of friends. You study because it is your role as a student but you
prefer to study with your friends and your study pattern changes when you are with your friends
than when you do it alone.

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 There are times, however, when we are aware of our self-concepts; this is called self-
awareness. Carver and Scheier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be aware of: (1)
the private self or your internal standards and private thoughts and feeling, and (2) the public self
or your public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others
(Hogg and Vaughan 2010).
Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema: the actual, ideal,
and ought self. The “actual” self is who you are at the moment, the “ideal” self is who you like to
be, and the “ought” self is who you think you should be (Higgins 1997 in Hogg and Vaughn 2010).
An example is that you are a student interested in basketball but is also academically challenged
in most of your subject. Your ideal self might be to practice more and play with the varsity team
but ought to pass your subjects as a responsible student. One has to find a solution to such
discrepancies to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative emotions. In some instances,
however, all three may be in line with one another.
Self-awareness may be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our next
course of action. Self- awareness can keep you from doing something dangerous; it can help
remind you that there is an exam tomorrow in one of your subjects when you are about to spend
time playing computer games with your cousins, among others. In other instances, self-
awareness can be too much that we are concerned about being observed and criticized by others,
also known as self0 consciousness (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). At other times, especially with
large crowds we may experience deindividuation or “the loss of individual self-awareness and
individual accountability in groups” (Festinger, Pepitone, and Newcomb 1952; Zimbardo 1969 in
Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). A lot of people will attune themselves with the emotions of their group
and because the large crowd also provides some kind of anonymity, we may lessen our self-
control and act in ways that we will not do when we are alone. A common example is a mass
demonstration erupting into a riot.
Our group identity and self-awareness also has a great impact on our self-esteem, one of
the common concepts associated with the “self.” It is defined as our own positive or negative
perception or evaluation of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg
2011).
One of the ways in which our social relationship affects our self-esteem is through social
comparison. According to the social comparison theory, we learn about ourselves, the
appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves
with other people (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Hogg and Vaughan 2010).
The downward social comparison is the more common type of comparing ourselves with
others. As the name implies, we create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those
who are worse off than us (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). By having the advantage, we can raise
our self-esteem. Another comparison is the upwards social comparison which is comparing
ourselves with those who are better off than us (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). While it can be a form
of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this actually felt lower self-esteem as they highlight
more of their weakness or inequities.
Take note that this occurs not only between individuals but also among groups. Thus, if a
person’s group is performing better and is acknowledge more than the other group, then his self-
esteem may also be heightened.

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 Social comparison also entails what is called self-evaluation maintenance theory, which
states that we can feel threatened when someone out-performs us, especially when that person
is close to us (i.e., a friend or family) (Tesser 1988 in Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). In this case, we
usually react in three ways. First, we distance ourselves from that person or redefine our
relationship with them (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).Some will resort to silent treatment, change of
friends, while some may also redefine by being closer to that person, hoping that some
association may give him a certain kind of acknowledgement also. Second, we may also
reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which you were outperformed (Jhangiani and
Tarry 2014).If you got beaten in a drawing competition, you might think that drawing is not really
for you and you will find a hobby where you could excel, thus preserving your self-esteem. Lastly,
we may also strengthen our resolve to improve that certain aspect of ourselves (Jhangiani and
Tarry 2014). Instead of quitting drawing, you might join seminars, practice more often, read books
about it, and add some elements in your drawing that makes it unique, among others. Achieving
your gal through hard work may increase your self-esteem, too.
However, in the attempt to increase or maintain self-esteem, some people become
narcissistic. Narcissism is a “trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and
self-centeredness” (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).They are often charismatic because of how they
take care of their image. Taking care of that image includes their interpersonal relationships thus
they will try to look for better partners, better acquaintances, as well as people who will appreciate
relationships only to serve themselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).
Sometimes, there is a thin line between high self-esteem and narcissism and there are a
lot of tests and measurements for self-esteem like the Rosenberg scale but the issue is that the
result can be affected by the desire of the person to portray herself in a positive or advantageous
way (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). In case you want to take a test and find a numerical value or
level of your self-esteem, try to be honest and objective about what you feel and see about
yourself. And though self-esteem is a very important concept related to the self, studies have
shown that it only has a correlation, not causality, to positive outputs and outlook (Jhangiani and
Tarry 2014). It can be argued that high or healthy self-esteem may result to an overall good
personality but it is not, and should not be, the only source of a person’s healthy perspective of
herself.
People with high self-esteem are commonly described as outgoing, adventurous, and
adaptable in a lot of situations. They also initiate activities and building relationship with people.
However, they may also dismiss other activities that do not conform to their self-concept or boost
their self-esteem. They may also be bullies and experiment on abusive behaviors with drugs,
alcohol, and sex (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).
This duality in the behavior and attitudes only proves the above-mentioned correlation.
Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) in their research on self-esteem concluded that programs,
activities, and parenting styles to boost self-esteem should only be for rewarding good behavior
and other achievements and not for the purpose of merely trying to make children feel better
about themselves or to appease then when they get angry or sad (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).

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APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT
Do a research and list ten (10) things to boost your self-esteem or improve your self-
concept. Cite your sources. Analyze which of those tips are more likely to backfire and make
someone conceited or narcissistic and revise them to make the statements both helpful to the
individual as well as society in general.

Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

Another extensive study of self can be found in the works of Dr. Viktor E. Frankl. The Victor
Frankl institute in Vienna was created in 1992. The Institute has a website where there is a
synopsis of his life and works and present programs (https://www.
Viktorfranlinstitute.org/About_Viktor_Frankl.html). The following are the excerpts from the
website:
The Psychiatrist
Dr. Viktor E. Frankl was born on March 26, 1905 in Vienna Austria, where famous
psychiatrists Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler lived. At a young age, he wrote a short paper to
Freud which was published after three years. Dr. Frankl graduated with a medical degree from
the University of Vienna in 1930. He was assigned in Vienna Hospital suicide ward and headed
the Rothschild Hospital, eight years later.
A survivor of the Holocaust, Dr. Frankl published a book about logotherapy. In 1959, the
book was translated to English and was revised in 1963 as The Doctor and the Soul: An
Introduction to Logotherapy. His book, Man’s Search for Meaning, has been used as a textbook
in highschool and college courses. Dr. Frankl died in 1997.
Logotheraphy
Logotherapy is a psychotherapy introduced by Dr. Viktor Frankl, who is considered the
Father of Logotherapy. The main belief of logotherapy is that “man’s primary motivational force is
search for meaning.” Logotherapy aids individuals to find personal meaning of life, whatever life
situation they may be.
In logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a deed,
experiencing something or encountering someone and the attitude toward unavoidable suffering.
According to the Victor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy (n.d.), it uses the philosophy of optimism
in the face of tradgedy, where people are capable of “turning suffering into human achievement
and accomplishment; deriving from guilt the opportunity to change oneself for the better; and
deriving from life’s transitoriness an incentive to take responsible action.”
Basic Concepts of Franklian Psychology
The Frankian Psychology has the basic concepts. These are the following:

• Life has meaning under all circumstances.

• Main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.
• Freedom to find meaning.

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 Furthermore, Franklian Psychology aims to: (1) become aware of spiritual resources, (2)
make conscious spiritual resources, and (3) use “defiant power of the human spirit” and stand up
against adversity.
Logotherapy Assumptions
All psychotherapies make philosophical assumptions about the human persons that
cannot be proved with certainty. Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy (n.d.) states the
assumptions of logotherapy, which include the following:
1. The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit. This first assumption
deals with the body (soma), mind (psyche), and spirit (noos). According to Frankl, the body
and mind are what we have and the spirit is what we are.
2. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable. Assumption two is
“ultimate meaning.” This is difficult to grasp but it is something everyone experiences and
it represents an order in a world with laws that go beyod human laws.
3. People have a will to meaning. The third assumption is seen as our main motivation
for living and acting. When we see meaning, we are ready for any type of suffering. This
is considered to be different than our will to achieve power and pleasure.
4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning.
Assumption four is that we are free to activate our will to find meaning, and this can be
done under any circumstances. This deals with change of attitudes about unavoidable
fate. Frankl was able to test the first four assumptions when he was confined in the
concentration camps.
5. Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be
meaningful. The fifth assumption, the meaning of the moment, is more practical in daily
living than ultimate meaning. Unlike unltimate meaning this meaning can be found and
fulfilled. This can be done by following the value of society or by following the voice of our
conscience.
6. The individual is unique. The sixth assumption deals with one’s sense of meaning. This
is enhanced by the realization that we are irreplaceable.
In essence, all humans are unique with an entity of body, mind, and spirit. We all go
through unique stations and are constantly looking to find meaning. We are free to do these at all
times in response to certain demands.
Frankl’s Sources of Meaning
Popova (2017) discussed Viktor Frankl’s work. There are three possible sources of the
meaning of life: purposeful work, courage in the face of difficulty, and love.
1. Purposeful Work. To find the meaning of life start with holding a future goal. Each
individual has each own future goal to achieve or a task to perform. That task or goal to
fulfill becomes the meaning of their life. Therefore, meaning of life is unique to every
individual.

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 2. Courage in the Face of Difficulty. A meaningful life is a life with suffering. Suffering is
inevitable part of life. To find meaning of life is to recognize suffering, pain, and death as
part of life and to have the courage to face these life difficulties.
3. Love. Popova (2017) quoted Dr. Frankl’s notes about his experience in the Nazi Camp:
“For hours I stood hacking at the icy ground. The guard passed by, insulting me, and once
again I communed with my beloved. More and more I felt that she was present, that she
was there. Then, at that very moment, a bird flew down silently and perched just in front
of me, on the heap of soil which I had dug up from the ditch, and looked steadily at me.”
Dr. Frankl’s wife, parents, and some relatives were victims of gas chambers. His love for
his wife kept him fight for his life. Popova (2017) also quoted Dr. Frankl’s definition of love: “Love
is the only way to grasp another human being in the innermost core of his personality. No one
can become fully aware of the essence of another human being unless he loves him. By his love,
he is enabled to see the essential traits and features in the beloved person; and even more, he
sees that which is potential in him… Furthermore, by his love, the loving person enables the
beloved person to actualize these potentialities. By making him aware of what he can be and of
what he should become, he makes these potentialities come true.”
Costello (2015) captured Viktor Frankl’s message: “The ultimate secret on the spiritual
foundation of life is that love is salvation and joy eternity.” The ultimate factor to find the meaning
of life is love.
APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT (optional)
1. Video Clip. Make a video clip with reflection on any of the following topics:
a. Filipino rituals and ceremonies covering all regions of the Philippines
b. Filipino indigenous religious practices featuring five tribes from Luzon, Visayas, or
Mindanao
c. Modern day expression of spiritual being
Make sure to showcase the origin, meaning of each ritual and ceremony, and your
personal reflection.
2. Documentary. Make a documentary about a World War II Filipino survivor. Feature the
following:

• Life story during war

• How he/she survived the war
• Description of his/her meaning of life
• Compare to Viktor Frankl’s sources of meaning
• Test logotherapy assumptions
3. Reflection Paper. Reflect on Viktor Frankl’s sources of the meaning of life.

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 Psychological Perspective of the self

Dr. Viktor E. Frankl

a. Prisoner in Nazi concentration camps at Auschwitz and Dachau (1942-1945)
b. Parents, brother, wife, and children died in the camps
c. Logotheraphy-existential approach to psychological practice
d. Rejects the deterministic view of human nature (not fatalistic)

Man’s Primary Motivational Force is Search for Meaning

Basic Concepts in Psychology
a. LIFE HAS MEANING UNDER ALL CIRCUMSTANCES
b. MAIN MOTIVATION FOR LIVING IS OUR WILL TO FIND MEANING OF LIFE
c. FREEDOM TO FIND MEANING
References (Personal Reading and Reflection)

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 - Logotheraphy Assumptions
- Frankl’s Sources of Meaning
MINDSET
a. To Find meaning = Future Goal
b. Meaningful Life = Courage in the face of difficulty
c. Love = Keeps you fight
According to Costelo 2015
a) THE ULTIMATE SECRET ON THE SPIRITUAL FOUNDATION OF LIFE IS THAT LOVE
IS SALVATION AND JOY ETERNITY = ULTIMATE FACTOR TO FIND MEANING OF
LIFE = LOVE

Unfolding the Mental Self

This module focuses on the intellectual aspects of the self. As intelligent beings, human
strive and successfully cope with the demand of the environment across time. People’s intellectual
abilities mark the superiority of humans over other animals in the planet. Thus, a thorough
understanding of this gift to humanity warrants serious attention. This module also covers
discussions on how human beings learn, and how learning abilities develop one’s being.
Section 1: Cognition, Memory, and Intelligence
This section discusses the nature of cognition and metacognition, its underlying
mechanisms, and how it contributes to one’s sense. This further tackles the mechanism of human
memory and the different types of human intelligences.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. explain and elaborate concepts and processes on cognition, memory, and intelligence
2. analyze and demonstrate how cognition, memory, and intelligence are manifested in various
aspects of their life; and
3. identify the principle of cognition, memory, and intelligence present in their own lives.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. Everything one learns becomes permanently stored in his or her memory.
2. People have an innate capacity to analyze information.
3. Personal and environmental factors influence the way people think.
4. Intelligence is manifested in a variety of ways.
5. Intelligence is acquired only in schools.

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Cognition
People are born with innate capabilities that empower them to manage themselves in
various settings and situations. As an individual is born, his or her reactions and reflexes that are
developmental milestones are dependent on the individual’s senses. As one grows older, he or
she begins to observe the environment, analyze information, make choices, and behave
appropriately according to what the situation warrants. From a sensory-based acquisition of
knowledge, one is led to a more logical and abstract manner of thinking as an individual grows
older, evidenced by more complex tasks and challenges that one is faced with as he or she
matures. Even school tasks correspond to the mental level that students are expected to be on.
From the simple counting of numbers and basic mathematical operations, students in senior high
school and college are expected to successfully hurdle through complicated math problems in
algebra, trigonometry, geometry, and the like because of the intellectual competency level these
students are expected to have compared to when they were in grade school. High school and
college students are expected to write compositions, research studies, and other literature that
require the use of more advanced mental mechanisms than what was expected from them when
they were just learning to write and read. From these examples, it is observed that one’s mental
capacity is evolving in a progressive, sequential manner which is anchored on an individual’s
biological development.
Cognition is a crucial part of an individual’s development process which influences
behavior, just as how behavior also impacts it, assuming a bi-directional connection. The way
information is taken in and how it is analyzed and processed is a function of human cognition.
Cognition is defined as the complex array of mental processes involved in remembering,
perceiving, thinking, and how these processes are employed (Ashcraft & Radvansky, 2010). It is
an umbrella term to cover all “higher-order” thinking processes. Even something as simple as
slicing a piece of cake, drinking a glass of water, reading a book, and taking down notes involve
a number of thinking mechanism. When one is presented with options, he or she analyzes which
among them is the best choice, pursue it, and anticipate the consequences that come along with.
The study of how individuals think and arrive at choices and decisions is relevant across several
points of human development. When one is able to understand how he or she and other people
think, he or she achieves greater understanding of himself or herself and of others.
In the past, people were thought to behave according to how they were conditioned. For
instance, a child states he intends to become a doctor because he was conditioned by his parents
to pursue this profession. An adolescent smokes because of peer pressure. From a behaviorist
perspective, behavior manifested is predisposed by the environment. However, people are not
robots; they are not machines that can be manipulated by different factors of the environment.
People are capable of reasoning to manage their behavior. An individual is his or her own agent
of behavior and change. People may be placed in certain environments, exposed to the same
people constantly, and drilled consistently with facts and habits but people have a choice in
dealing with all these factors. One is able to make mental representations of what is present
around him or her, select which are the most viable options available, and then act on them.
People are overtly and covertly active individuals, constantly moving and constantly processing
information coming from the environment.

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Memory
If cognition covers all higher-order thinking processes within an individual, a major focus
of its study is the function of memory. It is the faculty of the mind through which information is
acquired and retained for later use. Memory is often likened to a computer system, where the
processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information happen continuously. These processes
are employed in daily life. When one learns something new and one sees it as something that will
be useful, this information is stored in one’s memory that can be accessed when the information
is needed again. Just like a computer, human memory is limited within specific conditions; people
select information to be restrained and discard those that are deemed irrelevant and useless.
Memory can also be corrupted by various factors, both internal and external to an individual.
Memory functions in three levels: sensory, short-term or working, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory is a level that allows information from the external environment to be perceive
by an individual through senses, usually in the form of chemical and physical stimuli, often with
focus and intent. In sensory memory, information can be grasped even at a split second. However,
not all stimuli are perceived by sensory memory; the mind can only accommodate sensory
information that will be useful which is then transferred to one’s short-term memory. When
information is deemed to be useful for the immediate future, it is then transferred to the shirt-term
or working level of memory. Attention is a critical factor of the transfer of information from sensory
to short-term memory.
Short-term or working memory is where information is temporarily stored, where
information is simultaneously remembered and is in readily-available state, typically from 10 to 15
seconds up to one minute. Short-term memory can store up to 5-9 items, after which information
is discarded if there is no conscious and deliberate effort to retain it. For example, in reading, one
tends to hold on the first statement while reading the next set of statements. When the reader
proceeds to the next paragraph, information from the first statement often decays, unless it is
transferred to one’s lone-term memory. Crossing the streets, for instance, require one to take note
of his or her surroundings and determine when it is safe to cross. This illustrates short-term
memory at work to process information to avoid getting run over. Short-term memory often
absorbs cues that enable the brain to process readily unavailable information.
When there is a deliberate effort to store information and it is done consistently and with
practice, then this information is transferred to long-term memory. Information stored in long
term memory is often permanent and allows for repeated retrievals across situations. Learning
basic mathematical operations which are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, require
rehearsal and practice because these ere procedures commonly applied in daily life and are
useful for a long time. When useful and interesting information is gained, it can lead one to read
on related literature that enhances the presence of that information in one’s mind. Long-term
memory, unlike sensory and short-term memory, is where information can be held indefinitely.
The transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory can be pushed by having the
motivation recall and retrieve information for a particular situation. If information in one’s short-
term memory is enhanced by previously stored information, then it will be transferred to long-term
memory. Long-term memory covers both explicit and implicit memory, declarative and procedural
memory, and episodic and semantic memory. Thus, the amount of information that can be stored
in this level is limitless and immeasurable.

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Intelligence
Intelligence is defined in a number of ways. The term is referred to as an individual’s
capacity for understanding, learning, planning, and problem solving with logic, creativity, and self-
awareness. It is characterized as the application of knowledge to be able to adjust to the
environment. It is the process of applying knowledge in the proper context whenever the need
arises. Intelligence is often thought of as hereditary rather than environmental. Two things innate
intellectual ability that is harnessed in various contexts; and intelligence is not confined in the
academic context. Intelligence is a critical construct that showcase the presence of individual
differences based on intellect.
A number of theories have already been presented regarding intelligence. Howard
Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences proposes eight (8) areas of human intelligence:
Intelligence Description
Verbal-linguistic Ability to analyze information and produce output that involves oral and
written language
Logical-mathematical Ability to understand and answer mathematical equations
Visual-spatial Ability to analyze graphical information
Musical Ability to produce and make meaning of different types of sound
Naturalistic Ability to identify and distinguish aspects of the natural world
Bodily-kinesthetic Ability to use one’s body to create products or solve problems
Interpersonal Ability to be sensitive of other people’s thought and emotions
Intrapersonal Ability for self-introspection

Aside from Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory, another theory is proposed by Robert
Sternberg called the Triarchic theory of intelligence. According to Sternberg (1985, p.45),
intelligence is defined as “a mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and
shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life.”
Sternberg proposed three aspects of intelligence: componential, experiential, and
contextual:
Intelligence Alternative Name Description
Componential Analytical Includes abstract thinking and logical
reasoning; verbal and mathematical skills
Experiential Creative Divergent thinking and ability to deal with
novel situations
Contextual Practical Being “street smart,” ability to apply
knowledge to the real world and shape or
choose an environment

According to this theory, intelligence is a function of how these three aspects are
interchangeably used by the individual and up to what levels they are used. Both the theory of
multiple intelligences and the triarchic theory of intelligence explain the nature of intelligence, and
the personal and environmental factors that shape it.

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Assessement (optional)
Instructions: Read the articles referenced and answer the items that follow.
1. Ashcraft, M. H., & Radvansky, G. A. (2010). Cognition (5th ed.). 178 – 181. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
2. Mastin, L. (2010). Types of memory. Retrieved May 2017 from http://www.human-
memory.net/types.html
3. Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational
implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Research, 18(8), 4 – 10.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X018008004
1. List down three things that you significantly learned from the readings.
2. List down three things that are still unclear to you.
3. List down three questions that you want to ask about the readings.

Unfolding the Emotional Self

Human Emotions
An important aspect of understanding the self is acknowledging the presence of emotions.
Emotions serve as a driving force in how one acts and behaves. Emotions play a part in making
decisions, embracing certain lifestyles, and relating to others. However, while emotions can be
immediately recognized, there is difficulty in defining them and for some people, there is also
difficulty in controlling them. However, this is not to say that emotions rule over one’s rationality
and become the sole basis of his or her decisions. An important point to remember is that every
individual is expected to have the capacity to manage his or her emotions.
Emotions are the lower level responses occurring in the brain, which create biochemical
reactions in the body, and consequently cause changers in one’s physical state (Hampton, 2015).
Thus, emotions serve a critical survival function in making one aware of threats coming from the
environment that may affect his or her inner consciousness.
There is a distinction between emotions and feelings despite both being interchangeably
used and discusses in various contexts. While emotions is a biological experience and response,
feelings have been defined as the mental portrayal of what is going on in your bode when you
have an emotion and is the by-product of your brain perceiving and assigning meaning to the
emotion (Hampton, 2015). In other words, feelings are subjective experiences that frame the
interpretation of emotion. Emotions are physiological; feelings are subjective since they are based
on personal beliefs and experiences. In making a particular decision, aside from using logic and
reason in deliberating about a choice, we ask ourselves “how do I feel about making this decision?
Does it feel good? Does it feel right?” Therefore, in managing emotions, one is actually managing
his or her feeling because he or she is the one “assigning” what the emotion means to him or her.
Despite this distinction, researchers have used the term emotional intelligence to denote the
interpretation and management of emotional experiences.

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Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence has been defined by a number of theories. For Bar-On (1997, p.
14), it is “an array of non-cognitive abilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability
to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.” According to Mayer, Salovey,
and Caruso (2004), it is one’s ability to understand emotion and for them to contribute in how one
perceives the environment he or she is in. Emotional intelligence includes one’s capacity to
regulate emotions and be emotionally aware which is helpful on one’s emotional and intellectual
growth. For Goleman (1998, p. 317), it is the “capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those
of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions effectively in ourselves and
others.” Emotional intelligence is an aggregate result of both innate individual characteristics and
skills people acquire and develop throughout their lifetime.
What do these definitions imply about emotions? First, emotions exist alongside cognition.
The brain produces the physiological component of emotions and the mind interprets it. Cognition
is used to be aware of one’s feelings and others too. Thus, the two are not and should not be
studied separately because one cannot exist without the other. Emotions, just like any other
information one encounters are also processed by the senses. Emotions can be managed and
regulated and they can be identified so that they are used within the right context. Managing
emotions is an ability and an ability is something that is learned. In regulating emotions, the
capacity to be sensitive of one’s emotions and those of others is also developed for self-
understanding and maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships. Lastly, emotional intelligence
is a requirement for one’s overall well-being and hence, can translate to effective functioning in
all aspects of one’s life.
Emotional intelligence with its specific components has been outlined by three models to
explain its importance. The first model has outlined by four branches: emotional perception and
expression, emotional facilitation as aids to make sound judgment, emotional understanding and
analysis and reflective emotional regulation (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). Goleman (2005)
came up with his own clusters of emotional intelligence, namely self-awareness, self-
management, social awareness, and relationship management. Bar-On’s model (1997) is made
up of five (5) composites: self-perception, self-expression, interpersonal, decision-making, and
stress management. These three models seem to underlie two general aspects of emotional
intelligence intrapersonal and interpersonal.
Research has supported the positive impact of emotional intelligence in a variety of
settings. It has been seen to have positive effects on thinking abilities during anxiety-provoking
testing conditions and enable students to obtain good scores. It is also negatively correlated to
aggressive and delinquent behaviors; students who have been assessed to have high emotional
intelligence have good social relationships with their peers and teachers and are unlikely to break
rules. People with high emotional intelligence manifest high social competence in dealing with
different kinds of people. In the workplace, emotional intelligence, EQ, is said to be more important
than IQ. Employees with emotional intelligence achieve corporate success and exhibit flexibility
skills in dealing with superiors, colleagues, and subordinates. Such employees also have high
organizational commitment since they pledge to commit to the goals and advocacy of their
companies. They are also seen to be effective leaders and agents of change. Emotional
intelligence also influences well-being and life satisfaction. Emotionally intelligent people are not
likely to develop depression and anxiety, hence effectively coping with problems and other
challenges since they are able to manage their emotions.

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 The results of various research have highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence
for all individuals. The application of emotional intelligence can be seen in different aspects of
daily life. At home, emotions are managed in dealing with family members and at school, emotions
are regulated in socializing with classmates and teachers as well as motivating one’s self in
fulfilling his or her academic tasks. Effectively regulating emotions also has a positive effect on
one’s career goals as emotional intelligence is a crucial criteria companies and organizations
consider in assessing employment suitability. Emotional intelligence research has also produced
a number of self-reports and assessment tools to measure EQ levels in specific individuals.
(Brawner p.32-37)
Emotional Self: Achieving My Emotional Competencies
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. discuss the nature and kinds of emotions;
2. identify the physiological reactions to emotions;
3. enumerate ways of controlling and managing emotions; and
4. explain the primary emotional responses of the self to achieve emotional maturity.

Reason:
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Activity: Film Showing (optional)
Watch the film titled “Inside Out” produced by Pixar Animation Studios. Then answer the following
questions.
1. Describe each human character in the story.
2. How do the characters show their positive and negative feelings?
3. What feelings are dominant in the characters?
4. Which characters attempt to block the expression of particular feelings? How do they do so?
Do you find yourself blocking feelings consistently?

Fundamentals of Emotion
Based on Plutchik’s (1980) configuration of emotion, there are eight fundamental
emotions, namely joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and anticipation.

Plutchik’s wheel of emotion demonstrates how emotions are related to one another (Figure
3). Emotions adjacent to one another in the wheel are closely related and can be combined. The
combinations can be found on the outer part of the wheel; for instance, love is the combination of
joy and trust. Meanwhile, emotions across each other are conceptual opposites. For example,
sadness is the opposite of joy, and anticipation is the opposite of surprise. The eight fundamental
emotions also come in a variety of intensities. Those nearest to the center signify the most intense
forms of while those farthest from the center signify the most intense forms of while those farthest
from the center are the weaker forms.

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Emotion Management Strategies
In any social interaction, feelings may arise. These emotions may be positive or negative
and may affect relationships as well. Thus, people should always keep their emotions in check to
avoid misunderstanding and miscommunication.
What are the best strategies for managing emotions? How can you avoid outbursts and
negative feelings towards others? Langley (2012) lays out some tips on managing emotions:
1. Smile to make yourself feel good. Face the mirror and smile. After some time, your
mood will be better and you might even laugh naturally. Do it for at least 30 seconds.
2. Smile to make others feel good. Smiling opens up your connection with others. It also
leads to experiencing empathy.
3. Get up and move. Exercise activates happy hormones that include endorphin,
dopamine, and serotonin, among others. Movement is also important for the lymphatic
system to get toxins your of your body. Get up from your desk and jump and bounce
regularly.
4. Check in with your body. Scan your body by feeling the tensions building up. Learn to
relate these tensions with the emotion you feel to understand how your feelings affect your
physiology.
5. Physically remove the tension. If you feel tense in your arms, shake them. Likewise, if
there is tension in your chest, stretch and breathe deeply.
6. Breathe. Perform diaphragmatic or deep breathing by contracting your diaphragm. Let
your lower lungs fill with oxygen to pass around your body and brain. You will feel a tingly
sensation and your belly will expand. Do this exercise for at least 60 seconds. The body
cannot sustain anger when you are breathing deeply.
7. Talk to someone. It is healthier to vent your anger and frustrations to a friend rather
than to suppress them. Express your feelings so you can start to resolve the situation.
8. Disengage and re-engage emotions. Learn to park your emotions to deal with at a later
time, but do not avoid them. You must acknowledge your feelings then utilize your
emotional intelligence to improve them.
9. Label your emotions. After acknowledging your emotions, label them. This activity
reduces the intensity of your emotions. The part of the brain that feels the emotion is the
same part that names it.
10. Label emotions for other. You can often defuse a tense situation by acknowledging
the feelings for others. When you ask, “I sense that you are angry. Can you tell me how
you feel?” the other person will be encouraged to consider and label his/her emotion as
well. He/She may respond with “Yes, I feel angry,” or “No, I am not angry; I am annoyed.”

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Activity 8A: Managing Emotions
The following are questions that will help you see how well you manage your emotions. Write your
honest answers on the space provided:
1. Cite at least three experiences that were brought about by your feelings of anger, grief, love,
jealousy, guilt, or fear.
2. How did you overcome these difficult experiences?
3. Do you agree that love, despite being a positive emotion, can also cause problems? Describe
an experience which can justify your answer.
Summary
This module examined how emotions are related to each other. It also taught you how to
manage your emotions especially when you interact with other people. It argued as well that
suppression of feelings is not helpful as it builds up tension in your physical body. Thus, you must
always recognize and acknowledge your emotions as well as release them in a way that will not
hurt others.

Activity 8B
Instructions: This existence is designed to help you become aware of how emotions are dealt
with, on a personal level. For each emotion, write what you do when you experience the emotion
listed. Include both productive and destructive behavior. Write as many as you can. You may use
a separate sheet.

Emotion Productive Behavior/s Destructive Behavior/s

Happy

Sad

Excited

Afraid

Inspired

Angry

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Instructions: After writing down your answers, answer the following questions:
1. Among the behaviors you listed, did you write down more productive or destructive behaviors?
2. Identify the emotion where you had more productive behaviors. Which emotion did you have
more destructive behaviors?
3. Are you more likely to have positive emotions or negative emotions? Explain your answer.
4. How do your emotions influence your sense of self?
Instructions: This exercise is designed to help you become aware of how you manage your
emotions and feelings when working with others. For each row, put a ✓ mark on the box that best
describes your preference and behavior when working in a group. Choose only one option (1) per
row.

A G P D
❑ I want to start ❑ I want to know first ❑ I want to know how ❑ I want to know all
working on any task the goal of the task others feel about the the specific details of
immediately. before working on it. task before working the task before
on it. working on it.
❑ When I am asked ❑ Before working on ❑ I consider the ❑ I will not start work
to do something, I do a task, I want to know mood of my group until I get all the
it without hesitation. its purpose first mates prior to starting details I need about
work. the task.
❑ I don’t ❑ Someone should ❑ I should know the ❑ All the details of the
procrastinate on any tell me why I need to general sentiment of task should be
task; I start working do this task before my group members presented to me first
on it promptly. working on it. about the task before before I begin
I can start working. working.
❑ As soon as ❑ I need to ❑ I feel comfortable ❑ I will not work on a
instructions are given understand why I will doing the task if I task if all the facts are
to me, I start working do the task before I know the others enjoy not presented to me
on it right away. start. doing it also. first.
❑ I should start ❑ I should know the ❑ I have to make sure ❑ I need specific
working on the task rationale behind the everyone is okay with information about the
as soon as it is give. task before I start the task before I start task prior to working
working on it. it. on it.
After putting a ✓ mark on your preferred box, tally your responses per letter and identify
your dominant tendency. Put the total in the table below:
A
G
P
D
What do the letters mean?
A – you are in action person. You want to plunge immediately into the work and ask
questions as you work through the task.
G – you are a goal-directed person. You want to get the over-all picture and the benefits
you are getting from working on the task.

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 P – you are a people-person. You value relationships, ensure everyone has a say in the
task and that they feel comfortable before working on it.
D – you are a detailed person. You want to know all the information, including the
specifics, before working on any task.
Instruction: After identifying your dominant tendencies, look for 3 other persons who have the
same tendency as you do and answer the following questions:
1. What do you think are the strengths of your dominant tendency? Use three or four adjectives.
2. What are the limitations of your dominant tendency? Use three or four adjectives.
3. What other tendency do you think you will have difficulty working with? With?
4. What other tendency do you think you can work with best? Why?

Lesson 5: The Physical Self

The Physical and Sexual Self
Videos (Clips 1 & 2)
Short Activity (self-reflection ONLY)

• For me, BEAUTY means?

• A beautiful person is?
• I am beautiful because?
• List down names of people you know who are beautiful
PHYSICAL SELF
a. According to Marieb 2001 Tesdtis and ovary begin to form from 8 th week of the embryonic
development
b. Inner Selves – Gonads – Reproductive Glands
c. Outer Selves – External Genitalia
Gonads – reproductive glands that produce the gametes; testis or ovary
Puberty – is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old, when the
reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising
levels of gonadal hormones (testosterones in males and estrogen in females).

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DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
a. Infections – are the most common problems associated with the reproductive systems
in adults
b. Vaginal infections – are most common in young and early women and in those whose
resistance to diseases is low
c. Sexually transmitted microorganisms – Syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes virus, and yeast
(a type of fungus)
MALES MOST COMMON INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS
a. Prostatitis
b. Urethritis
c. Epididymitis
d. STD – Sexually Transmitted Disease
e. Orchiditis – inflammation of the testes, is rather uncommon but is serious because it
can cause sterility
f. Neoplasms – are a major threat to reproductive organs
g. Tumors of the breast and cervix – are the most common reproductive cancers in adult
females
h. Prostate cancer – is a widespread problem in adult males

SEXUAL SELF
EROGENOUS ZONES
a. Refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual arousal
when touched in sexual manner
b. Commonly erogenous zones: mouth, breast, genitals, anus, neck, thighs, abdomen,
and feet
WHY?
Inherited sexual response pattern that evolve as a means of ensuring reproductive, and
influence exerted by society in expression of sexuality
HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

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 a. Defined as any activity – solitary, between two persons, or in group – that induces sexual
arousal
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR (GEBHARD 2017)
1) Solitary Behavior – involves one person/individual
Self- Gratification

• Means self – stimulation that leads to sexual arousal and generally, sexual climax.
• Takes place in private as an end in itself, but can also be done in a sociosexual
relationship
• It is very common among young males, but becomes less frequent or is abandoned
when sociosexual activity is available

2) Sociosexual Behavior
a. Generally divided into heterosexual behavior (male with female) and homosexual
behaviour (male with male or female with female).
b. If three or more individuals are involved, it is, possible to have heterosexual and
homosexual activity simultaneously.
HETEROSEXUAl BEHAVIOR
a. The greatest amount of sociosexual behavior that occurs between only one male and one
female.
b. It usually begins in childhood and may be motivated by curiosity, such as showing or
examining genitalia
PETTING
a. It differs from hugging, kissing, and generalized caresses of the clothed body to practice
involving stimulation of the genitals
b. It may be done as an expression of affection and a source of pleasure, preliminary to
coitus
c. It has been regarded by others as a near – universal human experience and is important
not only in selecting the partner but as a way of learning how to interact with another
person sexually
COITUS
a. The insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive organ.
b. It is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the marital status of the individuals
PREMARITAL COITUS
a. It is more likely to be tolerated in Western society but not encouraged if the individuals
intend marriage.
MARITAL COITUS

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 a. It is considered as an obligation in most societies.
b. The Roman Catholic belief is that when a man and woman connect to each other in a
sexual way, it is the most intimate physical expression of their total union. For this reason,
the Roman Catholic Church teaches in Familiaris consortio that this union is sacred and
is a key element in marria
A Muslim woman, on the other hand, is only allowed to marry a Muslim man because to marry a
non-Muslim man would mean that the children would grow up as non-Muslims. ... Most forms
of sexualcontact within a marriage are allowed. Sex is considered a pleasurable, even spiritual
activity, and a duty
EXTRAMARITAL COITUS
a. Involving wives is generally condemned and is allowed only under exceptional conditions
or with specific persons.
POSTMARITAL COITUS
a. i.e., coitus by separated, divorced or widowed persons
b. It is almost always ignored
EROTIC
a. Capable of engendering sexual response
PHASES OF SEXUAL RESPONSE
1. EXCITEMENT PHASE
a. It is caused by increase in pulse and blood pressure.
b. The symptoms of arousal eventually increase to a near maximal physiological
(normal function of the body) level that leads to the next stage
2. PLATEAU PHASE
a. It is generally of brief duration. If stimulation if continued, orgasm usually occurs.
3. SEXUAL CLIMAX
a. It is marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in pulse rate
and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contradiction of the
female reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male.
b. It is also characterized by involuntary vocalizations.
c. It may last for a few seconds (normally not over ten), after which the individual
enters the resolution phase.
4. RESOLUTION PHASE
a. It is the last stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal physiologic
state.
NERVOUS SYSTEM FACTORS
a. Autonomic system – is involved in controlling the involuntary responses.
b. The brain will interpret the sensory message and dictate what will be the immediate and
appropriate response of the body.

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 c. After interpretation and integration of sensory input, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves
receive commands from the brain and send them to the muscles.
d. The spinal cord serves as a great transmission cable.
e. The muscles contract in the response to the signal coming from the motor nerve fibers
while glands secrete their reproductive products.
f. The hypothalamus and the limbic system are the parts of the brain believed to be
responsible for regulating the sexual response, but there is no specialized “sex center”
that has been located in the human brain.
g. Sex hormones can intensify the mounting behavior of individuals.
REFLEX SEXUAL RESPONSE
a. This reflex is mediated by the lower spinal cord and leads to erection and ejaculation for
male, vaginal discharges and lubrication for female when the genital and perineal areas
are stimulated.
SEXUAL PROBLEMS
a. Physiological
b. Psychological
c. Social in origin
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEM
a. Only a small number of people suffer from diseases that are due to abnormal development
of the genitalia or that part of the neurophysiology controlling sexual response
COMMON PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
a. Vaginal infection
b. Retroverted uteri
c. Prostatitis
d. Adrenal tumors
e. Diabetes
f. Senile changes of the vagina
g. Cardiovascular problem
PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEM
a. It is usually caused by socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance, and
sexual myths held by society.
PREMATURE EMISSION OF SEMEN
a. A common problem especially for young males.

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 b. This is not the consequence of any psychological problem but the natural result of
excessive tension in a male who has been sexually deprived.
ERECTILE IMPOTENCE
a. It is almost always of psychological origin in males under 40; in older males, physical
causes are more often involved.
b. It may be the result of disinterest in the sexual partner, fatigue, and distraction because of
nonsexual worries, intoxication, or other causes – such occasional impotency is common
and requires no therapy
EJACULATORY IMPOTENCE
a. It results from the inability to ejaculate in coitus, is common and usually of psychogenic
origin.
b. It appears to be associated with ideas of contamination or with memories of traumatic
experience.
VAGINISMUS
a. It is a strong spasms of the pelvic musculature constricting the female reproductive organ
so that the penetration is painful or impossible.
b. It can be due to anti-sexual conditioning or psychological trauma that serves as an
unconscious defense against coitus.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
a. These are infections transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person through
sexual contact.
b. It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
c. STD are infections that are passed on through the close, intimate contact that usually
accompanies sexual activities. If you have ever had an STD, you may have been exposed
to HIV as well, and should consider getting tested for HIV.
d. HIV - Human immunodeficiency virus
e. AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
f. AIDS is a condition. While HIV is a virus that may cause an infection, AIDS (which is short
for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a condition. Contracting HIV can lead to the
development of AIDS. AIDS, or stage 3 HIV, develops when HIV has caused serious
damage to the immune system.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
1. CHLAMYDIA
a. It is a common sexually transmitted disease caused by bacteria called chlamydia
trachomatis.
b. It can infect both men and women.

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 2. GONORRHEA
a. It is an infection caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium that can infect both
males and females.
b. It is most often affects the urethra, rectum or throat. In females, it can also infect
the cervix.
c. It is most commonly spread during sex.
3. SYPHILIS
a. It is spread through vaginal, anal, and oral sex.
b. It causes sores on your genitals (called chancres)
c. You get syphilis from contact with the sores.
4. CHANCROID
a. It is caused by infection with the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi.
b. Clinical manifestation include genital ulcers and inguinal lymphadenopathy or
buboes.
5. HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS
a. It is the most commonly sexually transmitted infection in the United States.
b. It is usually harmless and goes away by itself, but some types can lead to cancer
or genital warts.
6. HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS
a. It is among the most prevalent of sexually transmitted infections.
b. Although most infections are subclinical, clinical manifestations are characterized
by recurrent, painful genital and/or anal lesions.
7. TRICHOMONAS VAGINALIS
a. It is a common sexually transmitted protozoal infection associated with adverse
health outcomes such as preterm birth and symptomatic vaginitis.
b. It is not nationally reportable condition, and trend data are limited to estimates of
initial physician office visits for this condition.
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION
Natural Planning Methods – does not involve any chemical or foreign body introduction into the
human body
1. ABSTINENCE
a. This natural method involves refraining from sexual intercourse and is the most
effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate.
b. It is considered to be the most effective way to avoid STIs (Sexually Transmitted
Infections).
2. CALENDAR METHOD
a. This method is called as the rhythm method.
b. It entails withholding from coitus during the days that the woman is fertile.
c. According to the menstrual cycle, the woman is likely to conceive three or four
days before and three and four days after ovulation.
3. BASAL (BASE) BODY TEMPERATURE
a. It indicates the woman’s temperature at rest. Before the day of ovulation and during
ovulation, it increases to a full degree because of progesterone and maintains its
level throughout the menstrual cycle.

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 b. A slight decrease in the basal body temperature followed by a gradual increase in
the basal body temperature can be a sign that a woman has ovulated.
4. CERVICAL MUCUS METHOD
a. The change in the cervical mucus during ovulation is the basis for this method.
b. During ovulation, the cervical mucus is copious, thin and watery.
c. The woman is said to be fertile as long as the cervical mucus is copious and
watery.
d. Therefore, she must avoid coitus during those days to prevent conception.
5. SYMPTOTHERMAL METHOD
a. It is basically a combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus method.
b. The woman records her temperature every morning and also takes note of
changes in her cervical mucus.
c. She should abstain from coitus three days after a rise in her temperature or on the
fourth day after the peak of a mucus change.
6. OVULATION DETECTION
a. OVULATION- is when a mature egg is released from the ovary, pushed down the
fallopian tube, and is made available to be fertilized. Approximately every month
an egg will mature within one of your ovaries.
b. It uses an over-the-counter kit that requires the urine sample of the woman. The
kit can predict ovulation through the surge of lutenizing hormones that happens 12
to 24 hours before ovulation.
7. COITUS INTERRUPTUS
a. It is one of the oldest methods that prevent conception.
b. A couple still goes on with coitus, but the man withdraws the moment he ejaculates
to emit the spermatozoa outside of the female reproductive organ.
c. A disadvantage of this method is the pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a few
spermatozoa that may cause fertilization.
ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION - Involve chemical and etc.
1. ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES
a. It is also known as the pill.
b. It contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone.
c. It is suggested that the woman takes the first pill on the first Sunday after the
beginning of a menstrual flow, or as soon as it is prescribed by the doctor.
2. TRANSDERMAL PATCH
a. It contains both estrogen and progesterone.
b. The woman should apply one patch every week for three
weeks on the following areas: upper outer arm, upper torso,
abdomen, or buttocks.
c. At the end of the fourth week, no patch is applied because the
menstrual flow would then occur.

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3. VAGINAL RING
a. It releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone and it
surrounds the cervix.
b. The silicon ring is inserted into the female reproductive organ
and remains there for three weeks and then removed on the
fourth week, as menstrual flow would occur.
c. The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.

4. SUBDERMAL IMPLANTS
a. Subdermal implants are two rod-like implants inserted under
the skin of the female during her menses or on the seventh
day of her menstruation to make sure that she will not get
pregnant.

5. HORMONAL INJECTIONS
a. It contains medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone, and is
usually given once every 12 weeks intramuscularly.
b. The injection causes changes in the endometrium and cervical
mucus and can help prevent ovulation.

6. INTRAUTERINE DEVICE
a. It is a small T-shaped object containing progesterone that is
inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive organ.
b. It prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory
condition to prevent implantation of the zygote.
c. The IUD is fitted only by the physician and inserted after the
woman’s menstrual flow.

7. CHEMICAL BARRIERS
a. These are used to cause the death of sperms before they can
enter the cervix and to lower the ph level of the female
reproductive organ so it will not become conducive for the
sperm.
b. These chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted
infection.

8. DIAPHRAGM
a. It is a circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be
place before coitus.
b. It works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the female
reproductive organ and it works better when used together with

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 a spermicide.

9. CERVICAL CAP
a. It is made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of the cervix.
b. It is a shaped like a thimble with a thin rim, and could stay in
place for more than 48 hours.

10. MALE CONDOMS

a. It is a latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on the
erect male reproductive organ before penetration into the
female reproductive organ to trap the sperm during
ejaculation.

11. FEMALE CONDOMS

a. These are made up of latex rubber sheath that are pre-
lubricated with spermicide.
b. They are usually bound by two rings: the outer ring is first
inserted against the opening of the female reproductive organ
and the inner ring covers the cervix.
c. It is used to prevent fertilization of the egg by the sperm cells.

12. SURGICAL METHODS

a. During vasectomy, a small incision is made on each side of
the scrotum. The vas deferense is then tied, cauterized, cut or
plugged to block the passage of the sperm.

GENDER AND THE SELF

Freedom of expression
Your right to find, express and live your identity.
Our gender partly determines how we see ourselves in the world.
Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted and not dictated by culture and the
society

TERMS TO UNDERSTAND
1. SEX
• The classification of a person as male or female.
• Usually based from the appearance of your external anatomy – written on birth
certificate
2. GENDER EXPRESSION

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 • External manifestation of gender, haircut, behavior, clothing, etc.
3. TRANSGENDER
• Gender identity differs from what is associated with their sex at birth
4. TRANS SEXUAL
• Medical term, change sex (transplant)
5. TRANS
• Shorthand to mean transgen/transex under transgender umbrella
6. CROSS-DRESSER
• Typically refer to men – wear make up sometimes identifies as heterosexual
• Clothes/accessories associated to women
7. TRANSITION
• Altering one’s birth sex, personal, medical or legal stages, using different names, etc.
8. GENDER DYSPHORIA
• Gender identity disorder
• Psychiatric diagnosis
9. CIS GENDER
• Non-transgender people
10. NON-BINARY (ND)
• Not a synonyms for trans.
• Identity falling outside the categories of men and women or somewhere in between.
11. GENDERQUEER
• Also the same with non-binarybut wholly different
12. INTERSEX
• Outdated derogatory Hermaphrodite
• Sex anatomy can’t be identified or classifieed as for chromosome pattern.
13. AGENDER
• A person who does not identify with any gender, or intentionally doesn’t follow
expectations of gender.
14. ANDROGYNE
• Doesn’t identify a male/female but generally has both masculine and feminine
qualities.
15. BI GENDER
• Identify two distinct genders female/male
16. FTM
• Female to male
17. GENDER FLUID
• Doesn’t confine to one gender, few instead they fluctuate between presenting as
feminine, masculine, neither or both
18. NEUTROIS
• Not identify as female/male
19. TRANSMASCULINE/FEM
• Male to female / female to male
20. BUTCH
• Masculine lesbian
21. THIRD GENDER
• Other culture not identify as woman/man/female/male

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 22. DEMIBOY/DEMIGIRL
• Partly male/female
23. HETEROSEXUAL
• Sexual orientation
• Sexual attraction/behavior between persons of opposite sex.
24. BISEXUAL/HOMOSEXUAL
• The same sex attraction
• Any combination of the hetero/homo – enjoy both

Activity 9A
INFOMMERCIAL (POSTER TYPE)
PROMOTING THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY THAT WILL RAISE AWARENESS OF
THE FOLLOWING:
1. HELP ELIMINATE S.T.D
2. STOP ABORTION
3. NO TO PRE-MARITAL SEX
4. COMBAT ARTIFICIAL CONTRACEPTIVE

Activity 9B
SURVEY
PUPians, FACULTY, ADMIN (NON-TEACHING PERSONNEL) FACULTY. ETC.
- IF IN FAVOR OF LEGALIZING MARRIAGE AMONG HOMOSEXUALS AND
TRANSGENDERS? AND WHY?
- COME UP WITH A CONCLUSION AND PRESENT FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
I love myself (link/ video)
The Biological givenness:
UTS OFALIA p. 51-54
The Biological Blueprint
A crucial aspect of the self is one’s physical features. People are often recognized initially
by their physical features, including the face, bodily structure, height, and weight. However, more
than the physical attributes, people should also consider their physical competencies, valuation
of physical worth, and perception of beauty.
The physical self is shaped by biological and environmental factors. The physical self,
however, is surrounded by issues associated with health, hygiene, nutrition, and standards of
beauty, among others.

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 Am I beautiful? Do people find me attractive? What can I do to enhance my features?
These questions concern the physical self, which embodies one’s appearance, what one sees in
the mirror, and what often triggers a person’s first impressions of another. However, the physical
self is not only limited to what can be seen by the naked eye; underneath the skin is a dynamic
system of biological and chemical processes that contribute to one’s physical features. Body
structure, height, weight, skin color, hair color, and other physical characteristics do not just
develop at random; these are triggered by genetic transformations and biological development
through heredity.
Heredity is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are
made up of specific information embedded within one’s gene, the basic unit of heredity. The
manifestation of particular trait can be attributed to the concepts of genotype and phenotype.
Genotype refers to the specific information embedded within one’s genes; not all genotypes
translate to an observed physical characteristic. On the other hand, phenotype is the physical
expression of a particular trait. Genotype can be determined through blood testing while
phenotype can be directly observed. To illustrate, imagine that a man who has fair skin and a
woman who has brown skin produced a brown-skinned male offspring. While you may assume
that the newborn inherited only the skin color of his mom, a close examination of this genotype
may reveal that he also got the gene for fair skin from his dad. This phenomenon can be attributed
to the concept of dominant and recessive genes. The brown skin of the mother was the dominant
gene and that of his dad was the recessive gene; thus, the former manifested in the child.
However, if the child in the future marries a woman who has a recessive gene for fair skin, their
offspring may have fair skin. Dominant and recessive genes are dependent on alleles, which are
alternate versions of a particular gene. Since human cells carry two copies of chromosomes, they
have two versions of each gene.
Each individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies in the
nucleus of the cell and the storage unit of genes. The 23 rd pair, also known as sex chromosomes,
determines the sex of an individual. The XY combination indicates a male and the XX combination
indicates a female. Within each chromosome is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is a
nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of every
individual. The DNA is considered the blueprint of life; thus, no two individuals have the same
DNA. This explains why DNA sample is the most crucial material needed in establishing paternity
or maternity or identifying a suspect in a crime. These cellular components trigger the physical
growth and maturation of organisms, from birth to adulthood. Maturation is known as the
completion of growth of a genetic character within an organism or the unfolding of an individual’s
inherent traits or potential. Maturation enables people to walk, run, and talk. It also results in
physical changes that are evident in the adolescent stage.
Environmental Conditioning
While one’s genetic information determines the extent of his or her physical features, it is
not the only factor that influences the physical self. As you grow up, you are exposed to
environmental influences that shape your physical self, including those from your social networks,
societal expectations, and cultural practices.
Family, being your first social group, forms a crucial foundation of your development,
including that of your physical self. Aside from factors of heredity, your family is also primarily
responsible for how you take care of your body. Nutrition and sustenance was initially established

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by what was cooked in the home. Thus, your food intake and diet is often determined by meals
you were served. Aside from food, practices on hygiene were first transmitted by your parents.
As you grow older, you get exposed to a larger social group with new practices and
standards. You become more conscious of your physical appearance. As time goes on, you begin
to take note of your height, weight, facial features, and other physical characteristics in
comparison to your peers, especially during adolescence. As a result, you may begin engaging
in acts that would make you attractive and acceptable to others. For some girls, these include
choosing the right outfit, wearing the right make-up, and acting more feminine. On the other hand,
boys may begin to have facial hair, learn how to shave, go to the gym, and do other similar
activities.
One aspect of physical beauty is a person’s body type. Contemporary media has
portrayed slim bodies as the ideal body type for women and muscular bodies for men. Thus,
adolescents indulge in activities that would enable them to achieve these ideal body types. For
some, these activities involve having a healthy lifestyle, eating the right food, and engaging in
sports. However, some adolescents may resort to unhealthy habits just to achieve the ideal body
type. There has been a steady rise of teenagers who have eating disorders, including bulimia and
anorexia nervosa. This phenomenon could be attributed to the obsession of being thin, and may
also be triggered by family, peers, and significant role models. Majority of the victims have been
identified as females, but a significant number are still represented by males. Aside from eating
problems, a substantial number have been resorting to cosmetic surgery to alter certain facial or
body features, even among adolescents. While medical professionals do not forbid such
practices, there have been extreme cases of these procedures causing negative life-altering
consequences. It is important to remember that physical beauty is only skin-deep; that what
matters is feeling good about oneself and embracing a healthy perception of one’s physical worth.
Achieving Physical Well-being
There is nothing wrong with enhancing one’s physical self. What is problematic is when a
person focuses too much on physical beauty and disregard everything else. Below are some tips
in taking care of yourself and your body:
1. Healthy eating. You need to eat the right amount and combination of food to ensure
your health and sustenance. Following a healthy diet results in healthy skin, ideal weight,
and better stamina.
2. Embracing a healthy lifestyle. Avoid drinking, smoking, and doing other unhealthy
habits to reduce the risk of illness and diseases and to make your immune system
stronger. Physical activities such as walking, running, going to the gym, and engaging in
sports also contribute to a healthier body.
3. Maintaining proper hygiene. Taking care of your body by consistently following a
hygiene regimen can also help you feel good about yourself.
4. Being confident. Self-confidence is your best make-up and results in an optimal
physical well-being. Be secure in yourself, embrace a positive outlook toward various
situations and problems, and love and accept who you are.

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UTS ALATA p. 41-62
UNPACKING THE SELF: The Physical and Sexual Self
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. discuss the developmental aspect of the reproductive system;
2. describe the erogenous zones;
3. explain human sexual behavior;
4. characterize the diversity of sexual behavior;
5. describe sexually transmitted diseases; and
6. differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception
Introduction
It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of humans define the sex (female or male)
and their secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our genetic
makeup. It influences the way we treat ourselves and others. However, there are individuals who
do not accept their innate sexual characteristics and they tend to change their sexual organs
through medications and surgery. Aside from our genes, our society or the external environment
helps shape our selves. This lesson helps us better understand ourselves through a discussion
on the development of our sexual characteristics and behavior.
Activity 10
Defining Beauty
Complete the sentences below,
1. For me, beauty means
____________________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________________
_______
2. A beautiful person is
____________________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________________
_______

3. I am beautiful because

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____________________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________________
_______
4. List down names of people you know who are beautiful.
____________________________________________________________________________
_______
____________________________________________________________________________
_______
Fill out the table below by listing the common secondary sexual male and female
characteristics.
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

ANALYSIS
1. When do we usually observe the changes listed above for males and females?
2. Where you able to experience the same changer? When?
3. If you were not able to experience the above listed changes, what might have caused such
difference?
4. How does the society shape the sexual behavior of an individual?
5. Can we really change our natural or innate sexual organ and sexual response?
Abstraction
Maried, E.N. (2001) explains that the gonads (reproductive glands that produce the
gametes; testis or ovary) begin to form until about the eighth week of embryonic development.
During the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive structures of males
and females are alike and are said to be in the indifferent stage. When the primary reproductive
structures are formed, development of the accessory structures and external genitalia begins.
The formation of male or female structures depends on the presence of testosterone. Usually,
once formed, the embryonic testes release testosterone, and the formation of the duct system
and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos that form ovaries, it will cause the
development of the female ducts and external genitalia since testosterone hormone is not
produced.
Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo results
in strange abnormalities. For instance, a genetic male develops the female accessory structures

100
and external genitalia if the embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone. On the other hand, if a
genetic female is exposed to testosterone (as in the case of a mother with androgen-producing
tumor oh her adrenal gland), the embryo has ovaries but may develop male accessory ducts and
glands, as well as a male reproductive organ and an empty scrotum. As a result,
pseudohermaphrodites are formed who are individuals having accessory reproductive structures
that do not “match” their gonads while true hermaphrodites are individuals who possess both
ovarian and testicular tissues but this condition is rare in nature. Nowadays, many
pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex change operations to have their outer selves (external
genitalia) fit with their inner selves (gonads).

A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place about one month
before birth wherein the male testes formed in the abdominal cavity at approximately the same
location as the female ovaries, descend to enter the scrotum. If this normal event fails, it may lead
to cryptorchidism. This condition usually occurs in young males and causes sterility (which is also
a risk factor for cancer of the testes) that is why surgery is usually performed during childhood to
solve this problem.
Moreover, abnormal separation of chromosomes during meiosis can lead to congenital
defects of the reproductive system. For instance, male who possess extra female sex
chromosome have the normal male accessory structures, but atrophy (to shrink) of their testes
causes them to be sterile. Other abnormalities result when a child has only one sex chromosome.
And XO female appears normal but lack ovaries. YO males die during development. Other much
less serious conditions also affect males primarily such as phimosis, which is due to a narrowing
of the foreskin of the male reproductive structure and misplaced urethral openings.
Puberty is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old, when the
reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising
levels of gonadal hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen in females). After this time,
reproductive capability continues until old age in males and menopause in females.
The changes that occur during puberty is similar in sequence in all individuals but the age
which they occur differs among individuals. In males, as they reach the age of 13, puberty is
characterized by the increase in the size of the reproductive organs followed by the appearance
of hair in the pubic area, axillary, and face. The reproductive organs continue to grow for two year
until sexual maturation marked by the presence of mature semen in the testes.
In females, the budding of their breasts usually occurring at the age of 11 signals their
puberty stage. Menarche is the first menstrual period of females which happens two years after

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the star of puberty. Hormones play an important role in the regulation of ovulation and fertility of
females.
Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System
Infections are the most common problems associated with the reproductive system in
adults. Vaginal infections are more common in young and elderly women in those whose
resistance to diseases is low. The usual infections include those cause by Escherichia coli which
spread through the digestive tract; the sexually transmitted microorganisms such as syphilis,
gonorrhea, and herpes virus; and yeast (a type of fungus). Vaginal infections that are left
untreated may spread throughout the female reproductive tract and may cause pelvic
inflammatory disease and sterility. Problems that involve painful or abnormal menses may also
be due to infection or hormone imbalance.
In males, the most common inflammatory conditions are prostatitis, urethritis, and
epididymitis, all of which follow sexual contacts in which sexually transmitted disease (STD)
microorganisms are transmitted. Orchiditis, or inflammation of the testes, is rather uncommon but
is serious because it can cause sterility. Orchiditis most commonly follows mumps in an adult
male.
Neoplasms are a major threat to reproductive organs. Tumors of the breast and cervix are
the most common reproductive cancers in adult females, and prostate cancer (a common sequel
to prostatic hypertrophy) is a widespread problem in adult males.
Most women hit the highest point of their reproductive abilities in their late 20s. A natural
decrease in ovarian function usually follows characterized by reduced estrogen production that
causes irregular ovulation and shorter menstrual periods. Consequently, ovulation and menses
stop entirely, ending childbearing ability. This event is called as menopause, which occurs when
females no longer experience menstruation.
The production of estrogen may still continue after menopause but the ovaries finally stop
functioning as endocrine organs. The reproductive organs and breasts begin at atrophy or shrink
if estrogen is no longer releases from the body. The vagina becomes dry that causes intercourse
to become painful (particularly if frequent), and vaginal infections become increasingly common.
Other consequences of estrogen deficiency may also be observed including irritability and other
mood changes (depression in some); intense vasodilation of the skin’s blood vessels, which
causes uncomfortable sweat-drenching “hot flashes”; gradual thinning of the skin and loss of bone
mass; and slowly rising blood cholesterol levels, which place postmenopausal women at risk for
cardiovascular disorders. Some physicians prescribe low-dose estrogen-progestin preparations
to help women through this usually difficult period and to prevent skeletal and cardiovascular
complications.
There is no counterpart for menopause in males. Although aging men show a steady
decline in testosterone secretion, their reproductive capability seems unending. Healthy men are
still able to father offspring will into their 80s and beyond
Erogenous Zones
Erogenous zones refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual
arousal when touched in a sexual manner. Some of the commonly known erogenous zones are
the mouth, breasts, genitals, and anus. Erogenous zones may vary from one person to another.

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Some people may enjoy being touched in a certain area more than the other areas. Other
common areas of the body that can be aroused easily may include the neck, thighs, abdomen,
and feet.

Human Sexual Behavior

Human sexual behavior is defined as any activity – solitary, between two persons, or in a
group – that includes sexual arousal (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). There are two major factors that
determine human sexual behavior: the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as
a means of ensuring reproduction and that become part of each individual’s genetic inheritance,
and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the
expression of his sexuality.
Types of Behavior
The various types of human sexual behavior are usually classified according to the gender
and number of participants. There is solitary behavior involving only one individual, and there is
sociosexual behavior involving more than one person. Sociosexual behavior is generally divided
into heterosexual behavior (male with female) and homosexual behavior (male with male or
female with female). If three or more individuals are involved, it is, possible to have heterosexual
and homosexual activity simultaneously (Gebhard, P.H. 2017).
1. Solitary Behavior
Self-gratification means self-stimulation that leads to sexual arousal and generally, sexual
climax. Usually, most self-gratification takes place in private as an end in itself, but can also be
done in a sociosexual relationship.
Self-gratification, generally beginning at or before puberty, is very common among young
males, but becomes less frequent or is abandoned when sociosexual activity is available.
Consequently, self-gratification is most frequent among the unmarried. There are more males
who perform acts of self-gratification then females. The frequency greatly varies among
individuals and it usually decreases as soon as they develop sociosexual relationships.
Majority of males and females have fantasies of some sociosexual activity while they
gratify themselves. The fantasy frequently involves idealized sexual partner and activities that the
individual has not experienced and even might avoid in real life.
Nowadays, humans are frequently being exposed to sexual stimuli especially from
advertising and social media. Some adolescents become aggressive when they respond to such
stimuli. The rate of teenage pregnancy is increasing in our time. The challenge is to develop self-
control in order to balance suppression and free expression. Adolescents need to control their
sexual response in order to prevent premarital sex and acquire sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Sociosexual Behavior
Heterosexual behavior is the greatest amount of sociosexual behavior that occurs
between only one male and one female. It usually begins in childhood and may be motivated by
curiosity, such as showing or examining genitalia. There is varying degree of sexual impulse and
responsiveness among children. Physical contact involving necking or petting is considered as

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an ingredient of the learning process and eventually of courtship and the selection of a marriage
partner.
Petting differs from hugging, kissing, and generalized caresses of the clothed body to
practice involving stimulation of the genitals. Petting may be done as an expression of affection
and source of pleasure, preliminary to coitus. Petting has been regarded by others as a near-
universal human experience and is important not only in selecting the partner but as a way of
learning how to interact with another person sexually.
Coitus, the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive organ
is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the marital status of the individuals. Majority
of human societies allow premarital coitus, at least under certain circumstances. In modern
Western society, premarital coitus is more likely to be tolerated but not encourages if the
individuals intend marriage. Moreover, in most societies, wives is generally condemned and, if
permitted, is allowed only under more exceptional conditions or with specified persons. Societies
are becoming more considerate toward males than females who engage in extramarital
Postmarital coitus (i.e., coitus by separated, divorced or widowed persons) among sexually
experienced and usually older people for societies that try to confine coitus in married couple.
A behavior may be interpreted by society or the individual as erotic (i.e., capable of
engendering sexual response) depending on the context in which the behavior occurs. For
instance, a kiss may be interpreted as a gesture of expression or intimacy between couples while
others may interpret is as a form of respect or reverence, like when kissing the hand of an elder
or someone in authority. Examination and touching someone’s genitalia is not interpreted as a
sexual act especially when done for medical purposes. Consequently, the apparent motivation of
the behavior greatly determines its interpretation.
Physiology of Human Sexual Response
Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when sexual activity is
continued.
1. Excitement phase – it is caused by increase in pulse and blood pressure; a sudden rise in
blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature, flushing, and
swelling of all distensible body parts (particularly noticeable in the male reproductive structure
and female breasts), more rapid breathing, the secretion of genital fluids, vaginal expansion, and
a general increase to a near maximal physiological level that leads to the next stage.
2. Plateau phase – it is generally of brief duration. If stimulation is continued orgasm usually
occurs.
3. Sexual climax – it is marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in pulse
rate and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contractions of the female
reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male. It is also characterized by involuntary
vocalizations. Sexual climax may last for a few seconds (normally not over ten), after which the
individual enters the resolution phase.
4. Resolution phase – it is the last stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal
physiologic state. Males and females are similar in their response sequence. Whereas males
return to normal even if stimulation continues, nut continued stimulation can produce additional

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orgasms in females. Females are physically capable of repeated orgasms without the intervening
“rest period” required by males.
Nervous System Factors
The entire nervous system plays a significant role during sexual response. The autonomic
system is involved in controlling the involuntary responses. In the presence of a stimulus capable
enough of initiating a sexual response, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves transmit the sensory
messages to the brain. The brain will interpret the sensory message and dictate what will be the
immediate and appropriate response of the body. After interpretation and integration of sensory
input, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves receive commands from the brain and send them to the
muscles; and the spinal cord serves as a great transmission cable. The muscles contract in
response to the signal coming from the motor nerve fibers while glands secrete their respective
products. Hence, sexual response is dependent on the activity of the nervous system.
The hypothalamus and the limbic system are parts of the brain believed to be responsible
for regulating the sexual response, but there is no specialized “sex center” that has been located
in the human brain. Animal experiments show that each individual has coded in its brain two
sexual response patters, one for mounting (masculine) behavior and one for mounted (feminine)
behavior. Sex hormones can intensify the mounting behavior of individuals. Normally, one
response pattern is dominant and the other latent can still be initiated when suitable
circumstances occur. The degree to which such innate patterning exists in humans is still
unknown.
Apart from brain-controlled sexual responses, there is some reflex (i.e., not brain-
controlled) sexual response. This reflex is mediated by the lower spinal cord and leads to erection
and ejaculation for male, vaginal discharges and lubrication for female when the genital and
perineal areas are stimulated. But still, the brain can overrule and suppress such reflex activity –
as it does when an individual decides that a sexual response in socially inappropriate.
Sexual Problems
Sexual problems may be classified as physiological, psychological, and social origin. Any
given problem may involve all three categories.
Physiological problems are the least among the three categories. Only a small number of
people suffer from diseases that are due to abnormal development of the genitalia or that part of
the neurophysiology controlling sexual response. Some common physiologic conditions that can
disturb sexual response include vaginal infections, retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal tumors,
diabetes, senile changes of the vagina, and cardiovascular problems. Fortunately, the majority of
physiological sexual problems can be resolved through medication or surgery while problems of
the nervous system that can affect sexual response are more difficult to treat.
Psychological problems comprise by far the largest category. They are usually caused by
socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance, and sexual myths held by society.
An example of the latter is the belief that good, mature sex must involve rapid erection, prolonged
coitus, and simultaneous orgasm. Magazines, marriage books, and general sexual folklore often
strengthen these demanding ideals, which are not always achieved; therefore, can give rise to
feelings of inadequacy anxiety and guilt. Such resulting negative emotions can definitely affect
the behavior of an individual.

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 Premature emission of semen is a common problem, especially for young males.
Sometimes this is not the consequence of any psychological problem but the natural result of
excessive tension in a male who has been sexually deprived. Erectile impotence is almost always
of psychological origin in males under 40; in older males, physical causes are more often involved.
Fear of being impotent frequently causes impotence, and, in many cases, the afflicted male is
simply caught up in a self0perpetuating problem that can be solved only by achieving a successful
act of coitus. In other cases, the impotence may be the result of disinterest in the sexual partner,
fatigue, and distraction because of nonsexual worries, intoxication, or other causes – such
occasional impotency is common and requires no therapy.
Ejaculatory impotence, which results from the inability to ejaculate in coitus is uncommon
and is usually of psychogenic origin. It appears to be associated with ideas of contamination or
with memories of traumatic experiences. Occasional ejaculatory inability can be possibly
expected in older men or in any male who has exceeded his sexual capacity.
Vaginismus is a strong spasm of the pelvis musculature constricting the female
reproductive organ so that the penetration is painful or impossible. It can be due to anti-sexual
conditioning or psychological trauma that serves as an unconscious defense against coitus. It can
be treated by psychotherapy and by gradually dilating the female reproductive organ with
increasingly large cylinders.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections transmitted from an infected person
to an uninfected person through sexual contact. STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or
parasites. Examples include gonorrhea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus infection, Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), chlamydia, and
syphilis (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the National Institute of Health
of the United States 2017).
STDs are a significant global health priority because of their overwhelming impact on
women and infants and they inter-relationships with HIV and AIDS. STDs and HIV are associated
with biological interactions because both infections may occur in the same populations. Infection
with certain STDs can increase the risk of getting and transmitting HIV as well as modify the way
the disease develops. Moreover, STDs can lead to long-term health problems, usually in women
and infants. Among the health complications that arise from STDs are pelvic inflammatory
disease, infertility, tubal or ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, and perinatal or congenital
infections in infants born to infected mothers. One of the leading STDs worldwide is AIDS, which
is caused by HIV or Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The virus attacks the immune system
making the individual more prone to infections and other diseases. The virus usually targets the
T-cells (CD4 cells) of the immune system, which serve as the regulators of the immune system.
The virus survives throughout the body but may be transmitted via body fluids such as blood,
semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk. AIDS occurs on the advanced stage of HIV infection.
Aside from HIV and AIDS, there are other sexually transmitted diseases in humans. The
following list of diseases is based on Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2016 of the U.S
Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control Prevention.

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APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT (optional)
1. Creative Work. Propose a program in school or community that will raise the awareness of the
students and to help eliminate sexually transmitted diseases especially among the youth.
2. Agree or Disagree. Are you in favor of legalizing marriage among homosexuals and
transgenders? Why?

The Sexual Self

This section tackles one of the most crucial aspects of human development, the sexual
self. It highlights biological and environmental factors that shape sexual development. Tips on
regulating sexual behavior are also provided.
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. discuss and elaborate concepts associated with the sexual self, including sex and
gender;
2. identify factors that contribute to one’s sexual development; and
3. explain how one can manifest responsible sexual behavior.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. We cannot control sexual urges.
2. Our sexuality is purely biological.
3. Sexual orientations embody cognitive, affective, and behavior domains.
4. We are born with sexuality.
5. Sex and gender are the same.

The Socio-biological Aspects of the Self

A vital aspect of one’s identity is the sexual self, encompassing the biological, physical,
emotional, and social domains. While it is initially rooted in the distinguishing physical attributes
found in men (penis) and women (vagina), bodily transformations and the development of
secondary sexual characteristics during adolescence also trigger the physiological responses,
leading to beliefs and behavior associated with sex. During at this stage, sexual curiosity is often
at its peak, with adolescents engaging in sexual activity as influences by biological and socio-
cultural factors. Further, the gender orientation of the adolescent may manifest at this stage. Thus,
it is important for a person to be aware of his or her sexuality, thoughts, and behavior, in order to
make responsible choices concerning one’s sexual self.
The Biology of Sex

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 At birth, the sexual genital (penis for males and vagina for females) is a biological feature
that distinguishes males from females. Moreover, during puberty, observable changes in the
human body also known as secondary sexual characteristics begin. For males, the changes
include the growth of facial and bodily hair, emergence of adam’s apple, deepening of the voice,
and muscle development. In the Philippines, the practice of circumcision is considered a rite of
passage to adulthood among young men. For females, the onset of menstruation, and noticeable
changes in the hips, breast, and skin underlie the sexual changes during this developmental
stage. Aside from these observable developments in males and females, the release of hormones
(testosterone for males and estrogen for females) triggers physiological changes in the
reproductive system. This at this stage, males and females start to become capable of
procreation; males start producing sperm while females begin producing eggs.
When physiological changes are triggered within the adolescent’s reproductive system,
he or she is likely to experience sexual urges, become more sensitive to sexual stimuli, and feel
sexual arousal. Arousal may be exhibited through penile erection in men and vaginal lubrication
or wetness in women. If sexual arousal is satisfies through sexual intercourse, orgasm would be
reached. The refractory period, or the period of rest after orgasm, is likely to be longer in men.
Thus women can achieve multiple orgasms due to a shorter refractory period. These bodily
sensations are normal and typical in any sexual activity since they are triggered by hormones
produced within the body. These physiological sensations are parts of the sexual response cycle,
which includes four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Completing the cycle
leads to sexual satisfaction.
Humans are likely to engage in sexual activities to satisfy sexual urges. However, the kind
of sexual activities they engage in may vary. During the adolescence stage, it is common to watch
and read pornographic materials, engage in kissing and petting, and perform masturbation, or the
act of stimulating one’s genitals for sexual pleasure. Medical professionals have cited the health
benefits of masturbation, including stress relief, better sleep, improved self-esteem, and
enhanced body image. Further, masturbation is a better alternative to sexual intercourse, which
may result in pregnancy and acquiring sexually transmitted diseases.
A person should be aware of his or her sexuality and sexual attributes in order to make
responsible decisions. Adolescents need to realize the importance of having informed choices.
Engaging in sexual activities may result in consequences that adolescents may not be ready for:
pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases.
Sexual Identity and Gender Orientation
At birth, one’s sexuality depends on his or her physical features and genitals. Most of the
time, one’s sexuality and gender orientation correspond with each other. However, biological sex
and gender orientation are two different things. Biological sex is one’s assignment upon birth
and it’s dependent on physical features. On the other hand, gender is an identity that is learned
and embraced by the individual. It goes beyond biological domains and is both a personal and
social construct. As a social construct, gender comprises the socially created roles, personality
traits, attitudes, behaviors, and values attributed to men and women. It also includes the relative
power and influence of each, indicating that gender is relational and refers not simply to women
or men but to the relationship between them. Thus, gender is anchored on societal beliefs and
norms.

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 Gender roles refer to societal expectations of how men and women should act. Everyone
roles refer to societal expectations of how men and women should act. Everyone has a basic idea
of gender roles: men are assumed to be strong and dominant while omen are perceived to be
submissive and demure. Aside from the problems with these assumptions, gender and biological
sex are not always the same. A person may have been born a man but assumes “womanly” traits
while a woman may behave like a “man.” This is an aspect of sexual orientation, which manifest
itself in relationships. A guy who is attracted to girls is considered heterosexual while someone
who is attracted to the same sex is called a homosexual.
Sexual identity and gender orientation underlie one’s concept of self. A person expresses
his or her sexuality through individuality; one’s beliefs and behavioral lifestyle are based on his or
her own perception of sexuality. However, while gender orientation and sexual identity are
deemed to be social constructs, it is important to highlight one’s self-expression and moreover,
become responsible in doing so. This responsibility also applies to expressing one’s belief about
sex, gender, and behavior. It should be noted that one’s behavior in various situations entails
consequences. An individual needs to realize the effects of such actions and how one can
regulate his or her own behavior, including his or her sexual behavior.
The Consequences of Sexual Choice
Sexual intercourse, also known as copulation, is the reproductive act in which the male
organ (penis) enters the female’s reproductive tract (vagina). Adolescent couples who engage in
sexual intercourse are usually overwhelmed by the sensations they feel during the act. In addition,
most teenagers who have sex with their partners often rationalize the act by claiming that they
“love each other” and are “ready to be committed to each other.” However, if the woman is fertile
during the time of intercourse, pregnancy is likely to occur and it lasts approximately nine months
before the birth of the child. Having a child entails a big responsibility and should not merely be a
consequence of an impulsive moment. Physical risks to both mother and infant. Further, early
pregnancy may result in the mother dropping out of school, alienation, and other similar social
disruptions. Pregnancy does not only affect females; males are also burdened by the
responsibility of caring for a new child and his partner, and may also face the same problems as
the female.
Aside from pregnancy, another consequence of impulsive and careless sexual intercourse
is the risk of acquiring sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs). While most of them can be treated
and cured, STDs may have long-term consequences to one’s health. These diseases are passed
through the exchange of body fluids or genital contact. Among the common STDs are syphilis,
gonorrhea, chlamydia, and genital warts. Symptoms include a burning sensation during urination,
warts and sores in the genital and mouth areas, pus, abnormal and smelly discharge, genital
irritation, and painful bowel movements. Treatment may entail medication and in some cases,
surgery. However, there are cases when these diseases may affect one’s reproductive functions
and worse, may lead to death.
The most alarming sexually transmitted disease is the acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It can be transmitted by
contact between broken skin, wounds, or mucous membranes and HIV-infected blood or blood-
contaminated body fluids. Usually, it spreads through unprotected sexual contact with an infected
person, as well as through pregnancy, breastfeeding, sharing injecting equipment, or
contaminated blood transfusion. Untreated, HIV can lead to AIDS, which compromises the

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immune system and puts the person at risk of illness and death. In its early stages, HIV has no
symptoms. Once the illness has progressed, the infected person may develop fever, rashes, and
sore. In its final stage, a person with AIDS may suffer from a variety of illnesses, including
pneumonia and cancer. At the moment, there remains no cure for HIV and AIDS.
How does one acquire a sexually transmitted disease? STDs are prevalent among
individuals who engage in unprotected sex with multiple partners. Irresponsible sexual behavior
often results in dire consequences that have significant impact on people’s lives and futures.
Aside from health risks, STDs may also ruin relationships, create a negative stigma against the
person, and risk other aspects of one’s social life.
Thus, it is important that everyone makes responsible decisions with regard to sexuality
and sexual behavior. Responsible sexual behavior entails the following:

• Respect for one’s body. It means taking care of one’s body and avoiding activities that
undermine one’s worth and respect.
• Maturity in thoughts and deeds. It refers to being objective rational, and clam, instead
of being swept by one’s emotions.
• Being guided by one’s personal beliefs and core values. Everyone, especially an
adolescent, should always be grounded by his or her personal principles and self-worth.
• Being future-oriented. Instead of focusing on the present, a person should always weigh
his or her present, a person should always weigh his or her present actions with possible
consequences in the future. Sexual pleasure might be overwhelming at the moment but
always focus on what it will entail in the future.

Activity 11
A. Research/ Survey Analysis: Proposed Advocacy – Infographics, Presentation of posters
for themes:Stop Abortion and Prostitution.
B. Poistion Paper/ Forum: Same sex marriage/ Respect for one’s body etc.

Lesson 6: The Material Self

Material Self
Different Components of Understanding the Self according to William James
a. Its constituents
b. The feelings and emotions they arouse – self feelings
c. The actions to which they prompt – self-seeking and self preservation
The constituents of self are composed of:
a. The material self
b. The social self
c. The spiritual self
d. The pure ego

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Material Self Investment Diagram

Body
a. The innermost part of our material self
Clothes
a. An essential part of the material self
Immediate Family
a. Our parents and siblings hold another great important part of our self. What they do or
become affects us.
Home
a. The innermost part of our material self
b. It is the earliest nest of our selfhood
“A man’s self is the sum total of all what he CAN call his.” – James (1890)
Material Possession
a. It gains higher value in our lifetime if we use material possession to find happiness,
associate with these things with significant events, accomplishments, and people in our
lives.
“… we regard our possessions as part of ourselves. We are what we have and what we possess.”
– Russel Belk (1988)

UTS ALATA p. 66-69

Analysis (optional if applicable)
Answer the following questions:
1. How do you feel as you do the Debit Card Challenge?
2. Which among the items in your list like the most? Why?
3. If ever you were given a chance in real life to have one among the list, which would you choose?
Why?

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4. Does your choice different from what you answer in question number 2? Why or why not?
5. Let your classmate read your list. Ask her/him to give or write a quick impression of yourself
based on the list you showed him/her.
6. Is the quick impression of your classmate has some truth about who you are?

Abstraction
Material Self
A Harvard psychologist in the late nineteenth century, William James, wrote in his book,
The Principles of Psychology in 1890 that understanding the self can be examined through its
different components. He described these components as: (1) its constituents; (2) the feelings
and emotions they arouse – self-feelings; (3) the actions to which they prompt – self-seeking and
self-preservation. The constituents of self re composed of the material self, the social self, the
spiritual self and the pure ego. (Tretmann 2016; Green 1997)
The material self, according to James primarily is about our bodies, clothes, immediate
family, and home. We are deeply affected by these things because we have put much investment
our self to them.

The innermost part of our material self is our body. Intentionally, we are investing in our
body. We are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to
make sure that this body functions well and good. Any ailment or disorder directly affects us. We
do have certain preferential attachment or intimate closeness to certain body parts because of its
value to us.
There were people who get their certain body parts insured. Celebrities, like Mariah Carey
who was reported to have placed a huge amount for the insurance of her vocal chords and legs
(Sukman 2016).
Next to our body are the clothes we use. Influenced by the “Philosophy of Dress” by
Herman Lotze, James believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. Lotze in his
book, Microcosmus, stipulates that “any time we bring an object into the surface of our body, we
invest that object into the consciousness of our personal existence taking in its contours to be our
own and making it part of the self.” (Watson 2014) The fabric and style of clothes we wear bring
sensations to the body to which directly affect our attitudes and behavior. Thus, clothes are placed
in second hierarchy of material self. Clothing is a form of self-expression. We choose and wear
clothes that reflect ppur self (Watson 2014).

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 Third in the hierarchy is our immediate family. Our parents and siblings hold another great
important part of our self. What they do or become affects us. When an immediate family members
dies, part of our self dies, too. When their lives are in success, we feel their victories as if we are
the one holding the trophy. In their failures, we are put to shame or guilt. When they are in
disadvantage situation, there is an urgent urge to help like a voluntary instinct of saving one’s self
from danger. We place huge investment in our immediate family when we see them as the nearest
replica of our self.
The fourth component of material self is our home. Home is where our heart is. It is the
earliest nest of our selfhood. Our experiences inside the home were recorded and marked on
particular parts and things in our home. There was an old cliché about rooms: “if only walls can
speak.” The home thus is an extension of self, because in it, we can directly connect our self.
Having investment of self to things, made us attached to those things. The more
investment of self-given to the particular thing, the more we identify ourselves to it. We also tended
to collect and possess properties. The collections in different degree of investment of self,
becomes part of the self. As James (1890) described self: “a man’s self is the sum total of all what
he CAN call his.” Possessions then become a part or an extension of the self.
We Are What We Have
Russel Belk (1988) posits that”…we regard our possessions as part of ourselves. We are
what we have and what we possess.” The identification of the self to things started in our infancy
stage when we make a distinction among self and environment and others who may desire our
possessions.
As we grow older, putting importance to material possession decreases. However,
material possession gains higher value on our lifetime if we use material possession to find
happiness, associate these things with significant events, accomplishments, and people in our
lives. There are even times, when material possession of a person that is closely identified to the
person, gains acknowledgement with high regard even if the person already passed away.
Examples of these are the constant reminder of the person seated there; a well-loved and kept
vehicle of the person, which some of the bereaved family members have a difficulty to sell or let
go of because that vehicle is very much identified with the owner who passed away; the favorite
pet or book, among others that the owner placed a high value, these favorite things are symbols
of the owner.
The possessions that we dearly have tell something about who we are, our self-concept,
our past, and even our future.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

Debit Card Challenge List
1. Go back to your Debit Card Challenge List. Put a mark on the left side of each item with the
following categories:
B – if the item is related with your body
C – if the item is related with clothes

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 F – if the item is related or intended to your family
H – if the item is related with home
2. Answer the following questions:
- Which among the categories you have the most in your list?
- What do you think these things tell you about yourself?
3. Make a reflection paper about material self. You may use your answers from the above
questions in making your paper.

Activity 12
Collage Making
Create a collage of your treasured possessions including your current clothing style. You
may use symbols or pictures of your treasured possessions. Put a short note why you treasure
each item.
Research Paper
Make a research on the role of Filipino consumer culture to Filipino self and identity.

The Material/Economic Self

This section focuses on how people maintain extensions of themselves through material
possessions and maintenance of particular lifestyles. In the context of what the society values as
needs and wants, this section discusses how an individual acquires goods, the factors that shape
his or her economic decisions, and what these things say about one’s sense of self.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. determine the different factors that contribute to one’s material/economic self;
2. distinguish between needs and wants and how they influence one’s daily social behavior; and
3. analyze and evaluate one’s material and economic behavior that contributes to his or her sense
of self.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. Material possessions provide clues to one’s sense of self and identity.
2. People attach meanings to their possessions.
3. Needs and wants are different.

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4. Possession of products highlights social class.
5. Material possessions reflect one’s values.
The Self in a Material World
People are likely to purchase products that can relate to their personality. Material
possessions signify some aspects of one’s sense of self and identity. For example, most
millennials have laptops and cellphones and are familiar with different technological innovations
because of their inclination to be immersed in the digital which follows the idea why they are
known as digital natives. They use these gadgets to communicate, study, and to a certain extent,
maintain a particular social status. Parents buy necessities for their family because it is symbolic
of their need to provide “security.” The clothes people wear manifest their owners. Things are
bought because of personal association. Thus, one’s sense of self and identity is influential on
how an individual chooses to purchase his or her wants and how he or she makes economic
decisions that will address his or her personal and social needs.
The decisions that go into the purchase of items and certain services is dependent on a
number of factors, including financial constraints, availability of items and services, and the
influence of family and friends. However, the most important factor is determining whether these
items and services fall under “wants” or “needs.” Some people confuse needs with wants, but
there is a clear distinction. Needs are those important for survival. Food, clothing, and shelter are
basic needs so people purchase them out of necessity. Wants, however, are synonymous with
luxuries. People buy them for reasons that do not warrant necessity. Buying cellphones and other
gadgets for communication can be perceived as a necessity but purchasing units on the high-end
line can be a way of projecting a particular social status or taste. People sometimes purchase
items to build how they want to be perceived by others. Clothes may be a necessity, but people
who have the capacity choose brands and styles to project their identity for other people to see.
Regardless of whether the things that people have are needs or wants, material possessions tell
something of the personality and social values of those who own them. Possessions are extended
version of oneself.
In the process of acquiring material goods, people generally consider two things: utility
and significance. Utility is concerned with how things serve a practical purpose. On the other
hand, significance is concerned with the meaning assigned to the object. It is also concerned with
how objects become powerful symbols or icons of habit and ritual which can be quite separate
from their primary function. Significance, in contrast to utility, has more to do with expression and
meaning. However, meanings are often culturally determined. For some, even the smallest
utilitarian objects are capable of embodying values. To further understand the term significance,
Roland Barthes studied the concept semiology or the study of signs. He was one of the first
philosophers to analyze the relationship between people and objects. According to Barthes, it is
through objects that people assert their identities. Objects are not just things but are reflections
of the wilder lives of communities and individuals; the things people possess are also in sync with
what is valued by their community. This idea suggests that objects, aside from contributing to how
an individual identifies himself or herself, also signify relationships of people with others based on
what they possess.
The possession of material things also indicates one’s status in the society. People can
tell whether the owner is part of a wealthy family or in the middle class. One’s possessions are

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 perceived as personal choices that define people to a certain extent. These personal choices
build one’s material and economic self which is an extension of his or her social identity.
EXERCISE 3.3.1 Wants and Needs, Utility and Significance, Signifier and Signified
Instructions: List down at least 10 material things that you possess. Indicate whether they are
wants or needs. Write their utility and significance

Material Things Wants/Needs Utility Significance

EXERCISE 3.3.2 The ultimate Need

Instructions: Using the table and list down ten important things that you buy for ourself (Note:
Do not include those you buy for others). Identify whether these things are needs or wants. On
your list, remove five (5) things that you think you can live without. Then, remove another three
(3). From the two things left, choose one. Afterwards, find a partner and explain to each other why
you have chosen it to be your ultimate need.

1st List (list 10

needs or wants Needs/Wants 2nd List (remove 3rd List (remove My Ultimate Need (remove 3
that you buy for 5 from 1st List) 3 from 2nd list) from the 3rd list and leave only
yourself) 1)
1.
2.
3.
4.

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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Metacognitive Reading Report

Instructions: Read the articles referenced and answer the items that follow.
1. Akerlof, G., & Kranto, R. (2000). Economics and identity. The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 135(3), 715 – 753.
2. Antonova, N. (2014). Economic identity and professional self-determination. Athens
Journal of Social Sciences. 1(1), 71 – 81.
1. List down three things that you significantly learned from the readings.
2. List down three things that are still unclear to you.
3. List down three questions that you want to ask about the readings.

Lesson 7: The Digital Self

Tim Berners – Lee
a. He made the World Wide Web available to the public

• Almost two-thirds of the world’s population now has a mobile phone.

• More than half of the world’s web traffic comes from mobile phones.
• More than half of all mobile connections around the world are now “broadband”
• More than one in five of the world’s population shopped online in the past 30 days.
ONLINE IDENTITY
a. Actually the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions while partial identity is a
subset of characteristics that make up our identity.
PERSONA
a. The partial identity we create that represents ourselves in a specific situation
SELF PRESENTATION
a. The process of controlling how one is perceived by other people and is the key to
relationship inception and development.
DISINHIBITION EFFECT
a. One of the reasons for so much sharing and self-disclosure online

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According to Foucault (1998), confession,along with contemplation, self-examination, learning,
reading, and writing self-critical letters to friends, are a part of the “technologies of the self”
through which we seek to purge and cleanse ourselves.
CONFESSIONAL BLOGS
a. It may also be therapeutic for the audience to read, allowing both sincere empathy and
the voyeuristic appeal of witnessing a public confession (Kitzmann 2003)
SEX
a. The biological state that corresponds to what we might call a man or woman
GENDER
a. The social understanding of how sex should be experiences and how sex manifests in
behavior, personality, preferences, capabilities, and so forth.
SEXUALITY
a. An individual expressionand understanding of desire
b. While like gender, this is often viewed as binary (homosexual or heterosexual), in reality,
sexuality is often experienced as fluid.
JUDITH BUTLER
a. Conceptualized gender as a performance. She explained that popular understanding of
gender and sexuality came to be through discourse and social processes.
FREE CULTURE
a. Individuals are empowered to engage in cultural production using raw materials, ranging
from homemade videos to mainstream television characters to create new culture,
memes, and humor.
Guidelines in Setting Boundaries to Your Online Self: Smart Sharing
a. Is this post/story necessary?
b. Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm-heated, teachable – or am I just making
noise online without purpose?
c. Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this issue? An issue that is still being worked
out at home, or one that is either vulnerable or highly emotional, should not be made
public.
d. Is it appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries of our family values?
e. Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, 15 years? Or this post better suited for sharing with a
small group of family members? Or maybe not at all?
The Socio-Digital Self
This section examines the role of technology and the internet in shaping an individual’s
social self, with emphasis on the use of social media platforms and membership in virtual
communities. This section highlights the crucial role of the internet in forming the self and identity
of millennial learners.

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INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. discuss and elaborate the different concepts of the socio-digital self;
2. identify factors that influence one’s online behaviors; and
3. analyze and evaluate one’s socio-digital behaviors and identify ways to manage them
effectively.

Diagnostics
Activity 13
Lesson 7
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. One’s personality can be manifested through social media.
2. It is impossible to establish meaningful relationships in social media.
3. How one presents himself or herself on social media is the same with how he or she presents
himself or herself to the real world.
4. Technology influences how people relate with one another.
5. People can develop digital identity.

The Self in the Age of Technology

With the rise of technology, ways of socializing have significantly changed. In the past,
interpersonal relationships can only be established through face-to-face interactions within
physical communities. Nowadays, people can interact with each other even if they are not
physically present in the same place. One of the innovations that improved people’s interaction
and socialization processes is social media.
Social media is defined as the websites and applications that make it easier to create and
share information, ideas, and interests. It allows people to create other forms of self-expression
via virtual communities and networks. Social media has features that allow people to
communicate to specific groups sharing common interests (through chat, video call, or posting of
status and photos) and become members of virtual communities, be it locally or globally. These
features make way for more efficient ways of socializing and communicating with other people as
well as enable these communities to impact thoughts and behavior.
Through the use of social media, people may act differently since interaction in social
media do not happen face-to-face and there is no physical presence required. This is called
online disembodiment. With this, people are less likely to display their real “selves” to others,
especially to strangers. Based on different studies, individuals are prone to create digital identities,
which are different from their “real selves.”

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Digital Identity
People generally have “role identities.” These are the characters and roles an individual
creates as a member of a particular social group. Following this definition, the “self” is composed
of identities ranked by importance. The greater the commitment of an individual to a particular
identity, the greater the importance of this identity. Hence, the importance of one’s particular role
identity influences the behavioral choices an individual makes in a given situation.
In an online environment, one’s role identity is vitally important in order for him or her to
project himself or herself in the said environment. Amidst the technological tools and channels
surrounding individuals and online activities that people engage in, one’s online identity enables
him or her participate in a virtual society. Online activities such as chatting, blogging, and even
shopping online would require the person to establish a “digital identity” which is defined as the
identity a person claims in cyberspace. A digital identity allows a person to be part of a virtual
community that goes beyond physical and geographical boundaries. By having a digital identity,
one is able to leave online footprints in cyberspace. The posts one makes on social media
platforms, the online names one creates, the internet friends one acquires, and things one “likes,
comments on, and share” become part of the digital identity an individual creates. For some
people, their digital identities are an extension of who they are. Personalities, interests, values,
and activities are often manifested in people’s online activities, especially on social media
platforms, where they relate themselves to others in online environments.
However, participation in virtual environments may entail changes that may affect a
person’s sense of self. In fact, in cyberspace, people are capable of creating multiple digital
identities. People are likely to behave differently when they are engaged in interactions on social
media since physical presence is not required of them. Social media enables individuals to adopt
identities independent of one’s physical image. According to Turkle (1995), people can redefine
themselves on the internet. Assumptions made on the virtual world are different from those of real
life.
In some cases, people present themselves differently in online interactions as compared
to the face-to-face interactions they engage in. Social media also enables people to create fake
identities. An individual can create different social media accounts to hide his or her real self.
People tend to resort to creating fake digital identities so that they may be capable of doing
inappropriate acts without being identified.

Online Disinhibition Effect

When people adopt fake identities, they are likely to engage in behaviors that they would
not do in real life interactions. This effect is known as online disinhibition (Suler, 2004). There are
two main categories of behavior that fall under the online disinhibition effect: benign disinhibition
and toxic disinhibition. Benign disinhibition occurs when people tend to self-disclose more on
the internet than they would in real life or go out of their way to help someone or show kindness.
On the other hand, people take part in toxic disinhibition when thay use rude language, bully or
threaten others on online platforms, and go to websites with contents of violence, crime, and
pornography.

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 People engage in online disinhibition due to a number of factors. These include the
advantage of anonymity, virtual invisibility, asynchronous communication (where there is no need
to deal with another person’s reaction or feedback immediately), and personal introjection (people
tend to assign an identity to the other person that is also a reflection of their own self). Somehow,
these factors contribute to bridging social gaps and expressing oneself in a way that one will not
do in face-to-face interactions.
Managing Responsible Online Behavior
It is important to regulate online behavior. Cyberbullying happens because of individuals
who display irresponsible and inappropriate online behavior. How can one behave responsibly
online? The following are some suggestions:
✓ Do not post or send anything that will embarrass you.
✓ Avoid posting statements when experiencing strong emotions.
✓ Do not hang out with the “wrong crowd” online.
✓ Do not hang out with the “wrong crowd” offline.
✓ Be careful with oversharing, especially confidential information that may be used
irresponsibly.
✓ Respect other people in the online community.
Following these suggestions, one can foster and project a healthy digital identity that
positively impacts his or her social self. People may learn new information, gain more friends,
widen their perspectives through healthy online sharing, and nurture better social values in an
online platform. Unlike in face-to-face interactions in which conversations may be forgotten, online
conversations leave digital traces that may remain indefinitely for others to see. Thus, people
should exercise decorum online. In the same way they exercise decorum in real life.

Activity 14
MSM – My Social Media
Instructions: Open any your social media accounts. Review your posts and screen capture those
that you think show benign and toxic online disinhibitions. Why do you think they are benign or
toxic? Use the table below for your answers.

Posts Benign Toxic Explanation

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MSM – My Social Media
Instructions: Take a look at the things you post on your social media accounts and answer the
following questions.
Processing questions:
1. Based on the things you post, what can you say about your online persona?
2. How do you feel about your posts?
3. Have you ever been involved in social media conflicts? If yes, explain how, and if no, explain
your general feeling toward social media conflicts.
4. What can you do to avoid social media conflicts in the future?

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A Pledge to Responsible Networking
Instructions: In the space provided, create your own pledge to responsible use of social media.
Be ready to recite your pledge in front of the class.
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Who Am I in the Cyberworld? (Digital Self)

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. define online identity;
2. compare real identity versus online identity;
3. describe the influence of Internet on sexuality and gender; and
4. discuss the proper way of demonstrating values and attitudes online.

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INTRODUTION
These days, more people are becoming active in using the Internet for research, pleasure,
business, communication, and other purposes. Indeed, the Internet is of great help for everyone.
On the other hand, people assume different identities while in the cyberspace. People act
differently when they are online and offline. We have our real identity and online identity.
(optional)
Three Facts, One Fiction
Construct four sentences that should start with “I am _________________________.”
Three of the four sentences should be true about yourself. You can talk about your characteristics,
strengths, weaknesses, accomplishments, personalities, and behavior. One statement should be
a lie – something that you just made up about yourself. Make the activity more fun by making your
classmates believe that the statement is true.
1. I am _______________________________________________________________.
2. I am _______________________________________________________________.
3. I am _______________________________________________________________.
4. I am _______________________________________________________________.
Analysis
What have you learned from the activity? Did you learn something from your classmates
that you did not know before? What were the clues that helped you figure out which statements
were facts and fiction? Were your classmates able to discern easily the facts and fiction about
you? Why?
Applying the same activity in the virtual world or cyberworld, how do people portray
themselves online? What are the things you would want to post/share online? What are the things
you want others to share online?
Abstraction
The number of people who are becoming more active online continues to increase
worldwide. More than half of the population worldwide now uses the Internet. It has only been 25
years since Time Berners-Lee made the World Wide Web available to the public, but in that time,
the Internet has already become an integral part of everyday life for most of the world’s population.
The Philippines is among one of the countries with the most active Internet users (We are Social
and Hootsuite n.d.).

• Almost two-thirds of the world’s population now has a mobile phone.

• More than half of the world’s web traffic now comes from mobile phones.
• More than half of all mobile connections around the world are now “broadband.”
• More than one in five of the world’s population shopped online in the past 30 days.
Media users in the Philippines grew by 12 million or 25% while the number of mobile social
users increased by 13 million or 32%. Those growth figures are still higher compared to the

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previous year. More than half the world now uses a smartphone.

Based on Figure 1, the number of digital users worldwide increases. More people are
becoming interested and devoted in using the Internet for various activities. In the Philippines,
adolescents are among the most avid users of the Internet.

Online identity is actually the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions while partial
identity is a subset of characteristics that make up our identity. Meanwhile, persona is the partial
identity we create that represents ourselves in a specific situation.
Selective Self-presentation and Impression Management
According to Goffman (1959) and Leary (1995), self-presentation is the “process of
controlling how one is perceived by other people” and is the key to relationship inception and
development. To construct positive images, individuals selectively provide information about them
and carefully cater this information in response to other’s feedback.
Anything posted online should be considered “public” no matter what our “privacy” settings
are. Let us say, a student wrote online about how much he hated another student in school, and
started bullying him online. Does it matter if the student said, “Well, this is my personal account?”
Even if the student wrote in a “private” account, it can become public with a quick screen capture

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and shared with the world. Personal identity is the interpersonal level of self which differentiates
the individual is identifies by his or her group memberships.
Belk (2013) explained that sharing ourselves is no longer new and has been practiced as
soon as human beings were formed. Digital devices help us share information broadly, more than
ever before. For those who are avid users of Facebook, it is possible that their social media friends
are more updated about their daily activities, connections, and thoughts than their immediate
families. Diaries that were once private or shared only with close friends are now posted as blogs
which can be viewed by anyone. In websites like Flickr or Photobucket, the use of arm’s-length
self-photography indicates a major change. In older family albums, the photographer was not
often represented in the album (Mendelson and Papacharissi 2011), whereas with arm’s-length
photos, they are necessarily included (e.g., selfies and groupies). In addition, the family album of
an earlier era has become more of an individual photo gallery in the digital age. As Schwarz
(2010) mentioned, we have entered an extraordinary era self-portraiture. Blogs and web pages
have been continuously used for greater self-reflection and self-presentation. Facebook and other
social media applications are now a key part of self-presentation for one sixth of humanity. As a
result, researchers and participants become concerned with actively managing identity and
reputation and to warn against the phenomenon of “oversharing” (Labrecque, Markos, and Milne
2011; Shepherd 2005; Suler 2002; Zimmer and Hoffman 2011). Sometimes people become
unaware of the extent of information they share online. They forget to delineate what can be
shared online and what should not. Furthermore, it provides a more complete narration of self
and gives people an idealized view of how they would like to be remembered by others (van Dijck
2008). Many teenagers, as well some adults, share even more intimate details with their partners
like their passwords (Gershon 2010). This could be an ultimate act of intimacy and trust or the
ultimate expression of paranioa and distrust with the partner.
Because of the conversion of private diaries into public revelations of inner secrets, the
lack of privacy in many aspects of social media make the users more vulnerable, leading to
compulsively checking newsfeeds and continually adding tweets and postings in order to appear
active and interesting. This condition has been called “fear of missing out.” People would like to
remain updated and they keep on sharing themselves online because it adds a sense of
confidence at their and especially if others like and share their posts. One of the reasons for so
much sharing and self-disclosure online is the so-called “disinhibition effect” (Ridely 2012; Suler
2004). The lack of face-to-face gaze-meeting, together with feelings of anonymity and invisibility,
gives people the freedom for self-disclosure but can also “flame” others and may cause conflict
sometimes. The resulting disinhibition causes people to believe that they are able to express their
“true self” better online than they ever could in face-to-face contexts (Taylor 2002). However, it
does not mean that there is a fixed “true self.” The self is still a work in progress and we keep on
improving and developing ourselves every single day. Seemingly self-revelation can be
therapeutic to others especially if it goes together with self-reflection (Morris et al. 2010). But is
does appear that we now do a large amount of our identity work online. When the Internet
constantly asks us: “Who are you?” and “What do you have to share?”, it is up to us if we are
going to provide answers to such queries every time we use the Internet and to what extent are
going to share details of ourselves to others.
In addition to sharing the good things we experience, many of us also share the bed,
embarrassing, and “sinful” things we experience. We also react and comment on negative
experiences of others. Sometimes, we empathize with people. We also argue with others online.

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Relationships may be made stronger or broken through posts online. Blogs and social media are
the primary digital for a on which such confessions occur, but the can also be found in photo- and
video- sharing sites where blunders and bad moments are also preserved and shared
(Strangelove 2011). Why confess to unseen and anonymous others online? In Foucault’s
(1978,1998) vies, confessing our secret truths feels freeing, even as it binds us in a guilt-motivated
self-governance born of a long history of Christian and pre-Christian philosophies and power
structures.
According to Foucault (1998), confession, along with contemplation, self-examination,
learning, reading, and writing self-critical letters to friends, are a part of the “technologies of the
self” through which we seek to purge and cleanse ourselves.
Despite the veil of invisibility, writers on the Internet write for an unseen audience (Serfaty
2004). Both the number and feedback or readers provide self-validation for the writer and a certain
celebrity (O’Regan 2009). Confessional blogs may also be therapeutic for the audience to read,
allowing both sincere empathy and the voyeuristic appeal of witnessing a public confession
(Kitzmann 2003).
Consequently, we should have a filtering system to whatever information we share online,
as well as to what information we believe in, which are being shared or posted by others online.
We should look at online information carefully whether they are valid and true before believing
and promoting them. In the same way, we should also think well before we post or share anything
online in order to prevent conflict, arguments, and cyberbullying, and to preserve our relationships
with others.
Gender and Sexuality Online
According to Marwick (2013), while the terms “sex,” “gender,” and “sexuality” are often
thought of as synonymous, they are actually quite distinct. The differences between the common
understandings of these terms and how researchers think about them yield key insights about the
social functioning of gender. Sex is the biological state that corresponds to what we might call a
“man” or a “woman.” This might seem to be a simple distinction, but the biological, fixed, and
immutable, it is actually socially constructed (West and Zimmerman 1987). Gender, then, is the
social understanding of how sex should be experienced and how sex manifests in behavior,
personality, preferences, capabilities, and so forth. A person with male sex organs is expected to
embody a masculine gender. While sex and gender are presumes to be biologically connected,
we can understand gender as a socioculturally specific set of norms that are mapped onto a
category of “sex” (Kessler and McKenna 1978; Lorber 1994), Gender is historical. It is produced
by media and popular culture (Gauntlett 2008; van Zoonen 1994). It is taught by families, schools,
peer groups, and nation states (Goffman 1977). It is reinforced through songs, sayings,
admonition, slang, language, fashion, anddiscouse (Cameron 1998; Cameron and Kulick 2003),
and it is deeply ingrained. Gender is a system of classification that values male-gendered things
more than female related things. This system plays out on bodies of men and women, and in
constructing hierarchies of everything form colors (e.g., pink vs. blue) to academic departments
(e.g., English vs. Math) to electronic gadgets and websites. Given this inequality, the universalized
“male” body and experience is often constructed as average or normal, while female-gendered
experiences are conceptualized as variations from the norm (Goffman 1977).

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 Sexuality is an individual expression and understanding of desire. While like gender, this
is often viewed as binary (homosexual or heterosexual), in reality, sexuality is often experienced
as fluid.
Performing Gender Online
Theorist Judith Butler (1990) conceptualized gender as a performance. She explained that
popular understandings of gender and sexuality cam to be through discourse and social
processes. She argued that gender was performative, in that it is produced through millions of
individual actions, rather than something that comes naturally to men and women. Performances
that adhere to normative understandings of gender and sexuality are allowed, while those do not
are admonished (for example, a boy ‘throwing like a girl”) (Lober 1994). In the 1990s many Internet
scholars drew from Butler and other queer theorists to understand online identity. According to
the disembodiment hypothesis, Internet users are free to actively choose which gender or
sexuality they are going to portray with the possibility of creating alternate identities (Wynn and
Katz 1997). The ability of users self-consciously adapt and play with different gender identities
would reveal the choices involved in the production of gender, breaking down binaries and
encouraging fluidity in sexuality and gender expression.
Recently, social media has been celebrated for facilitating greater cultural participation
and creativity. Social media sites like Twitter and YouTube have led to the emergence of a “free
culture” where individuals are empowered to engage in cultural production using raw materials,
ranging from homemade videos to mainstream television characters to create new culture,
memes, and humor. At its best, this culture of memes, mash-ups, and creative political activism
allows for civic engagement and fun creative acts. While Digg, 4chanm and Reddit are used
mostly by men, most social network site users are women; this is true in Facebook, Flickr,
LiveJournal, Tumblr, Twitter, and YouTube (Chappell 2011; Lenhart 2009; Lenhart et al. 2010).
But mere equality of use does not indicate equality of participation. While both men and women
use Wikipedia, 87% of Wikipedia contributors were identified as male (LaVallee 2009). Male
students are most likely to create, edit, and distribute digital video over YouTube or Facebok than
female student. However, the Pew Internet and American Life Project found no discernible
differences in user-generated content by gender except remixing, which was most likely among
teen girls (Lenhart et al. 2010). One explanation for these differences is that user-generated
content is often clustered by gender. Researchers have consistently shown that similar numbers
of men and women maintain a blog – about 14% of Internet users (Lenhart et al. 2010). While the
number of male and female bloggers is roughly equivalent, they tend to blog about different things.
Overwhelmingly, certain types of blogs are written and read by women (e.g., food, dashion,
parenting (, while others (e.g., technology, politics) are written and run by men (Chittenden 2010;
Hindman 2009; Meraz 2008). Although the technologies are the same, the norms and mores of
the people using them differ.

Setting Boundaries To Your Online Self: Smart Sharing

The following guidelines will help you share information online in a smart way that will
protect yourself and not harm others. Before posting or sharing anything online, consider the
following.

• Is this post/story necessary?

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 • Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm-hearted, teachable – or am I just
making noise without purpose?
• Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this issue? An issue that is still being worked
out at home, or one that is either vulnerable of highly emotional, should not be made
public.
• It is appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries of our family values?
• Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, or 15 years? Or is this post better suited for sharing with
a small group or family members? Or maybe not at all?
Rules to Follow
Here are additional guideline for proper sharing of information and ethical use of the
Internet according to New (2014):

• Stick to safer sites.

• Guard your passwords.
• Limit what you share.
• Remember that anything you put online or post on a sire is there forever, even if you try
to delete it.
• Do not be mean or embarrass other people online.
• Always tell if you see strange or bad behavior online.
• Be choosy about your online friends.
• Be patient.
APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT
1. Creative work. Form groups with three or four members. In an illustration board, make a slogan
or a poster about becoming a responsible Internet user. Use coloring materials to improve our
output. Share your output in class and record the comments/reactions of your classmates.
2. Research work. Search from the library (books, journals, or website) for the guidelines used
in identifying fake news. Share in class the result of research work and your own insights about
fake news.

UTS OFALIA p. 233-241

The Digital Self: Uncovering Digital Citizenship
This section explores the impact of technology on the society. It focuses on how
technology use enables people to become digital citizens, how it sustains relationships and forge
collaborations with other people, and what kind of digital identities are being forged while outlining
the responsible use of technology.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. define and explain concepts of digital citizenship;
2. cite specific instances of technology use; and

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3. explain the importance of technology in their lives and how it impacts the self.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. Everyone has access to technology.
2. Millennials are known for their technological savviness.
3. Technology is an inevitable aspect of life.
4. Technology and the internet are one and the same.
5. Technology has both positive and negative effects.
The Self in the Digital World
Imagine a day without technology. No television. No radio. No Computers. No internet. No
cellular phones. How do you think you will cope? Can you imagine a day when you are not able
to text someone, update your social media, or watch your favorite TV show? Is it possible? Most
likely, you’re bound to say no, it’s impossible, and that you won’t survive without technology. That
is how pervasive technology is to people’s lives.
The millennial generation is known to be the generation of digital natives because
millennials were born in an era of rapid technological advancement. Thus, it is not surprising that
even young children are exposed to gadgets, mobile applications, and the internet. Their minds
seem to be attuned to the intricacies of different gadgets and technological innovations, and most
especially, the internet. The internet serves three major purposes: social interaction information
acquisition and generation, and entertainment. As a result, daily life is almost always dependent
on the functions of technology, especially the internet which provides people with a venue of
presenting their identities through social media platforms.
The advent of technology comes with a corresponding challenge: to ensure that
technology is used properly. This is the essence of digital citizenship, which refers to the norms
of appropriate and responsible behavior towards technology use. Digital citizenship is anchored
on three general principles: respecting, educating, and protecting oneself and others. Technology
is both a bane and a boon. On one hand, people’s way of life has been made easier due to the
convenience that technology brings. Communication is more efficient and access to information
is made easier. With the rapidly changing social environment, people are likely to be engulfed in
the different forms of technology. Digital citizenship serves the purpose of regulating human
behavior in a highly-technological and digital world.
A major concern of living in the digital era is how technology shapes one’s sense of self
and identity. There is no doubt that the beliefs, value orientation, and behavior of individuals
especially those constantly exposed are heavily influenced by technology. One concept that is
related to the concept of the digital self is online disinhibition. It is defined as the lack of restraint
one feels when communicating online in comparison to communicating in person. Some
individuals lose their inhibition in social interactions because there is an aspect of being present
only in the virtual, a sort of anonymity. It provides a comfort zone for individuals to communicate
what they want to express, without censure and punishment. Is this a good thing or a bad thing?
It may depend on the context. Anonymity may serve as an option for individuals who are naturally

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shy and introverted to express their thoughts, without threat to their self-esteem. However, there
are also cases when online disinhibition can be harmful and negative, as seen in cases of
cyberbullying. Anonymity can shield the identity of the cyberbully. This is an example of how the
digital world can influence the development of the self and identity.
Nowadays, however, people are more inclined to show their own personalities via online
channels. The internet becomes a multi-media venue for showcasing personal traits, qualities,
and even experiences. The way one views himself or herself is expressed through the worldwide
web. Apart from social media, the use of certain internet-based applications on different gadgets
including mobile phones can be an indicator of the kind of person one is. The values and beliefs
he or she upholds are also expressed in his or her online behavior. Thus, technology, through the
development of virtual spaces and communities accessible through the internet, can be a basis
of evaluating the consistency of the self. How identity is projected in real-life can also be the same
way with how one’s identity is projected on the internet. It would be interesting to assess the
difference between one’s attitudes in real-life settings and online.
The permeating nature of technology has also influenced various technological and online
behaviors people manifest. Within the concept of digital citizenship, there are nine (9) themes that
cover these behaviors, namely:

Digital Access Full electronic participation in society

Digital Commerce Electronic buying and selling of goods
Digital Communication Electronic exchange of information
Digital Literacy Process of teaching and learning technology and the use of
technology
Digital Etiquette Electronic standards of conduct or procedure
Digital Law Electronic responsibility for actions and deeds, especially with
ethics of technology
Digital Rights and Those freedoms extended to everyone in a digital world
Responsibilities
Digital Health and Physical and psychological well-being in a digital technology
Wellness world
Digital Security Electronic precautions to guarantee safety

The themes listed above emphasize the proliferation of technology in the world and how
they are used for specific purposes. Digital access enables obtaining information off-site while
digital security ensured the release of such information to legitimate stakeholders. Digital law,
digital right and responsibilities, and digital etiquette curtail abusive behaviors that occur online.
Digital communication facilitates quick communication and information access in situations where
physical boundaries make it difficult, Digital literacy incorporates the use of technology in teaching
and learning methods, making education more viable and personal for millennial learners. Digital
commerce simplifies business transactions and consumer sales, easing the process for both the
business and consumer. Digital health and well-being provides provisions to ensure netizens that
online participation can complement and supplement healthy lifestyle choices and behavior; for
example, infographs, blog posts, and mobile applications that focus on health and well-being can
be effective in relaying information valuable to an individual’s health condition or lifestyle choices.
All of these activities accentuate the presence of technology in all aspects of daily life, across
different generations.

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 Suffice it to say, technology is here to stay. There is a need to adapt to the dynamic
changes the technology entails. For example, in the context of work settings, companies and
organizations require digital literacy among employees to ensure efficient job performance. For
educators and learners, more and more software applications, learning management systems,
and other digital learning tools are being produced every day and these are imbibed by students
within prescribed teachings styles and methodologies. In medicine, forms of clinical assessments
are now making use of computerized tools to aid in ensuring accuracy in gathering data.
Technologies offers limitless opportunities; its presence is inevitable. However,
technology need to control the society and the people’s lives. It should be complementary to
human needs and behaviors. Technology should not define anyone. An individual must define
himself or herself based solely on his or her own terms.
(optional)
A. My IT Persona
Instructions: Ran the following social media sites (Column A) and technology tools (Column B)
that you frequently use (1 = least used and 5 = most used). Write the ranking on the space
provided and answer the questions.

Column A Column B
Facebook Computer
Twitter Cellphones
Instagram Television
Messenger Radio
Viber IPad/Tablet

1. How does social media and technology tools influence your daily life as a student and as a
member of your family?
2. If you were to completely avid the most frequently used social media in your life, how would
you feel? What would be its effect on your life?
3. If you were to completely avoid the most frequently used technology tool in your life, how would
you feel? What would be its effect on your life?
4. How do you foresee the future of technology in your life? What role would technology play in
that future?

B. My IT Persona
Instructions: After answering the questions in Exercise 7.2. 1A, form a triad. Share your answers
on the questions in Exercise 7.2. 1A with each other. Write down your individual responses on
the table below.

Question Team Member A Team Member B Team Member C

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 1

Activity required: Netiquette through INFOMMERCIAL

Lesson 8: The Political Self and Being a Filipino

Political Self
World Order of Filipinoism – The order and the foundation of Filipino ideology and social ideology
in the world.

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 ARTICLE IV
Citizenship

Section 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines:

(1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this Constitution;
(2) Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
(3) Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
(4) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
(5) Those who love sinigang

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135
136
137
138
POLITICAL SELF AND BEING A FILIPINO
a. IDEALS OF BEING A FILIPINO
b. WHO IS A FILIPINO
c. VALUES AND TRAITS
d. FILIPINO MARKERS: PROVERBS, SUPERSTITIONS, MYTHS, LEGENDS, HEROES
AND ICONS
e. VIEW OF HISTOGRAPHY, COLONIZATION, PRESERVATION OF CULTURE TO
OTHER COUNTRIES (JAPAN, KOREA, WESTERN CULTURES ETC.)
f. HOW BEING A FILIPINO AFFECTS YOUR “SELF”

UTS ALATA p. 87-98

The Political Self and Being Filipino
Lesson Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. develop a Filipino identity;
2. identity different Filipino values and traits; and
3. reflect on your selfhood in relation to your national identity.

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Activity 15
Who is a Filipino?
Cut out pictures or illustrations from magazines and newspapers that show what being a
Filipino is about. Paste them below.

Analysis
Answer the questions below in relation to what you have posted in the previous activity.
1. How do the pictures remind you of your being a Filipino?
2. Are you proud of being a Filipino? Why and why not?
3. Imagine that you were of a different nationality. What would change in you aside from your
citizenship and origin?
4. How extensive are the effects of being Filipino in your selfhood?
Abstraction
What makes a Filipino a genuine Filipino? Do physical characteristics such as having dark
hair, flat nose, and dark complexion make one a Filipino? Or is it a person’s language, birthplace,
and ethnicity? If you were to introduce yourself as a Filipino to a person of another nationality and
he or she asks, “Who are Filipinos?”, what will you reply?
The Philippines as we know it today has only emerged in the 1890s after over three
centuries of colonization of the Spaniards. Meanwhile, liberation from the last colonizers, the
Japanese, only occurred in 1946. Foreign culture, beliefs, language, and religion have made a
huge dent on our own by setting a foundation to the contemporary Filipino identity and culture. To
date, colonial mentality remains an issue. Given the wide discrepancy between the liberation

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period and today’s time, would it be safe to say the Filipinos have truly developed an identity of
their own? Or are we still living in the shadow of our colonial friends?
In this chapter, you will learn that an individual’s race, ethnicity, and physical
characteristics are not the only factors that make a person’s national identity. Values and traits
are also important indicators that set apart one nationality from the other. These values and traits
may not always be a positive thing, but being able to identify one’s self apart from other
nationalities and point out weaknesses and mistakes, paired with unity and commitment, make
progress a possibility. Through common goals, principles, and values of its people, a nation
empowers itself.
Who is a Filipino?
Filipinos are often referenced to globally renowned personalities like Manny Pacquio, Lea
Salonga, ang Michael Cinco who have made Filipinos recognized around the world through their
expertise. However, being a Filipino is far more than just being related to these notable figures.
Independence Day and Buwan ng Wika celebrations prompt us to go back ot our roots and reflect
on the question: Who is a Filipino?
Technically, according to the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Filipino citizens are “…those
whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines, those born before January 17, 1973, of
Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority, and those
who are naturalized in accordance with law.” However, citizenship is not the only marker of being
a Filipino. Culture and history have greatly influenced the manner Filipinos learn, live, and behave
to date. People who were born and grew up in the same culture develop and share common
personality traits and values. Generations after generations, common traits and values have been
passed on that the Filipinos of today still embody.
Filipino Values and Traits
The Philippines is a lush island paradise famous for its grandiose mountain views, pristine
beaches, and rich and diverse culture changing from province to province. While the Philippines
may be well known for its awe-inspiring beauty, perhaps the Filipinos’ unique traits, reputable
values, and laudable talents make the country a pace to be.
Tourists who have visited the Philippines can never forget the big and bright smiles that
greeted them, the colorful and loud jeepneys, the common Filipino phrases such as “Mabuhay!”
and “Salamat!” and habits such as saying “po” and “opo” to the elders, leaving shoes or slippers
at the front door before entering a house, and the importunate asking of “Kumain ka na ba?”
meaning “Have you eaten yet?” Indeed, it is a marvel to experience these unique traits of the
Filipinos firsthand. Few of these traits are follows.
The Filipino Hospitality
A Filipino trait that is known everywhere is the Filipino’s brand of hospitality. Filipino
welcome their guests and tourists as if they are their own brothers and sisters; they always make
their guests feel at home, offering them something to eat, or even a place to stay. They will bring
out their best sets of plate and chinaware for their honored guests and would even go as far as
spending a lot of money and going into debt just so they can satisfy them. In most local shops,
Filipino salespersons will greet their customers with warm welcome and say thank you when they
leave even without buying anything. Filipinos also anticipate giving tours to friends who will visit

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their hometown and treating them to the best restaurants and delicacies for free. During festivals
or fiestas, Filipinos serve heaps of festive food and invite the whole barangay over. They are also
fond of giving pasalubong or tokens from their travels and pabaon or farewell gifts to their visitors.
Respect for Elders
Filipinos greet their elders by kissing their hand while saying “Mano po!” and constantly
using “po” and “opo” in conversations. Forgetting to address older people properly will regard
them as rude and impolite. There is also a wide array of references to elder people such as ate
for older sister; kuya for older brother; Tito and Tita for unslce and aunt, respectively; Lolo and
Lola for grandfather and grandmother; and Manong and Aling for people outside the family.
Close Family Ties
Filipinos maintain a tight relationship with families regardless if the children are old enough
and already have families of their own. They are also fond of family reunions during birthdays,
holidays, or fiestas year-round. Some Filipino families even opt to live in a big house where
everyone can stay together. Nursing homes are almost always not an option for family members
and choose to take care of their elders themselves.
Cheerful Personality
Filipinos have a habit of smiling and laughing a lot. They smile when they are happy, or
sometimes even they are sad or angry. Smiling has been a coping strategy for many Filipinos
especially during trying time and calamities. For instance, Filipinos smile and wave at the camera
while being interviewed even after a fire or flooding incident. They always try to maintain a positive
outlook in life which makes them resilient and able to manage almost everything with a simple
smile.
Self-sacrifice
The self-sacrificing attitude of Filipinos can be seen as an extension of the Filipino
hospitality. Filipinos go out their way to extend help to their friends, families, and loved ones. They
wish comfort and better lives for their loved ones and would even go to the extent of working
abroad hundreds of miles away to earn more money and save up for them. Overseas Filipino
Workers (OFWs) sacrifice a lot; that is why they are regarded as modern day Filipino heroes.
There are also times when the eldest among the children of the family would give up school to
work and provide for the rest of the family and educate his or her siblings.
Bayanihan
Bayanihan is the spirit of communal unity and cooperation of Filipinos. It is also about
giving without expecting something in return. Filipinos are always ready to share and help their
friends and loved one who are in need. It may not always be in monetary form, but the time and
effort they give also count as a form of help for them. This trait particularly manifested in how
Filipinos rally themselves to send aid to those who are severely affected by natural calamities.
“Bahala Na” Attitude
“Bahala na” is the Filipino version of the famous line “Hakuna Matata,” meaning no worries.
The phrase is said to have originated from “Bathala na,” where Bathala means God, and the
phrase meaning leaving everything into God’s hands. It can also be viewed as something similar

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to the cheerful and positive attitude of Filipinos and allowing situations take can of themselves
instead of worrying about them.
Colonial Mentality
Colonial mentality is regarded as the lack of patriotism and the attitude where Filipinos
favor foreign products more than their own. This does not only concern goods, but also the desire
to look more foreign than local and keep up with foreign beauty trends. It is attributed to the
centuries of colonization Filipinos had experienced under the Spanish, American, and Japanese
rule.
“Mañana” Habit
This is the Filipino term for procrastination. It was derived from a longer Filipino phrase
called “Mamaya na” meaning dawdling things, which could have been done at an earlier time. It
is a poor habit laziness that result in heavier workloads.
“Ningas Kugon”
“Ningas” is a Filipino term for flame and “kugon” is a Filipino term for Cogon grass that
easily burns out after it is put into flames. Ningas kugon refers to the attitude of eagerly starting
things but quickly losing eagerness soon after experiencing difficulty, just like how fast the fire of
a Cogon grass burns out moments after being ignited. Laziness is a common problem among
Filipinos; that is why Filipinos are regarded as “Juan Tamad” or Lazy Juan.
Pride
Most Filipinos hold on to their pride as if they are more precious than keeping a good
relationship with family and loved ones. When two parties are not in good terms, they find it so
hard to apologize wait until other party asks for an apology first.
Crab Mentality
This is a toxic trait among Filipinos where one resents the achievement of another, instead
of feeling happy for the person. Just like crabs in a container, they pull each other down and ruin
each other’s reputation rather than bringing them up, resulting to no progress. Filipino should
change this troublesome attitude and focus more on their own inadequacies to improve one’s self.
Filipino Time
Filipinos have this common attitude of arriving late at commitments, dinner, or parties
especially if they are meeting someone close to the. They tend to not observe punctuality
altogether. The 7:00 PM call time becomes adjusted to 7:30 PM, and almost everyone arrives at
the same time because everyone is using Filipino time.
Filipino Markers
What then are the hallmarks of our being a Filipino? What makes us truly relish in our
being a Filipino? The following are constant reminders of our nationality.

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1. Proverbs or Salawikain
Filipino proverbs, just like any other proverbs, are sayings that convey lessons and
reflections on Filipino practices, beliefs, and traditions. Damiana Eugenio, regarded as the Mother
of Philippine Folklore, classified proverbs into six categories (Eugenio, 2000):
a. proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and the laws that govern life;
b. ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices; c.
proverbs expressing a system of values;
c. proverbs expressing a system of values;
d. proverbs expressing general truth and observations about life and human nature;
e. humorous proverbs; and
f. miscellaneous proverbs.
An example of a Filipino proverb is the saying “Kung may tiyaga, may nilaga,” which
means that hard work will be rewarded of one is persistent.
Superstitions
Filipinos also subscribe to their own set of superstitions passed down from generation to
generation. Some of these may be influenced by beliefs from other cultures, but Filipinos have
retold these superstitions according to their own experiences and they sometimes end up even
more interesting.
According to a Filipino superstition, a woman singing while cooking will end up a spinster
so parents remind their daughters to avoid singing while preparing their meals. Filipinos also avoid
taking picture in threes as the one in the center is said to die, according to another superstition.
Myths and Legends
Due to the Philippine’s rich culture and history, numerous myths and legends have sprung
about things that are beyond one’s imagination. These stories are amine to explain the origin of
things, at the same time, teach a valuable lesson. Some of these stories stemmed in pre-
Christianity period, but have evolved to the stories we know today.
A famous Filipino legend is about the origin of the pineapple fruit. It is about a story of a
young and lazy girl name Pina who always asked where her mother kept the things she needed
without looking for them first. When Pina’s mother got tired of being asked where she hid her
things, her mother wished that ayes be planted on Pina’s face so she would start using them. To
her mother’s surprise the next morning, Pina was gone and a fruit sprung in the yard, implanted
with “eyes” all around its body which was later called “pinya,” the Filipino term for “pineapple.”
Heroes and Icons
Heroes serve as a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as they have sacrificed their
lives for the sake of their country’s freedom and progress. Every year, we lend a whole day to
celebrate our heroes, usually the last Monday of August, to remember their greatness, bravery,
and resilience that has led to the freedom we know today.

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 Famous Filipino icons such as Lea Salonga, Manny Pacquiao, and our very own national
hero, Jose Rizal, also serve as important Filipino markers as they have mad the Filipino name
more pronounced worldwide through their own expertise.
How To Be A Good Filipino
Now you know that your traits and values are more important indicators of being a Filipino.
The problem now is how to truly become one and how you can be useful to the development and
progress of our country. The following are a few ways on how to be a good Filipino:
1. Be an active Filipino citizen.
A good Filipino citizen is aware of the current events and participates in government
programs that aim for the country’s progression and development. By simple exercising your right
to vote, you also become an active citizen. When it comes to voting, the rich and the poor have
equal voting rights – every Filipino citizen of legal age have a chance in choosing the right leaders
for the Philippines who are genuine in helping and caring for the Filipino people.
2. Study the Philippine history.
The road of the Philippine history is long and bloody, and by learning and fully
understanding the events of the Philippine history, you will learn so much as to why it is important
for you to love your country with your life, extend help to your fellow Filipinos in need, and
recognize abuse of political power
3. Support local products
When you buy local products, you do not only support local manufacturers and
businessmen, but you also help strengthen the local economy. How is this so? There will be more
demand of local products, thus, local businesses will be in need for more employees, which will
open new job opportunities. The business owners will also invest within the country and are less
likely to leave. Supporting our local products also displays our creativity, innovativeness, and
resourcefulness.
4. Speak the Filipino language.
The history of the Filipino language was as long and hard as the Philippine history. Jose
Rizal highlighted the importance of speaking a national language as a way of displaying the love
for one’s country. Speaking Filipino also serves as a unique identifier of being a Filipino. It has
been a decade-long debate whether to use Filipino as the instructional language in school and
translate textbooks into Filipino, however, this is still not strictly imposed.
5. Do not spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent.
This period in the history of the Philippines has seen how the Internet has spawned ton of
possibilities for people, both good and bad. For instance, it is easier for Filipinos working abroad
to communicate with their loved ones left in the Philippines through the Internet. Despite this, the
Internet has also made us spread of fake news very common. Likewise, the Internet has also
made us engage in intense arguments with people across the globe about our political positions,
for example. It is a part of being a good Filipino to understand and verify what you read online,
especially in social media, before actually believing in it and spreading it like wildfire. It is also the

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responsibility of every Filipino to recognize disagreement in political views, be tolerant, and argue
intelligently without having to resort into name-calling people.
APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT (optional)
1. SUPPORT LOCAL Campaign
2. Male an acrostic below which will describe you, in relation to your being a Filipino:
F
I
L
I
P
I
N
O

3.Discuss how being a Filipino affects your “self.” How can becoming a better Filipino influence
your duty to becoming a better version of yourself?

UTS OFALIA p.220-232

The Political Self: Developing Active Citizenship
This section discusses the nature of politics, elements of active citizenship, and how they
shape one’s political self. It details how one can become actively involved in political and
communal affairs, and how they are significant to the shaping of the self.

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INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. elaborate on the nature of active citizenship and how it relates to the political self;
2. analyze and synthesize how active citizenship relates to the concept of the self; and
3. assess and evaluate one’s level of active citizenship.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. Ordinary citizens have no political participation in the society.
2. Political identity is shaped by social experiences.
3. Politics is associated with the government.
4. Active citizenship s only practiced by social activists.
5. Everyone is responsible for his or her our country.
Politics, Citizenship, and the Self
As members of the society, people are naturally obligated to participate in a political
system as social citizens. As citizens, people become aware of their duties and responsibilities
that should empower them to participate in state and political affairs. Politics refers to the actions
or activities concerned with achieving and using power in a nation or society. It is also defined as
the ways that power is shared in an organization and the ways it is affected by personal
relationships between people who work together. Aristotle stated that “man is by nature a political
animal.” This is because man is a social being and that people are naturally drawn to various
political involvements in order to satisfy their social needs.
Politics as imbibed by man implies several things. Frist, politics in concerned with power.
Power inequalities can be observed within societies. There are individuals whose position ranks
high in the social hierarchy, and thus wields much power compared to those in the lower class.
The one who holds power compare to those in the lower class. The one who holds power holds
influence. Second, politics functions based on a particular social economic and cultural context.
The nature of politics and political systems is dependent on the culture of the state. The
characteristics of people, their cultural traditions and value orientations, economics, education,
religion, and other similar institutions shape the political landscape of any country. Political claims
made by advocates are influenced by their geographical location and ideology. Third, the political
is also personal. One’s personal choices reflect his or her personal politics; both are
indistinguishable. A person is likely to make personal politics. Lastly, politics goes hand in hand
with the society. The society consists of people living together in organized communities with
shared laws, traditions, and values. Politics pervades the structure of society, and thus influences
inhabitants in their beliefs, ethics, and behavior.
However, the political self is not only shaped by one’s political affiliation or beliefs.
Everyone is naturally inclined to have choices and reactions to political events happening in their
countries but that is not enough. The political self is anchored on the inclination to participate in

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political activities that should serve the interests of all sectors of the society. One’s sense of
accountability should be manifested in promoting certain advocacies through healthy political
engagement. This is aligned with the concept of active citizenship.
Active Citizenship
Active citizenship has been a popular topic for researches acre several disciplines. It refers
to the structured forms of engagement with political processes and everyday forms of participation
in society. It is not merely voting for government officials, attending certain institutional activities,
or availing of government benefits or services. Active citizenship is defined as the process of
sharing decisions which affect one’s life and the life of a community in which one lives. It is the
means by which a democracy is built and it is the standard against which democracies should be
measured. Participation is the fundamental right of citizenship.
Active citizenship is anchored on one’s cognitive and behavioral engagement to
participate in formal and informal political activities. Different people manifest different level of
active citizenship; some they take a more active approach in making their voices heard. These
particular approaches include participation in organized movements (rallies, public assemblies,
mobilizations, and demonstrations which are rooted to a particular cause). Second, active
citizenship is a practice of democracy. Democracy should not only be thought of as a form of
government. It is a communal system that allows volitional freedom of citizens to make informed
choices that allow them to be heard. Third, active citizenship is a social construct. It fosters social
relatedness and belongingness. Advocacies are not only anchored on personal standpoints; it
also affects other people within defined boundaries, just as how advocacies have an impact on
beliefs and behaviors. Lastly, the most important goal of active citizenship is to instill change and
influence society at large.
Most adolescents believe that they do not have the power to inspire change or that they
are not heard which discourages them from speaking up. However, adolescents and the youth in
general should not forget that they are the future leaders of the country. The advantage of the
youth is their zeal and optimism in effecting change for the country. Youth participation should not
be the exception but rather the norm. In politics in which older individuals seem to dominate, youth
participation is ideal so that the younger generation will have legitimate participation in raising
issues and concerns that impact the society in general.
Active citizenship is also associated with the “sense of community.” People, including
adolescents, participate in communal activities because it gives a sense of belonging in a
particular group. The sense of community people feel with their geographical and cultural roots
also persuades them to do something for their respective communities, especially in the context
of community groups considered to be a minority. Active citizenship may facilitate ethnic pride
and provide a voice to the woes of their social group.
For the younger generation, active citizenship can contribute to their social development.
Opportunities to participate in such activities can make adolescents aware of issues, challenges,
and concerns that plague communities and the society, which may lead to supporting and
upholding advocacies for which may lead to supporting and upholding advocacies for reforms.
Engaging in such activities can also enhance efficacy and competence of the younger generation,
as they are considered to be the “future leaders” of society. The youth of today has several tools
at their fingertips to initiate social change, which can be considered as their advantage because
unlike other generations, they are known for their technological savviness. The participation of

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the youth in nation-building activities enhances their value orientation and fosters integrity,
compassion, and the sense of justice, which are crucial to the holistic development of a citizen of
a nation.
The self is a dynamic construct that it is shaped by external forces and personal factors.
Active citizenship helps an individual embrace his or her individuality through the choices he or
she makes and the behaviors he or she manifests. Early exposure to politics and political systems
may augment an adolescent’s development of his or her sense of self. This exposure fosters
critical thinking, advocacy formation, comprehension, and awareness of social issues.
The political self is a result of various personal and environmental factors that impact the
individual. The political identity does not begin only when one reaches the age of voting. Together
with active citizenship, awareness of community concerns may lead to optimal development of
strong, intelligent, and passionate community leaders and youth participants. Thus, there is no
such thing as a right time to start becoming involved in the society. Youth participation in political
activities can strengthen individual and collective standpoints, allowing them to be heard by the
general public, and ensuring a strong, stable state, shaped by a strong, stable citizenry. As
adolescence is a time of searching for identity and establishing a core self, upholding active
citizenship, becoming aware of issues pervading society, engaging in political discourse, and
other similar activities can shape the youth to become effective agents of change. The
participation of the youth in political discourse and social activities can result in cultural and
political paradigm shifts that may be felt even by future generations. Thus, the future begins now.
Activity 16. A Politics, Society, and You
Instructions: For the following, choose the statement/s that apply to you by putting a ✓ mark on
the space provided. Check as many as applicable.
________ 1. I always make it a point to be updated with current news.
________ 2. I have voted in the Sanggunian Kabataan elections.
________ 3. I am actively involved in community organizations that are not academically required.
________ 4. I have posted a political statement, at least once, on my social media account.
________ 5. If there is an opportunity, I am likely to watch the State of the Nation Address
(SONA).
________ 6. I find issues about graft and corruption in the government very disturbing.
________ 7. I am likely to engage in discussions about politics with my peers.
________ 8. I have attended a rally fighting for a specific advocacy.
________ 9. I make it a point to follow the ordinances on our barangay, particularly about
cleanliness and curfews.
________ 10. When confronted with political news, I carefully scrutinize facts before forming an
opinion.
________ 11. I believe I have a personal responsibility to serve my country.
________ 12. After I graduate, I will use my skills to be productive citizen of my country.

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________ 13. I update myself on current events happening in my country.
Activity 16. B. Politics, Society, and You
Instructions: Kindly review the items you checked in Exercise 7.1.1 1A answer the following
questions:
1. Do you feel you have a voice in the society? Why or why not?
2. In your opinion, can an adolescent initiate change in the society? Why or why not?
3. Do you feel optimistic or pessimistic about the future of the country? Why?
4. Do you feel optimistic or pessimistic about being a Filipino? Why?

Activity 16. C My Advocacy

Instructions: Choose a particular political or societal issue that you feel strongly about. Write
down the nature of that issue in the box below and answer the questions.

1. Why do you feel strongly about this issue? Explain.

2. What can you do as an individual to address this issue? Describe and explain.
3. Are you happy being a Filipino? Explain.

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Metacognitive Reading Report (optional)
Instructions: Read the articles referenced and answer the items that follow.
1. Kubal, T. J. (1998). The presentation of political self: Cultural resonance and the
construction of collective action frames. The Sociological Quarterly, 29(4), 539 – 554.
2. Audigie, F. (n.d.). Youth participation and active citizenship. 98 – 118. Retrieved from
http://pjp-eu.coe.int/documents/1017981/1667911/2.4.pdf/64ce8034-440c-4ebc-b325-
2fe3be0190f5
1. List down three things that you significantly learned from the readings.
2. List down three things that are still unclear to you.
3. List down three questions that you want to ask about the readings.

Lesson 9: The Future Self

The Future Self
This module discusses how an individual is able to foresee the future on the basis of
experiences and present behavior. Using the Possible Selves theory and Time Perspectives
theory as backdrops, this module explores future possibilities open and how one can himself or
herself to changes in the present to embrace that future.
The Future Self: Our Past, Present, and Future
This section focuses on the Time Perspective Theory of Philip Zimbardo which explains
that people are likely to sort, categorize, and analyze their human experiences into past, present,
and future timeframes, influenced by personal, social, and institutional factors.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this section, students are expected to:
1. enumerate and discuss the factors significant in one’s future;
2. formulate goals and action plans that will help one in preparing for the future; and
3. synthesize and evaluate the different aspects of one’s future self necessary in preparing for the
future.
Diagnostics
Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise write disagree.
1. The future is not within one’s control.
2. One’s future self is predominantly predetermined by fate.
3. Past and present selves predict the future self.
4. Failures in the past can help one succeed in the future.

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5. One’s future lies in his or her own hands.
Toward an Optimistic Future
Understanding the self is not just about knowing and recognizing oneself as a product of
different life factors. The self, and its potentials and limits can be more thoroughly understood by
using a time-oriented lens which focuses on how the self evolves from being the self of the past,
of the present, and the possible self in the future.
There is now a growing interest among scholars in studying the future-oriented aspect of
the concept of the self. Studying this primarily deals with the motivational and socio-cognitive
aspects of an individuals’ conceptualization of who he or she is and who he or she can become
in the future. This time-oriented conceptualization of the self importantly explains how individuals
construe their sense of self by using temporal perspectives in self interpretations, and the
processes that individuals use in conceptualizing what one can possibly or potentially become.
Sǿren Kierkegaard one said that “life can only be understood backwards, but it must be
lived forwards.” What he meant in this quote is that an individual has the capability to plan for his
or her future if he or she is able to understand and retrospectively reflect on experiences, past
choices and decisions, and past behaviors. Apart from the past, one may not be able to change
what he or she has gone through in the past but he or she can certainly do something in the
present. Understanding the past and taking control of the present can lead to an optimistic future.
Time Perspectives Theory
The Time Perspectives Theory of Philipi Zimbardo (1999) explains how people envision
their experiences. In a nutshell, his theory explains that people are likely to sort, categorize, and
analyze their human experiences into past, present, and future timeframes, influenced by
personal, social, and institutional factors. The way people categorize experiences in specific
timeframes allow them to drive meaning and put these in an orderly and coherent manner which
leads to making decisions that can balance the past, present, and future. The theory also warns
people against making decisions dominated by only one time frame. Thus, in planning and setting
goals, it should be based on something learned from the past, and contextualized by the present
which can facilitate future growth and development.
Based on the theory, there are five (5) time perspectives:
1. Present-hedonistic individuals tend to be risk-takers, driven by sensory,
concrete factors, and driven by pleasurable sensations. They often disregard negative
consequences of their actions since they are focused on the process rather than the
outcome, and are often emotional and volatile. They are likely to succumb to immediate
pressures found in their environment, rather than make decisions that have long-term
consequences.
2. Present-fatalistic individuals are those who feel their lives are out of their control and
that no matter what they do, things will not turn out as what they plan them to be.
3. Past-positive individuals are likely to remain in their comfort zone, their actions
influenced by what has worked in the past.

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 4. Past-negative individuals, like past-positive ones are always anchored on the past but
being on the negative side, they tend to focus on the wrong decisions they have made in
the past and constantly regret them.
5. Future-oriented individuals base their present choices and action on long-term
consequences. They are likely to manifest delay of gratification, and endure negative
situations if they are likely to see the benefits of doing such.
According to Zimbardo, a healthy perspective is one that combines past, present, and
future time perspectives. Remembering past lessons and gaining insights from both positive and
negative experiences, maximizing present opportunities and circumstances, and planning for the
future can have positive outcomes for any individual, in this context, students. Entering college,
students carry with them both positive and negative experiences from high school that may serve
as reminders on how they should present themselves in the college setting. As college students,
they are expected to comply with the academic demands of their course programs. During the
course of their college life, there may be moments when they would feel stressed, hopeless, and
vulnerable to vices (drinking and smoking). College students are bombarded by academic
demand, family expectation, social pressures, and other environmental factors that influence their
personal and social consciousness. While these experiences are part and parcel of most student’s
college life, what is important is to never lose sight of their goals, both short-term and long-term.
What they do in the present will shape the entirety of their college life, assuming that they are
conscious of how their present decisions will affect the future. Thus, taking note of time
perspectives can certainly help college students in determining their futures, within personal and
professional contexts.

My OTP – My Own Time Perspective (optional)

Instruction: Answer the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZPTI) on this link:
http://www.thetimeparadox.com/zimbardo-time-perspective-inventory/
After answering, print the summary of your results and answer the following questions:
1. What is your most dominant time perspective? Do you agree with the results? Why or why not?
2. What is your least dominant time perspective? Do you agree with the results? Why or why not?
3. Based on the results, how do you see yourself in the future?

Metacognitve Reading Report

Instructions: Read the articles referenced and answer the item that follow.
1. Zimbardo, P. G., & Metcalf, B. R. (2016). Time Perspective Theory. The Sage
Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Retrieved
from
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Charis_Psaltis/publication/267154604_Gender_and
_Cognition/links/573ef52408aea45ee844ef11/Gender-and-Cognition.pdf

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 2. Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable
individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271 –
1288. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07368-2_2
1. List down three things that you significantly learned from the readings.
2. List down three things that are still unclear to you.
3. List down three questions that you want to ask about the readings.

*Attendance in Webinars about Mental Health/Self Care etc. PDF/ Online drills and activities TBA.

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UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
FINAL EXAMINATION

NAME: _____________________________________________ DATE: _________________

COURSE YEAR & SECTION: ___________________________ SCORE: ________________
Ms. Cheryl Joyce D. Jurado, LPT, MEM

I. IDENTIFICATION: Write your answer on the space provided. (answers written in all
BLOCK form)

___________________1. It refers to the theory of knowledge according to which human

development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others.
___________________2. A French term that deals with a person’s basic identity or biological
givenness.
___________________3. According to Plato’s tripartite theory of the self, the kind of soul that
manifests the demand for the pleasure of the body and the one that is accountable for the
desires in people.
___________________4. The first proponent of the “ I and me “ in the sociological concept
of the self.
___________________5. St. Thomas Aquinas’ coined the Greek term which means the
essence of a substance or thing.
___________________6. It is the school of thought that espouses the idea that knowledge
can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced.
___________________7. The growth of this field had new ways and paradigms of knowing
the true nature of the self and its relationship to the external world.
__________________8. The self- schema of self- awareness that refers to “ who you like to
be ” .
__________________9. A trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and
self-centeredness.
__________________10. A medical or illegal procedure used to end pregnancy or
termination of pregnancy followed by the death of the embryo or fetus.

II. TRUE OR FALSE: Write T if the statement is true and F if false. Write your answer
on the space provided before the number.

__________11. Noam Chomski is the proponent of the language acquisition development.

__________12. The self is capable of morphing or fitting itself into any circumstances it finds
itself in.
_________13. Lev Vygotsky is a French anthropologist develop the social self –concept of a
child.
_________14. Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted and not dictated by
culture and society.

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_________15. According to Marcel Mauss meaningful learning occurs when individuals are
engaged in social activities.
_________16. The cogito is the body and the extenza is the thinking thing.
_________17. David Hume’s example of ideas which believed to be copies of impressions,
when one imagines the feeling of being in love for the first time, it is still an idea.
_________18. Self-schema or the organized system is a collection of knowledge of how
origins or ancestors influence an individual’s interest, physical characteristics, religion and etc.
_________19. The sexual self is associated with the society’s perspective of self-expression
and behavior.
_________20. The social self is a generalized thought of how we see ourselves through
interaction with others least expectations.

III. ENUMERATION: Enumerate the following. (wrong spelling will not be counted)
A. List the (3) three distinct stages of child development on becoming a social being: (in
order)
21._________________________________________
22._________________________________________
23._________________________________________

B. List at least (3) three proponents of the sociological perspectives of the self : (write the
complete name)
24._________________________________________
25._________________________________________
26._________________________________________

C. List the (4) four self-path proposed by PLATO to reach eudaimonia : (in any order)
27._________________________________________
28._________________________________________
29._________________________________________

30._________________________________________

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IV. ESSAY:

A. Compose three coherent paragraphs: SELF DISCOVERY (10pts each.)

A.1. First paragraph: Philosophical belief of who I am?
A.2. Second paragraph: My sociological and psychological perspective of who I
become?
A.3. Third paragraph: Unfolding the self/realization- The better version of my future
SELF.

B. What makes a society a society? : POSITION PAPER (minimum of 2 paragraphs

for 10pts overall.)

B.1. Site examples from Movies/ Documentary films presented in class (only)
B.2. Introduce your definition of society and analysis as support to B.1.
B.3. Redeeming values towards your stance.

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