BOOK 25
LESSON 1
CONTAMINATE: To pollute /
Contaminar.
COORDINATE: To properly adjust /
Coordinar.
EMIT: To sent out / Emitir.
ENDANGER: To expose to harm / Poner
en peligro.
EXHAUST: To emit fumes / Emitir
humo.
EXPEL: To force out / Expulsar.
INVENT: To create / Inventar.
INVOLVE: To include / Involucrar.
MANUFACTURE: To make a product /
Manufacturar.
POLLUTE: To contaminate /
Contaminar.
ABOVE ALL: Before every other
consideration / Sobre todo.
IF NOT: Unless / Si no.
IN THE SAME WAY / MANNER:
Similarly / Del mismo modo.
ADVANCES: Progress in development /
Avances.
EMISSION: Act of emitting / Emision.
ENVIRONMENT: Surroundings, /
Medio ambiente.
FUME: Gas, smoke or vapor / Humo.
PLANT: Factory / Planta.
PROJECT: Organized plan / Proyecto.
RESOURCE: Supply / Recurso.
SITE: Location / Sitio.
SURROUNDINGS: Things around a
person / Entorno.
TECHNOLOGY: Science of skilled
processes / Tecnologia.
WASTE: Trash / Desperdicio.
ATOMIC: Related to atoms / Atomico.
COMPULSORY: Mandatory /
Obligatorio.
INDUSTRIAL: Having to do with
industry / Industrial.
MOREOVER: In addition to / Ademas.
NOT: Not including / No.
NUCLEAR: Having to do with atomic
power / Nuclear.
OPTIONAL: Not compulsory/ Opcional.
PERMANENT: Not temporary /
Permanente.
RADIOACTIVE: Harmful quality of
nuclear or atomic energy / Radioactivo.
RESPIRATORY: Related to breathing /
Respiratorio.
SIMILARLY: In a similar way /
Similarmente.
TEMPORARY: Not permanent /
Temporal.
TOXIC: Poisonous / Toxico.
 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Certain coordinating conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or

clauses that function the same way within a sentence. When a
coordinating conjunction connects these same structures, it is called
parallel structure.

The most common conjunctions used in parallel structure are and, or, but,
and not.

The conjunction and is the most common of the conjunctions. It is used to

indicate addition.

Or is used to indicate a choice of two items or an alternative.

But shows a contrast between two items.

Not shows an acceptance of one and a rejection of another. It is usually set

off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

The following conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions:

Both…and
Not only...but also
Either…or
Neither…nor
Both…and Shows the addition of two or more items or persons. It is stronger
than and.
Not only…but also is similar to both…and. It includes two or more items
persons.

Either…or indicates a choice between two items or persons.

Neither…nor is the negative of either…or. It is never used with a negative

verb.

The items that are joined by correlative conjunctions must be parallel,

the same kinds of words or phrases. Notice in the examples below that
each item in each part of the paired conjunction is the same
grammatical structure.

1.-Both George and his brother can play the piano.

(noun) (noun)

2.-Her husband not only cooks but also cleans the kitchen.
(verb) (verb)

3.-Either corn or wheat can be planted here.

(noun) (noun)

4.-Betty is neither kind nor helpful.

(adj) (adj)

ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE

The conjunctions where and wherever are commonly used to introduce an

adverb clause of place. The clause will answer the questions where?

Other conjunctions used are anywhere and everywhere, with or without that
following it.

Clauses beginning with wherever or everywhere can come either before or

after the main clause.

Examples:
Apples don't grow where the weather is hot.
The weather was cool wherever we traveled.
Wherever we traveled, the weather was cool.

You may sit anywhere (that) you like.

We could see flowers everywhere (that) we looked.

Everywhere (that) we looked, we could see flowers.

LESSON 2
ABANDON: To give up without
finishing / Abandonar.
ABOARD: On or within a vehicle /
Abordo.
ANTENNA: Device for receiving
radio waves / Antena.
BOW: The front part of a ship /
Proa.
CAPTURE: To take by force or
surprise / Capturar.
CARGO: Thing carried by a ship,
plane, truck, etc / Carga.
CLEARANCE: The space
between two objects / Espacio libre
entre dos objetos.
CREW: People working together
on a ship or plane / Tripulacion.
DEAL WITH: To be concerned
with / Tratar con.
DISPLACE: To move from its
usual place / Desplazar.
EQUALLY: The same quantity,
size, value / Equitativamente.
FLEET: A number of ships under
one command / Flota.
HULL: The body of a ship / Casco
de barco.
LAUNCH: To start or fire /
Lanzar.
NAVIGATOR: One who sets the
course / Navegador.
ON BOARD: Be on a ship,
aircraft, bus, etc. / Abordo.
PORT: Harbor; left side of a ship /
Puerto; estribor.
RADAR: An electronic detection
device / Radar.
RANGE: Extent / Rango, alcance.
ROCKET: A self-propelled
missile / Cohete.
SAIL: To travel by water /
Navegar.
SEAPORT: A port / puerto
maritimo.
SONAR: A detection device /
Sonar.
STARBOARD: The right side of a
ship / Babor.
STERN: The rear part of a ship /
Popa.
STRUCTURE: Something built /
Estructura.
SUBMARINE: A underwater
vessel / Submarino.
SUBMERGE: To go underwater /
Sumergir.
TORPEDO: A self-propelled
underwater explosive / Torpedo.
TRANSMITTER: A device for
sending radio waves / Trasmisor.
UNDERWATER: Beneath the
surface water / Subacuatico.
VESSEL: A boat or ship / Navio.
WARFARE: Armed conflict /
Guerra.
WARSHIP: A combat ship /
Buque de guerra.
WAVE: A curve; swell moving
along / Ola, onda.
 ADVERB OF TIME

Yet, already, still, and anymore are adverbs of time. They have different
meanings and are used in different types of sentences.

Yet shows that we expect some action to take place in the future. It is
used in yes / no questions and negative statements at the end of the
sentence.

Have you finished yet?

No, I haven't received the letter yet.

Already shows that an expected activity has happened. It is used in

questions and affirmative statements, usually in the middle of the
sentence.

Dinner has already been served.

Have you already mailed the package?

Still shows that a situation continues to exist from the past to the present.
It is used in questions and statements in the middle of the sentence.

Does he still live in Los Angeles?

Yes, he still lives there.

We’ve called three times. He still isn’t home.

Still can also carry a negative meaning. It implies that someone is

spending too much time doing something.
 He still hasn’t finished what he was told to do.

Anymore shows that a past situation is over and doesn´t continue to

exist. It is used in yes / no questions and negative statements at the end
of the sentence. It is frequently used with still to show a contrast.

I don't go to the gym anymore,

but I still exercise every day.

Do you speak Italian anymore?

ADVERBIAL CONNECTIVES OF ADDITION.

There are certain words which can join two related ideas or sentences.
These words are frequently called connectives, or transitions. Some of
them are used in conversation while others are used mainly in writing.

One type of connective expresses addition. They mean and. They are
used when you want to add something to what has already been said or
when you want to add an additional thought which supports a previous
one.

The following is a list of connectives that express addition:

also
besides
furthermore
in addition
 moreover

Sentences that contain these connectives can be punctuated in a couple

of ways.

also
besides
SENTENCE ; furthermore , SENTENCE
In addition
Moreover

Also
Besides
SENTENCE . Furthermore , SENTENCE
In addition
Moreover

EXAMPLE:

Cigarettes are expensive; in addition, they're bad for your health.

Cigarettes are expensive. In addition, they're bad for your health.

LESSON 3
BE ABOUT TO: Just ready to do
something in the immediate future /
Estar a punto de.
COMMENT: To make a remark /
Comentar.
DELAY: To postpone / Retrazar.
DREAD: To fear or distaste /
Miedo.
ENDURE: To tolerate / Tolerar.
FALL APART: To brake into
pieces / Derrumbar.
GLANCE: To briefly look at /
Hechar un vistazo.
GO THROUGH: To endure /
Pasar por, soportar.
GRIND: To pulverize / Triturar.
RELIEVE: To ease / Aliviar.
VANISH: To disappear
Desvanecer.
WITHSTAND: To resist / Resistir.
EVEN SO: Though / Aun asi.
IN A WAY: In a manner of
speaking / Hasta cierto punto.
TAKE EFFECT: To be effective /
Entrar en vigor.
TO BEGIN / START WITH:
Firstly / Para empezar.
REGARDLESS: In the spite of / A
pesar de.
ANESTHETIC: A drug used to
make an area numb; a painkiller /
Anestesia.
CAVITY: A hollow place / Caries.
FACILITY: Building / Instalacion.
FILLING: Substance used to fill
something / Amalgama.
NEEDLE: A pin-like device /
Aguja.
NERVE: Part of the nervous
system / Nervio.
VICINITY: The surrounding area /
Cercania.
AS LONG AS: Provided that /
Siempre y cuando.
CONSTANT: Not changing /
Constante.
/ DENTAL: Concerning teeth /
Dental.
DESPITE: In spite of / A pesar de.
IN SPITE OF: Despite / A pesar
de.
NONETHELESS: Nevertheless /
No obstante.
NOR: And not; or not / Ni .
NUMB: Having loss of sensation /
Adormecido.
REGARDLESS: In the spite of /
sin embargo.
THOUGH: Although / Aunque.
 BE ABOUT TO

Be about to is used for the very immediate future.

The ship is about to leave. (=The ship will leave any minute now.)

I think I'm about to faint. (= I think I´m going to faint any second
now.)

When we talk about the past, be about to is commonly used with a time
clause beginning with when.

We were about to leave when friends came to visit.

I was about to start dinner when the phone rang.

THE PREPOSITION OF
 The preposition of has many different usages in English. The following
are some of the more common ways of is used:

1.- Of is used to indicate possesion or an association.

We don´t know the name of the baby.
The police want to know who the owner of the car is.
2.- Of is used to show origin (where something comes from).
The coffe of Colombia is delicious.
The people of that country are friendly.
3.- Of is often used to show a part or amount.
Some of the tourists became sick.
Half of the cake was eaten before noon.
4.- Of is used in an appositive meaning.
The state of Alaska is very large.
(state = Alaska)
They´re living in the city of San Antonio.
(city = San Antonio)
5.- Of is used to say what something is made from.
The cup is made of silver.
The building is made of concrete and steel.
6.- Of is used to indicate the contents of a container.
He drinks five glasses of milk a day.
She tried to move the box of books.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS SO, YET, AND NOR

The coordinating conjunctions so, yet and nor, are used to connect two
independent clauses.

Usually, a comma is placed before the conjunction.

So is used to express result.

I had a bad toothache. (situation / action)

I went to the dentist. (result)
 I had a bad toothache, so I went to the dentist.

Yet is used to express contrast. It is similar to the conjunction but.

She didn't study for the test. (action)

She passed it. (contrast)

She didn't study for the test, yet she passed it.

Nor is used to indicate the addition of a negative idea to a negative

sentence. The verb of the second clause is charge to the affirmative, and
the word order is changed to that of a question.

John can't swim. (negative)

His brother can't swim. (negative addition)

John can't swim, nor can his brother (swim).

LESSON 4
AMAZE: To greatly surprise / AMAZED: Surprised /
Asombrar. Asombrado.
APPROVE: To consider rigth / AMAZING: Surprising /
Aprovar. Asombroso.
CALCULATE: To estimate / CURIOUS: Eager to know /
Calcular. Curioso.
CHEER UP: To cause to become DIAGONAL: Having a slanting
happier / Animar. direction / Diagonal.
COMPUTE: To calculate / DISTURBED: Annoyed;
Computar. interrupted / Perturbado;
DISTURB: To interrupt / Molestar. interrumpido.
GET ACROSS: To make one’s DISTURBING: Annoying /
ideas clear / Aclarar. Perturbante.
IRRITATE: To annoy / Irritar. EVIDENT: Easy to perceive /
MESS UP: To ruin / Arruinar. Evidente.
RECOGNIZE: To identify / FUNDAMENTAL: Basic; basis /
Reconocer. Fundamental; base.
ALGEBRA: A branch of IRRITATED: Angry / Irritado.
mathematics / Algebra. IRRITATING: Annoying /
ANGLE: The measure in degrees / Irritante.
Angulo. OBVIOUS: Easy to see or
APPROVAL: The act of undestand / obvio.
approving / Aprobacion. VALUABLE: Having material or
DIGIT: Any number from 0 to 9 / monetary value / Valioso.
Digito. WORTH: Value / Valor.
DIMENSION: Measurement in BE FED UP WITH: Can’t tolerate
length, width, or depth / any longer / Estar harto de.
Dimension. IN SPITE OF THE FACT
FORMULA: A conventional THAT: Regardless of / A pesar del
ruler / Formula. hecho de que.
IMPRESSION: A effect on the DESPITE THE FACT THAT:
mind / Impresion. Not withstanding / A pesar del
INDIVIDUAL: Existing as a hecho de que.
separate thing / Individual; IN SPITE OF IT ALL: Taking no
individuo. notice of many things / A pesar de
VALUE: Worth or usefulness / todo.
Valor. ONCE AND FOR ALL :
Finally / De una vez por todas.
 ALWAYS AND THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

The present progressive usually expresses an activity that is in

progress at the moment of speaking. It implies that the activity
will probably end at some point in the future.

The plane is approaching the airport.

The children are eating lunch rigth now.

The present progressive can also be used to express a future

time. This is usually indicated by the use of future time words in
the sentence.

Jack is leaving tomorrow at 0830 hours.

How are you going to Los Angeles next week?

I'm taking a train.

Sometimes the present progressive is used to express a

frequently repeated or habitual action that is usually expressed
by the simple present tense. When it expresses this meaning, it is
used in combination with the adverb always.

Fred is always working late at his office.

(=Fred always works late at his office.)

Little children are always learning new things.

(=Little children learn new things every day.)

When the present progressive is used with always, sometimes it seems

to suggest that the speaker disapproves of the action or habit and finds it
irritating.

Jack, do you ever sleep at night?

You're always sleeping during the day.
 SUFFIX- AL

We can form nouns by adding the suffix –al to certain verbs. When we
add this suffix, it has the meaning of “the act of or the process of.” Look
at the examples.

She will arrive a week from tomorrow.

We are looking forward to her arrival.

He asked her to marry him, but she refused his offer. He was very
surprised at her refusal.

The following is a list of the more common nouns that are formed by
adding the suffix –al.

Notice the spelling change in some of them.

Verb Noun

Approve approval
Arrive arrival
Deny denial
Disapprove disapproval
Dismiss dismissal
Refuse refusal
Remove removal
Withdraw withdrawal
 ANTICIPATORY- IT + NOUN CLAUSE

A THAT noun clause which is the subject of a sentence can be placed

after the verb. It is used in the usual subject position before the verb.
This type of construction is called an anticipatory-it constrcution.

Certain verbs expressing emotional reactions can be used in this

anticipatory-it construction . It´s a way to tell someone how you or
someone else feels about something.

Some of the more common verbs used in this construction are:

amaze disturb shock

annoy frighten surprise
bother hurt
disappoint irritate

It doesn't surprise me that Joe was promoted.

(verb) (noun clause)

The conjunction “that” is many times omitted in speech.

Depending on the veb used, this construction can express disapproval or

dissatisfaction on the part of the speaker:

It disturbs me that you never help with the work around here.

It bothers a lot of people that Mr. Smith is quitting his job.

BOOK 26

LESSON 1
ABRUPT: Sudden / Repentino.
ACTIVATE: To cause to start /
Activar.
ALLOWANCE: A definite amount,
especially money / Pension monetaria.
AMPLE: More than enough / Bastante.
BE BEHIND: To be overdue in work /
Estar retrasado.
BEAR: To endure / Soportar.
BRING UP: To introduce, to raise /
Sacar a Colacion.
CAPACITY: The volume / Capacidad.
CATCH UP: To come from behind /
Alcanzar.
CONCERNING: About / Concerniente.
DISPOSE OF: To get rid of /
Deshechar.
FALL BEHIND: To get overdue in
work / Retrasarse.
FORBID: To prohibit / Prohibir.
GET BEHIND IN: To fail to keep up
with / Retrasarse.
GO AHEAD: Proceed / Proceder.
HANG ON TO: To keep / Aferrarse.
IDEAL: Perfect / Ideal.
BE ALLOWED TO / BE PERMITTED TO.
The expressions be allowed to and be permitted to are used to indicate
IMPLY: To indicate indirectly /
Implicar.
IN PLACE OF: As a substitute for / En
lugar de.
IN REGARD TO: Concerning / En
relacion a.
INCOME: Money earned / Ingreso.
INSTANT: A small amount of time /
Instante.
INSTANTLY: At once /
Instantaneamente.
MENTAL: Of the mind / Mental.
OVERCOME: To defeat / Superar.
PERTAIN: In reference to / Referirse.
PRACTICAL: Useful / Practico.
PRACTICALLY: Almost /
Practicamente.
PUT AWAY: To put in proper place /
Acomodar.
REFER: To allude to / Referir,
consultar.
REFERENCE: A source of information
/ Referencia.
STEER: To guide / Guiar.
SUBSTITUTE: To replace / Substituir.
TRANSFER: To convey / Transferir.
permission. Look at these examples:

SUBJECT + BE PERMITTED TO / ALLOWED TO + VERB

They will each be permitted to bring 2 suitcases.

The students are allowed to use these computers.

You are not allowed to take pictures in this building.

I was not permitted to talk to the reporters.

Are we allowed to refer to our notes during the test?

Will he be permitted to play in the game this week?

REVIEW OF PROGRESSIVES.

The Progressive Its Use An Example

To express an action or event taking We are reviewing

place at, or close to, the time of progressives.
speaking
Present
To express an action or event His family is living in
happening at present and lasting an California.
extend period of time

To express a future action They’re leaving

Florida tomorrow.

Past To express an action or even in (1) At this time last

progress or taking place at some year, I was leaving
past time (an on-going, continuing in Ohio.
 action, but in the past) (2) I was studying
when you called.

To express an action or even that (1) I’ll be working on

Future will be in progress or will continue this assignment for
in progress in a future time period. the next week.
(2) He’ll be doing
some work for us
in May.

To express an action or even that I’ve been watching

began in the past and has just TV.
recently stopped
Present Perfect
To express an action or even that Tom’s been talking on
began in the past and is still the phone for over 2
happening (for some period of time hours.
or repeated over a period of time).
She’s been playing
piano since she was
small child.

To express an action or event that (1) They had been

Past Perfect was in progress at a past time and playing with
continue until something else matches when the
happened to interrupt the first fire broke out.
action. (2) He had been
smoking for 25
years when he
finally quit.

LESSON 2
AMUSEMENT: Entertainment
Entretenimiento.
ASSUME: To suppose, to perform or
begin to use / Asumir.
AUTHOR: A person who writes books,
papers, etc. / Autor.
BE CHARGED WITH: To be accused
of / Ser culpado de.
BE UP ON: To be well informed about /
Actualizar.
BREAK IN (ON): To interrupt /
Interrumpir.
CARTOON: A humorous drawing /
Caricatura.
CHAPTER: A division of book /
Capitulo.
CHIP IN: To contribute / Contribuir.
COLUMN: The vertical arrangement of
items / Columna.
COME ACROSS: To find or discover /
Descubrir.
COME UP WITH: To think of /
Ocurrir, idear.
COMICS: A comic strip, a set of
drawings that tell a story / Tira comica,
cuento.
EDITOR: A supervisor of a newspaper /
Editor.
EDITORIAL: An article that gives the
opinions of the editor / Editorial.
/ EMPHASIS: A stress, a special force to
show that something is very important /
Enfasis.
EMPHASIZE: To stress / Enfatizar.
GOVERNOR: A political head of
state / Governador.
HANDICAP: A disadvantage, a
physical limitation / Descapacitado.
HARDSHIP: Anything causing
suffering / Molestia.
LEGISLATURE: A lawmaking group /
Legislatura.
OBJECTIVE: Fair, able to look at the
facts as they really are / Objetivo.
OPPOSE: To be against / Oponer.
PUBLISH: To print for the public /
Publicar.
PUT ACROSS: To make clear or
understandable / Aclarar.
RESIGN: To leave a job / Renunciar.
SORT: A type or kind / Tipo.
STRANGE: Unusual / Estraño.
STRESS: To point out the importance /
Enfatizar.
SUBSCRIBE: To order and pay for a
newspaper, magazine, etc. / Subscribir.
THINK UP: To invent or create /
Pensar.
VIEWPOINT: An opinion or
attitude/Punto de vista.
 TIME TENSES

1) The simple pas t is used to express:

 An action that occurred at a specific time in the past.
 A simple past action, or a repeated past action in a completed time period.

2) The present perfect is used to express:

 An action which began in the past and has continued up to the present.
 An action which occurred at an unspecified time in the past.

Words and expressions frequently used with the:

SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT

Ago since already
Before + (an event) for + (time) yet
After + (an event) always just
At + (time) many times never
Last (day/time word) (3) times ever
Lately recently

Note: Some of the words/expressions listed with present perfect may also appear
occasionally with the simple past, depending on the sentence. However, they
appear more frequently with the present perfect. (Words/expressions: for + (time),
always, many times, [3] times, already, just, never, ever, and recently).

NOUNS TO ADJECTIVES.

Some adjectives are formed by adding –ous to the noun form. The meaning of –
ous is “like or full of”.
EXAMPLE: Lou: There are many hazards in this area.
Tim: Yes, this is very hazardous area.

PREPOSITION REVIEW

Here is a list of some of the time prepositions you have studied.

PREPOSITION MEANING PREPOSITION MEANING

About approximately of before

After later than on day, date

Around approximately over stretching

At used with a point of time two items

Before earlier than past after

Between used to show the separation since used to show

of two items. beginning time

By no later than through duration

During while a period of time or event till up to the time

is happening to before

For length of time toward not long before

From used to indicate a starting time in direction of

In in a period, future appointment under less than

with at the time and rate, together until up to the time

LESSON 3
ARMOR: A protective metal covering /
Armadura, blindaje.
BLAST: An explosion / Explosion.
BOMB: A shell that explodes / Bomba.
BURST: To come apart / Explotar.
CAMOUFLAGE: To disguise /
Camuflagear.
CHECK OUT ON: To make one
familiar with the operation
Familiarizar.
CHOP DOWN: To cut down a tree /
Talar.
CHOPPER: A helicopter / Helicoptero.
CLEAR AWAY: To remove / Limpiar,
recoger.
CONCEAL: To hide / Esconder.
CONTRAST: A difference / Contraste,
contrastar.
ENCOUNTER: To meet / Encontrar.
EVEN IF: Though / Aun cuando.
HOIST: To raise up / Levantar.
HOVER: To stay in one place /
Mantener.
LIVE ON: To survive / Sobrevivir.
NO MATTER WHO / WHAT/
WHERE/ ETC.: It makes no
difference / No hay problema quien, que,
donde, etc.
OBSTACLE: A hindrance / Obstaculo.
OBSTRUCT: To block / Obstruir.
PROFICIENT: Capable / Eficiente,
capaz.
REVERSE: The opposite direction /
Reversa.
ROTARY: Turning on an axis /
Rotatorio.
ROTATE: To spin or turn on an axis /
/ Rotar.
ROTOR: A rotating part of machine /
Rotor.
SET OUT: To begin a course of action,
to arrange, to spread out / Planear,
arreglar.
SHALLOW: Not deep / No profundo,
bajo.
SHIELD: A protective device / Escudo.
SPIN: To turn around / Girar.
SURVIVE: To remain alive /
Sobrevivir.
SUSTAIN: To keep strong, to maintain /
Sostener.
TANK: An armored military vehicle /
Tanque.
TERRAIN: A land contour / Terreno.
UNLESS: Except if / A menos.
VIEW: A range of vision / Vista.
VITAL: Extremely important / Vital.
 LET’S REDUCE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONTRAST TO
MODIFYING PHRASES.

Some dependent clauses in English can be reduced to phrases by omitting

the subject of the clause and the BE form of the verb. Look at these adverb
clauses of contrast / concession. Pay special attention to the words in the
parentheses ( ), and notice how the clauses become phrases when the words in ( )
are omitted.

Even if ( he is ) sick Mark still tries to come to work.

The tank was damaged Even though ( it was ) made of armor.

Although ( he was ) tired, Tom studied until 3:00 A. M.

The dessert was delicious Though ( it was ) too sweet

THIS LESSON’S SHORT; EVEN SO, IT’S VERY USEFUL.

Sometimes two opposing or differing ideas are expressed in one sentence.

Study the connecting words (connectives) in the boxes below. Notice how these
connectives are used to show a contrast of ideas. Pay special attention to the
punctuation used with each.

even so,
however,
Pete is looking for a new nevertheless, he hasn’t resigned from
job; nonetheless, his old one yet.
on the other hand,
regardless of that,

Even so,
However,
The students did well in Nevertheless, they did poorly on their
class. Nonetheless, final exams
On the other hand,
Regardless of that,

STUDY THIS LESSON DESPITE THE FACT (THAT) YOU ARE TIRED

There are some additional ways of expressing contrast in English. One way is
by using the phrase no matter, and the prepositions in spite of, despite, and
regardless of, as or like connectives followed by WH-noun clauses. Look at the
boxes below and notice how no matter, in spite of, despite, and regardless of act
as connectives in the sentences.
 despite how much it costs.
in spite of
She’ll never accept a gift no matter what you say.
from you regardless of

Despite
In spite of what he’s done in the past, the jury should consider only
No matter the facts of this case.
Regardless of

And still another way to express contrast is by using the prepositions in spite
of, and regardless of, followed by the words the fact + a THAT –noun clause.
Study the following boxes to see how in spite of, despite, and regardless of act
as connectives in the sentences.

The supervisor will Despite the fact (that) you’ve operated

continually check you out In spite of it for 2 years.
on the machinery. Regardless of

Despite the fact (that) it’s been in raining all week,

In spite of the graduation ceremony will still be held outdoors.
Regardless of
LESSON 4
ACCOMPANY: To go with / IDENTICAL: The same / Identico.
Acompañar. IDLE: Inactive / Inactivo.
AT ALL: In the least / En absoluto. IMPORT: To bring items into a country
BE UP TO: To be good enough for, to / Importar.
be the responsibility of / Estar listo para. IN EXCHANGE FOR: In return for / A
COME ALONG: To accompany / cambio de, en lugar de.
Acompañar. LANDMARK: An object used as a
COMMERCE: Buying and selling / guide / Seña.
Comercio. LEAN: To press or rest against
COMMERCIAL: Of or related to something; to bend / Doblar.
commerce / Comercial. LIMIT: To set bounds / Limitar, limite.
COMMUNITY: A group of people PART WITH: To relinquish / Separarse
living in a town / Comunidad. de, despedirse de.
COMPARTMENT: An enclosed PATH: A course to follow / Sendero.
space / Compartimiento. RARELY: Not very often / Raramente.
CONFIRM: To make sure / SCARCELY: Almost never, almost
Confirmar. not / Escasamente.
CURRENCY: The money in use in a STAND BY: To stay ready, to support /
nation / Moneda en curso de un pais. Apoyar, estar alerta.
ECONOMY: A system of money STRESS: A pressure / Presion.
supply, the management of money of a TENSION: A stress / Tension.
nation / Economia. TRADE: A commerce; a business /
EQUIVALENT: Equal, same as / Comercio, comerciar.
Equivalente. VIBRATE: To move back and forth
EXPORT: To send items to another rapidly / Vibrar.
nation / Exportar. WAIT ON: To serve / Servir.
HISTORIC: Important in history /
Historico.
 SIMPLE PAST TENSE AND PAST PROGRESSIVE.

We use the simple past tense when we talk about an action or situation in the
past. We know that this action or situation already took place and is finished.

EXAMPLE:

We studied book 25 last week. (form this statement we know the action has
been completed already).

We use the past progressive when we talk about an action or situation that was in
progress or taking place at a certain time in the past. We do not, however, know
if the action has been completed or not.

EXAMPLE:

We were studying book 25 last week. (This statement tells us that we were in the
process of studying book 25 last week. It doesn’t tell us whether or not we
finished studying book 25, however.)

We often use the past progressive and the simple past together. We do this to talk
about an action or situation happening in the past while a second action or
situation is already in progress. The past action often interrupts the action in
progress.

EXAMPLE:

We were studying book 25 when we went on that tour. (This all takes place in the
past. We were in the process of studying book 25. During that process, we went
on the tour.)

IS EVERYONE READY TO CONTINUE?

 Pay attention to the compound some-, any-, no-, and every- words and
their modifiers. Descriptive adjectives modifying this compounds appear in the
appositive position, following the compound word they modify.

Example: Did you meet anyone interesting in the class?

No, there was no one special in the group.

I WILL NEVER SPEAK TO HIM AGAIN!

The frequency adverb negators, never, seldom, rarely, hardly, and

scarcely, are used to express the idea of in frequency.

Frequently, they are used together with the optional ever or the phrase at
all as intensifier of their meaning. Notice the position of the adverbs in sentences.
They will appear before the verb, and after BE.

Example: I am hardly ever able to catch up on my work at the office.

SOMEDAYS I BARELY KNOW MY OWN NAME!

The words barely, hardly, and scarcely (plus the optional any) are used in
affirmative sentences to express degree.

NOTE: Scarcely and hardly were used previously as adverbs of frequency, and
here they are used as intensifiers. when ever is used with these words, they
function as frequency adverbs.

Without ever they do not express frequency, but instead are used as
intensifiers expressing degree.

Example:
Does Sam know a lot about computers?

Well, he's hardly what you could call an expert!

BOOK 27
LESSON 1
CALL DOWN: To point out an error,
reprimand / Regañar, reprender.
CHALLENGE: To dare someone to
compete / Retar.
COUNT ON: To depend on / Contar
con.
DISREGARD: To ignore / Ignorar.
ISOLATE: To separete / Aislar
LOOK DOWN ON: To disapprove of
or have a low opinion of / Despreciar.
LOOK UP TO: To respect or have a
high opinion of / Admirar.
REPRIMAND: To express disapproval
of, to firmly point out an error /
Reprimir.
REVOLVE: To move in a circle around
a center point / Girar.
SURRENDER: To give up / in /
Rendirse.
TALK BACK TO: To reply in a
disrespectful manner / Resongar,
contestar altaneramente.
AT A TIME: As a unit one after another
/ Uno a la vez, uno por uno.
WORK OUT: To solve / Solucionar.
COUNTLESS: Too many to count /
Incontables.
IN / ON BEHALF OF: For / A nombre
de.
INFERIOR: Lower in rank, quality, etc.
/ Inferior.
PERIODIC: Happening occacionally,
usually at regular times / periodico.
SILENT: Quiet or not speaking, without
sound / Silencioso.
AXIS: A real or imaginary straight line
on which an object rotates / Eje.
DISCREPANCE: Disagrement,
inconsistency / Discrepancia.
EQUATOR: An imaginary cicle around
the earth / Ecuador.
EXPERIMENT: A test or trial
undertaken to discover or demostrate
something / Experimento.
FONDS: A supply that can be drawn
upson, stock / Fondos.
GEOGRAPHY: The science dealing
with the earths surfaces, continents /
Geografía.
LATITUDE: The distance measured in
degrees north or south of the equator /
Latitud.
LONGITUDE: The distance measured
in degrees east or west of a line running
through Greenwich, England / Longitud.
MASS: A quantity of matter of
indefinive shape and size / Masa.
PERIOD: The interval between
succesive ocurrences of an event /
Periodo.
ZONE: An area, usually with
defined
boundaries / Zona.
 USING WILL, WON'T, AND WOULDN'T TO EXPRESS
WILLINGNESS AND REFUSAL.

Will + a verb can be used to express present or future

willingness. This structure has the same meaning as be +
willing + to–infinitive.
WILL
Examples: John will lend me a dollar.
John is willing to lend me a dollar.

Who will help me move this table?

Who is willing to help me move this table?

Will + not (won't) + a verb cab be used to express refusal in

the present or future.
WON’T
Example: Ed won't give me a hand with the work.
Ed refuses to give me a hand with the work.

Would + not (wouldn't) + a verb is used to express past

refusal.
WOULDN'T
Example: He wouldn’t talk to us yesterday.
He refused to talk to us yesterday.

WHICH WORD GETS THE STRESS?

Present active gerunds and participles are –ing verb forms. A gerund
functions as a noun, while a participle functions as an adjective. Both of these
verb forms can be placed before a noun.

A present active gerund preceding a noun receives the primary stress.

EXAMPLE: PARKing lot

 When a present active participle precedes a noun, the noun receives the
primary stress.

EXAMPLE: leaking PIPES.

MANNER USING A PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The manner in which something is done can be shown using certain terms and
expressions followed by the -ing form of a verb. For example, in the expression
"have fun singing", the word singing indicates the manner of having fun.

EXPRESSION + -ING
have fun singing
have a good time playing
have trouble studying
have difficulty understanding
have a hard time hearing
have a diffucul time getting

SPEND / WASTE + EXPRESSION OF TIME + -ING

spend a year studying
waste an hour waiting

SIT / STAND / LIE + EXPRESSION OF PLACE + -ING

Sit at the computer working
stand in line waiting
lie on the beach sleeping

DO AS I SAY, NOT AS I DO

The manner, or way, in which something is done can be expressed with adverb
clauses. As is a subordinating conjunction which is frequently used to introduce
adverb clauses of manner. Exactly and just are often used with as.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF
MANNER
In the way / manner that

The child obeys as a good child should.

My grandfather, as I remember him, was a big man.

Just as we expected, the mall was crowded.

LESSON 2
CATCH ON: To understand to learn MUSCULAR: Of or relating to
about / Entender, agarrar. muscles, having a lot of muscles /
GET AHEAD: To advance, to Muscular.
progress / Adelantar, avanzar. NUMEROUS: Very many / Numerosos.
GET BY WITH: To do something with ORDERLY: Neat, in order /
little effort or work / Lograr algo sin ordenadamente.
mucho esfuerzo. TREMENDOUS: Very large, great /
GRIPE: To complain / Quejarse. Tremendo.
IMITATE: To copy in actions or BASIS: Essential facts or reasons /
manner / Imitar. base.
MAKE UP: To create, to settle ENTHUSIASM: A strong interest,
differences / Crear, solucionar. liking / Entusiasmo.
PROTRUDE: To stick out or project / INTENTION: A porpuse or plan /
Sobresalir. Intencion.
STICK OUT: To protude, to be LECTURE: A talk to a grou /
noticeable / Sobresalir. Presentacion de oratoria.
TRIM: To cut off excess / Recortar, MECHANISM: A working system /
podar, adornar. Mecanismo.
ALL IN ALL: Considering everything, WEALTH: A large quantity of money,
in general / En General. property / Riqueza.
IN ALL: Altogether, everything
considered / En general, todo.
IN COMMON: Shared together,
equally with or by all / En comun.
IN COMPARISON: The act of
comparing with / En comparacion.
TO CONCLUDE: To bring to an end /
Para concluir.
CONSIDERABLE: Large in extent or
degree / Considerable.
DEPENDENT: Relying on /
Dependiente.
DISTINGUISHED: Famous,
important / Distinguido.
GENUINE: Real / Genuino.
INDEPENDENT: Not dependent on
others / Independiente.
LEISURE: free and unoccupied /
Tiempo libre.
MECHANICAL: Having to do with
machines / Mecanico.
THE SAME AS, SIMILAR TO, ALIKE, AND DIFFERENT FROM

These words--same, similar, different, and alike-- are used to express

difference or similarity. read the information below.

1.- Same, similar, alike and different function as adjectives.

EXAMPLES: Theses are the same pictures.

These are similar pictures
These are different pictures.
These pictures are alike.

2.- Same indicates that the items being compared are identical, or
without differences. The always precedes same, and BE + the same and
as.

EXAMPLES: This picture is the same as that one.

That is the same picture as this one.

3.- Similar indicates that there are small differences between the items
which are being compared. BE + similar is preceded by a plural noun or
pronoun or a compound subject.

EXAMPLES: The pictures are similar.

This picture and that one are similar.

The items being compared may be separated by BE + similar to.

EXAMPLE: This picture is similar to that one.

 4.- Alike indicates that the items being compared are either almost or
completely identical. BE + alike is preceded by a plural noun or pronoun
or a compound subject.

EXAMPLES: These picture are alike.

This painting and that print are alike.

5.- BE + different is followed by from.

EXAMPLE: This picture is different from that one.

SUFFIXES: -IC / -ICAL

The suffixes –ic and –ical added to certain nouns to make adjectives. These
adjectives mean “of, like, or connected with”.

Here are some nouns to which – ic or –ical can be added. Note the
spellings and review spelling rules if necessary.

-ic -ical

Algebra / algebraic Method / methodical

Atom / atomic Comic / comical
Thermostat / thermostatic Mechanic / mechanical
History / historic History / historical
Economy / economic Economy / economical
Technology / technological
Atmosphere / atmospheric Cylinder / cylindrical
Emphasis / emphatic Sugery / surgical
Anesthesia / anesthetic Chemistry / chemical
 SUMMATION USING ADVERBIAL CONNECTIVES

A summation is a brief summary of main point or a restatement of the

main idea. It can also be a statement which combines effect or results with
a summary. Most summations begin with an adverbial phrase. The
following adverbial connectives are frequently used to begin summations.

all in all

consequently

in all

in conclusion

to conclude

to put it briefly

in short

to summarize

in other words

in summary
LESSON 3
BE TO: Indicates future time or
necessity, obligation / Ser requerido
para.
BLOW UP: To explode or cause to
explode / Explotar, reventar.
CLASSIFY: To arrange in or assing to
groups / Clasificar.
CORRODE: To wear away or to be
eaten away gradually, usually by
chemical action / Corroer.
DETONATE: To explode or cause to
explode / Detonar.
DEVIATE: To stray from, to turn aside
or away from an stablished route, plan,
method / Desviar.
RETAIN: To keep / Retener.
SET OFF: To set in motion or cause to
begin / Activar.
SHATTER: To break or burst into
pieces / Fragmentar.
TURN OVER: To transfer power,
possesion, responsability, etc. / Delegar.
WIND: To twist or wrap around, to
move in a curving or circular path, to
tighten the spring of a mechanism / Dar
cuerda.
WIND UP: To finish or complete, to
bring to an end / Terminar.
ABSOLUT: Complete, without limit or
restriction / Absoluto.
COMPOSITE: Made up of separete
parts or elements / Compuesto.
IN ACCORDANCE WITH: As stated
by, in agreement with / De acuerdo con.
INSTANTANEOUS: Completed in an
instant, inmmediate / Instantáneo.
IN THE EVENT OF: In case of / En
caso de.
WHATEVER: Anything that / Lo que
sea.
WHEREVER: In, at, or to any place /
Donde sea.
WHICHEVER: Any one / Cualquiera
que sea.
WHOEVER: Any person that / Quien
sea.
WHOMEVER: The objective form of
whoever / A quien sea.
BIT: A small piece of quantity, particle /
Pedacito.
COMPOSITION: A mixture or
combination of parts / Composición.
COMPOUND: A mixture of two or
more parts or ingredients / Compuesto.
CONTACT: The point at which two
things touch, meet or connect /
Contacto.
CORROSION: the act, process, or
result of corroding / Corroción.
DIAGRAM: A plan or drawing, a
design explaining how something works
or showing the relationship between the
parts of a whole / Diagrama cuadro
sinóptico.
DYNAMITE: A type of explosive /
Dinamita.
EXPLOSIVE: A substance, usually a
prepared chemical, that explodes or
causes an explosion / Explosivo.
FUSE: For setting off an explosive
charge / mecha.
IMPACT: Press firmly together /
Impacto.
INTERVAL: A space between things /
Intervalo.
KIT: A set of tool or instruments / Juego
de herramientas.
 USING BE TO

Be to meaning “be required to,” “be supposed to,” or “ be scheduled to, “

Is used to express necessity / obligation or future time.

EXAMPLES: You were supposed to study Lesson Two last

night.
You were to study lesson Two last night.

The plane is scheduled to leave at noon.

The plane is to leave at noon.

EMBEDDED QUESTIONS

1. Both yes-no and question-word questions can be set into, or embedded

in, other sentences. They become noun clauses and are referred to as
embedded questions.

2. A noun clause introduced by a question word is an embedded question-

word question.

EXAMPLE:

How did he do it? (question-word question)

I don’t know how he did it. (embedded clause)

3. A noun clause introduced by if or whether is an embedded yes-no

question.

EXAMPLE:

Is he going? (yes-no question)

Do you know if he is going? (embedded clause)
4. When a question is embedded, its word order changes.

EXAMPLE:

How did he do it?

(question word-auxiliary verb-subject-main verb)

I don’t know how he did it.

(question word-subject-main verb)

Has he left? (auxiliary verb-subject-verb)

Do you know if he has left?

(conjunction-subject-auxiliary verb + main verb)

5. A noun clause can be used as a subject or as an object.

a. Noun clauses in the subject position.

EXAMPLE:

What he did is not yet known.

How he got there is not important.

b. Noun clauses in the object position usually follow phrases like

those underlined in the following sentences.

EXAMPLE:

I don’t know what I can do.

I wonder if he’s coming today.
I don’t understand what he is saying.
Do you know whether or not class is over?
Ask him/her where we have to check in.
Can you tell me which bus goes to town?
 WHEREVER MEANS ANYWHERE.

-Ever words give the idea of “any”.

EXAMPLE:

1 We will follow whoever leads.

We will follow anyone who leads.

2 Give the key to whomever you can.

Give the key to anyone you can.

3 Whatever you decide will be fine.

Anything you decide will be fine.

4 Wherever you want to go is all right with me.

Anywhere you want to go is all right with me.

5 You may leave whenever you’re ready.

You may leave any time you’re ready.

6 Whichever car you buy, you’ll enjoy, I’m sure.

Any car you buy, you’ll enjoy I’m sure.

7 He can travel however he pleases.

He can travel any way he pleases.
LESSON 4
BE IN ON: To participate in / Tomar CENTURY: One hundred years / Siglo.
parte. ELECTRODE: Any terminal by which
CHECK UP ON: To investigate, to electricity enters or leaves a battery /
make inquiries about / Investigar. Electrodo.
COIL: To wind into circular or spiral ELECTRON: Negatively charged
from / Embobinar en espiral, enredar. elementary participle / Electron.
CUT OFF: To stop abruptly / Cortar de ELECTRONICS: The science dealing
tajo, dejar de hacer algo. with the action of electrons / Electrónica.
DRIFT: To move along slowly as driven FLASHLIGHT: A small hand light,
by the wind, waves, or current / Ir a la usually powered by batteries / Lampara
deriva. de mano.
EXTINGUISH: To put out a fire / MAGNET: Any piece of iron that
Extinguir. attracts objects / Magneto.
REPEL: To drive or force back / POLE: Either or two opposed forces,
Repeler. parts, etc / Polo.
STICK TO: To continue / Continuar. ROD: A straight stick or bar / Varilla,
SURGE: a sudden increase / Aumento. vara.
EACH OTHER: Used to indicate a STATIC: Noise or other interference
mutual relationship / Uno al otro, with comunication caused by electrical
reciprocamente. discharges / Estática.
IN CASE: If it happens that / En caso VOLT: The unit of electromotive force /
IN THE EVENT (THAT): If it should Voltio.
happens thet / En caso de eso. VOLTAGE: electromotive force
MAGNETIC: Of a magnet / Magnetico. expressed in volts / Voltaje.
NEGATIVE: Having a excess of
elentrons / Negativo.
ONE ANOTHER: Used to indicate a
mutual relationship / Uno al otro,
reciprocamente.
POSITIVE: Having too few electrons /
Positivo.
PRIMITIVE: Simple not developed /
Primitivo.
PROVIDED THAT:On condition that /
Solo si.
ACID: A sour substance / Acido.
BACKGROUND: Past events or facts /
Escenario.
BAR: A relatively long, narrow, rigid
piece of solid meterial / Barra, barrote.
BEAM: A ray of light / Haz de luz.
BREAKDOWN: A failure to operate
correctly / Descompostura, falla.
 IF, IN THE EVENT THAT, AND IN CASE

1. In case, in the event (that), and if are conjunctions which indicate a

conditional clause of eventuality. The condition or event may or may not
occur.

2. As with most adverbial clauses, a conditional clause may come before or

after the main clause. However, its position changes the emphasis of the
sentence. The information you wish to stress usually comes first.

EXAMPLES:

If you don’t lend me a dollar, I can’t buy the book.

I can’t buy the book if you don’t lend me a dollar.

3. Many times in case and in the event (that) have the same meaning in a
context and are interchangeable.

EXAMPLES:

Bring your keys in case the door is locked.

Bring your keys in the event the door is locked.

MEANING: Bring your keys; in the event the door is locked.

4. Sometimes if and in the event (that) heave the same meaning in a

context and are interchangeable.

EXAMPLES:

If it rains, the party will be held indoors.

In the event (that) it rains, the party will be held indoors.

MEANING: It might rain. When or if that happens, the party will be held
indoors.
5. Sometimes all three terms mean the same in a context and are
interchangeable.

EXAMPLE:

In case you see Mary, will you give her this note?
In the event you see Mary, will you give her this note?
If you see Mary, will you give her this note?

MEANING: You might see Mary; when or if you do, will you give her the
note?

NOTE: In case and if are not always interchangeable.

EXAMPLE: He bought an extra key in case he lost his.

6. In a conditional clause, in case, in the event (that), and if are followed

by a form of the present or past tense. The future is indicated by the present
tense form of the verb. Do not use will to indicate future time.

THIS IS A DEMAND, A REQUIREMENT, OR ESSENTIAL

CONDITION.

EXAMPLE: You can borrow my book provided / providing (that)

you return it tomorrow.

You can borrow my book if you return it tomorrow.

MEANING: You can borrow my book but only if you return it tomorrow.
 THEY DIDN’T LIKE EACH OTHER.
THE REFUSED TO SPEAK TO ONE ANOTHER.

Dave looked at Marsha. \

\ They looked at each other.
/ They looked at one another.
Marsha looked at Dave /

The pronouns each other and one another are used to indicate a reciprocal or
mutual relationship.

EXPRESSING CAUSE / REASON WITH BECAUSE, SINCE, AND

NOW THAT.

1. A sentence expressing cause and effect contains two clauses. One states the
cause or reason of an action or condition and the other gives the result.
2. The conjunctions because, since, and now that can be used to introduce the
cause or reason clause. This clause can be placed before or after the main
clause without changing the meaning of the sentence; however, it may change
the emphasis of the sentence. Remember, the most important information in
the sentence usually come first.
3. The main clause expresses the result or effect.

Conjunction of Cause / Reason Clause Effect Clause

Cause / Reason ( main )

Because there were thunderstorms in the we had to turn off

area, the computers.

Since the computers were turned off, we decided to go

out for lunch.

Now that the storms have moved out of the we can turn the
area. computers on
again.
 BOOK 28
LESSON 1
CLAIM.- To ask for as owner /
Reclamar.
COME BY.- To visit / Visitar.
COME DOWN WITH.- To catch
an illness / Enfermarse.
COME TO.- To amount to /
Sumar.
COMPETE.- To be in rivalry /
Competir.
CRITICIZE.- To judge good and
bad points / Criticar.
EXPRESS.- To show / Expresar.
GO BY.- To visit, to follow /
Visitar, pasar por, seguir.
HANG AROUND.- To wait or
stay without purpose / Merodear.
MENTION.- To talk of /
Mencionar.
RESERVE.- To keep / Reservar.
SEE ABOUT.- To make
arrangements for / Hacer arreglos.
STAY OVER.- To remain for an
additional period of time / Quedarse
mas tiempo.
VERIFY.- To make sure
something is true / Verificar.
COMPACT.- Closely packed /
Compacto.
COMPARABLE.- Able to be
compared, similar / Comparable.
DOUBLE.- Dual, in two parts or
twice the amount / Doble.
FIRST-CLASS.- Best quality /
Primera clase.
LIMITED.- Restricted, confined /
Limitado.
OCCUPIED.- Being used, busy /
Ocupado.
STARVING.- Extremely hungry /
Hambriento.
AISLE.- A path between or along
rows of seats or shelves / Pasillo.
ART.- The creation or expression
of beauty, truht, or ideas / Arte.
CONFERENCE.- A meeting for
discussion purposes / Conferencia.
CONTEST.- A competition /
Competencia.
CRITICISM.- A judgment about
good and bad qualities / Critica.
DENOMINATION.- A standard,
especially of value / Denominacion.
DENT.- A hollow mark /
Abolladura.
EXTENT.- The degree or limits of
something / Grado, extenso, limite.
JUNK.- Useless articles, posibly
old or of poor quality / Chatarra.
LUXURY.- Enjoyable things
usually not necessary and often
provided by wealth / Lujo.
PLEASURE.- A source of
enjoyment / placer.
SATELLITE.- A body around
another / Satelite.
HAVE IN MIND.- Be thinking of /
Tener en mente.
JUST IN TIME.- At the last
possible time or moment / Justo a
tiempo.
 REVIEW OF MODALS.

This lesson is a review of the most common modals. A modal is an auxiliary

verb that functions with a main verb and carries a special meaning. Modals are
used with the bare infinitive, a simple form of the verb without to.

EXAMPLES: can do would know must obey.

will can should tleave had better go.
may rain could pay might know.

CAN

Can is used to express ability. The negative of can is cannot (can't ).

CAN, MAY

Can and may are used to give and request permission. May is usually used in
formal situations in giving permission; can is informal. May not is more
emphatic than cannot.

MAY I, CAN I

May I and can I are both used to request permission. May I is more formal than
can I, which is used to request permission from someone you know well.

COULD, WOULD, WILL.

Could you, would you, and will you are all used to make polite requets. All
have about the same meaning, except for could, which carries a slight meaning
of possibility. Please is often used.

MAY, MIGHT.

May and might both express possibility (maybe, perhaps). May express more
certainty than might.

SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER.

We used, should, ought to, and had better to give advice, recommend, or
remind someone of something important. For questions and negatives, we
usually use should and had better.
SHOULD, OUGHT TO

Should and ought to are also used to express expectation.

MUST, HAVE TO

We used must or have to to express necessity. Must has a stronger meaning

than have to and refers mostly to laws and regulations. Had to is used for thye
past of must.

Must not and not have to have completely diferrent meanings. Must not
stresses that something is not allowed or is against the law or regulations. It can
also be used as a warning. Not have to shows that something is not necessary or
required.
MUST

We also used must to express probability or to reach a conclusion about

something based upon information we have. It is sometimes used with the
be + -ing form of the verb. The contraction is usually not used.

TO - SUBSTITUTION.

After certain constructions, we may substitute the word to for an entire

infinitive phrase. We do this when we do not want to repeat the whole
phrase. This is called to-substitution.

To-substitution can be used in the following constructions:

1.-After verbs that take infinitive objects.

Examples:

Frank has asked me to help him, but I really don’t want to (help him).

We weren’t able to watch the whole movie, but we tried to (watch

the whole movie).

2.-After adjetives following BE

Examples:Jim isn´t here to show you what to do, but I’ll be glad to
(show you what to do).
Did you drive your car in Los Angeles?
No, I was afraid to (drive my car in Los Angeles).
 The negative of the to-substitution is not to.

Examples:

He wants to leave early, but I´ll try to persuade him not to (leave early).

USING A(N) + TIME WORD TO INDICATE FREQUENCY.

A common way to express frequency in english is to use once o twice or a

noun phrase with a (an) plus a time word.

EXAMPLES: once a day.

twice a month
three times an hour.
four times a year.
several times a week.

These frequency expressions answer the questions “how often?” and are found
at the end of a sentence.

EXAMPLE: How often do you go to the library?

I go about three times a week.

THE SUFFIX –IST

The suffix –ist can be added to different words to make nouns that mean “a
person who does, makes, or follows” or “one whose profession is.” Here are
some examples:
 Violin + -ist = violinist (one who plays a violin)
Type + -ist = typist (one whose profession is typing)
Biology + -ist = biologist (one whose profession is biology)

Note the spelling changes in the examples. If a word ends in an “e” or a “y”,
those letters are dropped before –ist is added. Even though other changes may
accur, the stem of the word remains the same. If you are not sure of the
spelling, look the words up in the dictionary.
 LESSON 2
ALTERNATE.- To do by turns /
Alternar.
DESIRE.- To wish or want /
Desear, deseo.
DIP.- To lower then raise /
Sumergir.
DISMOUNT.-To get or take down
from / Desmontar.
FIX UP.- To repair or improve the
condicion of / Reparar.
LEAVE OUT.- To omit / Omitir.
LINE UP.- To get in line, to align /
Alinear.
MOUNT.-To get up on, or put onto
/ Montar.
PILE.- Things laid on top of each
other / Apilar en forma no
organizada, pila.
PULL APART.-To separate with a
force that causes movement in the
direction of the force / Separar,
desarmar.
ROLL.- To move by turning over
and over; to move on wheels or
rollers / Rolar, rodar.
SLIDE.- To move smoothly on a
surface / Resbalar, deslizar.
STACK.- To arrange into a neat
pile / Apilar en forma ordenada,
pila.
TRACE.- To follow / Rastrear,
trazar.
APPROPIATE.- Suitable, fit, or
proper / Apropiado.
COATED.- Having a coat, or
covering / Cubierto.
PORTABLE.- Able to be carried /
Portable.
GET ONE'S HANDS ON- To
acquire / Adquirir
IN THE FIRST PLACE, ETC.-
First, (second, third…) / En primer
lugar…
BUBBLE.- A thing film of liquid
or solid material containing air or
gas / Burbuja.
COAT.- A covering, or layer over a
surface / Cubierta, capa.
GROOVE.- A long, narrow path,
track, or depression / Surco, grieta.
HINGE.- A movable part that joins
two objects / Visagra.
LIGHT BULB.- An electric device
that emits light / Foco.
MARK.- A visible impression /
Marca.
TEAMWORK.- Cooperative effort
for a common cause / Trabajo de
equipo.
 THE PREFIXES MAL- AND MIS-

Mal- and mis- are prefixes that mean bad or wrong. They are added to
words to indicate that the action, condition, or thing is not good or not
right.

Malformed

Miscounted

Maladjusted

ADVERBIAL CONNECTIVES

Adverbial connectives such as first, second, next, then, finally, and last are
used when explaining the order in which events occur or the order in which
the steps of an operation are performed.

EXAMPLE: I got dressed first; then I ate breakfast and brushed my teeth.
Finally I went to work.
 STRESS PATTERNS: COMPOUND NOUN VS. VERB + NOUN-
OBJECT.

VERB + NOUN COMBINATIONS.

In a compound noun, the primary stress falls on the first word. The stress
pattern for a verb + noun combination, however, is like the one for a modifier
+ noun combination: the noun receives the primary stress.

EXAMPLES: They´re COOKing apples. (compound noun).

Meaning: The apples are used for cooking.
They´re cooking APPLES. (verb + noun-object)
Meaning: The children are cooking apples now.
It´s DRINKing water. (compound noun)
Meaning: The water is used for drinking.
It´s drinking WATer. (verb + noun-object)
Meaning: An animal is drinking water now.

THE SUFFIX –IZE.

The suffix –ize can be added to various nouns and adjectives to make verbs
that mean “make or cause to be.” Here are some examples:

Equal + -ize = equalize (make equal)

Familiar + -ize = familiarize (cause to be familiar)
(become familiar)
modern + -ize = modernize (make modern)

Usually, the –ize suffix is just added to be end of the word, but occasionally
there are spelling changes. When in doubt, check the dictionary for the correct
spelling.
 THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1.- The future perfect tense is formed as follows:

WILL HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

EXAMPLES: Will have lived

Will have written
Will have left

2.- The future perfect tense indicates an event or condition which will be
completed before another event or specific time in the future.

NOW
I x x FUTURE
-----------------------I--------------------------------------------
I event event
I 1 2

3.- The future perfect is used with the action that happens first. The other action
is often introduced by a time expression beginning with by, when, before, or
by the time. If a time clause is used, it will be in the present tense.

EXAMPLE:

John will have lived there for five years when you visit him next March.

4.- Finally, the event expressed in the future perfect tense can actually be one
that begins in the past and ends in the future.

EXAMPLE:

John will have lived there for five years when you visit him next March.
 THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

1.- The future perfect progressive tense is formed as follows:

WILL HAVE BEEN + VERB-ING

EXAMPLES: Will have been living

Will have been studying
Will have been sleeping

2.- The future perfect progressive tense is similar to the future perfect except that
it stresses the duration of an event or activity in the future that is in progress
before another activity or specific time in the future.

NOW
I x x FUTURE
--------------------I--------------------------------------------
I……………….I
I event event
I 1 2

3.- Like the future perfect, the future perfect progressive is used with time
expressions beginning with by, when, before, or by the time. If a time clause
is used, it will be in the present tense. Also, the event expressed in the future
perfect progressive tense can actually be one that begins in the past and ends
in the future.

EXAMPLE: I will have been studying for three hours when you see me.

NOW
I x x FUTURE
--------------------I--------------------------------------------
I I
I studying see
I I……………….I

LESSON 3
ASCEND: To go up, to move upward /
Ascender.
ASCENT: The act of moving upward /
Ascenso.
CALIBRATE: To mark, standardize, or
adjust a meassure divise / Calibrar.
CODE: A system of symbols used to
transmite secrete messages / Codigo.
DESCEND: To come or go down, to move
from a higher to a lower place / Descender.
DESCENT: The act of going or coming
down / Descenso.
DIE DOWN: To stop gradually or to
become less strong / Reducir.
DIESEL: An international combustion
engine in which air is compressed to a
temperature high enough to ignite fuel
injected into the cylinder; diesel fuel /
Diesel.
FIGHT OFF: To defend against; to fight to
keep away, push back, or avoid / Mantener
retirado, evitar.
GIVE IN: To surrender; to stop opposing /
Rendirse, acordar.
INPUT: That which is put in, power,
energy or informationthat is supplied, not
regular, not according or established /
Informacion, datos.
IN THE COURSE OF: During / En el
transcurso de.
IN THE FACE OF: Up against, in the
presence of, despite the position of, in spite
of / Enfrentar, encarar, apesar de.
ISSUE: To give out, to distrubute publicly
or officially / Ministrar, dar.
MINIMIZE: To reduce to a minimum, to
place a low estimate on, to make something
appear to be of little importance /
Minimizar.
OFFENSE: The act of attacking / Ofensiva,
ofender.
OUTPUT: Quantity produce, power or
energy prodeced or delivered / Produccion,
salida de corriente.
PETROLEUM: An oily, flammable liquid
found underground / Petroleo.
PRISON: A place of confinement, a
building where criminal are kept / Prision.
PRISONER: A person confined in prison, a
person captured or held captive / Prisionero.
RELATING TO: Concerning /
Relacionado a.
REMOTE: Far away, far of in place or
time / Remoto, lejano.
RESISTANCE: The act of resisting, the
capacity to resist, opposition / Resistencia.
STORAGE: The act of storing or keeping
things for future use, a place for storing /
Almacen, almacenamiento.
STORE: To keep for future use /
Almacenar.
SYSTEMATIC: Based on a method,
organized / Sistematico.
TAKE ON: To agree to do, to hire /
Contratar, aceptar.
THEORY: An explanation which may or
may not be true, but is formed on certain
facts / Teoria.
TOWER: A tall structure sometimes used
for observation / Torre.
TRENCH: A long, narrow hole cut in the
ground / Trinchera.
UNITE: To join together into one, to join
together for a porpuse / Unir, unirse.
VAGUE: Not clearly expressed, indefinite,
not having an exact meaning / Vago,
dudoso.
 IF-CLAUSES: REAL CONDITIONS AND UNREAL CONDITIONS

Sentences containing if-clauses are called conditional sentences. They

have two parts: the main clause and the if-clause. There are three kinds of
conditional sentences: present real, present unreal, and past unreal.

REAL CONDITIONS

Real conditions are those which presently exist, are probable, or are
likely to happen.

Present tense verb forms (simple present, present progresive, or present

perfect) are used in the if-, or conditional, clause.
Present, future, or imperative verb forms may be use in the main clause.
Notice that you can also use a variety of modals, such as can, should, might,
may, to add meaning to the verb in the main clause.

When a conditional clause begins a sentence, a comma is used to

separate it from the main clause.

Conditional clause Main clause

If I study hard, I always pass the test.
If I am studying, please do not disturb me.
If you need to talk to me, you can call me later.
If I study hard, I will pass the test.

If you want to pass the test, study hard.

If you have finished, you may leave.

When the if-clause follows the main clause, a comma is not used to
separate it form the main clause.

Conditional clause Conditional clause

I always pass test if I study hard
Please do not disturb me if I am studying
you can call me later if you need to talk to me
I will pass the test if I study hard

study hard if you want to pass the test

you may leave if you have finished
 UNREAL CONDITIONS

Unreal or contrary-to-fact conditions are those that are impossible,

improbable, or not likely to happen. They can belong to either the present or
the past.

Present unreal conditions

For present unreal conditions, the verb in the if-clause is in the past
tense; the verb in the main clause is in the conditional:

would / could / might + the simple form of the verb

The subjunctive form were is used instead of was in the if-clause

Conditional clause Main clause

If I studied hard, I could pass the test.

If I were You, I would studied harder.

Main clause Conditional clause

I could pass the test If I studied hard.

I would study harder If I were You.

 Past unreal conditions

For the past unreal condition, the verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect
tense. The verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional tense:

would / could / might + present perfect tense.

Conditional clause Main clause

If I had studied harder, I could have passed the test.

If You had studied harder, would You have passed the test.

Main clause If-clause

I could have passed the test If I had studied harder.

would You have passed the test If You had studied harder?

NOUN SUFFIXES

Many words in English are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to base
forms. A base form, or stem, is the most basic form of a word. To this base
form, We made add a prefix at the beginning or a sufix at the end.

EXAMPLE: base form: rely

suffix -able: reliable
prefix un-: unreliable

The addition of a prefix to a base form will usually change the meaning of
the word. A suffix will change the part of the speech of the word. For
example, the addition of the suffix -able to the base form of rely changes the
word from a verb to an adjective. The prefix un- changes the word's meaning:
Unreliable is the opposite of reliable.
 When a new word is formed, or derived, from another word, it is called a
derivative. Knowing some common prefixes and suffixes that are used before
in word formation will enable the student to recognize the meanings of many
English words.

The suffixes used to form new words fall into three groups: Noun suffixes,
verb suffixes, and adjective suffixes. This lesson will deal with noun suffixes,
those suffixes which can be added to words to make nouns.

NOTE: Spelling changes often occur when suffixes are added to words
ending in e or y. For explanation and examples of the spelling rules
involved, refer to appendix D-1 in this text book..

NOUN SUFFIXES

The noun suffixes -ness, -ty, and -ity are added to adjectives to form nouns
which name a condition or quality.

The suffixes -er and -or can be added to some verbs to make nouns that
express the meaning of "one who" or "that which".

The noun suffix -ist can be added to some nouns to express the meaning
"one who" or "that which".

The suffixes -ion, -ation, -tion, and -sion are added to verbs to make nouns
which name an action, condition, quality, or result.

The suffixes -al, -ance, -ence, -ment, and -y are added to verbs to make
nouns which name an act, condition, quality, or result.
 RESTRICTIVE VS NONRESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Adjectives clauses are used to modify or change the meaning of a noun

in a sentence. An adjective clause always follows the noun to which it relates.
It can be placed in the middle of the sentence or and the end.

Examples: The boy who spoke to us is John.

John is the boy who spoke to us.

Words such as who, whom, that, which, whose, where, and when are
used to introduce and adjective clause. Who, whom, whose, and that refer to
people; which and that refer to things; when refers to time; and where refers to
place. There are two kinds of adjective clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive.

RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

A restrictive adjective clause explains or identifies the noun is modifies. It

is essential to the meaning of the sentence and is NOT set off by commas.

EXAMPLE: The boy who waved to us is my brother.

The main clause is "The boy is my brother". Without the restrictive

adjective clause, the identify of the speaker's brother is not clear.

Adjective clause introduce by that are always restrictive.

 LESSON 4
ACTUATE: Put into action /
Activar.
AMPLIFIER: Electric device that
increase strength of signal /
Amplificador.
AMPLIFY: Increase strength /
Amplificar.
BEACON: Guiding or warning
(light or radio) signal / Faro.
BEARING: Relative direction or
position / Rumbo.
BLIP: Spot of light on radar
screen / Traza radar.
BLURRY: Not clear / Borroso.
CABLE: Thick wire or rope /
Cable.
CLIFF: A high, steep, surface of
rock / Acantilado.
CYCLE: Regularly repeating
occurrence / Ciclo.
DEFLECT: Bend or turn aside /
Reflejar.
DISTORT: Pull or twist out of
shappe / Distorcionar.
ECCHO: A reflected sound wave /
Eco.
ENCIRCLE: Surround / Rodear.
ENCLOSE: Close in all around /
Encerrar, cercar.
FIND ONE'S WAY: Regain
direction / Encontrar el camino.
FOCUS: Make image clear by
adjusting, center one's mind on a
subject / Enfocar.
FREQUENCY: Number of
occurrence per time period /
Frecuencia.
GRID: System of squeres on a map
/ Cuadricula.
HORIZON: Meeting of earth and
sky / Horizonte.
IMAGE: Copy or likeness of
person or thing / Imagen.
MINUTE: Very small / Diminuto.
MODERATE: Of a middle
degree / Moderado.
OBSOLETE: Out-of-date /
Obsoleto.
PLOT: Chart or plan a course /
Trazar.
RADIATE: To emit or send out, to
move out in lines from the center /
Radiar.
RADIATION: Movement of light,
hit , waves / Radiacion.
SCATTER: Spread out / Esparcir.
SCOPE: Screen of radar set, range
or extent / Pantalla.
TECHNICIAN: Person skilled in a
technical process or field / Tecnico.
TERMINATE: End / Terminar.
VARIABLE: Changeable /
Variable.
VISUAL: Relating to seeing /
Visual.
 NEGATIVE STATEMENTS

All negative statements, with the exeption of those in which be functions as

the main verb, are formed by using an auxiliary combined with not.

EXAMPLES: She will visit her mother today. (affirmative statement).

She will not visit her brother today. (negative statement).

If an affirmative statement does not contain an auxiliary, a form of do is

added to the sentence it to a negative statement. Not is placed directly after all
forms of do and have when they function as auxiliaries. Negative contractions
are made by combining an auxiliary with not and using an apostrophe to replace
the letter “o” omitted from not.

EXAMPLES: I wash my car every Saturday.

I do not wash my car every Sunday.
I don’t wash my car every Sunday.

I washed my car last Week.

I did not wash the truck.
I didn’t wash the truck.

I have washed the car.

I have not washed the truck yet.
I haven’t washed the truck yet.

Negative statements with be are formed by placing not after the verb.

EXAMPLES: My brother was late for work.

My brother was not late for work.
My brother wasn’t late for work.

When the verb consists of more than one word, not is placed after the
first modal or Auxiliary.

EXAMPLES: John might have been working late.

John might not have been sleeping late.
 ADJECTIVE SUFFIX -like

We can add the siffix -like to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffix –
like expresses the idea of resembling or having the characteristic of
something.

EXAMPLE: Child + like = childlike (resembling a child / having the

characteristics of a child)

The suffix –like may express a meaning which is favorable.

EXAMPLE: Her ladylike manner impresses everyone.

When -like is added to words ending double ”l”, the words are hyphenated.

EXAMPLES: Bell + like = bell-like

Bull + like = bull-like.
Fall + like = fall-like.

REDUCING ADVERBIAL CLAUSES TO PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Adverb clauses of time introduced by while and adverb clauses of cause

/ effect introduced by because can be reduced to participial phrases which
modify the sentence.

The reduction involves several changes within the clause:

1. the subordinating conjunctions are usually omitted.

(while may be retained; because is always omitted).

2. the subject is omitted.

3. forms of the auxiliary verb be are omitted (except in passive

constructions).
 4. other verbs change to an –ing form; not is placed before the –ing form
to make it negative.

5. in negative clauses, forms of the auxiliary verb do are dropped; not is

placed before the –ing form.

Participial phrases functioning as sentence modifiers can occur in three

positions: initial, medial, and final. That is the can precede the main clause,
interrupt it, or follow it.

Adverb Clauses of Time

While I was swimming in the lake, I saw a large fish jump.

(while) swimming in the lake,

Robert always reads the news paper While he eats breakfast.

While eating breakfast.

Adverb Clauses of Cause / Effect

Because he has been reassigned, Lt West will leave soon.

Having been reassigned,
Because we were tired of waiting, We decided to go home.
Being tired of waiting,

The players, Because they have won, Want to celebrate.

Having won,
My suitcase, Because it is not full, Is easy to carry.
Not being full,

I wasn’t able to return the coat Because I’d lost the receipt.
Having lost my receipt.
The students stood at the corner Because they were waiting for the bus.

BOOK 29
LESSON 1
ADULT: a fully grown person,
especially of legal age/Adulto.
BUNDLE: articles fastened
together; a package/Enrrollar en
fajo.
CALL IN: to summon for a
particular purpose/Llamar.
CATALOG: a list arranged along a
specific line/Catalogo.
COME OUT: to appear/Venir.
DIRECT: straight; honest, easily
understood/Directamente.
FLAW: A flaw; weakness
/Debilidad-Falla
GLOW: to shine/Resplendecer.
GOODS: Merchandise / STAY UP: To remain without
Mercancia.
INVENTORY: A list of goods,
property / Inventario.
MERCHANDISE: Things for
sale / Mercancia.
MINOR: A person who is not an
adult / Menor.
Waiting for the bus.
ONE AFTER ANOTHER: In
succession / Sucecivamente.
PASS AWAY: To die / Morir.
PERIODICALLY: Occasionally,
intermittently, at regular intervals /
Periodicamente.
REJECT: To not accept, refuse /
Reusar, rechazar.
REPEATEDLY: Again and
again / Repetidamente.
SALARY: Money paid on a
regular basis for doing something /
Salario.
SINCE THEN: From a past time
until now / Desde entonces.
going to sleep / Mantenerse
despierto sin dormir.
STOCK: Goods on hand / Juego,
equipo.
TAKE IN: To understand /
Entender.
TAKE INVENTORY: To make a
list of items or goods / Inventariar.
TAKE LEAVE: To take a vacation WRECK: To destroy / Destruir.
/ Vacacionar.
TRASH: Something worthless or
of low quality.
 REVIEW OF CAUSATIVES

The verbs have, make, and get are commonly used in causative
constructions.

1. MAKE / MADE

Mrs. Jones makes her children clean their rooms.

The instructor made the students stay after class.

When you “make someone do something”, it gives the idea that there
are no choices; someone must do something.

The bare infinitive (simple form) is used after the verb.

2. HAVE / HAD

We have Mr. James paint our house every four years.

He had his friend help him with his homework.

When you "have someone do something" you ask someone to do

something, sometimes for pay. Like with make, the bare infinitive
(simple form) is used after the verb.

3. GET / GOT

He’ll get the carpenter to build a bookcase.

She got the mechanic to adjust the brakes.

“Get someone to do something” has the same meaning as “have

someone do something”. You are asking someone to do something for
you. Notice that the to-infinitive is used after get in a causative
construction. Also, the get-causative is used frequently in conversation.
4. PASSIVE CAUSATIVES

I had my film developed. (by someone)

We got our car repaired. (by someone)

The causative verbs have and get can also be used in passive
constructions. In this case, it means that you have or get something done
by someone. The past participle of the verb is used in the passive. In
addition, the by-prepositional phrase is often omitted.

TIME EXPRESSIONS

There are a few ways we can express time in sentences. We can use adverbs,
prepositional phrases, noun phrases or a combination of these. All of these
time expressions answer the question “When?” “How long?” or “How
often?”.

EXAMPLES:

He lives in New York now. (adverb)

We went to he post office yesterday (adverb)
I sometimes visit the library. (adverb)

Class starts at 07:30. (prepositional phrase)

They went to the bank on Sunday. (prepositional phrase)
She has lived in China for two years. (prepositional phrase)

I received a letter from a friend last week. (noun phrase)

We’re going downtown tomorrow night (noun phrase)
He sees the dentist every six months. (noun phrase)
John left three hours ago. (noun phrase + ago)

All of these words and phrases that answer the question “When?” “How
long?” or “How often?” are called time adverbials.
Time adverbials can be divided into three different types according to their
meaning: those that express a definite time, a duration of time, or
frequency.

1. Time adverbials expressing a definite time

These adverbials are words and phrases which denote a definite point in time.
They answer the question “When?”. Here are some examples:

now yesterday in the morning

then tomorrow on Saturday

again last week at night

Just Monday evening three weeks ago

Recently next year the day after

tomorrow

2. Time adverbials expressing duration

These adverbials are words and phrases which denote a length of time in the
past or a duration of time from the past to the present. They answer the
question “How long?”. Here are some example sentences:

He lived in Egypt for three years.

Bob felt sick all night.
We’ve been studying for two hours.*
She’s been a doctor since 1985.*
*Note that a perfect tense is used to talk about a duration of time from the past
to the present.

3. Time adverbials expressing frequency

These adverbials are words and phrases which answer the question “How
often?” They can express either definite or indefinite frequency. Here are
some examples:

Definite frequency Indefinite frequency

Daily always

Weekly sometimes

Every day frequently

Every weekend often

Once a year usually

Twice a year never

 VERB SUFFIXES

There are a number of suffixes that we can add to some nouns and adjectives
to form verbs. These suffixes are –en, -fy, -ify, and –ize.

The suffix –en can be added to some adjectives and nouns to make verbs.
When it is added to adjectives it has the meaning of “to make or become”.
When added to nouns, it has the meaning of “to cause to have”. Here are some
examples:

Wide – widen (to make wide)

Deep – deepen (to make deep)

Strength – strengthen (to make stronger)

Length – lengthen (to make longer)

The suffixes –fy and –ify can also be added to some adjectives and nouns to
make verbs. They have the meaning of “to make, become, or cause to
become”. There is often a spelling change when the suffix is added. Examples:

Clear – clarify (to make clear)

Solid – solidify (to become a solid)
Liquid – liquefy (to become a liquid)

Last of all, the suffix –ize can be added to some adjectives and nouns to form
verbs. The suffix has the meaning “make into or like, become, or be subject to
the treatment of”. Here are some examples:

Modern – modernize (to make modern)

Familiar – familiarize (to make familiar)

Hospital – hospitalize (to put someone in a hospital)

 LESSON 2
ALCOHOL: A solvent, a product
of fermentation / Alchol.
ANNOUNCE: To cause to be
known / Anunciar.
BALANCE: Remainder, equality /
Balance.
BOOTH: A small enclosed place /
Cabina, puesto.
BRAVE: Having or showing
courage / Valiente.
CAFE: A restaurant, bar / Cafe.
COMPLICATE: To make
difficult / Complicar.
COURAGE: Bravery / Corage,
valor.
DISTRACT: To draw attention
from / Distraer.
DRAW : To pull; attract / Jalar,
retirar.
FLAVOR: Taste / Sabor.
GET ON WITH: To continue /
Obtener, continuar.
HOST: One who receives guests /
Anfitrion.
IN CONNECTION WITH:
Relating to / En relacion a.
NEIGHBORHOOD: A small
section of city / Vecindario.
PASS ON: To give, convey /
Pasar, inculcar.
PRESERVE: To save, keep /
Mantener, preservar.
RARE: Not common / Raro.
RELATION: Connection /
Relacion.
RESIDE: To live in a place /
Recidir.
RESIDENT: One who resides /
Recidente.
RIVET: A metal pin used for
fastening / Remache, perno.
SEGMENT: A part, section /
Segmento.
SPECIFY: To state in detail /
Especificar.
TIN: A metallic element / Estaño.
TORCH: A device used to weld /
Soplete.
TUBING: Tubes or pipes /
Tuberia.
TUNNEL: A passage underground
/ Tunel.
WELD: To unite by melting
together / Soldar.
WILD: Not domesticated, having
no restraint / Salvaje.
WILDERNESS: A place of rough
land where people don’t live /
Monte, campo.
 GO + GERUND

The verb go is sometimes followed by a gerund to form certain expressions.

Remember that a gerund is a verb in –ing that functions like a noun. These
expressions with go + verb-ing are ones that describe activities.

EXAMPLES: We went fishing last weekend.

What do you usually do in the summer?

I like to go swimming at the lake.

My family and I haven’t gone sailing in years.

The following are some common expressions with go + gerund:

Go dancing go shopping

Go fishing go sightseeing

Go jogging go swimming

Go running go walking

Go mountain climbing go window shopping

 ADJECTIVE AND PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS

Some prepositions are found in combinations with certain adjectives after the
verb BE.

EXAMPLES: My son is afraid of lightning and thunder.

Don’t be worried about the storm.

When he was in school, he was interested in science.

Is he absent from school today?

Some adjective – preposition combinations are frequently followed by a

gerund (a verb in –ing that functions like a noun).
EXAMPLES: All of us are excited about visiting San Francisco.

Bill is accustomed to eating dinner late.

Mr. Price is found of reading at night.

Absent from Incapable of

Accustomed to Innocent of
Afraid of Interested in
Angry at/with Involved in
Appropriate for Kind to
Aware of Known for
Bad for
Bored with Loyal to

Capable of Mad at
Clear to Married to
Conscious of
Critical of Nice to
Crowded with
Patient with
Different from Polite to
Difficult for Proud of
Disappointed in/with Prepared for
Doubtful about
Dedicated to Qualified for

Enthusiastic about Ready for

Equal to Related to
Excited about Responsible for
Exhausted from
Satisfied with
Faithful to Scared of
 Familiar with Similar to
Famous for Successful in
Fond of Sure about
Friendly to/ with
Frightened of Terrified of
Full of Thirsty for
Glad about Tired from/of
Good at Tolerant of
Grateful to/for
Guilty of Upset about
Happy about
Hungry for Worried about

SUFFIXES –AL AND –IAL

The suffixes –al and –ial can be added to some nouns to form adjectives. They
have the meaning “of, like, or suitable for”.

EXAMPLES:
 accident – accidental

addition – additional

commerce – commercial

environment – environmental

manager – managerial

resident – residential

LESSON 3

ADMIRE: To regard with IMPLEMENT: To carry out,

pleasure, and respect. / Admirar.
DEFY: To resist oppose
Resistir, desafiar.
DISTINGUISH: To recognize
differences. / Distingir.
ENCOURAGE: To give hope,
courage, confidence, support to. /
Alentar.
EVALUATE: To determine the
value, o degree of. / Evaluar.
EXHIBIT: To demostrate,
display, show / Exhibir, mostrar.
put into, practice of effect. /
/ Implementar.
INCORPORATE: To united
together, include. / Incorporar,
incluir.
OUT FIT: An organization, group
of people working together. /
Conjunto, unidad.
RELATE: To tell; To see or show
a connection between. /
Relacionar.
COURSE OF ACTION: A plan,
procedure. / Curso de accion.
TAKE ACTION: To begin action
/ Llevar a cabo, tomar acciones.
TAKE CHARGE OF: To take
control of / Hacerse cargo de.
TAKE IT OUT ON: To express
one´s feelings by making someone
else suffer; be unpleasant or
unkind to someone because one is
upset or angry. / Hechar la culpa a
alguien.
COMPETENT: Capable,
proficient, able. / Competente,
capaz.
DISTINTIC: Clear, separate. /
Claro, indudable.
PRIME Main the first importance,
rank or time ./ Fundamental.
TRUSTWORTHY: Capable or
being trusted, dependable. /
Confiable.
VERB + OBJECT+ TO- INFINITIVE
Certain verbs are commonly followed by a noun or pronoun and a to-
infinitive. In this construction, the direct object (a noun or pronoun) is the
performer of the action of the infinitive.
Advise
Allow
Ask
Cause
Convince
Expect
FACTOR: An element
contruibuting to a result. / Factor.
FOUNDATION:A solid base on
which something is supported or
built. / Cimientos, bases.
MORALE: The state of mind of a
person or organization especially
with regard to pride and
determination to succeed. / Moral.
NATURE: The qualities and
characteristics of a person,
personality. / Personalidad.
OUTFIT: To Supply,
provide,equip. / Equipar.
POTENTIAL: An existing
possibility, ability, capacity. /
Potencial.
STYLE: A kind or type; a manner,
way of doing. / Estilo.
VALUES: Standars people ideas
about the values of certain
qualities / Valores.
Need
Order
Permit
Persuade
Remind
Require
 Forbid Teach
Force Tell
Hire Urge
Instruct Want
Invite Warn

EXAMPLES.

She advised him to be there at 0900.

John expects his children to do well in school.
I need you to give me a hand.

The infinitive may be made negative by placing not before it.

EXAMPLES.

I Told him not to buy the car.

Please remind Bill not to leave early.

When the verbs above are used in the passive, the infinitive directly follows
the verb.

EXAMPLES:

We were ordered to clean up the area.

He was warned not to swin in the river.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech, or quoted speech, refers to the original words of the speaker.
Quotation marks are used.

Indirect speech, or reported speech, refers to using a noun clause to report what
 someone has said. Quotation marks are not used. Verbs and pronouns will
change from direct to indirect speech.

EXAMPLES:

Direct speech Indirect Speech

John said, “ I feel sick” John said (that) he felt sick.

Bill said, “My car is new” Bill said (that) his car is was new.

VERB FORMS USED IN INDIRECT SPEECH

When the verb of the indirect speech sentence is in the past tense (said,
told, asked) the verb in the noun clause is usually used when the words of
the speaker are reported at a later time, not immediately after it was said.
Look changing an indirect speech noun clause to a past form.

Notice also the change in pronouns. The conjunction “that” is optional in the
indirect speech noun clause.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

1. He said, “I write a letter every day.”
2. He said, “I am writing a letter.”
3. He said, “I have written a letter.”
4. He said, “I wrote a letter.”
5. He said, “I will write a letter.”
6. He said, “I am going to write a
letter.”
7. He said, “I can write a letter.”
8. He said, “I may write a letter.”
9. He said, “I must write a letter.”
10.He said “ I have to write a letter.”
11.He asked, “Do you want to write a
letter?”
12.He asked, “When do you usually
write a letters?”
13.He asked, “Where is the letter?”
He said (that) he wrote a letter every day.
He said (that) he was writing a letter.
He said (that) he had written a letter.
He said (that) he had written a letter.
He said (that) he would write a letter.
He said (that) he was going to write a
letter.
He said (that) he could write a letter.
He said (that) he said might write a letter.
He said (that) he had to write a letter.
He said (that) he had to write a letter.
He asked me if / whether* I wanted to
write a letter.
He asked me when** I usually wrote
letters.
He asked where the letters was.

*Notice that either if or whether can be used in a reported yes – or – no question and
that the usual statement word order is used in the noun clause.

**Notice that the question- word beings a reported question-word question and that
the usual statement word order is used in the noun clause.

LESSON 4
BRING ABOUT: To accomplish; NETWORK: A group of thing
cause / Crear, provocar. connected, such as roads,
FILE: To arrange in order./ computers, persons, etc. / Red.
Archivar. SKELETON: The bony frame of
MONITOR :A computer screen, a the body./ Esqueleto.
person or device for checking SPINE: Backbone; the row of the
performance./ Monitor. bones located in the center of the
PERSPIRE: To sweat. / Sudar. back / Espina dorsal.
PROVE: Demostrate as true / STRIP: A long narrow piece of
Probar, demostrar. land, wood, etc. / Tira, cinta.
PUNCH: To make holes in TERMINAL: A station, as in bus,
something; hit with hit the fist. / train, computer, etc. / Terminal.
Punzon, perforar, golpear.
REVEAL: To tell or make
known / Revelar.
SLAM: To shut or apply pressure
forcibly. / Azotar, golpear.
BY HAND: Done with the hand as
opppsed to using a machine / A
mano.
AUXILIARY: Helping, adding
support. / Auxiliar.
DISEASED: Having a serious
sickness. / Enfermo, contagiado.
INTENSE: Strong or extreme /
Intenso.
ACCESSORY: Something extra /
Accesorio.
FRAME: A structural case which
surrounds or supports something. /
Marco.
GRAPH: A type of diagram with
intersecting vertical and horizontal
lines. / Grafica.
KIDNEY: An organ in the body
which separates liquid waste from
the blood ./ Riñon.
MONITOR: A computer screen, a
person or device for checking
performance. / Monitor.
 FORMING ADVERBS

Many Adverbs Are Formed by adding the suffix –ly to adjectives to show
manner. These –ly adverbs describe the action of the verb and answer the
question “How?” They are usually found at the end of the clause. Look at the
examples:

Adjective: Slow
Adverb: Slowly
He drives slowly at night.
She speak slowly so others can understand her.

Adjective: Careful
Adverb: Carefully
They walked across the bridge carefully.
The two men carried the injured child carefully.

PREPOSITIONS BY AND WITH

The prepositions by and with are used to express “How” something is done.

BY

BY is used to show a means of trasnportation or communication:

by car by telephone by land

by train by mail by sea
by plane by air

Other expressions can be used with by to show means:

by hand by mistake
by accident by check
BY can also be used with a gerund or gerund phrase to express means.

He entered the house by breaking the window.

She learned the word by looking it up in the dictionary.

WITH

With is used to express how something is done when an instrument or part of the
body is used.

He drove the nail with a hammer.

Frank dug a hole with his shovel.

She hit the table with her knee.

PAST MODALS

There are some modals that are used to express various meanings in the past. Each
of these modals is used with tha past participle of the verb.

Could have

We use could have to say that we had the opportunity to doo something, but we
did not do it.

EXAMPLES:

While in California, I could have visited San Francisco, but I didin't (I

had the opportunity to go there, but I didn't).

He could have studied more for his test today , but he didn't.
(He had the opportunity to study more, but he didn't.)
Could have, may have, might have

We use could have, may have, or might have to say that something was
possible in the past. For the negative, we use either may not have or might not
have.

EXAMPLES:

I don't know why he failed the test.

He could have felt sick. (Perhaps he felt sick.)

He may have gotten confused. (Perhaps he got confused.)

He might have arrived late. (Perhaps he arrived late.)

He may/ might not have studied. (Perhaps he didn't study.)

Should have, ought to have

We use should have or ought to have to say that someone did the wrong thing.
We use these modals to give advice after something has happened. Should have
is used more commonly that ought to have.

EXAMPLES:

The team had a very good game.

You should have been there.

John is very sleepy today.

He ought to have gone to sleep earlier.

The policeman gave him a ticket.

He shouldn't have driven so fast.
Must have

We use must have to make conclusions or dedutions about the past. We must
not have (not a contraction) for the negative.

EXAMPLES:

I haven't seen our neighbors for a while.

They must have gone on vacation.

His headlights were on all night.

He must not have turned them off when he got home.

 BOOK 30

LESSON 1

APPRECIATE: Be grateful for / KEEP AN EYE ON: Watch

Apreciar.
BAND: Belt or strap
Cinturón,correa.
BOOST: Increase or rise; an act
that helps or brings
encouragement / Aumentar, apoyar,
empujar.
CLEANERS: Place where clothing
is cleaned / Lavanderia, tintoreria.
COMPLIMENT: Expression of
praise or admiration./ Cumplido,
alabar.
DECORATE: Make more pleasing
by addition / Decorar.
DON´T MENTION IT: It´s all
right / Ni lo mensiones.
FIGURE: Amount, number, form /
Cifra.
FRACTION: Part of / Fraccion.
FURNACE: Device for giving heat
/ Calentador.
GRATEFUL: Thankful,
appreciative / Agradecido.
HOOK: Catch for attaching /
Gancho, garfio.
INVITE OVER: Ask to visit /
Ofrecer.
JUST THE SAME: Anyway / De
todos modos.
carefully/ Cuidar, tener cuidado
/ con.
KID: Child / Niño.
LINK: Connection / Conexión,
eslabon.
MATE: Companion;spouse; one of
a matched pair / Compañero.
MICROPHONE:Device to
convert sound to electricity /
Microfono.
PRAISE: Express approval /
Autorizar, dar permiso.
REMAIDER: Balance / Resto,
sobrante.
RESEARCH: Investigation to get
facts / Investigar, investigacion.
SOUVENIR:Something that serves
as a reminder / Recuerdo.
SPEAK UP: Speak lounger /
Levantar la voz.
SPEECH: A talk given to an
audience / Discurso.
STICK AROUND: Remain in, at
a place / Permanecer.
STICK BY: Remain true, faithful /
Confiar, apoyar.
WELCOME: Greet, accept with
pleasure/ Dar la bienvenida.
 GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS.

A gerund is often used as the subject of a sentence.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT VERB COMPLEMENT

Driving Across the city Takes About an hour.

An infinitive may also be the subject of a sentence.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT VERB COMPLEMENT

To leave Now Would be Rude.

However, when an infinitive is used as the subject, it usually follows

anticipatory it.

AN. IT VERB COMPLEMEN SUBJECT COMPLEMEN

T T

It Takes About an hour To drive Across the city.

A gerund subject sometimes follows anticipatory “it” + adjecive. This is

considered an informal usage. In informal writing, an infinitive anticipatory
would be used.

AN.IT VERB COMPLEMEN SUBJECT COMPLEMEN

T T

Was Nice Meeting You.

It
 Was Wonderful To see Maria again

SEQUENCE OF ADVERBS IN FINAL POSITION

When adverbial occur in final position, they usually follow this sequence: place,
then manner, and time last. When we want to show someone that we really
understand what he / she is experiencing, we expressions like these:

PLACE MANNER TIME

1 2 3
1.- The children are at home Alone Tonight
2.- Alec plants to travel to Chicago By train Next week
3.- Ann eats breakfast at the café Every day
4.- John walked down the walk briskly

THAT-NOUN CLOUSE SENTENCES

A noun cluase may be used as the subject of a sentence. It may occur at the
beginning of the sentence (before the main verb), or it may follow an
anticipatory “it” phrase.

It´s a wonder That you weren’t killed.

That you weren’t killed Is a wonder.

THAT NOUN CLAUSES AS COMPLEMENTS

A nouns clause may be used as a complement after the verb BE,either with or
without “THAT”.
NOUN PHRASE BE OPTIONAL THAT NOUN CLAUSE

The fact is (that) you were late!

LESSON 2
ADDITIVE: A sustance added to
something to change it in some way /
Aditivo.
BUREAU: A goverment department or
division of a department / Buro
gubernamental.
COMPENSATE: Make payment for /
Recompensar.
COMPENSATE FOR: Make up for or
balance out / Compensar.
COMPRESSOR: A machine that presses
or squeezes gases together / Compresora.
CRANK: An arm-like device used for
turning things / Manivela.
CRUMBLE: Fall apart or break into
pieces / Derrumbar, desvoronar.
DEPOSIT: A natural accumulation,
especially of a resource such as oil or gas.
/ Deposito, yacimiento.
DIMINISH: Reduce in size or effect /
Disminuir.
DO AWAY WITH: Get rid of or
eliminate. / Deshacerse de algo.
DUCT: A tube-like passage for liquids,
gases, etc. / Ducto, conducto.
FULLY:Completely / Completamente.
HORSEPOWER: A unit for measuring
power / Caballo de fuerza.
IN SEARCH OF: Looking for / En
busca de.
INTAKE: Related to taking something in
/ Ingreso.
INVERT: Turn upside down / invertir.
IN WORKING ORDER: In good
condition / Buen fucionamiento.
MAKE UP FOR: Sustitute for, or
compensate for, a mistake or offense /
Compensar.
MECHANIZE: Automated, done with or
having machines / Mecanizado.
MERCURY: A silver-colored poisonous
metal used in thermometers, batteries, etc.
/ Mercurio.
NOZZLE: A device throught which
liquid is discharged, used to speed up or
slow down the flow of liquid / Boquilla.
PUNISH: Set as a penalty / castigar.
RAG: A worn cloth / Trapo, arapo.
RECIPROCATE: Move back and forth
or up and down alternately / Reciproco.
RESIDUE: That whichremains or is left
over, usually after some kind of chemical
or physical process. / Residuo.
SEEP: Move or pass through slowly /
Filtar.
SIMULTANEOUS: Occurring at the
same time / Simultaneo.
SPRAY: Discharge liquid in a mass of
small drops / Rociar.
THEREBY: By that means / Por eso.
UNDERGROUND: Below ground /
Subterraneo.
UPSIDE DOWN: In a position with the
top turned to the bottom / Boca abajo,
Invertido.
VALVE: A device used to control the
flow of liquids or gases / Válvula.
WAX: Polish / Encerar, pulir.
WELL: A deep hole which is drilled in
the earth to obtain oil, gas, or water /
Pozo.
 CHANGING EMBEDDED QUESTIONS TO INFINITIVES

Sentences containing an embedded question consist of a main clause and a

dependent (noun) clause. The embedded question (noun clause) is introduced
by when, where, how, who, whom, whose, what, which or whether and
usually follows the following phrases:

I don’t know Can you tell me

I know Do you know
I wonder How can I

Main Clause Embedded Question (Noun Clause)

How I can wrap this package?

Can you tell me Where I can find that book?
What I should bring for the party?
How I can wrap this package
I don’t know Where I can find that book
What I should bring for the party

Sometimes the embedded question (noun clause) in the sentence can be

changed or reduced to an infinitive or an infinitive phrase.

Main Clause Question-word + to- infinitive

How to wrap this package?

Can you tell me Where to find that book?
What to bring for the party?
How to wrap this package
I don’t know Where to find that book
What to bring for the party
 CONNECTIVES

CONNECTIVE USE EXAMPLES

Albert prefers to read rather than

wath TV.
Indicates preference
RATHER or alternative (similar Martha likes working in the garden
THAN to instead of) rather than in the kitchen.

We'll walk rather than take a taxi.

The game was long as well as

tiring.
AS WELL AS Indicates addition
(similar to besides) Paul ordered rice as well as
potatoes.

Sally swims as well as skis.

The curtains fit the windows in

lenght, but not width.
BUT NOT Indicates contrast
The party was great fun, but not
long enough.
 LESSON 3
ADOPT: To take for one´s own /
Adoptar
AMBIGUOS: Not clear in
meaning / Ambiguo.
BASE: To establish or use as a
foundation for / Base.
CAUTION: To warn / Prevenir.
COMMIT: To obligate someone to
follow a course of action. /
Obligar, cometer.
CONCEPT: Idea or thought /
Concepto.
CONFLICT: Fight or war /
Conflicto, estar en conflicto.
CONTINGENCY:An event that is
uncertain or dependent upon
something else / Contingencia.
CONTRARY TO: In opposition to
/ Contrario a.
CONVENTIONAL: Usual or
ordinary / Convencional.
COUNTER: Against or opposite /
Contra, opuesto.
DERIVE: To obtain or receive
from the enemy / Derivar.
FEASIBLE: Capable of being
done / Posible.
FORMULATE: To organize into
expression / Formular.
GLOBAL: Relating to the entire
world / Global.
IN ESSENCE: Basically or
fundamentally / En esencia.
IN OPPOSITION TO: Against or
opposing / En contra de.
JOINT: Shared by or common to
two or more / Conjunto.
MISSING: Lost or absent. /
Perdido.
MOBILE: Movable / Movil.
MOBILITY: Ability to be moved /
Movilidad.
OPPONENT: Person on the
oppsing side / Opuesto.
ORIGINATE: To start or create /
Originar.
PATTERN: Desing / Patron,
diseño.
POLICY: Plan of action / Politica.
POLITICAL: Of or concerning
goverment / Politico.
PRIORITY: Preferencial order or
position / Prioridad.
PROPORTION:Comparative
relation / Proporcion.
RATIO: Proportion / Proporcion.
SECURE: To make firm or safe /
Asegurar.
SECURITY: Freedom from danger
/ Seguridad.
SETTING: Time and place,
environment / Escenario.
SIMULATE: To give the
appearance of or imitate / Simular.
TACTIC: Means or plan used to
archive a goal / Tactica.
TASK: Job / Tarea, trabajo.
 MAKING A SUGGESTION

We use shall with I or We in a question when we want to make a suggestion and

ask another person if he/she agree with this suggestion.

For example, look at the following situations. Pay special attention to shall
questions and their meanings.

Shall I:

A friend has just told you how he cleans fresh fish, but you know a better way of
to do it. You suggest to your friend, "Shall I show you how I do this?" You are
hoping he'll agree with or take You up on your suggestion.

Shall We:

It's twelve noon, you're hungry, and you want your friend to go lunch with you.
You can say: "It's noon. Shall we go to lunch?" or simply, "shall we go to
lunch?"

ADJECTIVES SUFFIXES

Adjectives can be formed by adding certain suffixes to some nouns, some verbs
and various word stems.

The following suffixes can be added to nouns to form adjectives: -y / -ly / -

ful /-less -ern / -ous / -ic / -ical / -ish / -like / -al / -ar / -ary.

EXAMPLES:

Silk /silky hysteria / hysterical

Brother / brotherly style / stylish
Use / useful child /childlike
Home / Homeless monument / monumental
North / northern family / familiar
Danger / dangerous station / stationary
Hero / heroic
The following suffixes may be added to nouns and / or verbs to form
adjectives:
-able/ -ible/ –ive/ -tive/ -ative.

EXAMPLES:
Refund / refundable
Force / forcible
Protect / protective
Produce / productive
Talk / talkative

The following suffixes are added to verbs to form adjectives: -ent/ -ant.

EXAMPLES:
Differ / different
Assist / assistant

The suffix ward can be added to various word stems to form adjectives:

EXAMPLES:
Back / backward
Land / landward

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In English sentences, the verb must always agree with the subject, weather the
subject is singular or plural. Of course, using a verb that agrees with subject
requires the ability to first identify the subject with its possible modifiers as being
either singular or plural.

Singular indefinite pronouns:

Some indefinite pronouns are considered singular, and therefore take a singular
verb. These pronouns are: one, each, either, neither, every, body, somebody,
someone, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody.
EXAMPLES:

One of the teachers in our school has a foreign car.

Each of the children in the class has a dictionary.
Either of the books on my desk is acceptable.

There + Be:

In a sentence with there + be, the verb agrees with the subject that follows it.

EXAMPLES:

There is a pencil on the table.

There are some pencils on the table.

If the subject consists of two or more parts, the verb is plural.

EXAMPLE:

There are a notebook and a pen on the table.

Compound subjects:

Use a singular verb with the following:

a. When both parts of a compound subject refer to the same person or thing.

EXAMPLE: Her brother and president of the company was at the party.

b. When a singular subject is joined to a noun by together, with, accompanied

by, or in addition to.

EXAMPLES: Betty, together with her sister, is going to Italy.

David, accompanied by Theresa, was at the theater.
A nut, in addtion to a bolt, is needed to hold this in place.
c. When each or every modofies singular parts of a compoun subject is joined
together by and.

EXAMPLES: Every student and every teacher was at the meeting.

Each coach and each player knows this rule.

d. When two parts of a compound subject are so closely related that they refer to a
single thing.

EXAMPLE: Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.

e. When two or more singular subjects are joined by or or nor.

EXAMPLES: Thomas or Eric operates the new computer.

Neither Todd nor Roy understands the problem.

However, the verb agrees with the nearest noun when the subjects joined by or or
nor differ in number or person.

EXAMPLES:

Either you or the girl has to complete the task.

Either you or the girls have to complete the task.
Neither Tom nor Jim was here.
Neither Tom nor his friend were there.

And when two or more subjects are joined by and, a plural verb is used.

EXAMPLES:

Ross and Ted are good friends.

Mr. and Mrs. Jones are hardworking individuals.
Expressions of quantity:

When pronouns of indefinite quantity are used with an of phrase, the verb must
agree with the noun that appears in the of phrase.

These pronouns are: Any, all, some, none, more, and most.
EXAMPLES:

Are any of the students from Ecuador?

Is any of the coffee from Colombia?
All of the students bring their dictionaries to class.

Irregular construction:

Some nouns which are irregular always appear in plural form, and therefore
require plural verb.

EXAMPLE: The clothes are in the dryer.

Other irregular nouns end in -s and are singular in meaning, and therefore take a
singular verb.

EXAMPLE: The news about more U.S. jobs is good.

There are also irregular nouns that show their plurality by means other than s.
When these nouns are plural, they require plural verbs.

EXAMPLE: The man works eight hours. The men work eight hours.

Still other irregular noun may either be singular or plural.

EXAMPLE: One fish was in the shallow water. Ten fish were in deep water.
LESSON 4
BURN DOWN: To burn to the ground /
cause to burn / Quemarse, Incendiar.
DESERVE: To be worthy of, merit /
Merecer.
PASS: To go or move foreward, through,
etc; To go or be conveyed from one place,
form, condition, etc. / Aprobar.
RUN FOR: Campaing for elective
office / Competir.
SEND FOR: To summon; To place an
other for / Enviar por algo o por alguien.
SET ABOUT: Begin a task / Empezar;
Ponerse a.
ACCORD: To make agree; To grant /
Acuerdo.
AMENDMENT: A correction of errors,
faults, etc; improvement / Enmienda.
CONDOLENCE: To express
symphathy; commiserate. / Condolencia.
CONSTITUTION: A constituting;
Structure;Organization; The system of
basic laws and principales of a goverment
/ Constitucion.
DEMOCRACY: Goverment by the
people, directly or through
representatives; equality of rights /
Democracia.
KING: A male ruler of a state; A man
who is supreme in some field. / Rey.
MAYOR: The chief administrative
official of a city, town, etc. / Alcalde.
OFFICE: A service done for another; A
duty, esp. as a part of one’s work. /
Oficina, Cargo publico.
QUEEN: The wife of a King; A female
monarch in her own right. / Reyna.
RELIGION: Belief in and worship of
God or Gods; A specific system of belief,
workship, etc. / Religion.
SENATOR: A member of a senate /
Senador.
SERVICE: The occupation of a servant;
Public employment; Work done for
others; Any ceremony. / Ceremonia,
Servicio.
SYMPHATY: Pity or compassion;
Condolence; Mutual linking or
understanding / Condolencias.
ASTONISHED: Filled with sudden
Wonder; Amazed; Greatly surprised /
Asombrado.
ASTONISHING: Amazing,surprising /
Asombroso.
IN CONNECTION WITH: In relation
to. / En contacto con.
FOR THE LACK OF: Because of not
having. / Carente de, Por carecer de.
FOR THE SAKE OF: For the good of. /
Por el bien de.
RELIGIOUS: Devot; Pious; Of or
concerned with religion. / Religioso.
SHOCKED: Greatly surprised. /
Sorprendido.
SHOCKING: Causing great surprise and
distress / Sorprendente.
TRAGIC: Of, or having the nature of,
Tragedy; Disastrous; Fatal, etc. / Tragico.
BACK ON ONE’S FEET: Recuperarse.
GIVE A RING: Llamar, Telefonear,
(echar una llamada.).
IT’S A SHAME THAT: Es una lastima
que...
WHAT A SHAME THAT: Que lastima
que...
 PERFECT GERUNDS AND PERFECT INFINITIVES.

A perfect gerund or a perfect infinitive is used for an action condition which takes
place before the time of the main verb. Formed by using the gerund or infinitive of
have plus a past participle, the perfect gerund or perfect infinitive may be either
active or passive in form. Study the chart to see how the perfect gerund and the
perfect infinitive are formed. Pay special attention to the example sentences
provided.

Active Voice Passive Voice

having + past participle having been + past participle

Perfect Gerund:
Having studied all night, Gerald was Having been accused of robbery,
ready for the exam. Sam had to hire a lawyer.

to have been + past participle

Perfect Infinitive: to have + past participle

The all night study session proved to Today the accusations against Sam
have been a mistake for Gerald. appear to have been dropped.
 ADJECTIVES USES AS NOUNS

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns to refer to groups of people with the quality
of the adjective, for example, “the poor”.

Another group of adjectives, usually ending in –ese or -ish, refer to groups of

people of a particular nationality: the Chinese, the English.

When used as nouns, all of these adjectives regularly take a plural verb.

PRONOUN AGREEMENT

PRONOUN FORMS

Subject object possessive possessive reflexive

adjective pronoun

Sing.
I me my mine myself
you you your yours yourself
she her her hers herself
he him his his himself
it it its itself

Plur.
we us our ours ourselves
you you your yours yourselves
they them their theirs themselves
Remember that pronouns and possessive adjectives must agree in number, person,
and gender with the noun or indefinite pronoun to which they refer.