chapter 7

Conventional Numerical Control

INTRODUCTION

and manufacturing have a

Many of the achievements in computer-aided design
common onigin in numerical control (abbreviated
NC). The conceptual framework
control is still undergoing further
established during the development of numenical
It is appropriate
refinement and enhancement in today's CADICAM technology.
to the subject of NC.
that we devote a major part of this book
and applications of conventional
This chapter defines the basic concepts
on computer technology.
numerical control. Modern NC systems rely heavily
that depends
the topic of NC part programming, procedure
a
Chapter 8 deals with
9 is concerned with computer control
greatlyon computer-aided methods. Chapter
in NC systems.

Numerical control defined

of programmable automation in which
Numerical control can be defined as a form
and symbols. In NC, the numbers
the process is controlled by numbers, letters, When the
for a particular workpart or job.
Tom a program of instrictions designed

155
 Numerical Control, The
Beginnings of CAAM
156
is changed. This capability to o .
the program of instructions nange ththe
job changes, NC its tlexibility. It is much
program for
each new job is what gives
in the production equipment,
easier write
to
make major changes
new programs thanto has been applied to a wide vanety of operations in.
ever,NC technology
drafting,
numerical
assembly,control
inspection,
finds sheet
its principal
metal pressworking,
applications
andinspot
metal
welding
ma How. luding
processes. The machined workparts are designed in rious sizes and shap
and
most machined parts produced in industrytoday are made in small to medi n-size
batches. To produce each part, a sequence ofdrilling operations may be requ
or a series of turning or milling operations. The suitability of NC for theceted
inds o
is the reasonfor the tremendous growh of numerical control in the
metal
jobs
over the last 25 years.
working industry

Historical background
Conventional NC is based largely on the pioneering work of a man named John T
Parsons. In the late 1940s, Parsons conceived a method of using punched card
containing coordinate position data to control a machine tool. The machine wa
directed to move in small increments, thus generating the desire surface of an air.
foil. In 1948, Parsons demonstrated his concept to the U.S. Air Force, which suh.
sequently sponsored a series of research projects at the Servomechanisms Labora
tory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The initial work at MIT involved the development of a prototype NC milling
machine, by retrofitting a conventional tracer mill with position servomechanisms
for the three machine tool axes. The first demonstration of the NC prototype was
held in 1952. By 1953, the potential usefulness of the NC concept had been
pro
ven.

Shortly thereafter, the machine tool builders began initiating their own
development projects to introduce commercial NC units. Also, certain user indus
tries, especially airframe builders, worked to devise numerical control machines to
satisfy their own particular needs. The Air Force continued its encouragement of
NC development by sponsoring additional research at MIT to
design a part pro
gramming language that could be used for controlling the NC machines. This work
resulted in the APT language, which stands for
The objective of the APT research was to Automatically Programmed l
provide a means by which the part pro
grammer could communicate the machining instructions to the machine
simple Engiish-like statements. Although the APT language has been to
being too large for many computers, it nevertheless criticized
ment. APT is still widely used in represents a major accomp
industry today, and most other modern pan
gramming languages are based on APT concepts.
Conventional Numerical Control
157

BASIc cOMPONENTS OF AN NC SYSTEM

7.2
An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic com-
ponents:

1. Program of instructions
2. Controller unit, also called a machine control unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool or other controlled process

The general relationship among the three components is illustrated in Figure 7.1.
The program of instructions serves as the input to the controller unit, which in turn
commands the machine tool or other process to be controlled. We will discuss the
three components in the sections below.

Program of instructions
The program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step set of directions which tell
the machine tool what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some
type of input medium that can be interpreted by the controller unit. The most com-
mon input medium today is 1-in.-wide punched tape. Over the years, other forms
of input media have been used, including punched cards, magnetic tape, and even
35-mm motion picture film.
There are two other methods of input to the NC system which should be
mentioned. The first is by manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit.
This method is called manual data input, abbreviated MDI, and is appropriate only
for relatively simple jobs where the order will not be repeated. We will discuss
MDI more thoroughly in Chapter 8. The second other method of input is by means

(a) (b) c)
FIGURE 7.1 Three basic components of a numerical control system: (a) program of instruc-
tion; (6) controller unit; (c) machine tool.
58 Numerical Control, The
Beginnings of CAM
of direct link with a computer. This is called direct numerical
a
control, or nNie
and we discuss this in Chapter 9. DNC,
The program of instructions is prepared by someone called a
part propra
mer. The programmer's job is to provide a set of detailed gram
instructions by which
sequence of processing steps is to be pertormed. For a machining operation the t
processing steps involve the relative movement between the cutting tool and the
workpiece. the

Controller unit
The second basic component of the NC system is the controller unit.
This consite
of the electronics and hardware that read and
interpret the program of instructionc
and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool. The
typical
aconventional NC controller unit include the tape reader, a data buffer,elements of
put channels to the machine tool, feedback channels from the machine tool,
signal out.
and
the sequence controls to coordinate the overali
operation of the foregoing ele.
ments. It should be noted that
nearly all modern NC systems today are soid with a2
microcomputer as the controller unit. This type of NC is called computer numeri.
cal control (CNC). We discuss CNC in
Chapter 9.
The tape reader is clectromechanical device for winding and reading
an

punched tape containing the program of instructions. The data the

contained on the
tape are read into the data buffer. The purpose of this device is to
store the input
instructions in logical blocks of information. A block of
information
represents one complete step in the sequence of processing elements. For usually
one block may be the data
required to move the machine table to a certainexample,
and drill a hole at that location. position
The signal output channels are connected
to the servomotors and
trols in the machine tool. other con-
Through these channels, the instructions
machine tool from the controller unit. To are sent to the
make certain that the instructions
been properly executed by the have
machine, feedback data are sent back to the con-
troller via the feedback channels. The most
to assure that the table important function of this return loop 15
and workpart have been
tool properly located with respect to the
Sequence controls coordinate the activities of the other
troller unit. The tape reader is elements of the con
actuated to read data into the
signals are sent to and from the machine tool, and so buffer from the tape,
must be on. These types of operations
synchronized and this is the function of the sequence controls.
Another element of the NC
troller unit or part of the machinesystem, which may be physically part of the con
control console contains the dials tool, is the control panel. The control
panel or
and switches by which the machine
the NC
system. It may also contain data operator u
operator. Although the NC system is an automatic displays provide information to nc
to
still needed to tyrn the system, the human operator i
machine on and off, to change tools
automatic tool (some NC systems nav
changers), to load and unload the machine, and to perform varous
 umerical Control
ConventonaN
l umer

159
her duties. To be able to discharge these duties, the operator must be able to con
trol the system, and this is done through the control panel.

Machine tool or other controlled process

The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other controlled
nroces. It is the part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the most
proce
common Cxampie or an N. system, one designed to perform machin1ng opera-

tions. the mach1ne tool consists of the worktable and spindle as well as the motors
and
controls necessary to drive them. It also includes the cutting tools, work fix-
tures. and other auxiliary cquipment needed in the machining operation. Figure 1.
illustrates an NC machine tool

FIGURE 7.2 NC system showing machine tool and controller. (Courtesy of Bridgeport Ma
chines Division of Textron Inc.)
 Numerical Control, The Beginnings of CAM

fromsimple tape-controlled drill presses

NC machines range in complexity
to highly sophisticated
and versatile machining centers. The NC machining center
was first introduced in
the late 1950s. It is a multifunction machine which incor-
features into a single piece of automated production
porates several timesaving
is of performing a variety of different
equipment. First, a machining center capable
operations: drilling, tapping, reaming, milling, and boring. Second, it has the
under tape command. A variety of machin-
capacity to change tools automatically are required. The tools are kept
means that a variety of cutting tools
ing operations
in a tool drum or other holding device. When the tape calls a particular tool, the
drum rotates to position the tool for insertion into the spindle. The automatic tool
then places
the tool and it into the spindle chuck. A third capability
changer grasps
of the NC machining center is workpiece positioning. The machine table can orient
the job so that it can be machined on several surfaces, as required. Finally, a fourth
feature possessed by some machining centers is the presence of two tables or pallets
on which the workpiece can be fixtured. While the machining sequence is being
the operator be unloading the previously com-
performed on one workpart, can
pleted piece, and loading the next one. This improves machine tool utilization
because the machine does not have to stand idle during loading and unloading of
the workparts. An example of an NC machining center is shown in Figure 7.3.

FIGURE 7.3 NC machining center with computer control. (Courtesy of Kearney & TreCke"
Corp.)
v e n i o n a l
M u m e
rical Control

161
THENC PROCEDURE

To utilize numerical control in

ize numerical
plished.
manufacturing, the following steps
teps must be accom-
r

1. Process planning. The

interpreted
terpretedinin terms of the engineering drawing of the workpart
must be
ta aS manufacturing
process planning and it is
processes to be used. This step is referred
step referred
concerned with the
route sheet is
listing
a of the preparation of a route sheet. The
sequence of operations which must be
the workpart. Itit iis called a route sheet because it
the pertormed o
which the part must be routed in order to also lists the machines through
through
We assume that some of the accomplish the sequence of operations.
machines.
operations will be performed on one or more NC
2. Part programming. A part programmer plans the process for the
tions of the job to be accomplished by NC. Part por
about the machining process and programmers are knowledgeable
they have been trained to program for numerical
control. They are
responsible for planning the sequence of
performed by NC and to document these in a special format. machining
There are two to be
stepsways to
program for NC:

Manual part programming

Computer-assisted part programming
In manual part programming, the machining instructions are prepared on a form
called a part program manuscript. The manuscript is a listing of the relative
cutter/workpiece positions which must be followed to machine the part. In
computer-assisted part programming, much of the tedious computational work
required in manual part programming is transferred to the computer. This isespe
cially appropriate for complex workpiece geometries and jobs with many machin-
ing steps. Use of the computer in these situations results in significant savings in
part programming time.
3. Tape preparation.. A punched tape is
prepared from the part pro-
grammer's NC process plan. In manual part programming, the punched tape is
prepared directly from the part program manuscript on a typewriterlike device
equipped with tape punching capability. In computer-assisted part programming,
the computer interprets the list of part programming instructions, performs the
necessary calculations to convert this into a detailed set of machine tool motion
commands, and then controls a tape punch device to prepare the tape for the
specific NC machine.
4. Tape verification. After the punched tape has been prepared, a method
is usually provided for checking the accuracy of the tape. Sonmetimes the tape is
checked by running it through a computer program which plots the various tool
movements (or table movements) on paper. In this way, major errors in the tape
can be discovered. The "acid test" of the tape involves trying it out on the
 162 Numerical Control, The Beginnings of CAM
machine tool to make the part. A foam or
plastic material
this trvout.
sometimes used fr
is
Programming ermOrS are not uncommon. and it
may require about thra
attempts before the tape is corect and ready to use ree
5. Production. The final step in the NC
procedure is to use the NC tape in
production. This involves ordering the raw workparts.
tooling and any special fixturnng that may be required. specifying and preparing the
and setting
machine tooi for the job. The machine toxol up the NC
to load the raw workpart in the machne and
operator s function
during production is
establish the starting
cutting tool relative to the workpiece. The NC position of the
system then takes over
machines the part accord1ng to the instructions on and
tape. When the part is com
pleted. the operator removes it trom the machine and loads the next
part.

7.4 NC CoORDINATE SYSTEMS

In order for the part programmer to plan

the sequence of
positions and movements
of the cutting tool relative to the
workpiece, it is necessary to establish a standard
axis system by which the relative
positions can be specified. Using an NC drill
press as an example. the drill spindle is in a fixed vertical
moved and controlled relative to the spindle. However, toposition,
and the table is
make things easier for
the programmer. we adopt the viewpoint that the
workpiece is
drill bit is moved relative to it. Accordingly, the coordinate stationary while the
system of axes is esta-
blished with respect to the machine table
Two axes, x and y. are defined in the plane of the table, as
shown in Figure
7.4. The z axis is perpendicular to this plane and movement in the
controlled by the vertical motion of the spindle. The positive and :
direction is
tions of motion of tool relative to table along these axes are as negative
ditee-
shown in Figure
7.4. NC drill presses are classified as either two-axis or
three-axis machines.
depending on whether or not they have the capability to control the : axis.
A numerical control milling machine and similar machine
tools (boring mil.
for example) use an axis system similar to that of the drill
press. However. in
addition to the three linear axes, these machines
may possess the tw capacity con

+X

FIGURE 7.4 NC ma
Machine table chine tool axis system
for milling and driling
operations
ena/Mune
malNumerical Contro!
163

FIGURE 7.5 NC ma-

chine tool axis system
X for turning operation.

rnl one or more

rotational axes. Three rotational axes are defined in NC: the a, b,
axes specify angles about thex, y, and z axes, respectively.
To
dc axes. These
and rule"" can be
distinguish positive from negative angular motions, the "right-hand axis direc-
linear
Hsed.Using the right hand with the thumb pointing in the positive
tion (, y, Or z), the fingers of the hand are curled to point in the positive rotational
direction.
For turning operations, two axes are normally all that are required to comn

of the tool relative to the rotating workpiece. The z

axis is the
mand the movement
axis defines the radial location of the cutting
of rotation of the workpart, and x
axis
tool. This arrangement
is illustrated in Figure 7.5. the
is to provide a means of locating
The purpose of the coordinate system
tool in relation to the workpiece.
Depending on the NC machine, the part progranm
several different options available
for specifying this location.
mer may have

Fixed zero and floating

zero

determine the position of the

tool relative to the origin (zero
The programmer must of two methods for
coordinate system. NC machines have either
point) of the machine to have a fixed
zero point. The
first possibility is for the
specifying the the machine
located at the same position on
zero. In this case,
the origin is always left-hand corner) of the
that position is the southwest corner (lower
table. Usually, x and y coordinates.
will be defined by positive
table and al tool locations on modern NC
machines allows the
common feature
The second and more
This
on the machine table.
set the zero point at any position
to where
machine operator is the one who decides
The part programmer
feature is called floating zero.
decision is based on part programming con
The
the point should be located.
zero and the zero point
may be symmetrical
venience. For example, the workpart is
of symmetry. The location of the zero point
at the center
should be established the job, the operator
machine operator. At the beginning of
Communicated to the on the table. The tar-
manual control to some "target point"
moves the tool under or table for the operator
to
on the workpiece
8et point is some convenient place in the workpiece. The
be a predrilled hole
position the tool. For example, it might the part programmer. In fact,
to the zero point by
referenced for tool posi
arget point has been point as the zero point
have selected the target the machine opera-
une programmer may been positioned at the target
point,
oning. When the tool has
 164 Numerical Control, The Beginnings of CAM
Next location
(6 8)
Specify x = 6, y = 8

Ay 3
for absolute positioning

2, 3
Specify x
=

6
y
for incremental

positioning

Current
location

234
45 6 7 8 9 10
FIGURE 7.6 Absoute versus incremental positioning.

tor presses a "zero" button on the machine tool console, which tells the machine
where the ongin is located for subsequent tool movements.

Absolute positioning and incremental positioning

Another option sometimes available to the part programmer is to use either an
absolute system of tool positioning or an inuremental system. Absolute positioning
means that the tool locations are always defined in relation to the zero point. Ifa
hole is to be drilled at a spot that is 8 in. above the x axis and 6 in. to the right of
the y axis, the coordinate location of the hole would be specified as = +6.00
and y = + 8.000. By contrast, incremental positioning means that the next tool
location must be defined with reference to the previous tool location. If in our dril-
ling example, suppose that the previous hole had been drilled at an absolute pos
tion of x = +4.000 and y = +5.000. Accordingly, the incremental position
instructions would be specified as x = +2.000 and y = +3.000 in order to move

the drill to the desired spot. Figure 7.6 illustrates the difference between absolute
and incremental positioning.

7.5 NC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

In order to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and workpiece must
be moved relative to each other. In NC, there are three basic types of motion con
trol systerms:

1. Point-to-point
2. Straight cut
3 Contouring
N u m e r n i c a lC o n t r o l

165
the
Point-to-point systems represent the lowest level of motion control between
onint
and
workpiece. ontouring represents the highest level of control.
orkpiece. Co
tol

Point-10-point NC

the
P o i n t - t o - p o i n t
(PTP) IS also sometimes lled a system. In PTP,
positioning
objectiveofthe machine tool control system is to move the cutting tool to a prede-
path by
The speed or which this movement is accomplished is not
olocation.
ined
important in point--to-point NC. Once the tool reaches the desire location, the
operation is erformed at that position.
achining must first
are a good example of PTP systems. The spindle
mach

NC drill presses PTP

location on the workpiece. This is done under
sitioned at a particular forth.
be posi
control. Then .the drilling of the hole is performed at the
location, and so
the
is no need for controlling
Since no cutting 1s pertormed between holes, there illus-
between hole locations. Figure 7.7
relative motion of the tool of workpiece
and
control.
point-to-point type
trates the machine tool control systems and are
Positioning systems are the simplest
of the three types. However, for certain processes,
therefore the least expensive to the task and
operations and spot welding, PTP is perfectly suited
Such as drilling
would be
level of control unnecessary.
any higher

Straight-cut NC
tool parallel to one
capable of moving the cutting
are
Straight-cut control systems It is therefore
controlled rate suitable for machining.
of the major axes at a fabricate workpieces of rectangu-
milling operations to
appropriate for performing is not possible to combine
this type of NC system it
lar configurations. With cuts on the
axis direction. Therefore, angular
single
movements in more than
a
operation is shown
An example of straight-cut a
workpiece would not be possible. of straight cut movements is
also capable of
in Figure 7.8. An NC machine capable
PTP movements.

Tool path

Operation performed at
each point location
Starting
point

NC system.
FIGURE 7.7 Point-to-point (positioning)
166 Numerical Control, The Beginnings of CAM
Workpiece

Tool path operations

performed during too
motion parallel to x or
axes.

Starting Cutting tool

point

FIGURE 7.8 Straight-cut system.

Contouring NC
Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the most expensive type of
machine tool control. It is capable of performing both PTP and straight-cut opera
tions. In addition, the distinguishing feature of contouring NC systems is their
for simultaneous control of more than one axis movement of the machine
capacity
to generate the desired
tool. The path of the cutter is continuously controlled
this reason, contouring systems are also called
geometry of the workpiece. For
surfaces at any orientation, circular
continuous-path NC systems. Straight plane
or

other mathematically definable fom are posi

paths, conical shapes, or most any
7.9 illustrates the versatility of continuous
ble under contouring control. Figure
of the use of con
NC. Milling and turning operations are common examples
path
touring control.
In order path in a numerical control contouring system.
to machine a curved
so as to follow the
must continuously be changed
the direction of the feed rate
the curved path into very short straight-line
path. This is accomplished by breaking commanded to machine each
that approximate the curve. Then the tool is
segments machined outline that closely approaches
succession. What results is a
segment in
Curve

Back o
straight mode
Straight-cut mode
Switch to circular
interpoiation

two-dimensional operations. (n
for
(continuous path) NC system
FIGURE 7.9 Contouring
printed from Olesten [9])
 Contr
Ventional N u m e r i c a l .

167

Actual curve

Inside tolerance

(a)

Outside
tolerance Actual curve

(b)

Outside tolerance limit

Inside tolerance limit

Tolerance
Actual curve
band

(c
FIGURE 7.10 Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight-line segments. The
controlled by the "tolerance" between the actual cunve and the
accuracy of the approximation is
maximum deviation of the straight-line segments. In (a), the tolerance is defined on the inside of
the curve. It is also possibie to define the tolerance on the outside of the curve, as in (b). Finally,
the tolerance can be specified on both inside and outside, as shown in (c).

the desired shape. The maximum error between the two can be controlled by the
7.10.
length of the individual line segments, as illustrated in Figure

6 APPLICATIONS OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

Numerical control systems are industry today, especially in the

widely used in
common application of NC is sor metal
metalworking industry. By far the most controlled equipment has
cutting machinetools. Within this category, numerically
the entire range of material removal processes,
Deen built to perform virtually
including:
Milling
Drilling and related processes
Boring
 Numerical Control, The Boginnings of CAM
68
Turming
Grinding
Sawing
Within the machining category, NC machine tools are appropriate tor certain job
the general characteristics of produ
and inappropriate for others. Following are
numerical control would be most appronr
tion jobs in metal machining for which
ate
sizes.
Parts are processed frequently and in small lot
2. The part geometry is complex.
3. Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing.
4. Much metal needs to be removed.
5. Engineering design changes are likely.
6 Close tolerances must be held on the workpart.
7. It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be costly.
8 The parts require 100% inspection.
It has been estimated that most manufactured parts are produced in lot sizes of 50
or fewer. Small-lot and batch production jobs represent the ideal situations for the
application of NC. This is made possible by the capability to program the NC
machine and to save that program for subsequent use in future orders. If the NC
programs are long and complicated (complex part geometry, many operations,
much metal removed), this makes NC all the more appropriate when compared to
manual methods of production. If engincering design changes or shitts in the pro-
duction schedule are likely, the use of tape control provides the flexibility needed
to adapt to these changes. Finally. if quality and inspection are important issues
(close tolerances, high part cost, 100% inspection required), NC would be most
suitable, owing to its high accuracy and repeatability.
In order to justify that a job be processed by numerical control methods, it is
not necessary that the job possess every one of these attributes. However, the more
of these characteristies that are present, the more likely it is that the part is a good
candidate for NC.
Figures 7.11 and 7.12 illustrate several NC machine tools that pertom
machining operations.
In addition to metal machining, numerical control has been applied toa
variety of other operations. The following, although not a complete list,
the reader an idea of the wide range of potential applications of NC:
Pressworking machine tools
Welding machines
Inspection machines
 170 Numerical Control, The
Beginnings of CAM
AM
Automatic drafting
Assembly machines
Tube bending
Flame cutting
Plasma arc cutting
Laser beam processes
Automated knitting machines
Cloth cutting
Automatic riveting
Wire-wrap machines

Figures 7.13 and 7.14 illustrate two of the NC machines that

non
perform these non
machining applications.

7.7 ECONOMICS OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

The great variety of numerical control
applications were explored in the precedino
section. We also examined the general characteristics of
NC seems to be particularly well suited. When production jobs for which
properly applied, numerical
provides the user with a signiticant number of economic advantages. In this controi
section
we present the
advantages and disadvantages of NC compared to conventionaj
manuai methods of production.

Advantages of NC
Following are the advantages of numerical control when it is utilized in the tvpes
of production jobs described in Section 7.6:

. Reduced nonproductive "ime. Numerical control has little or no effect

on the basic metal cutting (or other
manufacturing) process. However. NC can
increase the proportion of time the machine is engaged in the acutal process. I
accomplishes this by means of tewer setups, less timne in setting up, reduced work
piece handiing time, automatic tool changes on some machines, and so on.
In a University of Michigan survey reported by Smith and Evans .10}. 3
comparison was made between the machining cycle times for conventiona
machine tools versus the cycle times for NC nmachines. NC cycle times. as a per
centage of their conventional counterparts, ranged from 35% for five-axis machI*
ing centers to 65% for presswork punching | 10. p. 185). The advantage for numer
ical control tends to increase with the more
complex processes.
Reduced fixturing. NC requires fixtures which are simpler and les
costly to fabricate because the positioning is done by the NC tape rather than the
Jig or fixture.
172 Numerica Control, The Beginnings of CAM
3 Reduced manufacturing lead time. Because jobs ca be set up mor
quickiy with NC and tewer setups are generally required with NC,. the lead tie.
o
deliver a job to the customer is reduced. According to the University of Michi-
ngan
survey [10. p. 241]. average lead-time eductions range between 26 and 44c

depending on type ot machine taoi.

Greater marufacturing flexibiliy With nuerical control it is less dit.
ficult to adapt to engineerning design changes. alterations of the production schedule
orders.and
changeovers in jobs for nush so on.

Improved qualin control. NC is ideal for complicated workparts

where the chances of hunman mistakes are high. Numerical control produces pas
with greater accuracy. reduced serap. and lower inspection requirements. Smith
and Evans report that the average scrap deerease from NC ranges from 3i to 44
[10. p. 2121. defending on type ofmachine tol. and that the annual cost savings
from reduced inspection needs of NC are about 38e | 10. p. 214]
6 Reduced inventon Owing to tewer setups and shorter lead times with
numencal control. the amount of inventory camed by the company is reduced
Reduced floor sypace requiremens Since one NC machining center
can often accomplish the production of several conventional machines., the amount
of floor space required in an NC shop is usually iess than in a conventional shop.

Disadvantages of NC
Along with the advantages of NC. there are several features about NC which must
be considered disadvantages:

IHigher imvestment cost. Numerical control machine toois represent a

more sophisticated and compiex technology. This technology costs more to buy
than its non-NC counterpart. The higher cost
requires manufacturing managements
to use these machines more
aggressively than
ordinary equipment. High machine
utilization is essentialorder to get reasonable returns on investment.
in
Machine
shops must operate their NC machines two or three shifts per day to achieve this
high machine utilization
Higher maintenance cost. Because NC is a more
and because NC machines are used harder, the complex technology
maintenance problem becomes
more acute. Aithough the
reliability of NC systems has been improved over the
years, maintenance costs for NC machines will generally be higher than for con-
ventional machine tools. According to the
companies responding to the University
of Michigan survey, the
average percentage increase in NC maintenance cost com
pared to non-NC ranged from 48% for milling machines to 63% for machining
centers 10. p. 206].
3. Finding and or raining NC personnel. Certain aspects of numerical
control shop operations require a higher skill level than conventional
Part programmers and NC maintenance operations.
able personnel are in short
personnel are two skill areas where
avai
supply. The problems of finding, hiring, and traning
these people must be considered a
disadvantage te the NC shop.