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https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnac003
Advance access publication 18 January 2022
Review
Abstract
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) traditionally refers to abnormal glucose tolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. GDM has
long been associated with obstetric and neonatal complications primarily relating to higher infant birthweight and is increasingly recognized as a
risk factor for future maternal and offspring cardiometabolic disease. The prevalence of GDM continues to rise internationally due to epidemiological
factors including the increase in background rates of obesity in women of reproductive age and rising maternal age and the implementation of
the revised International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups’ criteria and diagnostic procedures for GDM. The current lack of
international consensus for the diagnosis of GDM reflects its complex historical evolution and pragmatic antenatal resource considerations given
GDM is now 1 of the most common complications of pregnancy. Regardless, the contemporary clinical approach to GDM should be informed not
only by its short-term complications but also by its longer term prognosis. Recent data demonstrate the effect of early in utero exposure to ma-
ternal hyperglycemia, with evidence for fetal overgrowth present prior to the traditional diagnosis of GDM from 24 weeks’ gestation, as well as the
durable adverse impact of maternal hyperglycemia on child and adolescent metabolism. The major contribution of GDM to the global epidemic of
intergenerational cardiometabolic disease highlights the importance of identifying GDM as an early risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular
disease, broadening the prevailing clinical approach to address longer term maternal and offspring complications following a diagnosis of GDM.
Graphical Abstract
Key Words: gestational diabetes mellitus, diagnosis, pathophysiology, genetics, outcomes, management, precision medicine, biomarkers, diabetes prevention,
COVID
Received: 7 July 2021. Editorial Decision: 4 January 2022. Corrected and Typeset: 17 February 2022
© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society.
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2 Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX
GDM also shifted over time toward identifying perinatal risk ACOG continue to recommend a 2-step testing approach,
rather than future maternal diabetes risk. with the initial screening GCT for all women and those who
screen positive proceeding to the diagnostic 100-g 3-hour
OGTT (19,37). This approach is also endorsed by ADA (18).
Current GDM Diagnostic Criteria However, the ACOG’s 2018 guidelines now acknowledge that
The seminal Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy individual practices and institutions may instead choose to use
Outcomes (HAPO) study sought to provide an evidence the IADPSG’s 1-step testing approach and diagnostic criteria
base to guide risk in GDM, and its results were published if appropriate for their population (19). The UK National
in 2008 (27). This large, international, prospective, observa- Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines
tional study evaluated the relationship between glucose levels advise a selective screening approach, whereby women with
approach compared to the IADPSG 1-step approach found systematic review and meta-analysis of 25 studies (n = 4466
that the latter was associated with a reduction in gestational women) showed that even 1 abnormal value on the diagnostic
weight gain (GWG), birthweight, macrosomia, and LGA (60). 3-hour 100-g OGTT is associated with an increased risk of
Another retrospective study in the United Kingdom reported perinatal complications compared to women with a normal
that women who were diagnosed with GDM based on modi- GCT, and this risk was similar to that of women actually
fied IADPSG diagnostic glucose thresholds but who screened diagnosed with GDM (70).
negative for GDM on 2015 NICE diagnostic criteria had a The degree of benefit of treating women with GDM defined
higher risk of LGA, cesarean delivery, and polyhydramnios by the IADPSG diagnostic criteria is yet to be determined. The
(61). Other retrospective studies have also demonstrated potential benefit is inferred from the treatment of maternal
higher birthweight, birthweight z-score, ponderal index, and hyperglycemia described in the ACHOIS and MFMU inter-
Organization/ Selective vs Method of Screen positive Diagnostic Diagnostic (plasma glucose) threshold for GDM
country universal screening threshold test (mmol/L)
testing (mmol/L)
Abbreviations: ACOG, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; ADA, American Diabetes Association; ADIPS, Australasian Diabetes in
Pregnancy Association; CDA, Canadian Diabetes Association; CNGOF, Organisme professionnel des médecins exerçant la gynécologie et l'obstétrique
en France; DDG, German Diabetes Association; DGGG, European Board of Gynecology and Obstetrics; DIPSI, Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group of
India; FIGO, International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics; GCT, glucose challenge test; IADPSG, International Association of the Diabetes
and Pregnancy Study Groups; JDS, Japan Diabetes Society; NDDG, US National Diabetes Data Group; NICE, National Institute for Health and Care
Excellence; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; WHO, World Health Organization.
a
The ADA states that the choice of a specific positive GCT screening threshold is based upon the trade-off between sensitivity and specificity (41). ACOG
advises that in the absence of clear evidence that supports a specific GCT threshold value between 7.2 and 7.8 mmol/L, obstetricians and obstetric care
providers may select a single consistent GCT threshold for their practice based on factors such as community prevalence rates of GDM (19).
b
Plasma or serum glucose.
c
ACOG 2018 Clinical Practice Bulletin on GDM continues to recommend 2-step testing for GDM but states that individual practices and institutions may
choose to use the IADPSG’s 1-step testing approach and diagnostic criteria if appropriate for their population (19).
d
ACOG 2018 Clinical Practice Bulletin on GDM acknowledges that women who have even 1 abnormal value on the 100-g 3-hour OGTT have a
significantly increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes compared to women without GDM but state that further research is needed to clarify the risk of
adverse outcomes and benefits of treatment in these women (19).
e
A glucose level ≥ 11.1 mmol/L following the initial screening GCT is classified as GDM, and there is no need for a subsequent 2-hour 75-g OGTT.
f
BMI > 30 kg/m2, previous macrosomia (≥4500 g), previous GDM, family history of diabetes, and family origin with a high prevalence of diabetes (South
Asian, Black Caribbean, Middle Eastern) (38).
g
Maternal age ≥ 35 years, body mass index ≥ 25 kg/m2, family history of diabetes, previous GDM, previous macrosomia (39).
h
If first trimester fasting glucose normal (ie, < 5.1 mmol/L).
i
Adapted from the WHO 1999 diagnostic criteria for GDM (45), using a nonfasting 75-g 2-hour OGTT (44).
6 Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX
at conception (75). However, DIP is not synonymous with macrosomia, and cesarean section (85). Similar to the HAPO
preexisting diabetes. In Australian, women with DIP who study, a clear glucose threshold was lacking, with pregnancy
performed an OGTT at 6 to 8 weeks postpartum, 21% had complications evident at fasting glucose levels <5.1 mmol/L
diabetes, 38% had impaired fasting glucose or impaired glu- (92 mg/dL). Third, maternal fasting glucose decreases in the
cose tolerance, and 41% returned to normal glucose toler- first trimester, most pronounced between 6 to 10 weeks’ gesta-
ance (76). tion [median decrease in glucose 0.11 mmol/L (1.98 mg/dL)]
Regardless of the specific nomenclature used, DIP is distinct (86), while studies have consistently shown that early fasting
from GDM, which is defined by lower glucose thresholds glucose is poorly predictive of GDM at 24 to 28 weeks’ ges-
on the OGTT and was historically considered to be a con- tation (86-88), leading to potential overdiagnosis of GDM.
dition of mid to late pregnancy. The ADA has not accepted In China, an early fasting glucose between 6.1 mmol/L to
early testing for GDM in 962 women with obesity included a fluoride tubes, with immediate placement in an ice slurry and
subgroup analysis of women diagnosed and treated for GDM centrifugation within 30 minutes (109). Citrate tubes are re-
[early n = 69 (15.0%) vs standard n = 56 (12.1%)] based on commended as an alternative where early centrifugation is
the 2-step testing approach (104). The average gestational not possible. These standards are important because a major
age at GDM diagnosis was similar at 24.3 ± 5.2 weeks for source of preanalytical glucose measurement error in sodium
the early screen group compared to 27.1 ± 1.7 weeks in the fluoride tubes is glycolysis by erythrocytes and leukocytes,
routine screen group. There was no difference in pregnancy which at room temperature lowers glucose levels prior to cen-
outcomes, although the primary composite perinatal out- trifugation at a rate of 5% to 7% per hour [~0.6 mmol/L
come (macrosomia, primary cesarean delivery, gestational (10 mg/dL)] (109,110). By 1 hour, this degree of glucose
hypertension, preeclampsia, hyperbilirubinemia, shoulder lowering is higher than the total analytical error threshold for
Figure 1. Flowchart summarizing the contemporary nomenclature for hyperglycemia in pregnancy.
8 Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX
utilized. A 2012 systematic review of the diagnostic criteria recurrence rates of up to 84% (128). The risk of recurrence
used to define GDM reported a worldwide prevalence of GDM varies greatly depending on ethnicity (128). Ethnicities at in-
of 2% to 24.5% for the WHO criteria, 3.6% to 38% for the creased risk for development of type 2 diabetes, such as South
Carpenter and Coustan criteria, 1.4 to 50% for the NDDG cri- and East Asians, Hispanic, Black and Native Americans,
teria, and 2% to 19% for the IADPSG criteria (116). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, and Middle Easterners
Regardless of the specific diagnostic criteria or population, are also associated with an increased risk of GDM (129,130).
the prevalence of GDM continues to rise internationally, cor- A US study of over 123 000 women reported the prevalence of
responding to epidemiological factors including the back- GDM using the 2000 ADA diagnostic criteria to be the highest
ground rates of type 2 diabetes and increased incidence of among Filipinas (10.9%) and Asians (10.2%), followed by
obesity in women of childbearing age and rising maternal age Hispanics (6.8%), non-Hispanic Whites (4.5%) and Black
Organization Results
IADPSG/EBCOG (30,36)
GDM 75-g 2-hour OGTT
Fasting glucose 5.1-6.9 mmol/L
1-hour glucose ≥ 10.0 mmol/L
2-hour glucose 8.5-11.0 mmol/L
Overt diabetes during pregnancy Fasting glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/L
Random glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/La
HbA1c ≥ 6.5%
WHO/FIGO/ADIPS (11,32,33)
GDM 75-g 2-hour OGTT
Fasting glucose 5.1-6.9 mmol/L
1-hour glucose ≥ 10.0 mmol/L
2-hour glucose 8.5-11.0 mmol/L
Diabetes mellitus in pregnancy Fasting glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/L
2-hour glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L post 75-g OGTT
Random glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L in the presence of diabetes symptoms
ADA (41)
GDM 1-step strategy: 2-step strategy: NDDG (13)
75-g 2-h OGTT 50-g 1-hour GCT ≥ 7.8 mmol/L Fasting glucose ≥ 5.8 mmol/L
Fasting glucose ≥ 5.1 mmol/L 100 g 3-hour OGTT 1-h glucose ≥ 10.6 mmol/L
1-hour glucose ≥ 10.0 mmol/L Carpenter and Coustan (17) or 2-h glucose ≥ 9.2 mmol/L
2-hour glucose ≥ 8.5 mmol/L Fasting glucose ≥ 5.3 mmol/L 3-h glucose ≥ 8.0 mmol/L
1-hour glucose ≥ 10.0 mmol/L
2-hour glucose ≥ 8.6 mmol/L
3-hour glucose ≥ 7.8 mmol/L
Type 2 diabetes mellitus Fasting glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/L
2-hour glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L post 75 g 2-hour OGTT
Random glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/L in the presence of diabetes symptoms
HbA1c ≥ 6.5%
75-g 2-hour OGTT: only 1 plasma glucose level needs to be elevated for the diagnosis of GDM. 100 g 3-hour OGTT: at least 2 plasma glucose levels need
to be elevated for the diagnosis of GDM.
Abbreviations: ADA, American Diabetes Association; ADIPS, Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Association; EBCOG, European Board & College of
Obstetrics and Gynaecology; FIGO, International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics; GCT, glucose challenge test; HbA1c, hemoglobulin A1c;
IADPSG/; International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test;
WHO, World Health Organization.
a
The IADPSG recommends confirmation by fasting plasma glucose or HbA1c for the diagnosis of overt diabetes during pregnancy (30).
Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX 9
Maternal prepregnancy overweight (BMI 25-29.99 kg/m2) are maintained at lower levels than in healthy nonpregnant
or obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) are common risk factors for women (175,176), and euglycemia is maintained by a corres-
GDM (129,130,133,134,136,137). The risk of GDM is in- ponding 200% to 250% increase in insulin secretion, most
creased almost 3-fold (95% CI 2.1-3.4) in women with notable in early pregnancy (161,167,177). Human placental
class I obesity (BMI 30-34.99 kg/m2) and 4-fold (95% CI lactogen, in addition to prolactin and growth hormone, pri-
3.1-5.2) in women with class II obesity (BMI 35-39.99 kg/ marily regulate increased maternal β-cell insulin secretion and
m2), compared to women with a BMI < 30 kg/m2 (138). High proliferation during pregnancy (178-180). Rodent studies
GWG, particularly in the first trimester, is also associated with have demonstrated a 3- to 4-fold increase in β-cell mass
an increased risk for GDM (131,139,140). Further, women during pregnancy, mediated via hypertrophy, hyperplasia,
with obesity and high GWG are 3- to 4-fold more likely to de- neogenesis, and/or reduced apoptosis (181,182).
metabolism (194,203). The first, a 2-stage GWAS in Korean associated with glucose or C-peptide levels in pregnancy,
women, compared 468 women with GDM and 1242 normo- although strength of association varied across cohorts
glycemic women using 2.19 million genotyped markers be- (194). Specifically, loci in glucokinase regulator (GCKR),
fore further genotyping 11 loci in 1714 women, identifying glucose-6-phosphatase 2 (G6PC2), proprotein convertase
2 loci significantly associated with GDM (203). A variant subtilisin/kexin type 1 (PCSK1), protein phosphatase 1,
in cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulatory subunit-associated regulatory subunit 3B (PPP1R3B), and MTNR1B were
protein 1-like 1 (CDKAL1) had the strongest association associated with fasting glucose. In addition, GCKR and
with GDM, followed by a variant near MTNR1B expressed PPP1R3B were associated with fasting C-peptide levels,
in pancreatic β-cells (204). The IGF2BP2 variant did not while MTNR1B was associated with 1-hour postload glu-
reach genome-wide significance with GDM in this study. cose. These loci have also previously been associated with
Table 3. International criteria for testing of gestational diabetes mellitus in early pregnancy
Organization Early pregnancy Method of testing Diagnostic test Criteria for diagnosing early GDM (mmol/L)
testing
Organization Early pregnancy Method of testing Diagnostic test Criteria for diagnosing early GDM (mmol/L)
testing
75-g 2-h OGTT: Only 1 abnormal glucose level needs to be elevated for the diagnosis of GDM. 100-g 3-h OGTT: 2 abnormal glucose levels need to be
elevated for the diagnosis of GDM.
Table 4. Key risk factors for gestational diabetes mellitus glucokinase (GCK)-MODY subtype (MODY2) (32%) were
most frequent in probands confirmed with MODY, followed
Previous GDM by HNF-4α (MODY1) and HNF-1β (MODY5) (224).
An ethnicity with a high prevalence of diabetes Women with GCK-MODY often first present following
Maternal age > 35 years antenatal screening for GDM, with an estimated prevalence
of 1% of all GDM “cases” actually GCK-MODY (220,222).
Family history of diabetes (first-degree relative with diabetes)
GCK-MODY is caused by mutations in the glucokinase gene,
Obesity (BMI > 30 kg/m2)
leading to a greater set point for glucose stimulated insulin
Previous macrosomia (birthweight > 4500 g) release (219). Clinically, GCK-MODY is defined by mild,
Polycystic ovary syndrome stable fasting hyperglycemia [fasting glucose 98-150 mg/
Iatrogenic: glucocorticoids and antipsychotic medication dL (5.4-8.3 mmol/L)] and low rates of microvascular and
macrovascular complications (220). It should be suspected
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus. following a positive OGTT in pregnancy if the fasting glu-
cose is ≥5.5 mmol/L, the glucose increment from the fasting
Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young to 2-hour (75-g) OGTT is small (<4.6 mmol/L), and there is
Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is the most a positive family history of mild hyperglycemia or diabetes.
common form of monogenic diabetes; inherited forms of dia- In addition, a combination of fasting glucose ≥ 100 mg/dL
betes characterized by defects in single genes regulating β-cell (5.6 mmol/L) and BMI < 25 kg/m2 has been shown to have a
development and function (217,218). MODY consists of sev- sensitivity of 68% and a specificity of 99% for differentiating
eral autosomal dominant forms of diabetes accounting for up GCK-MODY from GDM (220). Importantly, management
to 2% of all diabetes diagnoses (219). A diagnosis of MODY differs from that of GDM because the need for intensive ma-
requires confirmatory molecular genetic testing, and thus ternal glycemic control largely depends on whether the GCK-
MODY is frequently misdiagnosed as preexisting diabetes or MODY mutation is also present in the fetus (220,225,226).
GDM, accounting for up to 5% of GDM “cases” (220-223). Maternal insulin therapy is therefore only recommended in
A UK study reported that HNF-1α (MODY3) (52%) and the presence of increased fetal abdominal growth (>75th
12 Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX
centile) measured on serial ultrasounds from 26 weeks’ ges- than women treated with insulin therapy (249). In contrast,
tation, as this indicates that the fetus does not have the GCK the HAPO study did not demonstrate excess perinatal mor-
mutation (220). tality in their untreated cohort (27).
Modern management of GDM and associated maternal
risk factors is associated with near-normal birthweight in
Consequences of GDM developed countries (115,257). This is important because
GDM is associated with excess neonatal and maternal short- birthweight is the major risk factor for shoulder dystocia,
and long-term morbidity, summarized in Table 6. brachial plexus injury, neonatal hypoglycemia, and neonatal
respiratory distress syndrome in the offspring of women
with and without GDM (242). A retrospective cohort study
Neonatal Complications
maternal hyperglycemia and fetal programming first reported As demonstrated in HAPO and other studies, women with
in the Native American Pima population, characterized by a GDM also have an increased risk of gestational hypertension
high prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and GDM (261). and preeclampsia (267-269). Consistent with the association
The recent HAPO Follow Up Study (HAPO-FUS), which between diabetes and microvascular disease, abnormalities
was not confounded by treatment of maternal glycemia, in- in glucose metabolism affect trophoblast invasion, leading
cluded 4832 children 10 to 14 years of age whose mothers to impaired placentation and greater risk for preeclampsia
were participants of HAPO (227). The HAPO-FUS demon- (270). The mechanism likely relates to insulin resistance and
strated a durable impact of maternal glycemia with long-term inflammatory pathway activation (271,272), with in vitro
offspring glucose metabolism, including at glucose levels studies showing that elevated glucose concentrations inhibit
lower than those diagnostic for GDM (227). A generally trophoblast invasiveness by preventing uterine plasminogen
MTNR1B Melatonin receptor 1B Receptor mediating the action of melatonin, including its inhibitory effect on insulin
secretion
TCF7L2 Transcription factor 7-like 2 Blood glucose homeostasis
IRS1 Insulin receptor substrate 1 Receptor mediating the control of various cellular processes by insulin
CDKAL1 Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulatory Proinsulin to insulin conversion
subunit-associated protein 1-like 1
GCKR Glucokinase regulator Inhibits glucokinase in liver and pancreatic islet cells
G6PC2 Glucose-6-phosphatase 2 Glucose metabolism
PCSK1 Proprotein convertase subtilisin/ Endoprotease involved in proteolytic activation of polypeptide hormones and neuropeptides
kexin type 1 precursors including proinsulin, proglucagon-like peptide 1, and pro-opiomelanocortin
PPP1R3B Protein phosphatase 1, regulatory Regulates glycogen metabolism
subunit 3B
HKDC1 Hexokinase domain containing 1 Involved in glucose homeostasis and hepatic lipid accumulation
BACE2 Beta-site amyloid polypeptide Proteolytic processing of CLTRNa in pancreatic β-cells
cleaving enzyme 2
Genes were identified and selected from the genome-wide association studies (194,203). The name and function of each gene was determined from
GeneCards (https://www.genecards.org).
a
Collectrin, amino acid transport regulator is a stimulator of β-cell replication.
14 Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX
women without GDM (281,282). The significance of GDM (29). Following a positive GCT between 24 and 30 + 6 weeks’
as a risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease gestation, “mild” GDM was defined on a positive 100-g
has been recently recognized by international organizations 3-hour OGTT by a fasting glucose < 5.3 mmol/L (95 mg/dL),
including the American Heart Association (283). and at least 2 postload glucose thresholds that exceeded the
2000 ADA diagnostic thresholds [1-, 2-, or 3-hour thresholds
10.0 mmol/L (180 mg/dL), 8.6 mmol/L (155 mg/dL), and
Management of GDM
7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL), respectively]. Women with previous
Benefits of Intervention on Perinatal Outcomes GDM were excluded from the study. Dietary intervention,
Contemporary changes to the detection and management of SMBG, and insulin therapy, if required, to achieve a fasting
GDM have been associated with almost comparable neonatal glucose target < 5.3 mmol/L (95 mg/dL) and 2-hour post-
Maternal insulin resistance Maternal circulating glucose and free fatty acids
Lung surfactant synthesis & function Fetal substrate uptake Neonatal hypoglycemia
Hyperbilirubinemia
nutrition therapy (267). Depending on targets, approxi- thus insulin is generally preferred as first-line pharmaco-
mately 50% of women with GDM are prescribed insulin therapy following lifestyle intervention.
therapy to maintain normoglycemia (321,322), with a com- Glyburide is commonly prescribed as first-line therapy for
bination of evening intermediate-acting insulin if fasting GDM in the United States (328). An early study evaluating
glucose levels are elevated and mealtime rapid-acting insulin the efficacy of glyburide vs insulin therapy in 404 women
when indicated. Additional daytime intermediate-acting in- with GDM reported no differences in maternal glucose levels
sulin may also be needed to control prelunch or predinner or neonatal outcomes between the treatment groups (329).
hyperglycemia. However, subsequent studies show that approximately 20%
Decreasing insulin doses in the third trimester may simply of women treated with glyburide required additional in-
reflect the physiological increase in maternal insulin sensi- sulin therapy to achieve adequate maternal glycemia (330).
tivity observed at this stage of pregnancy (176,323). However, Moreover, a large retrospective US study of almost 111 000
substantial insulin dose reduction, recurrent maternal hypo- women with GDM, in which 4982 women were treated with
glycemia, and/or slowing of fetal growth or preeclampsia may glyburide and 4191 women were treated with insulin, re-
indicate underlying pathophysiological placental insufficiency ported that glyburide was associated with an increased risk of
(324), impacting the timing of delivery and intensity of ob- neonatal complications including neonatal intensive care ad-
stetric monitoring. mission, respiratory distress syndrome, hypoglycemia, birth
Risk factors for insulin therapy include earlier diagnosis of injury, and LGA compared to insulin therapy (331). Although
GDM (81), the pattern and degree of elevation of the 75-g transplacental transfer of glyburide to the fetus is highly vari-
2-hour OGTT diagnostic glucose thresholds (325), and eth- able, it can reach 50% to 70% of maternal plasma concen-
nicity (325). Other risk factors including gestational age tration (332), potentially causing direct stimulation of fetal
and HbA1c level at the time of GDM diagnosis, BMI, and insulin production (333).
family history of diabetes account for only 9% of the at- The use of metformin in pregnancy continues to rise (334).
tributable risk for insulin therapy (321). A recent Australian However, its use remains controversial, due to the poten-
study found that maternal age > 30 years, family history of tial concerns regarding long-term metabolic programming
diabetes, prepregnancy obesity, previous GDM, early diag- effects of placental transfer of metformin to the fetus, with
nosis of GDM, fasting glucose ≥ 5.3 mmol/L (96 mg/dL) and some studies suggesting similar plasma concentrations of
HbA1c ≥ 5.5% (37 mmol/mol) at diagnosis were all inde- metformin in the maternal and fetal circulation (335). A recent
pendent predictors for insulin therapy (326). Insulin usage systematic review and meta-analysis of 28 studies (n = 3976)
could also be estimated according to the number of predictors evaluating growth in offspring of women with GDM exposed
present, with up to 93% of women with 6 to 7 predictors to metformin compared to insulin therapy found that neo-
using insulin therapy compared with less than 15% of women nates exposed to metformin had lower birthweights (mean
with 0 to 1 predictors (326). difference −107.7 g; 95% CI −182.3 to −32.7), decreased risk
of LGA (OR 0.78; 95% CI 0.62-0.99), and macrosomia (OR
0.59; 95% CI 0.46-0.77) and lower ponderal indices than
Oral Pharmacotherapy neonates whose mothers were treated with insulin (336). No
Oral pharmacotherapy options include glyburide and difference in the risk of SGA was found, in contrast to out-
metformin. Oral pharmacotherapy is associated with im- comes in women with type 2 diabetes, with the Metformin
proved cost effectiveness, compliance, and acceptability com- in Women with Type 2 Diabetes RCT observing more than
pared to insulin therapy (327). However, there are issues double the rate of SGA (95% CI 1.16-3.71) in the metformin
regarding efficacy and safety, particularly longer term, and treated cohort, in association with lower insulin doses, HbA1c,
Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX 17
and GWG (337). Offspring of women with GDM exposed to fetal programming via their effects on cellular metabolism,
metformin also demonstrate accelerated postnatal growth at hepatic gluconeogenesis, and insulin sensitivity (metformin)
18 to 24 months of age (2 studies; n = 411; mean difference (347) and fetal hyperinsulinemia (glyburide) is unknown
in weight 440 g; 95% CI 50-830), resulting in higher BMI at (348).
5 to 9 years of age (3 studies; n = 520; BMI mean difference
0.78 kg/m2, 95% CI 0.23-1.33) (336).
The Metformin in Gestational Diabetes trial randomized Obstetric Management
751 women to receive either metformin or insulin therapy, A recent Cochrane review consisting of only 3 small RCTs
finding no significant difference in the composite neo- (n = 524) reported insufficient (very low certainty) evidence
natal outcome of neonatal hypoglycemia, respiratory dis- to evaluate the use of fetal biometry in guiding the med-
factor-based screening fails to identify 10% to over 30% of alternative to the OGTT, including measurement of fasting
women with GDM (391-396). The Pregnancy Outcome for plasma glucose, random plasma glucose, and HbA1c (417-
Women with Pre-gestational Diabetes Along the Irish Atlantic 419). A secondary analysis of 5974 women from the HAPO
Seaboard study found that the prevalence of women with study (420), reported that the UK, Canadian, and Australian
GDM who had no risk factors was low, ranging from 2.7% COVID-19–modified diagnostic approaches reduced the
to 5.4% (397). However, despite the absence of risk factors, frequency of GDM by 81%, 82%, and 25%, respectively.
these women with GDM had more pregnancy complications Short-term pregnancy complications in the subgroup of
than those with normal glucose tolerance (397). Other studies women now with undiagnosed GDM (“missed GDM”)
have also reported that women without risk factors diagnosed were comparable to women diagnosed with GDM based
with GDM have comparable pregnancy outcomes to women on the Canadian-modified diagnostic criteria, slightly lower
Abbreviations: ACHOIS, Australian Carbohydrate Intolerance Study in Pregnant Women Study; ADA, American Diabetes Association; ADIPS, Australasian
Diabetes in Pregnancy Society; CDA, Canadian Diabetes Association; NICE, UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; MFMU, National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network.
20 Endocrine Reviews, 2022, Vol. XX, No. XX
Period Tips
Abbreviations: GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; OGTT, oral glucose tolerate test.
guide diagnosis and management in this setting, and further Other important areas for research include the evaluation
evidence is urgently needed. In developed countries including of dietary interventions establishing the optimal carbohydrate
the United Kingdom, the main issue arguably does not per- threshold in GDM, further clarity on the potential long-term
tain to women diagnosed with GDM but rather high-risk impact of intrauterine metformin on the offspring, as well as
women who remain unscreened (associated with factors such the efficacy of preconception and early pregnancy preventive
as lower socioeconomic status and higher BMI) who are at strategies targeting risk factors other than glycemia, such as
highest risk of stillbirth (74). maternal obesity and GWG. Improved obstetric assessment
The background to the various GDM diagnostic criteria is of placental function, especially in late pregnancy, to inform
informative in demonstrating that no approach clearly sep- timing of delivery and identify women at highest risk of still-
arates risk groups. It is also now evident that a continuum birth in GDM is also needed.
of risk for GDM exists based on both the timing and degree The complications of GDM may indeed be greater based
of maternal hyperglycemia. This underscores the difficulty of on the severity of maternal glycemia and associated vascular
defining absolute glucose thresholds at a single timepoint in risk factors. Nevertheless, the traditional focus on diagnostic
pregnancy for the diagnosis of GDM and is confounded fur- criteria and short-term antenatal maternal glucose manage-
ther by variation in glucose measurement due to preanalytical ment fails to address the importance of identifying “milder”
glucose processing and reproducibility issues. Thus, current (IADPSG-defined) GDM as a risk factor for future maternal
diagnostic glucose thresholds for GDM must inevitably re- and offspring diabetes and CVD risk. It should also be ap-
flect compromise and consensus. parent that the increasing prevalence of GDM largely reflects
A precision medicine approach that recognizes GDM sub- the worsening metabolic health burden including prediabetes
type and heterogeneity, enhanced by further research into the and obesity in women of childbearing age. The clinical focus
genetics of GDM and validation of novel biomarkers and new for GDM must therefore urgently shift to early postnatal pre-
technologies such as continuous glucose monitoring may im- vention strategies to decrease the progression from GDM to
prove risk stratification, optimize clinical models of care, and type 2 diabetes and address longer term maternal and off-
facilitate more individualized and consumer-friendly detec- spring cardiometabolic risk post-GDM via a life course man-
tion and treatment strategies. agement approach.
The recent HAPO-FUS data confirming the long-term im-
pact of maternal hyperglycemia on maternal and offspring
metabolic health (227,262) highlight an important paradigm Financial Support
shift. The approach to GDM should reflect an evidence base A.S. was supported by an NHMRC Fellowship Grant
that evaluates diagnostic glucose thresholds and measure- (GNT1148952).
ment within a framework that includes timing of detection
and treatment trials with long-term clinical and health eco-
nomic outcomes. For example, if the ongoing Treatment of Disclosure Summary
Booking Gestational Diabetes Mellitus trial demonstrates a A.S., J.W., H.M., and G.P.R. have nothing to declare.
benefit for early GDM detection and treatment, there are im-
plications for the prevailing diagnostic GDM glucose thresh-
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