MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN,

ART, AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER FROM BANANA STEM FIBRE

BY

OPIO JAMES

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 17/U/9722/PS

STUDENT NUMBER: 217004142

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
 ACKNWOLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I pray my greatest gratitude to the Almighty for His blessings and grace I
was able to complete the Degree research project successfully.

I wish to express my appreciation to my main supervisor, Dr. Micheal Lubwama, for his
guidance and advices. His understanding attitudes and constructive suggestion as well as his
great patience undoubtedly was the utmost support for me to succeed my project.

My thanks also go to Mr. Andrew Vianney Yiga as my co-supervisor who was also provided
input and guidance at the minute, I needed.

The experimental work was greatly aided by MasterCard Foundation, to them, I am very much
indebted. Not to forget other laboratory assistants who also provided the necessary guidance
and assistance to enable me carry out this project.

On a more personal level, I would like to thank my family members, Mom, Miss Christine as
well as my sister and brothers, Dilis Acio and Isaac Otim, who had given me great emotional
and other supports along the way

Dear friends and colleagues, Musoke Joel, Joan, and Jacqueline, thank you for the friendship
and support. Hopefully we can make benefit of the knowledge learned over the past few years
in improving the quality of life when we enter the later career. Not to forget, to my seniors who
are willing to share their knowledge and opinions when there were problems arise. With luck,
together we will work together in developing this field in the future.

Less but not least, thanks to everyone who involved directly or indirectly throughout this
project. Experiences that have been acquired; I will benefit it as much as possible so that this
knowledge is not wasted just like that. With the support and freedom given to me in my studies,
this demanding period in my life has been both enjoyable and memorable. Hopefully my efforts
over the years will receive the blessings from GOD. Amen.

Yours,

JAMES OPIO

i|Page
 DECLARATION

This research report is my original work and has never been published and or submitted to any
institution for an academic reward. All relevant literature used in this study have been duly
referenced. I therefore take responsibility for whatsoever information thereunder. The work
was obtained from involvement in research under the guidance of the attached supervisors and
colleagues of the department of Mechanical Engineering, Makerere University.

Name : Opio James

Signature................................................

Date........................................................

SUPERVISORS

1. Dr. Micheal Lubwama

Department of Mechanical engineering, Makerere University.

Signature....................................................

Date.............................................................

2. Mr. V.A. Yiga

Department of Mechanical engineering, Makerere University.

SIGNATURE....................................................................................................

DATE................................................................................................................

ii | P a g e
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNWOLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................... i

DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................ii

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... v

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................vii

LIST OF SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................ ix

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... x

1. CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 Main objective .................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific objectives.............................................................................................. 3
1.4 Justification ............................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Scope ......................................................................................................................... 3
2. CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Paper Properties ........................................................................................................ 4
2.3 Paper Formation ........................................................................................................ 4
2.4 Banana....................................................................................................................... 5
2.4.1 Secondary fiber .................................................................................................. 7
2.4.2 Lignocellulosic fiber .......................................................................................... 8
3. CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................... 11
3.0 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 11
3.2 Literature Review.................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Specific objective 1: Determination of properties of banana stem fibres ............... 11
3.3.1 Chemical analysis ............................................................................................. 11

iii | P a g e
 3.4 Specific objective 2: Design and production of papers .......................................... 12
3.4.1 Experimental Design ........................................................................................ 16
3.5 Specific objective 3: Determination of paper properties. ....................................... 17
3.5.1 Tensile strength ................................................................................................ 17
3.5.2 Density ............................................................................................................. 18
4. CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 20
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................. 20
4.1 Banana Stem Fibre Properties ................................................................................. 20
4.2 Model fitting for tensile strength ............................................................................ 20
4.2.1 Analysis of variance for model statistical significance .................................... 22
4.2.2 Response surface contour plots ........................................................................ 23
4.3 Model fitting for Density ................................................................................... 27
4.3.1 Analysis of variance for model statistical significance .................................... 28
4.3.2 Response surface contour plots ........................................................................ 30
5. CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................... 32
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 32
5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 32
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 32
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 33

iv | P a g e
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Experimental design ............................................................................................... 16

Table 4.1: Chemical composition of Banana stem .................................................................. 20
Table 4.2: Tensile strength Response ................................................................................... 21
Table 4.3: ANOVA Analysis of Tensile strength................................................................. 22
Table 4.4: Fit summary ......................................................................................................... 27
Table 4.5: Density Response.................................................................................................. 28
Table 4.6: ANOVA Analysis of Density ............................................................................... 28

v|Page
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Banana plant ............................................................................................................ 6

Figure 2.2: Cross-section of banana stem .................................................................................. 7

Figure 3.1: Prepared Banana stem ........................................................................................... 12

Figure 3.2: Small pieces of banana stem ................................................................................. 13

Figure 3.3: Dried pieces of banana stem .................................................................................. 14

Figure 3.4: Boiled pieces of banana stem ................................................................................ 14

Figure 3.5: Crushing boiled pieces of banana stem ................................................................. 15

Figure 3.6: Wet paper .............................................................................................................. 16

Figure 3.7: Testing paper with Testometric Micro 350 ........................................................... 18

Figure 3.8: Weighing paper with Digital weighing scale ........................................................ 18

Figure 3.9: TGA analyzer ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.1: Fractured samples after tensile strength test.......... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.2: Chart of Ultimate tensile strength ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.3:Chart of banana stem amount against blending timeError! Bookmark not
defined.

Figure 4.4: Stresses at peak and yield ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.5: Loads at peak and yield ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.6:Chart of densities of paper...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.7: Banana stem amount against blending time .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.8: TGA plot................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

vi | P a g e
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

2FI Two-factor Interaction

A Alkali concentration

AD Air dry

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

CCD Central Composite Design

cm centimetre

DP Degree of Polymerization

g gram

g/m2 grams per square meter

kg kilogram

kg/cm2 kilograms per square centimetre

KMnO4 potassium permanganate

kPa kilopascal

kPa.m2/g kilopascal square meter per gram

L litre

LOF Lack of Fit

m meter

min minutes

mL millilitre

mm millimetre

MSS Model Summary Statistics

NaOH sodium hydroxide

vii | P a g e
 nm nanometre

Nm/g Newton meter per gram

No. Number

OCC Old Corrugated Containers

OD Oven Dry

ONP Old Newspaper

PRESS Predicted Residual Sum of Squares

Prob. F Probability of a larger F

psig pounds per square inch gage

R.H. relative humidity

R2 Multiple Correlation Coefficient

R-square Multiple Correlation Coefficient

RSM Response Surface Methodology

S2 secondary layer

SCP Semichemical Pulping

SMSS Sequential Model Sum of Squares

Std Standard

t time

T temperature

viii | P a g e
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

% percent

α alpha

β beta

γ gamma

divide

– minus

+ plus

°C degree centigrade

± more or less

ix | P a g e
 ABSTRACT
Paper is made of a raw material that has been beaten and broken down into tiny fibres, mixed
with water and formed into sheets on a screen surface that catches the fibres as the water drains
through it. The individual fibres interlock and form a sheet of paper when pressed and dried.
The raw materials producing such fibres include the bast plants, tree bark, stalks of grasses,
and other vegetation.

The modernization of papermaking made it possible for mass-production of paper using pulped
woods. The invention of pulping machine would end the nearly 2000-year use of pulped rags
and plant fibres, and start a new era for the production of newsprint. Eventually almost all paper
that we know today is made out of pulped wood.

Banana stem is studied to be used as the alternative to replace wood for the production of pulp
and paper. The experimental design of production of papers was computed and the response of
paper properties was analysed using a central composite design (CCD) of response surface
methodology (RSM).

The aim of the study is to observe the influence of different factors such as blending time, the
amount of banana stem and the amount of water in the pulping of banana stem on tensile
strength, density and thermal degradation of paper. The blending time had a predominate effect
on banana stem pulp and paper properties which improves the pulp yield, tensile strength, and
density. The amount of water took the second place and the amount of banana stem seems to
have low priority. By applying the desirability function method, the optimal production
conditions were found to be a blending time of 8.355 min, amount of banana stem of 825.538
grams and water content of 1.349 liters. The optimal conditions resulted in a little difference
when compared to the predicted value. The resulting paper properties value were
approximately 0-16% lower than the predicted value. The difference of observed and predicted
values of paper properties was considered acceptable.

x|Page
 1. CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Paper products are integrated into nearly every aspect of our daily lives. It is undeniably
important to the society. The industry is dominated by the Asia-Pacific region which witnessed
more than 40 % growth rate in 2011, due to high demand in paper consumption. Approximately
90 % of this paper is produced from wood pulp (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 2011).

Under a realistic forward scenario, wood demand is projected to increase by 2.2 times between
2015 and 2040, from 48 million tonnes to 105 million tonnes. Based on a continuation of
current supply trends and per capita extraction rates from forests, sustainable wood supply from
forest land will be zero by 2025, and there will be a wood supply deficit of 174,000 tonnes in
2030. The actual wood supply deficit increased by 22 times from 1.6 million tonnes to 35.0
million tonnes between 2000 and2015, and is projected to reach 105.2 million tonnes in 2040.
All the sustainable wood supply outside and inside forests will then have been depleted by
2035, and any additional harvest will then deplete the conservation wood stock inside protected
areas. The exploitation and depletion of the conservation wood stock is, however, assumed to
have already started from 2025, when the forest wood available for supply is projected to have
run out (UBOS, 2017).

Along with this matter, the increased awareness of pressuring the environment led many
researchers worldwide to focus their researches on finding the potential alternative raw material
for papermaking from non-wood resources (Akgül et al., 2017).

There are four different non-wood fibre resources which paper can be made; agricultural crop
residues (bagasse and straw), fibre crops (kenaf and jute), wild plants (sisal and bamboo) as
well as textile and cordage wastes (cotton and linen scrapss). Banana stem is categorized as
agricultural crop residues as the stem was thrown away after harvesting the fruits. Agricultural
crop residues received a strong interest as the alternative raw materials for papermaking. They
are fast-growing plants compared to wood trees that take a long replanting time.

Banana production systems and banana fruit processing accumulate large quantities of waste
residues due to high quality demands of the markets (Gabhane et al., 2014). The East African
highland cooking banana subgroup (AAA-EA group) locally called matooke, is the major

1|Page
grown variety and a leading staple food (Oliveira et al., 2016). Studies on banana production
have shown that over 70% of the farmers in major producing districts within the Lake Victoria
basin grow bananas as a primary crop and over 50% depend on banana for food and income
security (Tumutegyereize et al., 2011). Uganda is the second largest global producer of bananas
after India and the leading in Africa, with annual production estimated at 9.77 million tonnes
(FAOSTAT, n.d.). Generally, crop production and processing produce huge amount of waste
termed as agricultural waste (Padam et al., 2014). Banana production, post-harvest handling
(market value chain) and the ultimate processing to generate edible fruit pulp are all
accompanied by release of large volumes of inedible residues that constitute the banana waste.
As a matter of fact, it is estimated that more than three million tonnes of banana waste are
generated annually in the country (Rietveld et al., 2013). Therefore, this study is made to make
paper from banana stem fibres, to create market for the remaining stems after harvesting fruits
and also to reduce cutting down of trees.

2|Page
1.2 Problem Statement

Deforestation is one of the main environmental problems we’re facing in these times. 42% of
all global wood harvest is used to make paper. Furthermore, production of paper from wood
pulp needs much energy and chemicals. Also, at the present, the banana stems are dumped off
or burnt after harvesting fruits which causes environmental pollution.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 Main objective

To establish the suitability of banana stem as a potential source of fibre for paper making.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives are;

a) To determine the properties of banana stem fiber.

b) To design and produce paper from banana stem fibre.
c) To determine the properties of paper.

1.4 Justification

The importance of papers in our daily life is undeniable. However, with the increasing
population, high deforestation rates and pressure on land to produce more food, the paper
resources in Uganda are dwindling. There is therefore a need to find alternative paper sources.
Agricultural waste is one of the paper sources in Uganda. As a matter of fact, it is estimated
that more than three million tons of banana wastes are generated annually in the country.so by
utilizing these wastes, it reduces environmental pollution being caused by these wastes as well
as reducing deforestation.

1.5 Scope

The study focuses on evaluating the suitability of banana stem through extraction of fibers.
This study limits in using materials, and the process. The researcher only used banana stem and
sodium hydroxide.

3|Page
 2. CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

On this chapter, related literature and studies are organized to relate to the current study
conducted based on some research relating to the topic, to back it up with a strong foundation.

2.2 Paper Properties

Generally, the paper properties can be divided into 5 specific groups, namely physical, optical,
chemical, electrical and microscopical. Typically, the paper will only be tested by a physical,
optical and chemical groups based on the required paper properties. Properties such as tensile,
burst, tear, fold, density, weight and thickness fall in physical properties. Opacity, brightness
and colour are tested for optical properties, while alpha-cellulose content, pentose, ash, starch
and moisture are for chemical properties. (Vainio & Paulapuro, 2007).

Cellulose is the predominant material in the paper, thus its properties influenced most of the
paper properties. The main properties of cellulose that affect the paper are:

i. absorb water - paper will absorb water unless it is treated

ii. white –paper is white unless it contains lignin (as impurity) or dye

iii. hydroscopic –paper is hydroscopic and will take and remove moisture with the changes in
relative humidity

iv. flexible – paper is flexible

v. combustible – paper can be burned

Pulping process and papermaking affect cellulose by enhancing the desired properties and
reducing the unwanted properties. The type of fibre used, cooking duration, bleaching process
and degree of interfiber bonding had a major influence to physical and optical properties
(Vainio & Paulapuro, 2007). All of these factors had to be controlled to acquire desired paper
properties.

2.3 Paper Formation

The uniformity of fibres and other solid components scattered in a paper determines formation
of paper. Practically, formation of paper is determined by placing it under the light to observe

4|Page
the uniformity of the fibre scattering structure. Roughly we can evaluate the paper whether the
paper is formed evenly or not. A good paper formation will show a neat texture, compact and
uniform fibre scattering (Yinglin, 1998).

Generally, during water removal process either draining or drying, surface tension will form a
strong force that condense and draw fibres for closer contact (Yinglin, 1998). Surface tension
force is low when the amount of water is sufficient to fill the empty spaces between fibres in
web. The surface tension will slowly increase starting at 11-12% of solid content in the water.
At this moment, air forms a large part in the media in which the fibres are suspended and
causing the area between the air-water rise quickly. Paper is said to form at solid content of 25-
30%. As the number of solids increases, air-water interfaces are broken up and inter-fibre
bonding starts to dominate. Hydrogen bonding starts to dominate at solids contents above 50%
(Van De Yen, 2008).

2.4 Banana

Banana is a common name for herbaceous flowering plants of the genus Musa of the family
Musaceae. There are other family aside from Musaceae and often been combined with each
other resulting better species for various purposes. Some species such as Musa Basjoo of Japan
and Musa Ornata from Pakistan to Burma are grown only as ornamental plants or for fibre,
while Musa Textilis of Philippines is grown for its fibre that makes strong ropes. Banana
species are cultivated in Ethiopia for fibre and for foods derived from young shoot, base of
stem and corm (Nayar, 2010). Figure 2.1 shows the banana plant.

5|Page
 Figure 2.1: Banana plant

Normally Musaceae is tall and sturdy and often mistaken for a tree due to the main upright
stem composed of a bundle of leaf stem that grows to 6 to 7.6 m tall. The strength of the trunk
is derived from the curvature of the leaf stems, and the way they overlap. Narrower stem means
less overlap thus potentially less strength. The leaves and bracts that are spirally arranged and
overlapped could grow up to 2.7 m long and 60 cm wide. The male and female flowers which
responsible in producing edible fruits, are separated within one inflorescence. The fruits may
have seeds but they never develop. A typical banana plant grows in nine to 18 months before
harvested (Sarrwy et al., 2012).

The most-edible banana comes from the two wild species Musa Acuminata, originally from
Malaysia and Musa Balbisiana, originally from India and it has been vastly cultivated for edible
fruit production (Padam et al., 2014). World banana producers were Ecuador, Costa Rica,
Philippines and Columbia which contribute 33% of world production(Voora V, Larrea C.,
2020).

Banana stem made of the rolled bases of leaves, which may be two or three meters tall. The
sheaths are crescentic and highly packed together to form the stem that function as the trunk to
support the plant. In cross-section of the stem (Figure 2.3), about half of the area exposed is
air-space formed by longitudinal canals separated radially by parenchymatous septa in which
vascular bundles are embedded. Horizontally, the canals are separated each 2 - 6 mm by thin
septa which are made of parenchyma and stellate aerenchyma. Vascular bundles consist of
vessels and tissues that carry or circulate fluids (sap) through the body of the plant. They are

6|Page
 scattered right through the ground tissue of the sheath but are distinctly dense towards the outer
surface (Hall & Stern, 2012).

Outer sheath

Inner sheath Floral stem

Figure 2.2: Cross-section of banana stem

Under electron micrographs, the cell walls are distinctly visible and have linear fibrillar
arrangement. The stem consists of high content of fibrous material and high quantity of gum
and mucilage. A chemical study on banana stem has shown that these fibres contain high
holocellulose (cellulose and hemicelluloses) content and low lignin levels (Bilba et al., 2007).
Despite low lignin content, the delignification of banana stem appears difficult (Sarrwy et al.,
2012).

2.4.1 Secondary fiber

Secondary fibre is defined as any fibrous material that has already undergone a manufacturing
process and is being recycled as the raw material for another manufactured product (Brännvall,
2009). The increasing usage of secondary fibre may reduce the dependency on forest resources
as well as lessen landfill loadings by assigning minimum content levels of secondary fibre for
certain paper grades, notably newsprint.

Secondary fibre plants are usually located in high population density area, where a reliable
supply of waste material can be more easily collected and transported. There are five basic
grades of wastepaper that are generally accepted by the paper industry; namely mixed paper,

7|Page
old newspaper (ONP), old corrugated containers (OCC), pulp substitutes and high-grade
deinked (Venditti, 2008). Pulp substitutes are more favourable because they mainly consist of
unprinted paper and boards that has not been coated or contaminated in any way. Thus, they
can be utilized directly in the papermaking process for certain products.

Other wastepaper must be cleaned up to remove contaminants. Kraft liner paper or recycled
linerboard is one of the products made from recycled old corrugated container (secondary fibre)
(Application et al., 2002). It is sufficient for secondary pulps that are used for inner plies of a
multi-ply paperboard or for corrugating medium to undergo separation and/or dispersion of
such contraries as adhesives, glues, waxes, plastic laminates, etc. But for printing grades, it is
necessary to have more selective removal of contaminants, including deinking, for a suitable
papermaking stock preparation (Po, 2013).

During each recycling, significant losses of both fibres substance and strength occur and hence
numbers of recycling are limited. Some investigators have suggested that a fibre can be
recycled only four times before the loss in quality becomes too great for effective reuse
(Karuppannan Gopalraj & Kärki, 2020).

2.4.2 Lignocellulosic fiber

Lignocellulosic material primarily made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and small

amounts of extractives. Sources of lignocelluloses include wood, agricultural residues, water
plants, grasses, and other plant substances. Cellulose and hemicelluloses are sometimes
referred to collectively as holocellulose. Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate that forms the
main constituent of the cell wall in most plants. Lignin is an aromatic polymer that strengthens
plant tissue by binding cellulose fibres. This functional mix of chemical species determines the
chemical and physical properties of wood (Liu et al., 2018).

Most lignocelluloses have similar properties even though they may differ in chemical
composition and matrix morphology. The chemical compositions of a lignocellulose fibre vary
according to the species, growing conditions, methods of fibre preparations and many other
factors (Lee et al., 2020).

a) Cellulose

Cellulose which is the major structural component of wood cells is the most abundant organic
substance on the Earth. Depending on species and growing conditions, it is the main constituent

8|Page
of wood as it makes up 40% – 50% of the wall mass. It occurs mostly in the secondary cell
wall and commonly in association with hemicelluloses and lignin.

In plant fibres, the substance cellulose determines the character of the fibre and permits its use
in papermaking. Cellulose is a carbohydrate composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Chemically, hydrogen and oxygen elements present in cellulose is the same proportion by
weight as they combine to form water (H-O-H). This property of cellulose is essential in
papermaking as it allows swelling in water to provide an increased natural bonding affinity for
it and other similar carbohydrates in the plant commonly referred to as hemicelluloses (Hubbe,
2014).

Cellulose is a polysaccharide molecule containing thousands of glucose sugar molecules

(Johnson, 2007). The glucose molecules (C6H12O6) of the cellulose are produced by the tree
through photosynthesis. Firstly, this monomer units are 20 transformed into glucose anhydrides
(C6H10O5) and then linked through oxygen atoms end-to-end to form linear polymers
(C6H10O5) n. The number of monomers per macromolecules (n) indicates the degree of
polymerization (DP) in cellulose. Typical value of n is 8,000 - 10,000 for wood cellulose in
natural state ((Berggren, 2003).

b) Lignin

The term “holocellulose” is used to describe the total carbohydrate content of fibres. Along
with polysaccharides, lignin is a structural polymer that contributes to the chemical and
physical properties of wood. Lignin is vastly different from the sugar-based polymers in wood
(Johnson & Johnson, 2007). Its principal role is to form the middle lamella, the intercellular
material which binds the fibres together. Additional lignin is also contained with the remaining
cross-section of the fibre (Bajpai, 2018).

c) Hemicelluloses

Hemicelluloses are a collective label for other polysaccharides comprised of photosynthetic

sugars. The structures and function of these molecules differ from that of cellulose.
Hemicelluloses contain a mixture of sugar molecules. By contrast to cellulose which is polymer
only of glucose, the hemicelluloses are polymers of five different sugars. They are built up of
pentose sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose with five-carbon atoms (C5H8O4)n units and hexose
sugars D-glucose, D-mannose and D-galactose with six-carbon atoms (C6H10O5)n units.

9|Page
Hardwood and softwood species typically contain hemicelluloses with different combinations
of these sugars (Abdul Khalil and Rozman, 2004).

10 | P a g e
 3. CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methods and materials used in the development of paper from
banana stem fiber.

3.2 Literature Review

A literature review is a comprehensive summery of previous research on a topic. Scholarly

articles, books and other sources relevant to utilization of banana stem fiber were surveyed.

3.3 Specific objective 1: Determination of properties of banana stem fibres

3.3.1 Chemical analysis

The cold and hot water solubility (T207 cm99), 1% alkali solubility, extractives (T204 om88),
Klason lignin (T222 om98), pentosan (T223 cm01) and ash content (T211 om93) were
determined in accordance with technical association of the Pulp and Paper industry (TAPPI)
Test Methods.

For the determination of cold-water solubility, ground raw material was extracted with reagent
grade water at 25°C with stirring for 48 hours.

For the determination of hot water solubility, ground raw material was extracted with reagent
grade water under reflux in a boiling water bath for 3 hours.

For lignin determination, the carbohydrates in raw material were hydrolysed and solubilized
by 72% sulfuric acid; the acid-insoluble lignin was filtered off, dried, and weighed.

For pentosan determination, pentosans was transformed in boiling 3.85N hydrochloric acid to
furfural, which were collected in the distillate and determined calorimetrically with orcinol-
ferric chloride reagent.

For ash determination, a test specimen was ignited in a muffle furnace at 525°C. The resulting
weight of ash was calculated the percentage ash present at 525°C.

Holocellulose was determined by treating extractive-free wood meal with NaClO2 solution
(Browning, 1967). The pH of the solution was maintained at 4.0 by adding acetate buffer.

11 | P a g e
3.4 Specific objective 2: Design and production of papers

Materials to be used
Banana Stem, Sodium hydroxide, Water, Blender, Strainer. Screen etc.

Procedures

The banana stem that was already disposed as waste was prepared and then washed with water
(see figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1: Prepared Banana stem

The stem was cut into several thin pieces less than one inch long to increase surface area (see
figure 3.2)

12 | P a g e
 Figure 3.2: Small pieces of banana stem

These pieces were then sun dried for more than two days to remove all moisture as shown in
figure 3.3.

13 | P a g e
 Figure 3.3: Dried pieces of banana stem

The small pieces were then added into boiling water of about 1- 2 liters for half to one hour
as shown in figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Boiled pieces of banana stem

Ready sodium hydroxide of about 25ml was added, the boiled pieces were strained, washed
with water.

14 | P a g e
The pieces of 250 – 1000 grams were put into Kenwood blender of 1.5 liters and 8 blades
running at the speed of 18,000rev/min at 2000 watts having water of about 500 ml and crushed
for about 10 minutes to form pulp (see figure 3.5)

Figure 3.5: Blender used.

The pulp was put in the container of water. The pulp then strained using screen to get
interlocked fibers and dried to form paper.

15 | P a g e
 Figure 3.6: Wet paper

3.4.1 Experimental Design

The experimental design was generated by Design Expert (see table 3.1). It is a software for
design of experiments (DOE). It uses statistical tools, rotatable 3D plots, view response
surfaces from various angles, set flags, explore interactive 2D graphs in experimental designs.
Identify the vital factors for product processing to perform necessary improvements on the fly.

Table 3.1: Experimental design

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Std Run A: Banana stem amount B: Water content C: Blending time

grams liters minutes

12 1 625 2 10

11 2 625 1 10

6 3 1000 1.5 5

3 4 250 2 7.5

1 5 250 1 7.5

17 6 625 1.5 7.5

13 7 625 1.5 7.5

2 8 1000 1 7.5

5 9 250 1.5 5

16 | P a g e
 8 10 1000 1.5 10

10 11 625 2 5

16 12 625 1.5 7.5

14 13 625 1.5 7.5

9 14 625 1 5

7 15 250 1.5 10

4 16 1000 2 7.5

15 17 625 1.5 7.5

3.5 Specific objective 3: Determination of paper properties.

The sheets were tested for tensile according to TAPPI (T 494 om-96), Thermal properties using
TGA analyzer and Density by weighing and measuring.

3.5.1 Tensile strength

Tensile strength was measured with the “Testometric Micro 350” –instrument (see figure 3.7).
The value of tensile speed was set to 100 mm/min and the used range was10 N/T. The size of
test pieces was 0.5mm thick 20 mm width and 180 mm length.

17 | P a g e
 Jaws

Paper

Figure 3.7:Testometric Micro 350 - Instrument

3.5.2 Density

The weight of each sample was measured using digital weighing scale and recorded (see figure
3.8).

Figure 3.8: Digital weighing scale

18 | P a g e
The thickness of each sample was measured using Vanier caliper and recorded as well.

The lengths and widths were measured using ruler and then the Density was calculated from
the formula below.

D = M/V

Where D is density, M is mass and V is volume.

19 | P a g e
 4. CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Banana Stem Fibre Properties

The chemical compositions of banana pseudo stem used for this investigation are shown in
Table 4.1. The first remark concerns the high amount of ash (approximately 16%), which is
common for annual plants. The ash content is high for industry processing. The second remark
is the low amount of lignin, i.e., approximately 15%, to compare with other annual plants. In
spite of the high content of ash, this raw material is worth pulping, mainly because of its
relatively low lignin content. The quantity of extractives in methanol/benzene (1:2) was 3.52%
that is medium when compared with other wood and some other annual plants. Holocellulose
is a collective term referring to the entire polysaccharide portion of wood (Andreasson et al.
2003).

Table 4.1: Chemical composition of Banana stem

Lignin Pentosan Ash Extractives Solubility

content
(%) (%) (%) (%)
(%)

14.7 12.9 15.5 3.60 14.91

4.2 Model fitting for tensile strength

Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to create models between the numerical factors and
the tensile strengths of the developed papers based on their categoric factors. Table 4.2 shows
the experimental design, together with corresponding experimental values for the response
(tensile strength) for papers.

Runs 6,7,12,13, and 17 at the center point were employed to determine the experimental error
and the reproducibility of the data. In order to obtain the best fit for response, the respective
sequential model sum of squares values was considered. From these, the highest order

20 | P a g e
polynomial, where the additional terms are significant, and the model is not aliased, was
chosen.

𝒚 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟓𝟒𝐀 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟔𝟑𝐁 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟐𝟏𝐂 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟓𝐀𝐁 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟑𝐀𝐂 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟎𝐁𝐂

+ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟑𝟗𝑨𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟗𝑩𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟗𝑪𝟐

By applying multiple regression analysis to the response, quadratic model was found to be the
best fit of the response. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to ascertain significant
interaction between factors where A is banana stem amount (g), B is water content (liters), and
C is blending time (minutes).

Table 4.2: Tensile strength Response

Response-
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Tensile strength

St Ru A: Banana stem B: Water C: Blending

MPa
d n amount content time

grams liters minutes

12 1 625 2 10 6.3
11 2 625 1 10 3
6 3 1000 1.5 5 3.509
3 4 250 2 7.5 4.005
1 5 250 1 7.5 3.791
17 6 625 1.5 7.5 3.405
13 7 625 1.5 7.5 3.405
2 8 1000 1 7.5 3.7
5 9 250 1.5 5 3.39
8 10 1000 1.5 10 7.5
10 11 625 2 5 3.32
16 12 625 1.5 7.5 3.405
14 13 625 1.5 7.5 3.405

21 | P a g e
9 14 625 1 5 3.224
7 15 250 1.5 10 4.5
4 16 1000 2 7.5 4.3
15 17 625 1.5 7.5 3.405

4.2.1 Analysis of variance for model statistical significance

The tensile strength results for the developed papers were investigated using analysis of
variance (ANOVA) in order to determine statistically significant factors in the fitted models
for papers. (See Tables 4.3).

Table 4.3: ANOVA Analysis of Tensile strength

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F-value p-value

Model 19.87 9 2.21 5.98 0.0139 significant

A-Banana stem
1.38 1 1.38 3.74 0.0943
amount
B-Water content 2.22 1 2.22 6.00 0.0441
C-Blending time 7.72 1 7.72 20.91 0.0026
AB 0.0372 1 0.0372 0.1010 0.7600
AC 2.08 1 2.08 5.62 0.0495
BC 2.57 1 2.57 6.96 0.0336
A² 1.80 1 1.80 4.88 0.0629
B² 0.0508 1 0.0508 0.1378 0.7215
C² 1.87 1 1.87 5.06 0.0593
Residual 2.58 7 0.3690
Lack of Fit 2.58 3 0.8610
Pure Error 0.0000 4 0.0000

22 | P a g e
Cor Total 22.45 16
Mean 3.97 R² 0.8850
C.V. % 15.28 Adjusted R² 0.7370
Adeq Precision 8.8828 Predicted R² -0.8408

The Model F-value of 5.98 implies the model is significant. There is only a 1.39% chance
that an F-value this large could occur due to noise.

P-values less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this case B, C, AC, BC are
significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not
significant. If there are many insignificant model terms (not counting those required to
support hierarchy), model reduction may improve the model.

A negative Predicted R² implies that the overall mean may be a better predictor of the
response than the current model. In some cases, a higher order model may also predict better.

Adeq Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable. The
ratio of 8.883 indicates an adequate signal. This model can be used to navigate the design
space.

4.2.2 Response surface contour plots

The three-dimensional (3D) response and two-dimensional (2D) contour effects of the factors
on tensile strength behaviour of Paper are shown in Figures 4.

Figure 4.1 and 4.2 show the interaction effect of water content and Banana stem amount. It
can be shown parameters in the 3D surface plot that an increase in water content led to
increasing tensile strength because water allows even crushing of fibers. In addition, an
increase in banana stem amount has little effect on papers tensile strength.

23 | P a g e
 Figure 4.1: 2D Graph showing Interaction effect between A and B at C= 10 minutes.

Figure 4.2: 3D Graph showing Interaction effect between A and B at C= 10 minutes.

24 | P a g e
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show a silhouette view for blending time and banana stem amount
parameters and tensile strength. The 3D response surface plot confirms that tensile strength of
papers decreases with increases in banana stem amount.

Figure 4.3:2D Graph showing Interaction effect between A and C at B= 2liters.

Figure 4.4: 3D Graph showing Interaction effect between A and C at B= 2liters

25 | P a g e
Figure 4.5 and 4.6 show the interaction effect of blending time and banana stem amount
parameters in the 2D surface and 3D surface plots respectively, at low water content, there is
an increase in tensile strengths. At high water content, there is no effect on tensile strength.

Figure 4.5: 2D Graph showing Interaction effect between B and C at A=625 MPa

Figure 4.6: 3D Graph showing Interaction effect between B and C at A=625MPa

26 | P a g e
 4.3 Model fitting for Density

Table 4.5 shows the experimental design, together with corresponding experimental values for
the response (Density) for papers.

Table 4.4 shows that the best model is linear

Density = 657.47 + 17.75A + 7.63B + 70.13C

The above equation in terms of coded factors can be used to make predictions about the
response for given levels of each factor. By default, the high levels of the factors are coded as
+1 and the low levels are coded as -1. The coded equation is useful for identifying the relative
impact of the factors by comparing the factor coefficients.

Table 4.4: Fit summary

Source Sequential p-value Lack of Fit p-value Adjusted R² Predicted R²

Linear < 0.0001 0.9206 0.8655 Suggested

2FI 0.8999 0.9023 0.6891

Quadratic 0.0529 0.9504 0.6530

Cubic 1.0000 Aliased

27 | P a g e
Table 4.5: Density Response

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Density

St Ru A: Banana stem B: Water C: Blending
d n amount content time
grams liters minutes (gm/m3)
12 1 625 2 10 724
11 2 625 1 10 702
6 3 1000 1.5 5 608
3 4 250 2 7.5 632
1 5 250 1 7.5 621
17 6 625 1.5 7.5 655
13 7 625 1.5 7.5 655
2 8 1000 1 7.5 670
5 9 250 1.5 5 595
8 10 1000 1.5 10 756
10 11 625 2 5 580
16 12 625 1.5 7.5 655
14 13 625 1.5 7.5 655
9 14 625 1 5 578
7 15 250 1.5 10 740
4 16 1000 2 7.5 696
15 17 625 1.5 7.5 655

4.3.1 Analysis of variance for model statistical significance

The density results for the developed papers were investigated using analysis of variance
(ANOVA) in order to determine statistically significant factors in the fitted models for
papers. (See Table 4.6).

Table 4.6: ANOVA Analysis of Density

Sum of Mean
Source df F-value p-value
Squares Square

Model 42325.75 3 14108.58 62.80 < 0.0001 significant

28 | P a g e
A-Banana stem
2520.50 1 2520.50 11.22 0.0052
amount

B-Water content 465.13 1 465.13 2.07 0.1738

C-Blending time 39340.13 1 39340.13 175.12 < 0.0001

Residual 2920.49 13 224.65

Lack of Fit 2920.49 9 324.50

Pure Error 0.0000 4 0.0000

Cor Total 45246.24 16

Mean 657.47 R2 0.9355

C.V % 2.28 Adjusted R² 0.9206

Adeq Precision 24.1732 Predicted R² 0.8655

The Model F-value of 62.80 implies the model is significant. There is only a 0.01% chance
that an F-value this large could occur due to noise.

P-values less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. In this case A, C are
significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicate the model terms are not
significant. If there are many insignificant model terms (not counting those required to
support hierarchy), model reduction may improve the model.

The Predicted R² of 0.8655 is in reasonable agreement with the Adjusted R² of 0.9206; i.e.,
the difference is less than 0.2.

Adeq Precision measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 is desirable.
Therefore, ratio of 24.173 indicates an adequate signal. This model can be used to navigate
the design space.

29 | P a g e
4.3.2 Response surface contour plots
Figure 4.7 and 4.8 show the two-dimensional (2D) response and three-dimensional (3D)
contour efects of the blending time and banana stem amount on density. Blending time has
much effect on the density of papers where it increases with increase in density meanwhile
banana stem amount has less effect on the density and at low banana stem amount there is no
effect on density but above 900grams of banana stem, the density increases.

Figure 4.7: 2D Graph showing Interaction effect between C and A at B=1.5 liters.

30 | P a g e
 Figure 4.8: 3D Graph showing Interaction effect between C and A at B=1.5 liters

31 | P a g e
 5. CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

▪ The first conclusion concerns the high amount of ash (approximately 16%), which is
common for annual plants. The ash content is high for industry processing. The second
remark is the low amount of lignin, i.e., approximately 15%, to compare with other
annual plants. In spite of the high content of ash, this raw material is worth pulping,
mainly because of its relatively low lignin content.

▪ On optimization, the effect of blending time, banana stem amount and water content on
tensile strengths and density of the developed papers was evaluated using Box-Behnken
design (BBD. Blending time was found to exhibit the greatest influence on both tensile
strength and density of the developed papers.

5.2 Recommendations

It is recommended that the banana stem processing be modified by making thinner slices and
rinsing directly in the sun. This will easy crushing of fibers therefore improving both density
and tensile strength of paper.

32 | P a g e
 REFERENCES

Akgül, M., Uner, B., Çamlibel, O., & Ayata, Ü. (2017). Manufacture of medium density
fiberboard (MDF) panels from agribased lignocellulosic biomass. Wood Research,
62(4), 615–624.

Application, F., Data, P., Publications, M., Examiner, P., & Nguyen, D. T. (2002). (12)
United States Patent. 1(12).

Bajpai, P. (2018). Biotechnology for pulp and paper processing. In Biotechnology for Pulp
and Paper Processing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7853-8

Berggren, R. (2003). Cellulose degradation in pulp fibers studied as changes in molar mass
distributions. Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology, 94.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3499

Bilba, K., Arsene, M. A., & Ouensanga, A. (2007). Study of banana and coconut fibers.
Botanical composition, thermal degradation and textural observations. Bioresource
Technology, 98(1), 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2005.11.030

Brännvall, E. (2009). Overview of pulp and paper processes. Pulping Chemistry and
Technology, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110213423

Erhard, K., Arndt, T., & Miletzky, F. (2010). Einsparung von prozessenergie und steuerung
von papiereigenschaften durch gezielte chemische fasermodifizierung. European
Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 68(3), 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-
010-0462-6

FAOSTAT. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2021, from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2011). 2011 Global Forest
Products Facts and Figures Industrial roundwood. 1–17.

Gabhane, J., Prince William, S. P. M., Gadhe, A., Rath, R., Vaidya, A. N., & Wate, S. (2014).
Pretreatment of banana agricultural waste for bio-ethanol production: Individual and
interactive effects of acid and alkali pretreatments with autoclaving, microwave heating
and ultrasonication. Waste Management, 34(2), 498–503.
33 | P a g e
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.10.013

Hall, D. W., & Stern, W. (2012). Plant Anatomy. Forensic Botany: A Practical Guide, Week
1, 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119945734.ch7

Hubbe, M. A. (2014). Paperboard Products While Using Less Forest. 9(1), 1–131.

Johnson, C. D., & Johnson, C. D. (2007). Examination of lignocellulosic fibers for chemical ,
thermal , and separations properties : addressing thermo-chemical stability issues by.

Karlsson, H., Gregersen, Ö. P., Beghello, L. P., Nilsson, L. P., Stolpe, L. A. professor,
Beghello, L., Nilsson, L., & Stolpe, L. (2010). Strength Properties of Paper produced
from Softwood Kraft Pulp : Pulp Mixture, Reinforcement and Sheet Stratification.

Karuppannan Gopalraj, S., & Kärki, T. (2020). A review on the recycling of waste carbon
fibre/glass fibre-reinforced composites: fibre recovery, properties and life-cycle analysis.
SN Applied Sciences, 2(3), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2195-4

Lee, C. H., Khalina, A., Lee, S. H., & Liu, M. (2020). A Comprehensive Review on Bast
Fibre Retting Process for Optimal Performance in Fibre-Reinforced Polymer
Composites. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2020(November).
https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6074063

Lindström, T., Wågberg, L., & Larsson, T. (2005). On the nature of joint strength in paper – a
review of dry and wet strength resins used in paper manufacturing. 13th Fundamental
Research Symposium, 32(May 2005), 457–562.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267385974

Liu, C. L. C., Kuchma, O., & Krutovsky, K. V. (2018). Mixed-species versus monocultures
in plantation forestry: Development, benefits, ecosystem services and perspectives for
the future. Global Ecology and Conservation, 15, e00419.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00419

Nayar, N. M. (2010). The Bananas: Botany, Origin, Dispersal. In Horticultural Reviews

(Issue December). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470527238.ch2

Oliveira, T. Í. S., Rosa, M. F., Cavalcante, F. L., Pereira, P. H. F., Moates, G. K., Wellner, N.,
Mazzetto, S. E., Waldron, K. W., & Azeredo, H. M. C. (2016). Optimization of pectin
extraction from banana peels with citric acid by using response surface methodology.
Food Chemistry, 198, 113–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.08.080

34 | P a g e
Paavilainen, L. (1993a): Importance of cross-dimensional fibre properties and

coarseness for the characterisation of softwood sulphate pulp. Paperi ja Puu – Paper

and Timber, vol. 75, no 5, pp. 343-351.\

Paavilainen, L. (1993b): Conformability - flexibility and collapsibility - of sulphate

pulp fibres. Paperi ja Puu – Paper and Timber, vol. 75, no 9-10, pp. 689-702.

Padam, B. S., Tin, H. S., Chye, F. Y., & Abdullah, M. I. (2014). Banana by-products: an
under-utilized renewable food biomass with great potential. Journal of Food Science
and Technology, 51(12), 3527–3545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0861-2

Po, W. (2013). W PO o o. 21(12).

Rietveld, A. M., Mpiira, S., Jogo, W., Staver, C., & Karamura, E. B. (2013). The beer banana
value chain in central Uganda. Banana Systems in the Humid Highlands of Sub-Saharan
Africa: Enhancing Resilience and Productivity, April 2015, 191–201.
https://doi.org/10.1079/9781780642314.0191

Sarrwy, S. M. A., Mostafa, E. A. M., & Hassan, H. S. A. (2012). Growth, yield and fruit
quality of Williams banana as affected by different planting distances. In International
Journal of Agricultural Research (Vol. 7, Issue 5, pp. 266–275).
https://doi.org/10.3923/ijar.2012.266.275

Seth, R. S. (1990): Fibre quality factors in papermaking - I The importance of fibrelength

and strength. Material research symposium, Caulfield, D.F., Passaretti,J.D., Sobczynski
S.F. (ed.), vol. 197, pp. 125-142.

Singh, T. M. and Wood, C. (1996): Preliminary studies on tensile strength of wetlaid glass
microfiber sheet. 1996 Nonwovens conference, 11-13 Mar, Charlotte,

NC, USA, pp. 141-148.

Tumutegyereize, P., Muranga, F. I., Kawongolo, J., & Nabugoomu, F. (2011). Optimization
of biogas production from banana peels: Effect of particle size on methane yield. African
Journal of Biotechnology, 10(79), 18243–18251. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB11.2442

UBOS. (2017). Uganda Bureau of Statistics. Uganda Bureau of Statistics, June, 341.
https://www.ubos.org/wp-
content/uploads/publications/03_20182017_Statistical_Abstract.pdf%0Afile:///C:/Users/
35 | P a g e
 Dell Latitude/AppData/Local/Mendeley Ltd./Mendeley Desktop/Downloaded/UBOS -
2017 - Uganda Bureau of Statistics.pdf

Vainio, A. K., & Paulapuro, H. (2007). Interfiber bonding and fiber segment activation in
paper. BioResources, 2(3), 442–458. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.2.3.442-458

Van De Yen, T. G. M. (2008). Capillary forces in wet paper. Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry Research, 47(19), 7250–7256. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie800423r

Venditti, R. A. (2008). Paper Recycling Technology and Science Lecture :

Voora V, Larrea C., and B. S. (2020). Global Market Report: Bananas. Exchange
Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal, 62.
https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/ssi-global-market-report-banana.pdf

Yinglin, C. (1998). Image Analysis Methods for Paper Formation Evaluation.

http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape17/PQDD_0013/MQ34128.pdf

[20] Srinivasan VS, Rajendra Boopathy S, Sangeetha D, Vijaya Ramnath B.Evaluation of

mechanical and thermal properties of banana–flax based natural fibre composite.
Materials & Design. 2014;60:620-627

[26] Ndazi B, Tesha J, Bisanda ET. Some opportunities and challenges of producing bio
composites from nonwood residues. Journal of Materials Science. 2006;41:6984-6990

[27] Faulstich de Paiva JM, Frollini E. Unmodified and modified surface sisal fibers as
reinforcement of phenolic and lignophenolic matrices composites:Thermal analyses of
fibers and composites. Macromolecular Materials & Engineering. 2006;291:405-417

[28] Subramanya R, Satyanarayana KG,Shetty Pilar B. Evaluation of structural, tensile and

thermal properties of banana fibers. Journal of Natural Fibers. 2017;14:485-497

36 | P a g e