Importance of Climate, Soil, and Water in Tree
If early blossoming is desired
Crop Production
Good judgment and efficiency are needed to
succeed in tree farming Several factors must be
considered in order to prosper in this kind of
activity. Experienced fruit tree growers consider
climate, soil, temperature, and humidity as
factors that contribute to successful tree
farming.
Climate
- Different tree species grow best in certain
climatic conditions. The different climatic
conditions wherein trees are exposed to
include rainfall, sunshine, high temperature.
low temperature, humidity, and wind.
- Of all the above-mentioned conditions. long
light rain is the most suitable for tree crops
because water penetrates the soil and keep
it moist for a certain period of time.
- Temperature affects the growth of crops. A
high temperature ripens fruits before they
should and affects the fruit tissues. Fruits spoil
easily and the color and taste are affected
by heat.
Soil
- Soil is the material that holds the tree and
provides it with water and nutrients in order
to grow. The roots of a tree anchor to the soil.
The roots also absorb nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and other nutrients which the
tree needs to live. Leaves and organic
materials improve the texture and fertility of
the soil.
- The best kind of soil for fruit and tree crop
growing is dry, warm, porous, sandy, and
loamy.
- Growing of fruit and tree crops in sticky soil
or clay is not advisable because it is wet,
cold, and slow to dry after the rain.
Water
- Water has an important role in the life of
plants. Water is very much needed in the
formation of carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
minerals, and other nutrients and in
transporting these elements from the leaves
of the tree to the roots, trunks, branches, and
fruits. These nutrients must first dissolve in
water before they are absorbed into the
tree body.
- Water is also used in transplanting crops.
Water supply must be below the level of the
tree plantation and surfaced by means of
stand pipes and s reservoir.
- If late blossoming or ripening of fruit is
desired, planting should be done on the
northern slope.
and when there is danger of typhoons which
might destroy trees, consider planting on the
southern slope.
Types and Drainage of Soil
- Fruit and tree crops grow in all types of soil
provided these are not sandy, rocky, shallow
or wet. The roots of trees must deeply
penetrate the soil. The soil must be properly
drained and have a good texture. Good
texture means that it is fine and mellow, not
hard or lumpy.
Different Methods of Plant Propagation
Sexual Propagation of Plants
- Propagation by Seeds
- Seed propagation is the most common and
easy method of propagating plants. In
propagating fruit trees, the use of seed is not
advisable because of the varying
characteristics of plant seedlings.
- Propagation by seed is, however, practical
in these instances:
1. Seeds are used by plant breeders who
need a large seedling population with
different characteristics from which they
select good varieties.
2. Seeds are used by nursery men who need
a large seedling population as rootstocks for
certain outstanding varieties.
Asexual Propagation
- Asexual propagation is done without the
help of the sex organs of the plant. In the
asexual method, plants multiply in different
ways, as follows.
By suckers which are stems or roots that grow
from a subterranean portion of a plant or tree.
- Banana
- Strawberry
By rhizomes or creeping stems which produce
roots along their surface and develop new
plants from buds on the upper side.
- Ginger
By underground runners or ratoons
- sugarcane and pineapple.
By the germinating tissues of the leaves which
come in contact with the damp surface of the
soil.
- Begonia
By rootstocks through which the plants
reproduce by division and separating some of
its roots.
- Orchids and other herbaceous plants
By tubers which are thickened stems, bearing
buds or nodelike scars.
- Sweet potato and yam
By bulbs, which are modified leaves folded
around one another.
- Garlic and Onions
Methods of Artificial Plant Propagation
New plants are produced and multiplied by
cutting.
Asexual plant propagation is an artificial
method of propagating plants through which
new plants are produced and multiplied by
using the parts and buds of selected mother
plants.
Artificial plant propagation is done by:
A. Cutting. New plants are produced and
multiplied by cutting and planting parts
of the plant. The plant propagated is a
"cutting." The different cuttings used are
tubers, stems, leaf, and root and
rootstock.
a. Tuber Cutting - Thickened portions of the leaf
or stems are used in propagation.
b. Stem Cutting - This is used in propagating
annuals and perennials.
c. Leaf Cutting - To start a new plant, the blade
leaf and petioles are used. Plants that develop
germinal tissues from the leaves are
propagated by this method.
d. Root and Rootstock Cutting - Plants that tend
to grow sucker sprouts from the roots can be
propagated this way.
Kataka-taka – propagates through leaf cutting.
B. Layering. A part or branch of the tree is
introduced into the soil to develop roots
while being fed by the parent plant.
C. Marcotting. In marcotting, the stems are
induced to take roots while still attached
to the mother plant.
Steps in Marcotting
1. Remove a ring of the bark below the
node 3-5 centimeters long.
2. Scrape the cambium layer but not too
deep into the wood to prevent healing
before root formation takes place.
3. After callus formation has taken place,
wrap the cut surface with a moist, but not
wet sphagnum moss. If sphagnum moss
is not available, use moistened soil and
wrap with coconut husk.
4. Cover securely with plastic and tie
around on both ends with a cotton twine
to prevent the drying of the rooting
medium. When using wrapping material
other than plastic, water the marcot
regularly to prevent the drying and
hardening of the soil.
5. When enough roots grow, cut off the
marcot just below the ball of sphagnum
moss or soil that holds the roots. For plants
that root easily, this can be as short as
one month.
6. After cutting the marcot, place in a pot
big enough to provide sufficient room for
the roots to develop further before
transplanting to the field.
7. Place in a cool and shady place to
hasten recovery.
D. Grafting. This is an artificial plant
propagation through which a stem of
one plant, called the "scion" (top
portion), is inserted into the rootstock of
another plant, so that the two will unite
and grow together as one plant. The
scion and rootstock must be compatible
for them to unite permanently.
- Grafting is classified into cleft, side, whip or
tongue, saddle, bark, and crown grafting.
For fruit growers, cleft grafting is most
commonly used.
- Cleft grafting is used when grafting a new
top of a tree which is several years old."
 Steps in Cleft Grafting
1. Select a clean, smooth limb between 2 to 3
cm in diameter and saw it off.
2. With a sharp narrow blade, split the stub
through the middle, taking care to make a
clean slit.
3. Cut two scions with three buds each and
about 10 to 15 cm. Sharpen the lower end of
each scion to form a long, evenly tapering
wedge.
4. Open the cleft in the stub by forcing a chisel
or any similar instrument into its center.
5. Insert the wedge-shaped end of a scion so
that its innermost bark lies against the
innermost bark of the split stub.
6. Cover all cut surfaces immediately with soil.
Let both scions grow from one to two years.
E. Budding. This method makes use of a
single bud as the scion instead of the
stem bearing several buds. It is
transferring the lateral bud from the
scion to the stock of the same family or
genus. It is generally used on young
plants or smaller branches of large plants
where the buds can be inserted into
shoots 1 to 3 cm in diameter. The most
common form of budding are shield,
patch, plate, and chip budding.
Steps in T-Budding
1. Pick well-developed buds from the terminal
growth of a variety.
2. Clip off the leaves immediately to stop
evaporation.
3. Select a smooth area and cut a T-shaped slit
through the bark.
4. Insert the bud and cut a bud from the bud
stalk with a shield-shaped piece of bark and
a very thin layer of wood under the slit. Slip
the bud on the stock and shove it into
position.
5. Tie the bud securely above and below with
a soft cord and a plastic sheet or raffia.
6. If union has taken place after two weeks, cut
the raffia on the side away from the bud to
prevent girdling. A living bud is greenish in
color, while a dead one is blackish.
7. Cut the stock smoothly when it reaches the
height of 30 cm. Cover the surface with pine
tar or house paint to prevent decay.
F. Inarching. In this method of
propagation, the scion is made to unite
with the rootstock while growing on their
own root systems. Inarching is usually
done on branches where the scion stem
is of the same size as the rootstock.
Steps in Inarching
1. Select an actively growing rootstock and
bring it to the branch you intend to graft.
2. Cut a longitudinal slit half its thickness on the
branch, and make a similar cut on the scion.
Then fit them together.
3. Tie firmly with a string or cotton twine.
4. Cut the scion below the point of union, and
the rootstock above the union when the two
have been united. Make the first cut about
half the thickness of the scion stem.
5. Make the second cut after a week.
6. If the scion does not show any sign of wilting
after the second cut, cut it off completely.
Except for the regular watering of the
rootstock, no other treatment is needed for
inarched plants after they are tied together.
Proper Methods of Germinating Seeds of Fruit
and Tree Crops
Many tropical and subtropical variety of fruits
are propagated from seeds. The hard covering
of most seeds makes it necessary to propagate
before they are planted. Some seeds such as
the coconut, mango, or mabolo which are left
on the ground under the tree are covered by
dry rotting leaves. The tough seed coat which
are kept moist, softens during the rainy season
and the seed germinates. Other kinds of seeds
need special preparation to germinate before
planting.
Common ways of seed germination are as
follows:
1. Stratification, Seeds are placed between
layers of moist sand following these steps:
a. Fill the bottom of a shallow box 8 to 12
cm with at least 3 cm of sand.
b. Place a thin layer of seeds on top of the
sand.
c. Follow this with another 3 cm of sand.
Continue filling the box alternately with
sand and seeds until the box is filled up
to the rim.
d. Bury the box up to its rim in a well-
drained space outdoors and cover
with straw or place under the shade of
a tree.
e. Keep the sandbox barely moist, not
wet.
2. Freezing. This method hastens the
germination of seeds. It is most Tapplicable to
fruits with many seeds such as chico, atis,
kaimito, santol, and mabolo.
3. Use of seed boxes. Before sowing the seeds
in the seed box, make small furrows for the
seeds.
a. Use a piece of wood about 2 inches
wide and 1/2 inch thick to measure
and mark the rows. The space
between rows should be about two
to four centimeters.
b. Press the top of the wooden stick on
the soil lightly, making a U-shaped
furrow. Then press deeper into the soil
to the desired depth and remove.
Repeat the procedure as needed.
c. Sow the seeds evenly and thinly after
the furrows are made.
d. Cover the seeds with pulverized soil.
Press the soil into the hole and water
the seeds.
e. Keep the seed box in a shady place
until they have sprouted. During the
dry season, cover the box with a
sheet of paper to keep the moisture
and prevent the soil from drying.
4. Use of seedbeds. Use a stick to make
furrows in the seedbeds for the seeds. Sow
the seeds and sprinkle with water before
covering them, following the same
procedure in germinating seeds in seed
boxes.
Germinating Seeds in Cans or Plastic Bags
1. Prepare germinating tin cans or plastic
bags by removing top lid of the can.
Puncture holes at the bottom for
drainage. If plastic bags were used, cut
holes at the bottom.
2. Prepare a germinating medium. Use a
mix by weights of 40% clay-loam soil. 30%
compost, 20% dung or manure and 10%
sand. Pulverize the soil before adding the
other components. Mix thoroughly for
best results.
3. Fill the tin cans or plastic bags with the
mixture 3/4 full.
4. Arrange the cans properly in the nursery.
5. Moisten the soil mixture by sprinkling
water evenly.
6. Prepare the seeds for sowing. Wash to
remove dirt and pulp.
Fishery Tools and Their Uses
Fishery Farm Tools
There are different types of hand tool which
designed for specific purposes. It was used
throughout the world by industry. Each hand
tool is designed for a particular job and should
be used for those purposes only.
Classification of hand tools according to use
- Hand tools can be classified into four different
sections according to various purposes and
uses.
1. Cutting, Pinching, Gripping Tools
- these tools are used for cutting, pinching,
and gripping purposes. Cutting tools are
used not only to cut a physical object but
also used to removed metal or wood from
the work piece by means of sheer
deformation and for gripping objects by
using leverage. Examples are pliers and
cutters.
2. Striking Tools
- these are the most widely used tools and
most often abused tool. Chiseling, punching
and riveting can be done properly using
striking tools. Hand-held striking tools have
been used in a variety of disciplines as
leverage devices provided striking force to
complete endless variety of tasks. Examples
are hammers and chisels.
3. Driving Tools
- these are tools designed to insert, tighten,
loosen, and remove screws, bolt, nails and
other pointed objects or hard turn items by
applying torque. Examples are screwdrivers,
nut drivers, hand wrenches, and T-handle
wrenches.
4. Struck or Hammered Tools
- these tools are used for forcing a bolt, pin, or
rivet in or out of a hole. Examples are
punches, nail sets, and chisels.
 Different kinds of hand tools
A. Pliers
- Pliers are a hand tool used to hold
objects firmly, for bending, compression.
Generally, pliers consist of a pair of metal
first-class levers joined at a fulcrum
positioned closer to one end of the
levers, creating short jaws on one side of
the fulcrum, and longer handles on the
other side. This arrangement creates a
mechanical advantage, allowing the
force of the hand's grip to be amplified
and focused on an object with precision.
The jaws can also be used to manipulate
objects too small or unwieldy to be
manipulated with the fingers. or physical
Types of Pliers
Slip-joint pliers
- are great for tightening. They have a
joint which can be used for two different
width openings. They are the most
common type of pliers used at home.
Parrot nose wrench pliers-
- are noted for their grip. They are a
combination of pliers and pipe wrenches
with 750 offset noses. These kinds of pliers
are ideal for pipes and tubings.
General utility or water pump pliers
- are all-purpose pliers with as many as five
jaw-opening adjustments. Their teeth
shaped for positive grip on round
objects.
Groove joint pliers
- are similar to slip joint pliers having
several joints to fit many jobs of various
sizes. They are also referred as Channel
lock.
Needle-nose pliers-
- used for reaching places with restricted
clearance. These kinds of pliers have a
pointed nose and may have side cutters.
They are typically used for all electrical
and electronics works.
Plumber's special pliers
- are available with smooth jaws or jaws
covered with a soft material to prevent
scratching when used on plated
plumbing fixtures.
B. Wrenches
- Wrench is a tool, usually operated by
hand, for tightening bolts and nuts. A
wrench or nut so that it can be twisted
by a pull at right angles to the axes of the
lever and the bolt or nut. Open-end
wrenches have ends with straight-sided
slots that fit over the part being
tightened; box-end wrenches have ends
that enclose the nut and have six, eight,
12, or 16 points inside the head. A socket
wrench is essentially a short pipe with a
square or hexagonal hole and either a
permanent or a removable handle.
Classification of Wrenches
1. Pipe wrenches
- It is use in plumbing for gripping
round or cylindrical shape.
2. General-use wrenches
- it is use in bolts and nuts that have flat
and parallel surfaces such as square or
hexagonal shape.
Types of wrenches
Combination wrench
- is double-ended wrench with one end
being like an open-end wrench and the
other end like a box-end wrench. Both
ends usually fit the same size or bolt. They
are made in metric and standard sizes.
Adjustable wrench
- is use for tightening or loosening nuts
and bolts, having movable lower jaw to
adjust wrench size, depending on the
size of the nuts or bolts.
Socket wrench
- are like closed end wrenches but they
are cylindrical in shape. They can easily
fit over nut in a recessed hole which is
otherwise inaccessible with open or
closed ended wrenches.
Flare-nut wrench or tube wrench
- or line wrench are almost same as box
end wrench and were used for gripping
the nuts on the ends of tubes. They have
narrow openings to allow the wrench to
fit over the tubes.
C. Hammer
- A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an
impact to an object. The most common
uses are for driving nails, fitting parts,
forging metal and breaking up objects.
Hammers are often designed for a
specific purpose, and vary widely in their
shape and structure. The usual features
are a handle and a head, with most of
the weight in the head. The basic design
is hand-operated, but there are also
many mechanically operated models
for heavier uses, such as steam
hammers.
Types of hammers
Curved Claw Hammer
- is use for nail pulling and general
carpentry work.
Straight claw rip hammer
- is mainly use for general and heavy
carpentry work, ripping and framing.
Hand drilling hammer
- is design to do powerful jobs like striking
masonry nails, steel chisels masonry drills.
Ball peen hammer
- is used for bending or shaping soft metal,
for riveting and for center punching This
type of hammer has a round face with
beveled edges and the other end has a
ball-shaped peen for metal working.
D. Screwdrivers
- A screwdriver is a tool for driving screws
or bolts with special slots, and sometimes
for rotating other machine elements with
the mating drive system. The screwdriver
is made up of a head or tip, which
engages with a screw, a mechanism to
apply torque by rotating the tip, and
some way to position and support the
screwdriver. A typical hand screwdriver
comprises an approximately cylindrical
handle of a size and shape to be held by
a human hand, and an axial shaft fixed
to the handle, the tip of which is shaped
to fit a particular type of screw.
Types of screwdrivers
Philips
- has a crossed slot with a flat tip, it used
for tightening and loosening Philips' head
screws and bolts.
Clutch Head
- is used for tightening and loosening
clutch head screws and bolts. It has four
points of contact and locks into the
screw head when turned counter
clockwise.
Standard (slotted)
- has a single slotted tip which is flared to
the sides above the tip and used for
tightening and loosening slotted screws
and bolts.
Nut Driver
- is in varied sizes from 3/16|| to ½ used
for tightening and loosening hexagonal
screws and bolts.
E. Measuring Tools
Types of Measuring Tools
Try square
- Is an L-shaped square having a a handle
called the bodies and a thin metal blade
marked in graduations scale/ruler. This
square is used basically to mark a
straight line across a wood piece for
cutting.
Ruler
- is the most popular type of measuring
tool. Ruler usually has 6- or 1-inches
length. The rules or ruler are made of
wood, metal or plastic. It is to be noted
that the thinner the rule, the easier it is to
measure accurately.
Caliper
- Caliper is a tool used for measuring the
distance between two symmetrically
opposing sides. It can be like a compass
with inward or outward facing points
and the tips can be adjusted to fit across
the points to be measured. When the
calipers removed, the distance between
the tip is measured using a ruler,
F. Shovel
Types of shovels
Garden shovel
- the same general design as a round
point shovel, but it is smaller and lighter.
It is used for lighter task and for less
muscular persons.
Round point shovel
- The most versatile and widely used
shovel. It is used to dig, scoop or shovel
dirt from one point to another
Scoop shovel
- is used to move light materials such as
Sawdust or dried manure. It isn't
advisable to use for heavy wet materials
because of the volume that can hold
which will cause you backache.
G. Fork
Types of Fork
Barn fork
- has long angled tines. Besides hay, it is
also used for moving garden pruning,
weeds, and other organic materials.
Spading fork
- performs multitude of garden tasks.
Primarily, it is used for tilling the soil and
breaking up heavy dirt clods. It is
invaluable in weeding large areas where
there is no danger of injuring the roots of
desirable plants. It comes in many sizes;
long or short handles; different tine
length; and number of tines. The tines of
less expensive brands tend to bend so it
is worth investing on quality when you
make your choice.
Other tools use for farming
Bow rake
- is traditionally called steel rake. Its head
may be bent where from 8inches to 24
inches wide. The head is connected to
the handle by a steel _bow' at each end.
These bows act as shock absorbers,
giving this tool the strength to do serious
raking of heavier materials.
Level head rake
- is much the same as a how rake, except
that the back of the head is straight and
even, and connects to the handle in the
center. Its straight edge is used for
leveling seedbeds. The corners may also
be used for creating furrows.
Pick and mattock
- is used for seriousdigging through hard
packed soil and clay. The pick (pointed
end) or the mattock (wide blade) is used
to chop down, into the soil, and the
cradle design of the head can then be
used as a lever to break open the soil,
allowing for easy shoveling.
Sickle
- is a curved, hand-held farm tool typically
used for harvesting grain crop or cutting
grass for hay. The inside of the curve is
sharp, so that the user can draw or swing
the blade against the base of the crop,
catching it in the curve and slicing it at
the same time.
Pruning saw
- has large cutting teeth than a normal
saw for quick cuts through branches and
limbs over an inch in diameter. Always
undercut the branch before making the
final top cut to avoid damage to the
bark of the tree or shrub
Secchi disk
- is used to measure water turbidity. The
reading is sometimes called Secchi Disk
Transparency. Productive ponds usually
have a Secchi Disk Transparency depth
between 10-30 cm.
Caregiving
- Caregiving is providing care or
assistance to a person who may be ill,
disabled, or needs help with his/her day-
to-day activities. This may also refer to
providing care for physical and
emotional needs of a family member or
a friend at home. There are home for the
aged which house these people for an
immediate care from qualified
caregivers who are paid for their
services.
- A caregiver is a person who provides
assistance to any person who cannot
live alone by himself/herself due to some
developmental, physical, or
psychological needs (Ilagan, 2013). The
services of a caregiver is important and
that his/her services give assurance to
the client that he/she can still live a
healthy life with his/her cooperation. It is
necessary for the caregiver to provide
compassion and patience which is
equally important to the skills and
techniques he/she must possess in caring
for the client.
Lesson 1: Caregiving Tools, Materials and
Equipment
- One of the most important tasks of a
caregiver is to make sure that he/she
can identify and use the appropriate
tools, materials, equipment and
paraphernalia that are applicable to the
specific job. As a future caregiver, being
well-versed with the different tools and
equipment will prepare you to be
successful in the health care profession
someday.
For Taking Vital Signs
BP Apparatus Aneroid
(Sphygmomanometer)
- This is mercury-free aneroid unit which
consists of a cuff that can be applied
with one hand for self-testing, a
stethoscope that is built or attached,
and a bulb which inflates and deflates
automatically with the data displayed. It
has an easy-to-read gauge which
functions in any position.
Stethoscope
- This is an instrument used for listening to
the action or beating of the heart with a
circular piece usually placed against the
chest with tube leading to earpieces.
Clinical thermometer
- This is an instrument used for measuring
body temperature which is made of
glass narrowing above the bulb so that
the mercury column stays in position
even when the instrument is removed
from the body.
For Cleaning, Washing and Ironing
Bottle Sterilizer
- This is used to sterilize bottles through
boiling to destroy microorganisms in
containers like feeding bottles.
Baby bath tub
- This is used for bathing infants especially
those who are not yet able to sit up on
their own. Some baby bath tubs are
designed to allow the baby to recline
while keeping his head from out of the
water.
Bedpan
- This is usually made up of metal, glass, or
plastic used for toileting of a bedridden
patient. This can be used both for urinary
and fecal discharge.
Washing machine.
- It is an electric appliance used for
washing clothes and linen.
Flat iron or clothes iron
- This is another appliance which is used to
iron or press clothes, draperies and other
linen and used along with ironing board.
Ironing board
- This is a long, narrow padded board with
collapsible supporting legs and used as
a working surface in ironing clothes and
other linen.

For Meal Preparation
- A caregiver must also have the
knowledge and skills in preparing the
food for his/her client or person under
his/her care. Meal preparation is very
important as this affects the health and
nutrition of the person, especially the
sick. Moreover, he/she must be familiar
with the appropriate tools and
equipment used in food preparation
Food processor
- This is a multi-purpose tool which is used
for chopping shredding, and pureeing
food ingredients.
Coffee maker
- This is an electric countertop appliance
which brews coffee automatically.
Air pot or thermos
- This is a storage vessel provided with
insulation material which keeps its
contents hotter or cooler than its
surrounding for a longer period of time.
Blender
- It is an electric kitchen or laboratory
appliance which is used to mix, make
puree, or emulsify food and other similar
substances.
Electric can opener
- It is a very useful device used in opening
canned goods with ease, accuracy and
safety.
Knife
- This is a cutting tool with an exposed
cutting sharp edge used to cut or slice
vegetables, fruits, meat and other kinds
of food.
Kitchen shears
- These are useful in opening food
packages, cutting tape or string of
packed foods, or removing tags or labels
from items.
Chopping board
- This is used for cutting or chopping meat
or vegetables and is made of flat,
wooden or plastic board
Lesson 2: Performing Calculations
- In this lesson you are expected to learn
how to perform calculations related to
administering medicine to patients. You
cannot afford to commit mistake here
for that could mean life or death to a
patient.
Performing Calculations
- It is not enough that a caregiver
identifies all the tools and materials in
caregiving. He/She also has to learn how
to administer medicines to the patient. It
is very important that the right amount of
medicine is given to the patient. This a
great factor for the speedy recovery of
the sick. Conversion from one unit to
another when applicable in giving
medicine must be a part of the
knowledge that the caregiver has to
acquire.
- The manner and system of measurement
are part of our daily activities at home or
in school. In organizing our tasks,
preparing our meals, we need to
perform calculations to ensure that we
do not put our lives at stake.
A review of our mathematical skills is
necessary especially in the safe
administration of medicines to our patient.
The knowledge we have in ratio and
proportion shall be very useful.
In administering the medicine, there are
three measurement systems that are used in
pharmacology: the household
measurement system, the metric system,
and the apothecary system.
For patients who are only at home and not
in hospital, the household measurement
system is usually used. Teaspoons, drops,
ounces, cups, pints quart, gallons, and
pounds are included as measurements
used under the household measurement
system.
The apothecary measurement system has
weight measurements like dram, ounce,
grain (gr), scruple, and pound. The volume
units of measurement in the apothecary
measurement system are a fluid ounce, a
pint, a minim, a fluid dram, a quart and a
gallon.
Calculating pediatric dosages for oral drugs
Application of the information in the
previous lesson to calculate the amount of
medicine to the patient will start here.
Always follow the physician's order and
drug labels, the methods of converting
quantities from one unit of measurement to
another. If not sure about the tasks, always
ask the assistance from somebody who
may be senior to you. In dealing with
pediatric patient, bear in mind that children
are completely different from adults. An
inaccurate dosage may harm the child.
Administering pediatric oral drugs
- Tablets and capsules are hard to take by
infants and young children. thus they are
given liquid medicine. In some cases
where liquid medicines are not
available, tablets may be crushed and
mix with just a little water. If it is mixed in
a large amount of water, the child may
not be able to finish the liquid and
therefore the entire dosage is not taken.
Tools used in giving out pediatric oral drugs
Cup..........................advisable for children
Dropper....................used for infant
Syringe......................used for infants
Spoon with hollow handle.......used for
toddlers
Methods to calculate pediatric doses
• Body Surface Area (BSA) Method.
- This is also called the dosage-per-
kilogram-of-bodyweight method.
Physicians usually use this because this is
the most accurate and safest method in
calculating pediatric dose.
• Clark's Rule.
- This method uses the weight of the child
in calculating approximate dosage.
• Young's Rule.
- This is applicable to children who are
two years of age and above.
• Fried's Rule.
- This is used to calculate doses for
children who are two years and below.
Important reminders in calculating doses:
• It is necessary to use calculator in
solving equations.
• Verify from a drug handbook if in
doubt, or call a pharmacist.
• Always keep a record of the patient's
weight in kilogram. This will keep you
from weighing the patient all the time.
- Occupational health and safety is the
campaign and maintenance of the
well-being of workers in every
occupation. This is to provide a safe
working environment to achieve an
injury-free workplace and a healthy
atmosphere that protect every worker
against illness. These healthy and safety
practices. in effect, may also protect co-
workers, family members, clients, and
other members of the community who
are affected by the workplace
environment.
Lesson 3: Occupational Health and Safety
Hazards and Risks
- Hazard is anything that may cause harm
to individual. Chemicals, electricity,
open drawers, and inadequate
ventilation are some examples of this.
- Risk is the possibility that somebody
could be harmed by these chemicals,
electricity, open drawers, inadequate
ventilation, and other hazards in the
workplace and the indication of how
serious the harm can be.
Types of Hazards
1. Physical hazards
- These are the most normal occurrences
in the workplace and are usually easy to
detect. However, most of the time, this
type of hazards is neglected due to lack
of knowledge of people who do not see
situations as hazards.
Examples of physical hazards that a
caregiver may be exposed to:
• Electrical hazards - In nursing homes
and day care institutions. improper
wiring and frayed cords must be
checked. Sometimes these are not
given attention to and may pose
danger to the sick person and the
caregiver.
• Endless noise in a nursing home is
definitely a hazard especially to people
who are suffering from depression.
• Spills on floors is definitely a hazard to
everyone. It is important that caregivers
should immediately wipe or mop spills
on the floor to avoid accident.
2. Biological hazards
- The caregiver may be exposed to this
type of hazard if he/she is working with
animals, people or infectious materials.
Day care centers, hospital, hotel
laundry, nursing homes, laboratories are
places with biological hazards.
3. Ergonomic hazards
- These occur when a caregiver's nature
of work, body position and working
conditions put pressure on his/her body.
Caregivers do not immediately notice
the effect of these hazards on their
bodies. At the start, it may only be sore
muscles but long term exposure to this
type of hazard may cause
musculoskeletal problems.
Examples of ergonomic hazards:
• standing for long period of time
• too much bending and reaching
performing tasks that require lifting
heavy loads
• holding body parts for long periods of
time
• awkward movements especially if they
are repetitive
• repeating the same movements over
and over
Some of the effects of ergonomic hazards:
• pain in the shoulders
• back injury
• too much impact on wrist and hands
• numbness in some parts of the body
• muscle cramps
4. Chemical hazards
- When a worker or caregiver is exposed
to any chemical preparation in the
workplace, then chemical hazard is
present. Some chemicals may be safe,
but there are caregivers who are
sensitive to solutions which may cause
skin irritation, illness or breathing
problem.
- Chemical hazards may cause lung
diseases, difficulty in breathing, and
allergy.
5. Psychological hazards.
- When a caregiver's work environment
becomes stressful or demanding,
psychological hazards will take occur.
Caregivers may suffer depression,
anxiety, loss of confidence, loss of
concentration at work, and
deterioration of their performance at
work.
Caregivers may be exposed to these
psychological hazards:
• verbal abuse from dissatisfied clients
• burn out, fatigue and on call duty
• unreasonable expectations from patients
or clients
• unreasonable expectations from
supervisors and management.
 Recognizing Hazards and Risks in the
Workplace
Caregivers have to know whether there are
health and safety problems in their
workplace. Hazards and risks vary from one
workplace to another. Work routines may
be the same, but hazards will differ
depending on the type of the location of
the building establishment, the attitudes of
caregivers, clients, or employers. Hazards
and risks can be prevented; however,
caregivers must be able to identify these in
the workplace.
Ways for caregivers to determine health
and safety problems:
1. They should observe the workplace.
2. They have to examine complaints
from their co-workers.
3. They should check accident records.
4. They should examine chart on results
of inspections done by the employers
or private organizations.
5. They may use checklist and examine
the workplace.
6. They may study reports or any other
vital information about the nursing
home.
Practical Ways to Prevent Hazards and Risks
• Have a closer look at electricity. See to
it that all electrical equipment you use
are in good condition. Check electrical
cords and make sure they are not
frayed. Use electrical equipment with
dry hands.
• Wear Personal Protective Equipment
properly. Wear gown longer than your
clothing. When removing the gown, try
to avoid touching the outside portion
since this is considered contaminated.
A caregiver should wear a clean gown
every client care.
• Mask should be worn and must fit
comfortably over the nose and mouth.
A wet mask is considered
contaminated and should be disposed
properly after use. A clean mask should
be used for every client contact.
• Gloves should be used when issue of
contamination is present. It is a must for
a caregiver to use gloves especially
when he/she has open wounds on the
hands.
Beauty Care (Nail Care)
Nail care is a service referring to cosmetic
beauty treatment of fingernails and toenails
which can be done at home or in beauty
salons. This service is availed of by both
women and men. Preparation of the guest
starts with cleaning of the fingernails or
toenails, giving massage to the hands or
feet, application of nail polish, and giving
the final retouch.
Cleanliness of the workplace is a very
important factor to prevent infection. For
hygienic purposes, tools and equipment
need to be sterilized before using them.
Health and safety practices are given
emphasis, as well as the risks and hazards to
protect the lives of the workers and the
guests.
Nail care service may be manicure or
pedicure. When working with the fingernails,
the term is manicure, and when working
with toenails, the term is pedicure.
Tools, Materials and Equipment in Nail care
There are several tools and materials and
equipment needed by the nail care
attendant. To make her a successful
performer, she has to familiarize herself with
all of these tools and material in giving
manicure or pedicure
Tools/Implements for Nail Care
Tools are also referred to as implement.
These are durable handheld materials and
must be sterilized after used with a client.
There are times when these implements
need to be disposed especially when they
do not perform well when used by the
beauty attendant. They are the following:
Nail file. This is used to shape the free edge
of the nails to smoothen them. This is usually
made up of metal
Emery board. This is a wooden sand paper-
like material used to filesoft and fragile nails.
It has two sides, one side has fine texture
and the other side is coarse.
Pusher. This is used to push back and loosen
dead cuticle. It is and made of steel.
Nail clipper. This is used to trim or shorten
fingernails or toenails.
Cuticle nipper. It is used to trim excess
cuticle found at the base of the nails usually
made of metal.
Buffer. It is a tool used to smoothen and
polish the nails.
Nailbrush. It is used to brush the nails to
cleanse the cuticle or debris around it.
Orangewood stick. This is used to remove
excess nail polish around the nails, It is made
of wood and is disposable.
Materials Needed in Nail Care
Materials are supplies used in giving
manicure or pedicure which are disposed
of after use for each client. The following are
the materials used in nail care:
Cotton. This is moistened with nail polish
remover to remove old nail polish. It is also
used to wrap the pointed end of the orange
wood stick to remove excess nail polish
under the edge and around the nails
Plastic spatula. This is used to get nail
cosmetics from its container.
Towels. This is used to dry the hands and nails
of the client. These come in different sizes.
The bigger one is usually used for drying the
feet when giving pedicure and the smaller
one is towel for the hands.
Garbage bin/bag. This is a disposable bag
or receptacle where rubbish is thrown to
keep the place clean and free from
clutters.
Nail Cosmetics
There are several nail cosmetics a
manicurist should be familiarized with These
come in different brands and are
contained in small bottles with different
shapes. The correct application of these is a
must and care should be taken especially
on clients who have allergies or sensitivities.
The following are the different nail
cosmetics:
Nail polish remover. Commonly known as
acetone. This is used with cotton to remove
old nail polish
Nail polish solvent. This is used in thinning out
nail polish which already has become
thicker in solution.
Cuticle remover. This is applied around the
nails to soften the cuticle before it has to be
pushed and trimmed or removed.
Hand lotion/hand cream. This is applied to
hands before applying the nail color to
retain its moisture. Use of hand lotion will
prevent the hands from being dry, cracked
and wrinkled.
Nail bleach. This is used to remove yellow
stains from the nails
Nail whitener. This is applied under the free
edge of the nails to make it appear white.
Nail color. This comes in different colors. This
is applied over the fingernails or toenails to
beautify and protect the nails.
Cuticle oil. It is used to lubricate the skin
around the nail surface.
Base coat. This serves as a base applied to
the nails before nail color. It prevents the
enamel from chipping, thus gives a good
quality grip of the enamel to the surface of
the nails
Top coat or sealer. This is colorless and
applied over colored nail polish. The use of
this will keep the polish longer in use before
it starts to chip that points to the need for
another nail care service.
Liquid nail dry (quick dry). This is applied to
dry the nail polish color immediately and to
prevent this from getting smeared.
Equipment in Nail Care
Nail care services need some equipment
that is necessary to give satisfaction to the
clients. The term equipment includes
permanent items that are durable and used
for a longer period of time until they wear
out and need replacement.
The following are the equipment used in nail
care:
Disinfection container. This is a receptacle
used to hold the disinfectant solution in
which tools or objects to be sanitized are
immersed. It is provided with cover to
prevent the solution from being
contaminated especially when not in use.
Manicure pillow. This is a hand cushion used
by the client to keep her hands steady and
relaxed.
Finger bowl. It is bowl that has a special
shape for soaking the client's fingers in
warm-soapy water or anti-bacterial soap.
Sanitized wipe container. This is usually
made of glass and is used to hold clean
absorbent cotton or lint-free wipes.
Supply tray. This is used to hold different
materials and tools used in nail care such as
the nail polish, cuticle remover, cotton balls
container and other needs.
Electric nail dryer. This is used to shorten the
length of time needed to completely dry
the client's nails after the application of the
nail polish. This is optional.
Use of Nail Care Tools/Implements
The correct and proper way of handling nail
care tools greatly contributes to the success
of nail care service. Your client will trust you
upon observing your confidence in
handling tools and equipment while giving
her your services.
Nail clippers
Hold firmly the clippers with the cutting
edges downward between your thumb,
index, and middle finger. With utmost care,
press the clipper handles together. to
remove the excess nail length and as
desired by the client.
Nail file
With your dominant hand, hold firmly the
nail file and position it under the free edge
of the nails. Supporting the hand of your
other hand slide the nail file across. the free
edge of the center of the nail with. one
stroke. Direction should be from the corner
to the center of the nails. Avoid bling the
nail with back-and-forth direction es this
may cause splitting or breakage of the nails
Care must be taken that you do not go
deep into the corners. Feel the free edges
of the nails if there are rough spots, bevel
lightly by filing with downward stroke using
the fine side of the emery board.
Emery board
This is used in similar manner with the nail file
Using the fine surface, bevel the rough
surface of the nails to smoothen it.
Cuticle nail pusher
Hold this in the same manner as you hold
the pencil while writing. Before pushing
back the cuticle, the cuticle has to be
moistened first with the cuticle remover.
With the dull spade side, loosen the cuticle
by pushing back lightly and carefully
against the side of the fingernails.
Cuticle nipper
Pick up the cuticle nipper by the handle
with the cutting edges facing towards you.
The bent tip of your index finger must be on
top of the shank Position your thumb on the
side of the handle and the remaining fingers
over the opposite handle.
Nail brush
Insert your ring finger in between the handle
of the nail brush. With a downward motion,
brush the nails from the base to the
fingertips to clean the nails and fingers.
Nail buffer
Place the thumb and ring finger under the
handle of the buffer, while the index and
the middle fingers are on its top and the
pinkie finger is on its side. Smoothen the nails
by using downward motion from the base
to the fingertips.
Orangewood stick
Hold the stick in the same way that you hold
a pencil when you write. An orangewood
stick has the following multiple purposes:
(1) to loosen cuticle Slightly dip into solvent
the cotton tipped orangewood stick and
work around the base of the nail;
(2) to clean under the free edge of the nail-
Work from the center toward each side.
Care must be taken by applying with gentle
pressure to prevent live tissue at the root of
the nails from being injured.
Maintenance and Safekeeping of Tools
and Equipment
The has to take care of all the tools and
equipment in nail care service. It is a must to
clean and disinfect all these after serving
each client. If properly handled and
maintained, better performance is ensured
and usage is prolonged. Checking the tools
and equipment every after use is necessary
and immediate
Maintenance and safekeeping of tools are
very important and therefore checking the
conditions of these will contribute to the
safety of both the client and the manicurist
Ways of maintaining tools and equipment:
1. Sterilization. It is the process of destroying
all microorganisms present in an object or
place.
2. Sanitization. It is the process of destroying
some, not all microorganisms.
Manicurist needs to familiarize
herself/himself with the disinfectant and
antiseptic which are needed to sterilize and
sanitize tools and equipment in the beauty
salon. But before the process of disinfecting
and sanitizing, preparation of the tools and
equipment has to be considered.
The manicurist has to bear in mind that tools
or implements should not be used unless
these are effectively sanitized and sterilized.
Potential diseases shall be prevented if this
is done strictly. Before starting the work, see
to it that tools are organized in its place. A
professional manicurist always maintains a
high standard of personal hygiene. The
following will guide the manicurist in the
correct processes of sanitizing and
disinfecting:
Preparation of Equipment to be Sanitized
1. Read the instructions/directions on the
disinfectant and understand them very
well.
2. Measure and mix the required
disinfectant following the direction.
3. Saturate a rag or cloth for cleaning with
the disinfectant solution and wipe the
entire surface or area of equipment.
4. Wipe dry the surface area with paper
towel or cleaning cloth.
5. Throw away used sanitizing solution and
used towels.
Preparation of Metal Tools/Implements for
Sterilization
1. Soak the tools in hot, soapy water
solution to remove any waste, dirt or
oil residue. Rinse them thoroughly.
2. Soak the tools or implements in a 70%
to 90% alcohol solution for 20 minutes.
3. Remove the tools/implements from
the solution, wipe them dry. and
place them into a dry sterilizer.
Preparation of the Sanitizing Jar
1. Cleanse first the sanitizing jar with
disinfectant. Wipe it dry.
2. Arrange a thin layer of sterile cotton
at the bottom of the jar
3. From the wet or dry sanitizer, remove
the tools or implements and place
them into the sanitizing jar with
handles up, except for the metal nail
files.
4. With 70% to 90% alcohol solution, fill
the jar enough solution to cover
cutting edges and tips of
orangewood stick.
Keeping the Workplace Clean and Safe
1. Beauty salons must be in good
sanitary condition. It must be well-
lighted and well-ventilated.
2. The salon premises should be free
from rodents, vermin, flies, and other
similar insects.
3. Continuous running hot and cold
water must be provided in all salon
establishments.
 4. Washable and clean curtains are
necessary including floor coverings
which are clean and free from dust.
5. Hair trimmings on the floor must be
kept at frequent intervals. Cotton and
other waste materials must be
removed from the floor immediately
and deposited in a closed container
or garbage bin.
6. The rest rooms should be well
sanitized and provided with
bathroom tissues and other needs of
the clients.
Things to Do After Every Manicure Service
1. Sanitize properly and keep clean all
tools or implements ready for the next
use.
2. Provide a separate trash bin for
empty bottles and containers.
3. Store, arrange used cosmetic
products and other chemicals in their
proper place. Label them properly.
4. Clean and sanitize finger bowls
before using for the next patron or
client.
5. Sterilize metal tools and instrument
following proper sterilization
procedure. Store them in a clean dry
place until the next use.
6. Dispose tools or implements which
are made of porous materials such as
nail files, nail buffers, nail brushes and
orangewood stick. Some of these are
made of wood and cannot be
sterilized and therefore may harbor
bacteria easily and may cause
disease to both the manicurist and
the client.
7. Dispose properly waste materials in
an enclosed waste container fitted
with polythene bag Sanitize and
disinfect garbage container in a well-
ventilated area wearing protective
gloves while doing this.
8. Dispose contaminated wastes
following the correct procedure as
prescribed by the local authorities.
9. Repair immediately any tool or
equipment which are in poor
condition. Otherwise dispose of them
properly for the safety of both the
client and the manicurist.
Practice Occupational Health and
Safety Procedures
Occupational Health and Safety is a
planned system of working to prevent illness
or injury where you work by recognizing
hazards and risks. Health and safety are the
responsibility of all persons in the beauty
establishments. Hazards and risks must be
identified by the manicurist. Evaluate and
control or eliminate the hazard or modify
the risk that it poses.
Common Hazards in the Beauty Salon
Several hazards are present in beauty
salons and these needs utmost attention.
Some of these are identified here and what
to do with these hazards are given below:
1. Electrical hazard
Electrical appliances used in the
beauty salons can create serious
health and safety risks, especially in
wet condition. Using damage tools
and equipment poses great risk.
Electrical shock can cause
electrocution. Burns and injuries may
result from falls.
What to do? You need to ask the electrician
to check all pieces of electrical equipment
in the salon or workplace. This can be done
annually or as often as possible.
2. Chemical hazard
Substances used and/or produced at
work that are a potential harm to the
health and safety of people at work
are hazardous. Skin irritation, asthma,
poisoning and cancer are some of
the effects to the health of the
workers.
What to do? This can be prevented through
good ventilation which will get rid of the
fumes and chemical smell that builds up in
a salon It is advisable to use appropriate
personal proton equipment or clothing
(PPE)
3. Fire hazard
Accident may happen like fire since
the salon has its electrical appliances
Lack of awareness on fire safety can
harm persons in the workplace
What to do? An emergency exit route
should be provided and this must be the
easiest route that clients and staff can use
to leave the building or salon safely
4. Biological hazards
This is also known as biohazards These
refer to substances that pose danger
to living organisms, primarily the
human being These microorganisms
live on the skin and easily spread
between clients and manicurist.
Unwashed hands, soiled equipment
or contact with blood or body
substances may cause the transfer of
the microorganism from one person
to another
What to do? Extra care must be taken into
consideration and manicurist should
assume that all blood and other body
substances are potential sources of
infection. Therefore sanitation and
sterilization should always be the priority in
the salon
5. Ergonomics
In the nail care service,
manicurist/pedicurist uses repetitive
movements with force like filing and
buffing the nails. Holding
uncomfortable positions for a long
period of time causes
musculoskeletal injuries to the
manicurist
What to do? In performing these tasks,
always pay attention to proper position of
your body to prevent injuries such as back
pain neck, wrist and shoulder pain.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) At
Work
Personal protective equipment refers to
clothing equipment designed and worn by
the manicurists or salon workers to protect
them from risks of injury or illness. Of course,
this is only considered as a control measure
to minimize exposure to risk. Other important
safety measures are of great factors that
should always be considered.
Examples of personal protective clothing for
salon worker are gloves, eyewear, apron,
and protective mask Advantages of
wearing PPE at work:
1. Nails and skin are prevented from
injury.
2. Potentially harmful chemicals to the
skin are prevented from being
absorbed. Harmful chemicals may
cause allergies, irritation or other
related problems
3. Wearing dust mask prevents the
manicurist from breathing in lot of
dust or particles while filing or buffing
nails.
4. Breathing in of air contaminated with
chemical and/or biological agents is
prevented.
ADDITIONAL LECTURE
1. Cells are connected in parallel to
increase the current.
2. Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
3. The main reason why electrical
appliances are connected in parallel is to
make the operation of each appliance
independent of each other.
4. A busted fuse should be replaced with
the same size and type.
5. Solar cell is a device that produces
electric current when light falls upon it.
6. Dynamo is a generator which generates
direct current.
7. A generator is used to change
mechanical energy to electrical energy.
8. Geothermal energy - derived on
extracted from the internal heat of the
earth.
9. Hydro energy - kinetic energy from falling
water.
10. Wood is the oldest and most commonly
used building material.
11. Cement is a binding agent that reacts
with water to form a hard and stone-like
substance.
12. Meter - basic linear unit of a metric
system.
13. Inch - basic linear unit of an English
system.
14. The actual flow of current is from
negative to positive.
15. Power is the rate of doing work.
16. Watt is an electrical unit of measuring
power.
17. An entrepreneur seeks to create value
for people/community by starting new
ventures which exploit new products
processes or markets.
18. An entrepreneur should possess
technical skills, personal entrepreneurial
skills and business management skills.
19. Perseverance is the ability to withstand
the troubles that come when starting a
business.
20. Good location makes a small business
successful.
21. Creativity or innovativeness is the ability
to think of new ideas and new ways of
doing things.

22. Competencies/qualities of a good

entrepreneur.
1. Opportunity Seekers
2. Persistent
3. Committed Workers
4. Good Planner
5. Problem Solver
6. Good Setter
7. Information or Feedback Seeker
8. Good Salesman
9. Risk Taker
10. Self-Confident

Retailing
- Direct selling
- Small stores

Retailer
- Person who retails products

Levels of Retailing
• Cash
• Credit
• COD
• Online
 TOOLS, MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

1. Sewing Gauge
- It is used to measure small hem areas and short distances such as hem folds, seam
allowance, buttonholes, seams, and tucks. This is a six-inch ruler made of aluminum
or stiff cardboard provided with a slider for easy movement in taking the body
measurement.

2. Ruler
- This is a common measuring device used by everyone including the dressmaker. It
has a 12-inch length and made of wood or plastic. It is used to connect two points in
connecting two lines specifically in drafting patterns.

3. Meter Stick or Yard Stick

- This is used to measure cloth or fabric by meter or yard, marked off in centimeters
and millimeters, and usually made of wood or steel.
 Drafting Tools

1. L-square
- This is an aluminum ruler with 90 degrees angle used in
drawing perpendicular lines and to measure off parallel
lines. Used to construct lines by connecting its two arms
perpendicularly. The long arm has breakdown measurements
of 1- 24; 1-12; 1- 6; 1- 3; and 2- 3 while the short arm has
breakdown measurements of 1-32; 1-16; 1-8; 1-4 and 1-2.

2. Hip Curve
- As the name suggests, it is a curve stick used to form the hipline and other
areas of the garments which has curve section or parts. This is made of
metal with calibration on both sides.

3. French Curve
- This is used to shape the neckline, armholes, and collars during the
drafting of pattern or cutting the fabric ready for sewing.

Cutting Tools

1. Shears
- These are used for cutting fabric, paper and materials
- There are different kinds of shears for specific purpose.

Types of shears:
a. Cutting shears
- are used for cutting fabrics. Their blades are straight and usually 7-12 inches long and
usually made of stainless steel.

b. Pinking shears
- used to cut the edge of seam allowance of fabric that does not ravel due to its zigzag
edge. This can also be used in cutting decorative materials.
c. Scalloping shears
- used to cut parts of garments with a series of uniform scallops as it has scallop blades.

CUTTING SHEAR PINKING SHEAR SCALLOPING SHEAR

2. Scissors.
- These are used for cutting hanging threads, excess
fabrics coming out from seam.
- ThIs is also the type used to trim hair and other purposes.
Some scissors are made of a combination of plastic and
metal, others are all metal or stainless-steel material.

3. Buttonhole scissors.
- This is a special kind of scissors used for making or cutting
buttonholes. The blades have square shape found at the joint
of scissors to control the cutting the fabric or cloth off the
buttonhole area.

4. Embroidery scissors.
- These are used in embroidery work in cutting fine delicate cloth and thread. They are
sharp pointed scissors usually 4-5 inches long.
5. Seam Ripper
- This is used in cutting off stitches of a seam. During the
ripping process, extra care must be taken to prevent the
cloth from being damaged.

MARKING TOOLS

1. Tailor’s Chalk
- This is used to mark the fabric and pattern paper. This is
available in different colors and is made of hard chalk.
Markings on the fabric can be removed by brushing.

2. Tracing Wheel
- It is used to trace the lines in the pattern to penetrate to the
fabric. Its serrated edge produces the dots on the fabric
and the smooth edge the solid line.

3. Dressmaker’s carbon paper

- This is specially waxed carbon paper fitted underneath the
fabric so the tracing wheel’s marking will be transferred to the
fabric. Different brands are available in the market with

different instructions.
 SEWING AIDS

1. Pin
- This is used to fasten or hold two or three fabrics or materials together. There are two
kinds of pins, one with colored rounded head for easy handling and the other one is
with small steel head.

2. Pin Cushion
- This is a small-size cushion used to hold pins and needles
for safekeeping. Scattering on the floor of needles is a risk
for dressmakers and other workers should be avoided.

3. Hand Needles
- These are used for temporary stitches, hemming, and other
hand sewing purposes. There are different sizes available in
the market to suit the kind of fabric to be sewn.

4. Thimble
- This is a small cup used to protect the finger from being
pricked by the needle during sewing. It is placed on the tip of
the middle finger which is the usual finger that pushes the
needle while hand sewing.
5. Threader
- This is used to insert thread to the needle eye. It has a diamond-shaped wire
attached to the handle made of thin material, made of thin plate aluminum

BODY MEASUREMENTS FOR MEN AND WOMEN APPARELS

The success of a dressmaker or tailor is manifested in the satisfaction of his/her

customers. He/she can even help customers in choosing the garment style and the kind
of fabric appropriate for a particular design. But first and foremost, accurate body
measurements are one of vital importance to get the best results. The following are
different measurements taken both for men and women:

1. Shoulder - Position the end of the tape measure on the shoulder tip passing the nape
across the other shoulder tip.
2. Length of shirt - This is taken from the nape down to the desired length
3. Bust - Place the tape measure around the fullest part of the bust inserting two fingers
in it.
4. Waist - place the tape measure around the fullest part of the waist.
5. Hip - position the tape measure in line and around the fullest part of the hips.
6. Chest - starting from the shoulder point, measure 4’ downward and put the tape
measure around the chest.
7. Bust Height - measure from the shoulder base neck down to the bust point.
8. Bust Distance - taken from one bust point to another bust point.
9. Length of Sleeve - measure from shoulder tip point to the desired length.
10. Short sleeve circumference/girth - from the measured short sleeve length, place the
tape measure around the arms with the desired circumference.
11. Full bodice length - this is the measure from the shoulder base neck to the waistline.
 Points to Remember in Taking Body Measurements

Taking accurately the body measurements depends largely on the competence

of the dressmaker or tailor in doing the job. The dressmaker has to keep a personal
measurement record (PMR) To register the measurements of the client. The record has
to be kept for reference purposes when the client returns the next time around.

Before taking the body measurements of the client, it is advisable to have an

assistant who will take note or record the measurement while you, as dressmaker, do
the task. The following are important guides:

1. Request the client politely to stand straight while taking the body
measurements. Things inside the pockets like wallet, cell phone and
handkerchief have to be removed to be able to get the accurate
measurements. As much as possible the client wears a well fitted garment to
get a good result of the sewn fabric.
2. Use a soft flexible brand of tape measure as this will lay flat on the part of the
body to be measured.
3. Tie a string around the waistline of the client. This will be your point of reference
while taking the measurements.
4. You can start taking measurements either vertical or horizontal.
5. When measuring lengths, allow the tape measure to hang freely for accurate
measurements.
 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
1. Line
- This is the very basic and simplest element of design. There are two types of lines
referred to:

Outline - refers to the outer edge of the design.

Style line - refers the lines that divide up the space inside of the outline. Style
lines I created through several things like belts, ruffles, seams, a color line, or
a pocket.

Our eyes are attracted to the direction of the line of the garments worn by
the individual. In choosing fabric for a dress, a slim-figured lady may opt for big
horizontal stripes to look bigger, while the more chubby ones would choose the
finer stripes to appear slimmer.

In general, vertical lines help emphasize the height of the individual while
the horizontal lines give impression of a lighter or heavier figure.

2. Form/ Shape
- Form refers to the shape and structure or the entire outline of the garment. This is
commonly known as silhouette which is the most obvious visual element of a
garment. The function of silhouette is to complement the shape of the body. in some
instances, exaggeration is often made to create an effect to emphasize a certain
part of the body to go along with the trend.

In fashion design the common shape scene around square, triangle,

rectangle, and oblong

Shape of the face is one factor considered in choosing the neckline of a dress.
All kinds of necklines are fit for an oval-shaped face. on the other hand, the square
shape face and the long narrow triangle-shaped face are appropriate for U-
necklines.
3. Texture
- This refers to the surface quality of an item like fabric. How it feels when touched
whether it is coarse, fine, smooth, wrinkled, sleek, glossy, or slippery would contribute
to the design of the dress. Textures as well as lines may create illusions, so it is
important that one must choose textures for clothes that will harmonized with the
overall design of the dress.

You may also consider these points in choosing fabrics:

o A rough bulky fabric tends to increase the size of a design while the smooth
one decreases it.
o A soft wool will give a quite different effect from the gloss and sheen of the
satin of an Evening dress.

4. Color
- This is the most important element of design. color of the dress one wears attracts the
attention of people around him/her. it has an enormous effect on how one feels.
everyone always consider his/her favorite color in buying fabric for a garment.
wearing a dress of his/her favorite color makes him/her feel good.

Some points to consider in choosing the color of the fabric:

o Black, dark tones or deep-grey color
- The figure will appear smaller or slimmer than bright or light colors.
o Plain color
- it makes the figure look slimmer than using a combination of contrasting
colors.
o Large designs in prints, plaids, and stripes
- It is not advisable for one with a very small or slim figure.
 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Good outfit should consider combination of elements of design and the principles
of design which are proportion, balance, harmony, emphasis, and rhythm.

1. Proportion
- This refers to the relationship of one part of the design to the whole design. the feeling
of unity is present when all parts such as size, numbers, or amounts relate well with
one another. To illustrate this, when a human form is drawn, the size of the head must
be in proportion in comparison to the rest of the body.

In choosing fabric for a small body, there is proportion if small prints is

chosen over bigger prints. Likewise, elements such as pocket, collar,
placket, and hemline are designed in such a way that everything is
proportionate to one another.
2. Balance
- This refers to two types of balance

Symmetrical balance - When the outfit is divided right down at the middle with
both sides exactly the same.

Asymmetrical balance - It's the opposite of symmetrical balance, thus if the

output is divided right down the middle and both sides are not the same, this is
asymmetrical. Most of the fashion designers apply this informal clothing like
evening gowns because it appears dramatic and eye-catching this

3. Harmony
- It is the unity of all principles, the overall look of a garment which creates a sense of
completeness. A good combination of color, size, shape, lines and textures which
goes along well with another is a factor in harmony of a garment.

4. Emphasis
- This refers to the center of interest of a garment. An evening gown with a huge flower
or a bow on it is a good example. The huge flower or bow is considered a prominent
element which is emphasized on the ground and grabs the attention of the onlooker.
It is something that stands out from the rest of the elements that are used in the gown.
 5. Rhythm
- This is the smooth flow and repeated use of lines, textures, color, shape, and pattern.
this creates a pattern that the eyes can follow throughout the design. Rhythm is
detected through the following:

a. Repetition - This is achieved by regular recurrence of the motifs of design,

shapes, buttons, and pleats.
b. Progression - This is also termed as gradation which means the gradual
increase or decrease of the same elements of design.
c. Transition - This is created when the eye is directed from one element to
another. An example is when a curved line leads to the eye to an angle.
d. Radiation - this is created when the eye is directed to different directions.
e. continuous line movement - this type of rhythm is made when the eye moves
in continuous lines such as flowing lines of trims, bands of color, and design of
fabrics.

These principles of design are used in a smart way can improve the appearance
or look of the individual. To cite an example, a petite lady has to choose garments which
are proportionate to her weight and height. Garments which are loose should be
avoided since this will make her look unfavorable.

Rather, she needs to choose designs or patterns that will give balance to her
upper and lower body. Likewise, a woman with a broad shoulder should not wear
garments that would emphasize her shoulder. A heavy embroidered dress will make her
appear heavier. It is advisable that she wears a garment with dark colors or tiny prints to
redirect the attention from her upper body.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY

The garments or textiles industry has many hazards and risks that may cause injury
to workers. The dust from the fabrics being inhaled by the dressmaker is only one of the
several hazards and risks that may affect the health of the dressmaker. Whether you are
in the industry or in your own home sewing studio, utmost care should be taken to
protect the health of every worker in the industry and the family members at home. To
prevent injuries or general health issues of everyone, here are some points that should
be considered:
1. Equipment storage
- Tools and equipment should be kept safe all the time. Secure drawers, cupboard
section, boxes, or any items that are hazardous to everyone.

Scissors, rotary cutters, needles, safety pins and other sharp items should be kept
and locked in cabinets, especially if there are kids around. See to it that your shears used
for cutting fabrics are not used in cutting anything else except textile materials. Other
pair of scissors must be used in cutting paper.

Sharp needles and pins must be disposed of properly. Bottles with cover may be
used to deposit broken needles and crooked pins must be kept far from reach of
children.

2. Sewing Area
- The sewing space has to be organized in such a manner that there is freedom in
moving around the place. Hanging things from the walls and shelves should be
avoided to prevent such from falling over and damage or injure someone.

At the end of the day's work, the place must be kept clean and tidy. A general
housekeeping is necessary before the workers leave the sewing area. Pack away tools
and materials and keep them in their places, the next day, it is easy to locate or pick
them up.

Eating and drinking in the sewing area should be avoided to prevent liquid to spill
over the sewing machine and the fabrics. It is dangerous if liquid spills over machine and
electrical cords. This may cause fire accident. Electrical cords and plugs must be set up
away from the floor, they must be under the tables, around the corners, and in
appropriate location. The floor where workers work to and from must be free from
electrical plugs, cords, and adapters which pose dangers to everyone.

For safety precautions, a time for a short break or snacks is available rather than
allow everyone to eat in the sewing area.
3. Personal safety
- Sewing may cause pains or injuries to your body after long hours of bending and
setting down. Back pain, headaches, fatigue, restrained eyesight, and similar injuries
can be prevented by considering the following sewing rules:

o Ergonomics. Poor workplace design, awkward body mechanics or postures,

repetitive movements, and other ergonomic hazards contribute to the rising
number of cumulative trauma disorders (CTD). CTD affect hands, wrist, elbows,
arms, shoulders, the lower back, and the cervical spine area. Structures
involved include tendons, muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels.
Strategies for the reduction of hazards that contribute to CTD must be
developed thru a well-written ergonomic plan of the company.

Examples are working tables at a good level and sewing machines have
adjustable height.

o Clothing & Hair. Dressmakers should consider some of these important rules.
▪ Avoid loose or hanging accessories. Wear something comfortable, semi-
fitted to the body.
▪ Remove everything that can get caught into the machinery.
▪ Tie long hair securely at the back.
▪ Closed shoes should always be worn when sewing and cutting.

o Pins. This is very important to a dressmaker, but extra care must be considered
to avoid damage. Always be aware that you are using pins. Never put them
in your mouth. A wrist pin cushion is safe to use and remove immediately after
working with pins.

Hazards may be encountered when using the sewing machine such as:

o Cuts and injuries from sharp edges like scissors, blades, knife, and pins.
o Finger injuries while sewing.
o Improper lifting procedure of heavy objects.