30 | Superson of insnicton: The Philp PorspeeWVe Human relations movement Directive behavior Emotional maturity Situational leadership Supportive behavior Werk maturity Review Questions _ 1, What brought about changes in the conceptualization of ‘supervision? 2. Which theory of supervision reflects the Filipino value of smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR)? 3. Why is supervision in contemporary times still considered largely inspectional? 4, In determining an effective leadership style, what factors must be considered? 5. Why is reflective supervision important? Chapter Two Dimensions of Supervision Supervisory roles differ in scope ‘and extent of influence depending ‘on the rank, title, and position ofthe person with supervisory functions in the organizational ladder ‘The supervisory roles and functions of a principal and a subject coordinator have many commonalities, but at closer look, they may not exactly be the same. Although the dimensions are similar, the demands are different. Intuitively, the nature of the work of a principal entails more responsibility because the scope of the supervisory demands, and the extent of influence are greater than those of a subject coordinator, ‘The foci of discussion in this chapter are the roles and functions of a high-level, school-based officer. By understanding them, those of lower-level administrators in basic education (Le, assistant principals and subject coordinators) may be easily drawn by simply scaling down the demands and expectations of supervision from the higher-level administrator (principal). Moreover, the discussion of the roles and functions of supervision revolves around a site-based management model which is an emerging trend in school management. The choice of the model is best explained by Lunenberg and Ornstein (1991)82 | Supervision of instruction: The Phitpine Perspective NNN who argue that site-based management, also referred to as school- based management, is a model that emphasizes professional responsibility and accountability of building administrators—rather than bureaucratic regulations —as the basis for decision-making. In principle, site-based management or school-based ‘management is a form of decentralization empowering principals (and lower-level administrators) to carry out tasks for the smooth operation of their particular schools in coordination with teachers and other stakeholders. It provides autonomy to school-based leaders by giving them some sort of relief from limiting rules and regulations that are set and defined by authorities outside the school. As a consequence, school-based leaders are able to share the authority of making decisions on critical issues like budget, personnel, and programs (curriculum and instruction) with the major stakeholders of the school such as teachers, parents, students, and other community members, School-based management is also a focus of reform in governance of the country. For instance, Republic Act 9155, otherwise known as the Governance of Basic Education Act, which was passed in August 2001, provides the overall framework for schoo! head empowerment within the context of local accountability. The legislation aims to strengthen the leadership roles of principals. Necessarily, this provision involves school heads’ training to develop and enhance their skills and competencies needed for school-based management with emphasis, on instructional leadership (DepEd updates, n.d.). ‘The use of the school-based model has many advantages. According to the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), the National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP), the National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP), and other sources, the benefits of Dimensions of Supervision | 33 site-based management (Myers, D. & Stonehill, R., 1993) may be summed up as follows: 1, It allows competent individuals in the schools to make decisions that will improve learning, 2. It gives the entire school community a voice in key decisions. 3. It focuses accountability on decisions. 4, Itleads to greater design in programs. 5. It redirects resources to support the goals developed in each school 6. It leads to realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of the school’s financial status, spending limitations, and programs’ cost. 7. Itimproves teachers’ morale, and nurture new leadership atall levels. INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS ‘The discussion in Chapter 1 points to the many dimensions of supervision such as administration, curriculum, instruction, human relations, evaiuation, and leadership that must be addressed by the supervisor. As earlier mentioned, the definition of supervision has changed through time based on the focus or emphasis. However, regardless of emphasis at different periods of time, it may be concluded that the combined effect or synergy of all these different focal points of interest and emphasis contribute to the realization of the bottom-line objective in supervision: effective instruction, the true measure of quality education.34 | Supervision of sti 6 PINGS PS STI Effective instruction is the primary aim of an effective school. What makes a school effective? What school factors underpin effective instruction? The model of effective schools has been the subject of many investigations. To date, research findings point to seven important correlates of effective schools (Lezotte, 1991) which are facets of school supervision: 1, Instructional leadership Safe and orderly environment Climate of high expectation of success. Opportunity to tearn and student time-on-task 2 3. 4, Clear and focused mission-vision 5 6, Frequent monitoring of student progress 7. ‘Home-school relations Instructional Leadership ‘This is the most crucial variable. Itis the thread that binds all the other variables. Effective instruction becomes possible through the synergy of all the correlates under a skillful leader. Instructional leadership is a basic concept that insures effectiveness. However, it is not exercised in isolation because it is all-encompassing, It involves tasks such as setting goals, allocating resources for instruction, managing the curriculum, evaluating teachers, and establishing healthy and viable home-school relations, among others. Thatis the reason why, nowadays, a supervisor, regardless of title and position, is concerned not only with actual instruction, but also with the different correlates to promote effective teaching- learning which is the raison d’ étre of schools. Safe and Orderly Environment ‘The indicators of this correlate may be visible or not. Some of the visible indicators are proper maintenance of school buildings, mE Dimensions of Supervision | 35 control of entry of outsiders to the school premises, clean and secured surroundings, and orderly behavior of students. Some of the invisible indicators that permeate the school environment are respect for human dignity, respect for cultural diversity, and harmony. Climate of High Expectations for Success Ineffective schools, administrators, teachers, and staff believe that all students are capable of mastering essential school skills Because of high expectations, everyone exerts optimum effort to realize the goals of instruction. This belief is demonstrated by focusing on instructional results, and by using a variety of teaching strategies, effective classroom management principles, and intervention strategies like remedial instruction, reteaching, and regrouping to ensure that all students achieve a reasonable level of mastery. Clear and Focused Mission-Vision In effective schools, every member of the school community is aware and committed to the instructional goals, procedures, priorities, and norms that are well-defined and articulated. When everyone is clear on the direction of the organization, itis easier for the supervisor to secure cooperation and support for the realization of institutional goals. Opportunity to Learn and Student Time-on-Task In effective schools, the required amount of classroom time is allocated to the instruction of essential skills. For optimum learning, students are engaged in teacher-directed and well- planned learning experiences during actual class sessions and course-related activities. This principle is premised on the fact that if more time is devoted to learning tasks, higher student achievement is better assured. A simple measure to determine if this is being done is to note how many of the 205 school days in the academic calendar prescribed by the Department of Education‘36 | Supervision of Instruction’ The Philippine Perspective "0 (DepEd) is devoted to teacher-supervised learning experiences, If a large chunk of the number of school days is devoted to many diversions, then there is reason to believe that the schoo! is not doing its job Frequent Monitoring of Student Progress ‘Academic progress in an effective school is measured regularly and periodically through various assessment procedures. As a ‘matter of practice, the school conducts formative and summative evaluation procedures to determine the quality of achievement, ‘as well as the realization of goals and objectives. The assessment results are used to improve not only individual student performance, but also the quality of instruction. Home-School Relations In effective schools, parents understand and support the basic mission of the school. They are given the opportunity to play an important role in helping the school achieve its mission. ‘This is done by way of supporting parent-teacher association (PTA) efforts; promoting dialogues with parents during parent- teacher conference (PTC) after the quarterly distribution of report cards; and involving parents in the conduct of such activities as foundation day celebration and field trips. The effectiveness of this principle is confirmed by the report of Herman and Herman (1998, p. 145) which listed as follows the positive results of an improvement strategy for home-school relations conducted by an area superintendent in a large district in the US.: 1. Less student absenteeism and tardiness 2. Fewer student discipline problems Fewer student dropouts An increase in positive school climate ‘An increase in student graduation rate eH Dimensions of Supervision | 37° 6. An increase in parent involvement 7. Anincrease in student achievement scores on standardized tests A COMPREHENSIVE VIEW OF SUPERVISION ‘The effective school model and the various definitions of supervision provide the basic framework for a comprehensive view of supervision. The dimensions and concerns of supervision relating to the correlates of effective schools, and indicated by the different emphases on supervisory behavior across the years are shown in Figure 6 Based on the framework, the areas of concern of supervision may be divided into two major sub-groups: off-class and in-class. ‘The off-class areas of concern are discussed in this chapter, while the in-class areas of concern are tackled in subsequent chapters. The different dimensions—whether off-class or in-class — indicate the need for corresponding special arcas of competence for effectiveness from the supervisor. Thus, to be an effective supervisor, one must have administrative skills, curriculum development skills, instructional skills, interpersonal skills, and evaluation skills. More importantly, it must be stressed again that to insure that all the different areas of concern are addressed effectively and efficiently, the critical requirements the possession and development of leadership skills by the supervisor, Off-class Areas of Concern of Supervision ‘There are several off-class arcas of concern thata supervisor has to deal with almost on a daily basis that either directly or indirectly impact effective instruction. These concerns pertain to curriculum, human relations, and administration. The synergistic and proper exercise of these different off-class functions determines the‘38 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippine Perspective" "N Figure 6 AComprehensive View of Supervision Supervision Saini Off-class In-class (sce CCuriculum Human Administration Instruction Evaluation Retters Articulation Bosses Coordination Programs Alignment & Senices Onentaton Personne! Formative Summative Development Material Resources Budgets Reports Team Buieing Mentoring “Adrerve Staff Developmen —_—_Cosching | peer SchookCommunity —inical Supension Intormat Classroom Vistation difference between effective instruction and ineffective instruction which is the main concern of supervisory behavior. Curricular Dimension of Supervision A supervisor is a curriculum leader. How do school leaders exercise the role and functions of a curriculum leader? Lunenberg and Ornstein (1991, p. 400) report the results of a survey of secondary principals indicating an expanded view of curricular leadership. The responses of the participating principals are ranked 1 2, 10. WL 12, 13. 14, 15. 16. 17, based on frequency of execution, Ranks 1-5 indicate frequent execution, while ranks 13-17 mean infrequent execution; the middle ranks are in between: Develops an orientation program for new teachers STaky ah cuinttuluae we Re aare waq Develops a clear set of sch ae biectives, y opt dn >| alae eoflegialy Ho nee individual eel in (ely he Jum here Geb attest accel Encourages curriculum communication with the school, | ani thooe concerned jn spe district fo lag Longe act lorpast nba tabiscell ade ell va ‘issues tha/involve the cufticulum. 4 Gua) ‘Spends time visiting teachers in the classroom Plans staff development programs | Rewari curriculum innovation I cae Be pruel dag Encourages use of library and media services by teachers | Modifies schoo! plant (environment) to improve instruction | Organizes staff for curriculum development | Involves teachers in curriculum development Works curriculum: curriculum consultants in improving the Serves as a resource for instructional methodology and techniques Plans the curriculum Develops curriculum matters for the classroom Involves the community in curriculum development40 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippine Perspective NNN Philippine Practices While the study mentioned by Lunenberg and Ornsteii (2000) pertains to the answers of principals in the US. as to what they consider are their tasks as curriculum leaders, the activities mentioned are universal. Principals everywhere, as a matter of practice, are also engaged in the different activities identified in the survey. Orientation. For instance, in many effective schools in the Philippines, it is a standard operating procedure to conduct orientation programs for new teachers at the beginning of the school year. The purpose of the orientation is not only to explain to the new teachers the school’s vision-mission, policies, rules, and regulations, but also more importantly, to provide them critical information on curriculum and instruction, specifically lesson planning, curricular practices, and classroom strategies. Orientation activities are included in the calendar of ‘educational institutions. During orientation programs for faculty and staff, school goals and objectives, priorities, and policies are clearly explained. These activities are undertaken to insure that everyone in the organization is aware of the shared beliefs, ‘norms, values, and philosophy that serve as the foundations for the teaching-learning practices in the school. Orientation programs are also conducted for new students and their parents so that these two major groups of stakeholders become familiar with and understand everything there is to know about the school Review of Goals and Objectives. Whenever necessary, goals and objectives are reviewed in order to revise and develop new ones in response to changes in the environment. When this happens, certain revisions in the curriculum are also made in line with the new goals and objectives. This is done through the initiative of the supervisor in coordination with all important stakeholders of the school (ie., faculty, staff, parents, and community members). aoe Dimensions of Supervision | 41. Curriculum Revision. As curriculum leaders, many school principals initiate the planning of curricular revision at the end of each school year based on the experiences and information gathered during the year. This is ritually done in preparation for the incoming school year. Collectively, the people within a department undertake this activity. For instance, teachers of the English department constitute themselves as a committee before the start of a new school year to review and revise the curriculum based on their observations and experiences during the year just ended, The same is true for other departments, i.e., Science, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Filipino, ete. ‘The year-end review gives everyone in a particular department the opportunity to determine what has worked very well and what hhas not during the year. This exercise is very useful and effective in improving the teaching-learning process in the school primarily because the collective assessment serves as basis of major and minor revisions in the curriculum for the incoming year. Curriculum Improvement, Improvement in the curriculum becomes possible through a year-end review since the process reveals the strengths and weaknesses of the written curriculum, -vis the taught curriculum. The review also exposes the weaknesses of the faculty, and certain deficiencies in facilities that have constrained the effective implementation of the curriculum during the year. For instance, it is important to review the available instructional materials and facilities in the library, as well as their use during the year. The information gathered justifies the proposals for the acquisition of additional instructional materials and facilities, and the conduct of certain staff and faculty development programs to better equip teachers with skills necessary in the use of existing and newly-acquired equipment and facilities. By so doing, faculty members become even better teachers.42 | Supervision of struction? The Philippine Perspective A survey of the organizational strengths and weaknesses also yields data that are useful bases for the modification of school plants and facilities which helps insure improvement in instruction for the incoming year. Thus, if the review reveals that the layout of the library needs to be improved because the current arrangement of library fixtures is not conducive to learning but instead abets student chatting and mischief, then the school administration can. do something to improve the situation. Controversial Issues, Principals handle controversial issues that concern the curriculum. These are arguments that usually spring from parents’ complaints regarding curriculum and instruction, For instance, one contentious issue in Philippine schools is bilingual education. As mandated by the bilingual education policy, English is the medium of instruction only for Mathematics and Science. The rest of the courses (Social Sciences, Values Education, Physical Education, etc.) are supposed to be taught using Filipino as instructional medium. In many private schools where the PTAs are active and assertive, many parents question this policy. They insist on the instructive and communicative use of English in school, as this will give their children competitive edge in the workplace in their adult life. Oftentimes, parents question the giving of homeworks and the participation of their children in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. Some parents ‘oppose the inclusion of field trips in the school calendar because of security reasons even if these activities provide students with earning experience. Parents and teachers also complain that there is simply too much material in the curriculum to teach within a given year. ‘As a matter of course, principals consider many factors in dealing with controversial issues and concerns judiciously. ‘Taken into account are the requirements of DepEd regarding the minimum learning competencies (MLCs); the needs of the students and the community; and the available resources (human SP) iiienatons of Supervision | 43 Dd Be and material) in school. These issues and concerns are resolved in consultation with, and to the satisfaction of the school’s stakeholders. Still, the primordial consideration is the bottomline objective of supervision: effective instruction. Resource Persons. School heads also exhibit their curricular leadership by serving as a resource in such activities as lesson planning, developing innovative strategies and audiovisual materials, and test construction. These are essential skills that principals are expected to possess and continue to develop to become effective in their job. Some principals work with consultants to enhance their competencies. However, because the hiring of consultants requires additional budget outlay which many schools cannot afford, this practice is limited only to schools, with healthy finances. Recognition of Achievement. Principals also set programs in connection with the curriculum that impact effective instruction. For instance, it is customary in many good schools to hold year- cend faculty recognition ceremonies where excellent performance during the year is publicly acknowledged or rewarded. The recognition may be for excellence in teaching, innovation in curriculum and instruction, optimal and creative use of library and other media services in teaching, etc. Better Communication, Principals promote better communication between the school and the community regarding the curriculum. through newsletters, circulars, dialogues, and meetings. When parents are well-informed of the priorities and objectives of the school in conducting certain projects and programs, itis easier to get their cooperation and support for these activities. ISSUES REGARDING THE CURRICULUM. Curriculum development, although a distinct activity from instruction, influences to a very large extent the quality of44 | Supervision of nsruton: The Pippin PEFSpEEHVE| NTN classroom learning experiences (Bago, 2000). The curriculum design in the forms of syllabi, course guides, and lesson plans serves as basis of instruction. Thus, the written curriculum guides the implementation of the instructional activities in the classroom. It indicates the plan for instruction, and the evaluation strategy for determining the effectiveness of teaching-learning experiences during instruction. ‘To this extent, it may be considered asa work plan, When the work plan is implemented, curriculum, in effect, is transformed into instruction. In the Philippines, the curriculum for basic education is prescribed by DepEd. It is developed based on the minimum earning competencies identified by education experts. Textbooks are supposed to be developed also according to the prescribed minimum learning competencies based on the guidelines of DepEd. The lead government agency on book development and readership promotion is the National Book Development Board (NBDB) which was created by law (RA 8047) in June 1995. The agency formulates and implements a national book policy geared towards the development of the book publishing industry. It serves as a catalyst, and provides direction and environment for the stimulation and improvement of the book industry (National Book Development Board, 2005). As a common practice, most teachers prepare lesson plans based on the textbooks approved for use by the national government, Thus, the curriculum or work plan is not developed independently of textbooks. To a large extent, this makes the work of developing lesson plans easier because, more or less, teachers already have a template in producing a work plan for classroom instruction. Issues on How Much Content to Teach By experience, the problematic issue about the use of textbook as the basis of instruction is that its content is usually more than Dimensions of Supervision | 45 what can be taken up in the classtoom within a year. Thus, many teachers feel hard-pressed and pressured to finish the entire content of a textbook within a year, However, due to time constraints, they are unable to do so, and they get frustrated and even agonize over their failure, ‘To remedy this problem, a practice resorted to by some schools is to require the teachers concerned to agree on the scope or coverage of a subject within a year without violating the requirement of DepEd. The important question to ask when doing this is: “What knowledge is of most worth and, therefore, should be taught?” This appears simple and straightforward on the surface. However, because there are divergent views on the answer to this question, the exercise of determining scope is easier said than done. It is wise to conduct the process of selecting and limiting coverage. The conventional wisdom is that schools should select. only the essential concepts, and do away with non-essentials ‘Therefore, emphasis should be on quality rather than quantity. This principle finds support in the findings of a study on the reasons why Filipino students perform poorly in cross-country evaluations. For instance, in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the Filipino students were ranked at the bottom 10%. Bernardo (in Bago, 2000) reported that the students who were in the top 10% were from countries (e.g., Singapore, Japan, Germany) whose curricula contained the fewest number of topics. Itcan be inferred that because there were fewer things “to know” in the curriculum, teachers could focus more on the quality of instruction, Naturally, by limiting class discussion to a few topics, learners had more time to reflect on the assigned lessons, process the material in depth, explore the environment, ask more questions, solve problems, and communicate with peers and teachers. For the students of the aforementioned countries, the focus was on the learning process rather than content. This resulted in46 | Supervision of nststion The Phitopine Persectiv 0/0 better understanding and more meaningful learning. Thus, the development of skills vis-a-vis the learning of content became possible because the former was given more attention. English (2000) argues that the clutter and the fragmentation of curricula are an age-old problem and certainly, not easy to correct. ‘According to him, cach component in the curriculum design has a priority of its own and has vested political interests for its continuous inclusion in the curriculum. He claims that because educators have been, for the most part, unable to come to terms ‘with what ought to be taught in school, textbook publishers have taken the liberty to decide for the educational sector what should. be the coverage of a subject. In Philippine schools, although the minimum learning competencies had been identified, and had become the basis for the development of textbooks, many classroom teachers still complain that there are too many topics in approved textbooks that could have been excluded. However, because textbook parameters are defined by the national government, and interpreted by publishers in accordance with commercial agenda, the same problem persists, even if the textbook writers are usually classroom teachers themselves commissioned by publishers. ‘Some schools, especially those that are non-accredited, are reluctant to deviate from the content and sequence of the textbook. In this situation, the textbook is, therefore, not considered as a mere guide, but a comprehensive work plan itself 10 be rigidly implemented. Thus, in general, teachers strictly follow the textbook writer's scope and sequence in their work plan during classroom discussion. Itis this rigid adherence to the content and organization found in the textbook that creates problems for many teachers to finish the entire material during the school year. Itis a common scenario in many schools in basic education where teachers attempt to finish the entire content by rushi the discussion of the remaining topics toward the end of the school year. This is ostensibly done in order to comply with the requirements of the textbook-based syllabus. An even worse scenario happens when teachers require their students to study by themselves—because of lack of time—the remaining topics 10 be tested in departmental examinations. Fortunately, a few accredited schools are able to avoid this situation. They enjoy curricular deregulation and, therefore, have more flexibility in making decisions about the curriculum, Dimensions of Supervision | 47 A contributory problem to the issue of how much content should be taught is the advocacy of some administrators to include instructional materials other than what is contained in the textbooks in teachers’ lesson plans. This is, of course, good pedagogy, and is intended to make tessons more interesting and comprehensive. When resourceful teachers comply with this advice, and include additional materials taken from library sources, two things may happen: 1) if the additional materials are included because of their high impact on the understanding of the topic for discussion for the day, this enhancement improves the quality of learning; 2) if not, the additional material only clutters the curriculum even more, and the possibility of not finishing the ‘material in the textbook becomes even greater, The Written, Taught, and Tested Curriculum ‘Another useful basis for determining the clutter in the curriculum isto check whether there is alignment among the three important interlocking curricular concerns, namely, the written curriculum (textbook), the taught curriculum (instruction), and the tested curriculum (evaluation) as proposed by English (2000). This process involves the alignment of the three components that may be visualized graphically as formingaa triangle, The model suggests that what is written should be taught; what is taught should be tested; what is tested should be based on what is taught which, in turn, is based on the written curriculum (Figure 7).48 | Supervision of instruction The Philippe Perspeetie INN Figure 7 Congruence Among the Three Curricular Components Based on the Model by English Written Curriculum Lo Taught <> Tested ‘These conditions imply that if there is no alignment or congruence among the three components, there isa need to review the written curriculum (textbook). More importantly, if a lot of ‘materials in the written curriculum are not taught and tested, and, therefore, indicate that the written curriculum is cluttered, then the necessary adjustment in the work plans should be undertaken by the school Design and Delivery Issues Focusing on two important issues—design (curriculum) and delivery (instruction)—is another strategy for determining scope and sequence. Design issues refer to the structure of the curriculum. with regard to objectives, content, organization, and evaluation as defined by the work plan. On the other hand, delivery ssues refer to the quality of instruction which should be monitored by the supervisor to insure design integrity. English (2000) explains that these two issues should be considered in relation to two other important aspects: coordination and articulation. These two concerns pertain to the direction of the focus and connectivity of the curriculum. Curriculum coordination refers to horizontal focus and connectivity, while curriculum articulation pertains to vertical focus and connectivity. Dimensions of Supervision | 49 For instance, the connection among subjects within the same grade level is a coordination (horizontal) concern, Thus, if more than one teacher handles the English course in Grade 6, all the teachers involved have to determine the focus and connectivity of the subject matter that should be included in their different classes. On the other hand, the focus and connection of subjects in one sgrade level to the subjects in the next grade level are concerned with articulation (vertical. The English teachers for high school freshmen and sophomores should identify the focus and the connectivity of the subject matter at each year level. The difference between the two concepts is shown by the following illustrations: Coordination (in Design and Delivery) ‘Subject: Grade 6 English English 6 Teacher A English 6 Teacher B Teacher C Articulation (in Design and Delivery) Subjects: Grade 4 English, Grade 5 English and Grade 6 English Grade 4 English Allteachers | Grade 6 English Allteachers t Grade 6 English Allteachers "To optimize student performance, supervisors should let the teachers agree on the desired focus and connectivity horizontally'50 | Supervision of Instruction: Th ,prtppine Porsptve)n and vertically. This process can reveal the cuter the curriculum. Whena curriculum is not well-coordinated and: ‘well-articulated, then itis probably cluttered. Poor coordination may result in the fnctusion of unnecessary deailsinsome Work plans. On the other hand, poor articulation may result in ovetlaps and repetitions. ciplinary Curriculum Planning curriculum coordination and sven curricular breadth me educators suggest ‘make sure that the motes the Interdis ‘A related challenge to ensuring articulation is determining a balance ben ‘and depth. To address this concern, s0! imerdisciplinary curriculum planning (0 desired balance is attained. This type of Planning pror development of integrated learning experienc, Integration is @ horizontal concern. It is a teach jn which content is ‘ing strategy drawn from several subject areas to focus on 2 particular topic or theme. Courses like Mathematics, Science, oF Social Studies need not be studied independently, but rather, in an integrated way. For example, a class might study a unit o% ecological balance in science using mathematics t0 calculate the rate of soil erosion along mountain slopes. This {information may be used to nabie students to understand why itis importan! to stop illegal Forging that accelerates the 1ss of fertile soil, and causes social problems such as scarcity in food supplies and flooding in the jowlands. Integration provides ‘students opportunities to explore jnterconnections among the different subject a°2% ‘which may be another way of removing clutter in the curriculum. According to Mathison and Mason (1989), effective interdisciplinary studies include the following ‘elements: 1, A topic that lends itself to study from several points of view (e.g. soil erosion) 2, A few! as ee themes (or essential questions) the teacher rudents to explore (e.g., ect n , ecological balan enviror i a mental protection, environmental conservation) ‘Difionsions of Supervision | 52 3. i a eae and activities to further students’ ue eae more than is possible in a traditional, single- ipline unit (e.g, investigatory approach, simulation) Thane Basic Education Curriculum nae ne pe ete ria (BEC) developed by Dey isciplinary studies. The new sr ea an five basic core learning ee ea sos ee Filipino, and Makabayan (Operations eee core discipline Makabayan has four subject ore oe caeey level, the subject components aS (Civics and Culture), Musika, Sining eee a amore: ng Katawan, MSEP (Music, Art ota Eel Education), Edukasyong Pantahanan at ee HG lome Economics and Livelihood), and neve oe 1ang-Asal at Wastong Pag-uugali, EKAWP th cinta ef Malate re Alina AE Go say ete Edukasyong Hitt, Choa a 1 A eee and Home Economics) Musika, Sining ae eh pre i sree ‘Pangkalusugan, MSEPP. Pagpapahalaga, EP (Values io cor ae lites beatin i a neg pat of the Bie educa ba z lum. To address the systematic teaching of values in “A sea epi deine th Vales sere suet ee ass ) oes Rased Ga A need ae gOS See acs arene met Ree t the five core learning areas (see Figure 8). AES eei 82 | Supervision of instruction: The Philippi PSrSSGeHV6 TE Figure 8 Values Across Subject Areas Framework for BEC Posed bythe Enarenmant heeds of tne Fano (ChidAdlescent MATHEMATICS Fiuipno) [Science] {Roepe og serr Canis gers or Mr ponpanshaan coe sara panes Enctish rere gp Pal MAKABAYAN ‘Source: Handbook fer valves education for basic education cucu, (2002). Bureau ‘of Secondary Education, Department of Education Classroom teachers are expected to determine the contribution, of their subject area to the list of values suggested in the framework, and to teach the subject matter accordingly. The matrix (see Table 4) serves as a guide in identifying concepts and skills (curriculum content), and the teaching method to be employed in the development of each specific value indicated in the framework. fee Dintiensions of Supervision | 53 Table 4 Matrix for Identifying Curriculum Content and Teaching Method Based on the Values Across Subject Framework Values Curriculum Content | Teaching Method Love of truth rtical thinking Creativity ‘Openness to new knowledge Nationalism Social responsibility, ‘and accountability, Wise use of resources Responsible consumerism Work ethic Entrepreneurial spirit Seltworth/ Self-esteem Honesty/integrity Stewardship ‘Source: Handbook for values education for basic education curriculum. (2002) Bureau of Secondary Education, Department of Education, What are the guidelines in developing interdisciplinary lessons? Mathison and Mason (1989) suggest the following: 1, Formulate a goal statement which indicates the principle(s) ‘or concept(s) to be understood (soil erosion), 2, Select the primary content base which will serve as the catalyst for the instruction (environmental conservation). 3. Identify events, discoveries, and writings within other disciplines that relate to the primary content base in'54 | Supervision of struction: The Philippine Perspective | STN a meaningful way (€.g., articles on landslides, illegal logging). 4, Determine the key points of intersection between the disciplines which correspond to the established terminal goal of instruction, 5. Formulate instructional objectives 6. Identify the necessary prerequisite knowledge that students ‘must possess in each discipline area you will address. 7. Formulate instructional strategies which will compel students to use their knowledge in one discipline to better: understand and appreciate another. Based on the guidelines, the procedure initially involves the determination of the important concepts, principles, or theories that teachers want students (0 understand, When these have been determined, the primary content base (a literary piece, a mathematics principle, a science concept, a historical event) is selected. Data or pieces of information in other disciplines that relate to the primary delivery base (the core content) are explored by brainstorming or scanning the table of contents of the textbook to be used. Predicated on the desired learning ‘outcomes, points of congruence between different subject areas are identified. Instructional objectives are formulated based on the established points of congruence. Basic concepts, principles, and skills that are needed to successfully accomplish the identified instructional objectives are determined. Instructional strategies are selected in terms of opportunities provided to the learner to construct new knowledge, and to transfer this new knowledge in the understanding of another discipline, Interdisciplinary lessons enable students to reinforce the understanding of a concept or principle in one subject and in other subjects. For example, if the concept of balance (equilibrium) mS" Dimehisions of Supervision | 8S is discussed in depth and very well understood in science, the learning can be reinforced by the discussion of the concept of balance (equation) in mathematics and social sciences (stability). This is made possible by formulating instructional objectives that will require students to use the knowledge learned in one discipline to understand another subject matter better. Curriculum Mapping ‘The process of curriculum mapping can facilitate the integration of the curriculum. It involves the collection of data and information regarding core content, skills, processes, and assessment contained in the curriculum (syllabus) in order to identify commonalities, overlaps, and even deficiencies in the curriculum. The skills, processes, and assessment are listed chronologically (Christy available in http://www.glencoe.com/ sec/teachingtoday /educationupclose.phtmel/35). The map when completed becomes the basis for the review, validation, and revision of the curriculum. This is possible because a curriculum map provides a visual representation of the intersection and relation of several subjects with one another in terms of objectives, content, skills, processes, activities, and assessment. By knowing all these bits of information, the alignment of the written, taught, and tested curriculum within the academic calendar can be facilitated. A curriculum map readily provides answers to many important {questions regarding teaching-learning, Christy (2003) asserts that the following questions can be quickly and accurately answered by analyzing a curriculum map: What do my students know? What did they study last year? What are they studying in the classroom throughout the school year? Is my co-teacher in the opposite room, ‘who works with students in the same grade fevel as students in my class covering similar content? Where do I begin, and how do I help my students understand the connections between my subject and others?86 | Supervision of Instruction: ‘The Philippine Perspective) ‘A well-developed map informs whether a specific content is taught, as well as when it is taught. These pieces of information enable supervisors to detect the lack of coordination among teachers handling the same subject in the same level, which is oftentimes a reason for complaints from parents. For example, ‘a parent of a pupil in Grade 4 might ask why his/her son under ‘Teacher A has not been taught conversion of fractions to decimals when the son of a neighbor under ‘Teacher B in the same grade evel has already mastered the skill. Identifying the timeline in the academic calendar insures that the learning experiences across classes in the same level are synchronized. Likewise, when subject areas are properly aligned and well- articulated, as indicated in the curriculum map, supervisors and teachers can readily assess what students have already mastered in a preceding grade. This allows the teachers to focus on the teaching of new skills and knowledge that build on previous ones in the next grade level. Thus, wasting valuable time in repeating what has already been adequately learned in a preceding level is avoided. By identifying concepts, principles, and events that relate and intersect between and across different grade levels that satisfy instructional objectives, overlaps can be determined; repetitions can be avoided; and misalignment can be corrected. After correcting vertical and horizontal overlaps, repetitions, and misalignments, the map is reviewed by a different team ‘composed of instructional leaders (supervisors) from within the school to determine common points of instruction. This team of reviewers informs teachers of overlaps in content or major assignments to promote interdisciplinary connections. Establishing interdisciplinary connections enables students to link information between and among courses, increasing the relevancy of skills and content in such courses. Moreover, teachers can verify skills or content addressed in other courses, and revise their work plans (unit and lesson plans) to a higher level to make learning more in-depth and meaningful. HUMAN RELATIONS DIMENSION OF SUPERVISION Dimensions of Supervision | 57 ‘The Elton Mayo experiments that became the basis of the Human Relations Approach in management showed that productivity in an organization is an outcome of group dynamics. These seminal experiments were followed by other researches that confirmed the view that improvement in productivity in the organization is due to human-social factors such as morale, a feeling of belongingness, and such interpersonal skills as ‘motivating, leading, participative decision-making, and effective communication. For instance, the work of Lewin and associates (in Lunenberg and Ornstein, 2000) gave support to the Mayo's finding regarding the primacy of group dynamics in improving human satisfaction that translates to achievement of group goals. It is, therefore, reasonable to assert that every supervisor hopes to establish and work with a high-performance team. What is a team, and how important is it? What is the difference between a group and a team? How does a group become a high- performance team? Herman and Herman (1998) made the following distinction between a group and a team. A group consists of two or more individuals who are together with or without structure or purpose. On the other hand, a team consists of two or more individuals who interact with one another in an interdependent manner, operate under a set of established roles and norms, share a common culture and environment, as well as common goals and objectives. In characterizing a high-performance team (p. 4), the authors assert that the members... 1. enjoy each other. 2. respect and trust one another. 3. share common concerns and goals. 4, understand their individual and team roles.'S8 | Supervision of Instruction: The Phiippine Perspective) NTN 5. take responsibility for successes and failures. 6. display good organization, shared power, and leadership. develop new ideas to achieve the vision-mission. display an unselfish, hardworking, and caring attitude. are friendly and comfortable with one another. 10. share a feeling of togetherness. 11. communicate clearly. 12, share ownership of tasks, goals, and objectives. Robins and Finley (in Larsen, K., et al., 1996) define a team as “people doing something together.” The operative word is, “together.” Activities are done not individually, but collectively. The people comprising a team report to a common superior (supervisor), interact with one another, possess complementary skills, carry out their tasks interdependently, hold themselves mutually accountable, and commit themselves to a common purpose, The quality of the interaction among the members of the team depends on interrelationships and interdependence that, in turn, enhance the effectiveness and the productivity of the organization. ‘Work teams are the building blocks of an organization. ‘They play a central role in organizational success, according to French and Bell (in Larsen, K., et al., 1996) who investigated the characteristics of high performance teams and came out with the following list: 1. A clear elevating goal 2. A results-driven structure Diliensions of Supervision | 59 Competent team members Unified commitment Standards of excellence 3. 4. 5. A collaborative climate 6. 7, External support and recognition 8 Principled leadership Many of the items in the list are also included in the effective school model (clear goals, standards of excellence, leadership). However, in the high-performance team model, the emphasis is on collaboration and unity of commitment of competent group members. LEARNING ORGANIZATION For his part, Senge (1990), the proponent of the concept of a learning organization, considers the teamas the key learning unit. ‘The concept of a learning team is one of the five core disciplines of his model along with personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, and systems thinking Team Learning Senge defines team learning as “the process of aligning and developing the capacity of a team to create the results its members truly desire. It builds on the discipline of developing shared vision, It also builds on personal mastery, for talented teams are made up of talented individuals” (p, 236). He further stresses that in learning organizations, people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, nurture new and expansive patterns of thinking, set free their collective aspiration, and continually learn how to learn. In the school setting, team learning is promoted through the creation of discussion groups, reading groups, planning committees, and continuing education committees.Personal Mastery This concept refers to individual learning. Organizations learn because individual members continuously learn. In a learning organization, individuals are involved in lifelong learning as part of their continuing effort to achieve their potentials as human beings. A school leader can promote the idea of continuing learning through faculty development programs, as well as recognition of individual efforts to improve professionally and personally. Mental Model In their pursuit of personal mastery, mental models that define their own behaviors and the way they understand the behaviors of others guide individual team members. A mental model is one’s personal view of the world (based on philosophy, assumptions, values, biases) that determines how one thinks and acts. People learn when they recognize the flaws in their mental models through reflection or meditation, and consequently, correct their mistakes. This, of course, results in paradigm shifts or change in mental models. Itis this willingness to change mental models by individual members that enables the team to grow and improve. School leaders who wish their members to grow and develop should encourage the faculty, staff, and students to reflect on their more importantly, the supervisor must model this attitude of willingness to continuously learn and develop, Shared Vision Ina learning organization, the organizational vision is not ‘created by the leader alone, but through interaction with individual members. The leader’s role is to share his/her vision with the members, and encourage them to share their vision, too, from which the organizational vision is evolved. Sometimes, this is done through compromise. In education, the school leader's vision of effective instruction should be conveyed to the members in dialogues and meetings. The members, in turn, are given the 60 | Supervision of struction: The Phipine Perspect TE behavior to catalyze and facilitate the desired change. However, _ Dimensions of Supervision | 61 opportunity to share their own vision about effective instruction. The goal is to align individual vision to the mission and vision of the school. When there is a consensus on the common vision, the leader and members agree on the strates in order to realize the shared vision. action to be taken Systems Thinking This concept emphasizes the primacy of the whole, rather than the parts that constitute the whole. The basic system model is based on the concept of dynamic balance in an open system. A dynamic system comprises three major components: the input, the process, and the output. These components interact and interrelate with each otherand with the external environment. An important auxiliary component is a feedback mechanism that shows how actions can reinforce and restore balance within the system and with the external environment. In systems thinking, the focus of interests is not on the isolated fragments or parts, but rather on their interaction and interdependence that define the patterns of relationships in the organization. The patterns of relationships, in turn, determine the patterns of behavior among the members that may either promote or constrain organizational productivity. That is the reason why an effective school leader promotes quality of interaction, and encourages interdependence among the members to generate harmony and synergy that hopefully will translate to excellence in education. Based on the Senge model, the important concerns about learning organizations are: the adaptability of the system to response to both the internal and the external environment to maintain balance; the effort members exert to continuously enhance their capability to change; the importance of collective and individual learning; the use of the results of iearning to improve and achieve better results; and the commitment of62 | pension of Instruction: The Pipe Parspoeh the members to pursue a common goal or vision. Although the learning organization model has its origins in business, its emphasis on change and improvement through individual and team learning in pursuit of a common goal makes it an excellent ‘model for educational institutions, too. That is the reason why school leaders can make good use of this model in supervision. ‘The inclusion of parents and other members of the community in the concept of team in the educational setting is not new. In the US., during the colonial period through the early 1800s, the responsibility for supervision of the schools belonged to the community leaders. It was a common practice for the community leadership, composed of the clergy, merchants, and representatives of other professions, to determine the school schedule, curriculum, and guidelines for student discipline, and tohire the schoolteacher and monitor students’ progress (The Clearing House: Washington, 1995). This was so true inthe Philippines during the same period. ‘Thus, in the 19th century, as mentioned earlier, supervision was ddone by a council composed of the bishop, parsh priest, the chief executive of the city or province, and representatives of other professions (Martin, 1980). ‘The involvement of parents and community members in education has a historical basis. Thus, its not surprising that, at present, parents: and members of the community are considered as important stakeholders of schools, and are included in the expanded concept of a team. Participation of parents and Community members is encouraged in many school activities such fs the setting of goals, developing programs intended to strengthen the ties between the school and the home and the community, and developing and implementing policies on student discipline. ADMINISTRATIVE DIMENSION OF SUPERVISION Itisa logical, as well as commonsensical view that educational institutions need good administrators for the smooth operation of eee "Dimensions of Supervision | 63 the school on a day-to-day basis. Administrators have to perform many tasks ona daily grind. They administer processes, programs and services, and personnel. These tasks include planning, setting and prioritizing of goals, establishing standards and policies, budgeting, allocating resources, staffing, coordinating and monitoring performance, conducting meetings and reporting, among others. In addition, they interact with faculty, students, parents, and other members of the community, and communicate information to various stakeholders, as well as report to higher authorities. All these multifarious activities are undertaken for the purpose of providing effective instruction to their clientele. ‘These various tasks require administrative skills and long hours of work. Because of multiple tasks, many school heads work more than 40 hours a week. They also report to school during summer vacation to supervise year-end reviews, faculty development activities, and in some cases, the offering of summer courses for students with failures. Oftentimes, to carry out their tasks, they need to draw from their inner reserves. That is the reason why itis important that the school administrator must have the necessary qualification and experience. Administration of Processes ‘A good administrator initiates planning of programs and strategies; organizes committees to set and prioritize goals; establishes educational standards, as well as policies and procedures to carry them out; takes charge of the staffing of the organization; coordinates programs and projects; and prepares reports and budgets. Plans may be long-range or short-range. Long-range plans are based on in-depth needs assessment. They should be based on clear goals and objectives. These plans are comprehensive, and include such concerns as major program revision, implementation and evaluation, manpower projections and long-range staff64 | Suporison of nstruction: The Philippine Perspective IND development programs, and new facilities needed including building improvements. Long-range plans involve the participation. of important stakeholders of the school. Short-term plans are based on the immediate needs for the incoming year. These plans include minor revisions in the curriculum, faculty development activities and preparation of the school calendar, assignment of loads, purchases, and other needs for the new school year. Principals organize teams to set policies on teacher salaries, teacher assignments, performance appraisal, transfer and promotion, leaves, in-service education and other monetary benefits recruitment and firing, as well as grievance procedures. They coordinate the work of various teams and other interest groups tasked to either develop plans or implement these plans. These policies become part of the faculty and administrative manual. Administration of Programs and Services Principals coordinate the development of curricular, co- curricular, and extra-curricular programs. They manage student services such as guidance, health and medical, canteen, and athletics. In addition, they supervise and monitor the work of lower-level managers, support staff, teachers, counselors, librarians, coaches, and others. Administration of Personnel School heads interview, hire, evaluate, and help improve the skills of teachers and staff. They give advice, explain procedural questions, and provide opportunities for faculty and staff development. They also make the painful decision of terminating, after due process, personnel who do not meet school standards despite their effort to help them. Administration of Budgets Principals prepare and administer the approved budgets. This task is oftentimes unpopular to many administrators probably Diffienisions of Supervision | 65 because it is a business concern. The budget, once approved by higher authority, serves as a legal basis for annual expenditures, accounting, and auditing. ‘There is a prevalent notion among people in education that because education and business are two fields that are poles apart, there can be no convergence of their concerns. The popularity of this belief is losing ground because over the years, certain principles from business have become the bases of practices in education. Thus, the importance of the preparation of reasonable budgets in supervision cannot be ignored. Therefore, budgeting is a skill that every administrator ‘must have and enhance. ‘Typically, the budget is concerned with three major types of expenditures: capital expenditures, personnel services, and maintenance and other operating expenses (MOOE). Generally, higher authorities prepare budgets on capital expenditures. Site- based school heads prepare budgets for personnel services that include salaries and other benefits, as well as MOOE, which includes expenditures for utilities, supplies and materials, repair and maintenance, contractual services, and transportation, among others. Itis axiomatic that the budget must be carefully prepared and must be able to stand up to close senutiny To insure that the expenditures are in accordance with the approved budget, principals oversee the disbursement of expenditures for non-salary items such as the requisition and allocation of supplies and equipment, transportation, repairs, and maintenance. Moreover, in connection with the budget, principals with limited finances are expected to resort to cost- cutting measures that have to do with class size, staff size, cost of purchases, use of utilities, etc. There are also instances when school heads find it necessary to conduct fund-raising activities to secure support from local businesses and community to augment their limited budgets. Asa standard operating procedure, principals prepare reports on finances to higher authorities.{66 | Supervision of Instruction: The Phippine Perspective NN Additional Administrative Roles With the increase in faculty militancy, modern principals are now tasked to perform additional roles. Those tasks include public relations activities and negotiating with faculty associations. Public relations require tact and diplomacy, while negotiating with faculty unions require comprehensive knowledge of the rules of management and labor. What this means is that to be able to represent the school well, whether in public affairs or in the negotiating table, itis very important for supervisors to be highly skilled and knowledgeable. ‘Summary — — School supervision is a complex process that entails many dimensions. Supervisors are expected to attend to many aspects of supervision both inside and outside the classroom because they all impact the delivery of quality education, which is the primary reason for the existence of a school. A school head is a curriculum leader, a strategic planner, a team leader, an administrator, an evaluator, and a negotiator, among many other functions. The milieu of a school leader revolves around many important stakeholders: students, teachers, staff, parents, and community members. In order to realize the objectives of the school, the school head should provide a strong and enlightened leadership. Strong leadership enables schools to deliver effective instruction, motivates the people in the organization to work as a high-performance team, and insures the smooth operation of the school organization in accordance with its mission-vision. The different dimensions inside or outside the classroom demand corresponding special areas of competence for effectiveness. Thus, to be an effective supervisor, regardless of title or position, it is necessary to have administrative skills, curriculum development skills, instructional skills, interpersonal skills, evaluation skills, and other related skills. More importantly, it RR: ‘must be emphasized again that to insure thatall the different areas of concern are addressed effectively and efficiently, the critical requirement is the possession and development of leadership skills by the supervisor, Dimensions of Supervision | 677 Key Concepts Site-based management Effective schools Off class dimensions of supervision Incclass dimensions of supervision Curriculum issues: Design, delivery, articulation, coordination, integration, and interdisciplinary curriculum planning Learning organization Instructional leadership Home-school relations Curricular leadership Review Questions _ ‘Why is site-based management considered an effective approach to school management? ‘What are the different dimensions of school supervision? Describe the role of the supervisor in effective schools? How can the clutter in the curriculum be effectively reduced? What is the importance of the team in effective instruction? ‘What are the characteristics of a high-performance team? What are the administrative responsibilities of a school supervisor?