BIOETHICS LECTURE 2

LEVELS OF ETHICAL OR MORAL DISCOURSE

LEVEL I = CASE APPROACH OR CASUISTRY
• Begins with an issue or concrete moral question or dilemma that one faces here-and-now, or
two persons disagreeing on what in a specific situation is the morally appropriate behavior.
• the process starts with specific and measurable facts and cases that may support the application
of the higher levels of moral discourse.
• Is a process of reasoning that seeks to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending
theoretical rules from a particular case, and reapplying those rules to new instances.
• Casuistry, or case based reasoning, focus on practical decision- making in particular cases
based on precedent.
• It is the use of morals or beliefs in decisions of right and wrong in order to reach or rationalize
a solution.
• derived from the LATIN noun “casus” (case or occurrence)
LEVEL 2 = RULES AND RIGHTS (CODE OF ETHICS)
… This level is resorted to if and when issues or cases are not resolved at the base or first level.
… Take note that not everything that is legal is also ethical, meaning, it could be legal BUT
unethical.

Ex. Testing medicines on animals maybe legal but unethical to some people.
…Also, not all illegal is unethical, meaning it could be illegal BUT ethical.
Ex. A very hungry child stealing food.
 Running a red light if someone’s life depended on it.
…There are extreme views as well as moderate views on how rules and rights must be taken in
providing moral guidance in the resolution of a problem.
EXTREME VIEWS
EXTREME VIEWS
A)LEGALISM- holds that there are no exceptions to the rules or rights.
B) ANTI-NOMIANISM – holds that every case is so unique that no rules or rights can never be
relevant in deciding what one ought to do in a specific situation
LEVEL 3 – NORMATIVE ETHICS
• At this level, basic norms of behavior and character are discussed, rules and right claims are
defended, and norms of good moral character are articulated.
•  investigates the questions that arise regarding how one ought to act, in a moral sense.
THEORIES AND QUESTIONS UNDER NORMATIVE ETHICS

THEORIES QUESTIONS ANSWERS

ACTION THEORY …What principles make actions morally Principles of:

VALUE THEORY right? …Beneficence
VIRTUE THEORY …What kind of consequences are good or …Non-maleficence
intrinsically valuable? …Respect for autonomy
…What kind of character traits are … happiness, beauty, kn
morally praiseworthy? … compassion/sympath
faithfulness
4th/HIGHEST LEVEL = METAETHICS
It is the task of analyzing the nature of moral judgement and theoretical systems.
…Deals with the most basic questions of ethics, the meaning and justification of ethical terms, how
people know which principle, values, or virtues are the correct ones and the ultimate grounding of
ethics.

BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

1.PRINCIPLE OF STEWARDSHIP
• In health care practice, stewardship refers to the execution of responsibility of the health
care practitioners to look after, provide necessary health care services, and promote the
health and life of those entrusted to their care.

…and it entails concomitant values/virtues of RESPONSIBILTIY and ACCOUNTABILITY.

RESPONSIBILITY – is the duty involved when one accepts the task of management. It is the
ability of one to respond freely to a call for quality service. This response is characterized by the
values/virtues of dependability, perseverance, initiative, and effort, and being a worthy, good servant
which implies reliability and trustworthiness as a steward.
ACCOUNTABILITY - Is the obligation to explain, justify, and take responsibility for one's actions.
It is the state of being answerable or liable for carrying out one’s right and duty.
* Both go hand in hand.
2. PRINCIPLE OF TOTALITY
• the term “totality” connotes wholeness, completeness, or entirety.
• this principle applies to any entity that is made up of parts that together constitute as a
whole. The existence of the parts indicates the existence of the whole.
• But the whole is greater than any of its parts.
• Ex. Amputation of a gangrenous leg

3. PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT

• The principle contemplates on two effects or outcomes arising from the performance of
an action; one is good, one is evil.
• Is it morally good to perform such an act – with both good and bad effect?
• Yes, provided that the principle of double effect is invoked whose conditions must be
satisfactorily fulfilled.
FOUR CONDITIONS TO CONSIDER OR FULFILL BEFORE AN
ACTION WITH DOUBLE EFFECT IS JUSTIFIED:
1.The action done or course chosen must be morally good in itself, or at least morally indifferent or
neutral.
• The act by its very nature must be good. Its goodness proceeds from within itself.

2. The good effect must come directly from the action itself, and not coming from or following as a
consequence of secondary evil effect.

.
3 The good effect must be intended or willed and the bad/harm merely tolerated or allowed, with
sufficient reason.

4. The good effect must outweigh or at least be equivalent in importance to the evil effect