1 Introduction

Cassava is one of the oldest cultivated crops in the world; its domestication occurred
approximately 9000 years ago in the Amazon region of Brazil (Alves-Pereira et al. 2018). In
tropical and developing countries, cassava holds great economic and nutritional importance
and feeds around 800 million people. Of the 278 million tons of cassava roots produced by 101
countries in 2018, about 60% is grown on the African continent, 30% in Asia, and 10% in the
Americas (FAOSTAT 2019). Cassava is the fourth most important source of calories for the
human diet in Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia, behind wheat, rice, and maize. Five
African countries are among the ten largest cassava-producing countries, which account for
75% of world production (FAOSTAT 2018).

Cassava cultivars are classified in two types in Brazil: sweet cassava, aka “aipim,”
“macaxeira,” or “table cassava,” and bitter cassava, aka “mandioca brava” or “cassava for
industry.” These types are classified based on levels of cyanide (HCN) release, a highly toxic
substance if ingested. Sweet cassava contains less than 100 mg kg−1 of cyanogenic compounds
(CC) per fresh root, while bitter cassava contains more than 100 mg (Araujo et al. 2019). High
levels of CC require a complete detoxification process to reduce compounds to a safe level for
consumption (Montagnac et al. 2009). Cassava roots are very perishable and have a short
postharvest shelf life, which severely limits their potential in the market and potential benefits
to farmers. The roots exhibit visible symptoms of postharvest physiological deterioration
(PPD) within only 24–72 hours of harvest (Morante et al. 2010). The darkening caused by
physiological deterioration is an important factor that should be considered in root processing.
Like other root and tuber crops, cassava has high water content (∼65%), which is probably the
major limitation to improving the utilization potential of the crop, requiring rapid processing
into intermediate products to reduce transport costs, increase shelf life, and improve storage
capacity (Falade and Akingbala 2011).

In Brazil, both the cassava root and the starch extracted are processed and used to make
a series of products that can be consumed directly or used as ingredients in a wide variety of
foods (Oliveira et al. 2020a; Tomlins and Bennett 2017).

Diversity of products in Brazil made with processed cassava root. (Source: Figure adapted with
photos from Alfredo Alves, Joselito Motta, Oliveira et al. (2020a), Podium Alimentos)
In the last 20 years, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa) has received
several demands from African cassava-producing countries and funding agencies for
development projects, requesting technical collaboration from Brazil to transfer technological
innovations related to the cultivation and postharvest processing of cassava. Cassava
cultivation in Brazil and many parts of Africa shares many similarities between Brazil and
Africa in both cultural and social aspects. The profile of cassava producers is similar, and most
cassava is produced on family farms. In addition, the agroecological similarities and the great
diversity of cassava processing products available in Brazil facilitate the transfer and adoption
of these technologies to Africa.

Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura international technical cooperation program started

in 2000 with the Brazil-Japan Partnership Program as a means to offer courses to technicians
from Portuguese-speaking African countries (e.g., Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau,
Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe) and Timor East in Southeast Asia. The program was
financed by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).

In this program, courses were offered to technicians, researchers, and representatives

of national agricultural research institutions (NARIs), and the content focused on good
agronomic practices for growing cassava, including soil preparation, planting, cultivation
management, harvesting, and technologies for root postharvest processing.

Nutritional Value of Tapioca

Nutrient Value

Water [g] 10.99

Energy 358

Energy [kJ] 1498

Protein [g] 0.19

Total lipid (fat) [g] 0.02

Ash [g] 0.11

Nutrient Value

Carbohydrate, by 88.69
difference [g]

Fiber, total dietary [g] 0.9

Sugars, total including 3.35

NLEA [g]

Calcium, Ca [mg] 20

Iron, Fe [mg] 1.58

Magnesium, Mg [mg] 1

Phosphorus, P [mg] 7

Potassium, K [mg] 11

Sodium, Na [mg] 1

Zinc, Zn [mg] 0.12

Copper, Cu [mg] 0.02

Manganese, Mn [mg] 0.11

Selenium, Se [µg] 0.8

Thiamin [mg] 0

Pantothenic acid [mg] 0.14

Vitamin B-6 [mg] 0.01

Nutrient Value

Folate, total [µg] 4

Folate, food [µg] 4

Folate, DFE [µg] 4

Choline, total [mg] 1.2

Fatty acids, total 0.01

saturated [g]

16:0 [g] 0.01

Fatty acids, total 0.01

monounsaturated [g]

18:1 [g] 0.01

Fatty acids, total 0

polyunsaturated [g]

18:2 [g] 0

18:3 [g] 0

Tryptophan [g] 0

Threonine [g] 0

Isoleucine [g] 0

Leucine [g] 0.01

Lysine [g] 0.01

Nutrient Value

Methionine [g] 0

Cystine [g] 0

Phenylalanine [g] 0

Tyrosine [g] 0

Valine [g] 0.01

Arginine [g] 0.02

Histidine [g] 0

Alanine [g] 0.01

Aspartic acid [g] 0.01

Glutamic acid [g] 0.03

Glycine [g] 0

Proline [g] 0.01

Serine [g] 0.01

Sources include : USDA [3]

 Tapioca is enjoyed throughout the world and is relied on as an essential part of certain
cultural diets due to its unique composition of carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and organic
compounds. Some of its benefits include a very low level of saturated fat, cholesterol,
and sodium while being a rich source of dietary fiber, HDL (good) cholesterol, and protein.
According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, tapioca contains members of the vitamin
B-complex, including pantothenic acid, folate, and B6, as well
as iron, manganese, calcium, copper, and selenium. They are packed with carbohydrates, as
well; and one cup of tapioca contains nearly 45 percent of your daily requirement of carbs.

Cassava By-products

Cassava is the basis of a multitude of products, including food, flour, animal feed,
alcohol, starches for sizing paper and textiles, sweeteners, prepared foods and bio-degradable
products. The products are derived from a number of forms of cassava, ranging from fresh
leaves and roots to modified cassava starch. The degree of processing and the technical
requirements tend to increase from the fresh form to the modified starch form.

All of the above products represent potential market development opportunities for
cassava. While some cassava is sold as fresh roots or leaves, even these products usually
receive some special post-harvest handling or treatment before they are consumed. As cassava
normally requires some form of processing before it can be consumed or sold, processing is of
central importance in the future of the crop. While the market potentials are great, it must be
remembered that these opportunities are location and time specific. Because of the specificity
of market opportunities, it is impossible to compile a list of priority market opportunities. The
following section, show the list of by products from different parts and form of Cassava

Cassava starch

Cassava contains a lot of starch and is called the "king of starch". Compared with being
eaten directly, more cassava is used to extract cassava starch. Because cassava starch has a
wide range of uses and has a large market demand. Moreover, with the development of science
and technology, the starch produced by modern cassava starch processing equipment is of high
quality and fast production efficiency. In some African countries, the cassava starch extraction
business is favoured.
 Cassava starch extracted from cassava

Cassava flour

Cassava flour is an edible powder. It can be produced through simple cassava flour
processing process. The cassava flour processing process of Henan Jinrui is to wash the cassava
and crush cassava, then press out the water in the crushed cassava, and finally dry the ground
cassava pulp to produce the cassava flour. Because cassava flour is colorless, tasteless and
highly viscous, cassava flour can be used to make sugar, seasonings, and bread and other foods.

Garri

Garri contains high fiber content, protein and vitamins. Because the toxins in cassava
have been completely removed during the garri production process, garri is often used in
different ways for different foods. For example, you can eat garri directly, can fry garri and can
use garri as thickener in soup and various cakes. In Henan Jinrui's cassava processing
equipment project, cassava starch, cassava flour, cassava chips and garri are the products that
customers mainly produce from cassava. Henan Jinrui has been researching and innovating in
the cassava processing industry for more than ten years, and our cassava processing equipment
has been exported to more than 80 countries
 High quality garri made from cassava

Sago Factories At Namakkal

Company Name
Company Started Year
Company Owner Name
No. of People Working
Company turnover
Where Company purchasing material
Where Company Selling
Products sold by company
Preparation of Sago
Sago (Saboodana) is a processed edible starch produced from tapioca starch marketed
in the form of small globules or pearls. Sago is a traditional, convenient and ready to cook food
consumed in many parts of the India. Sago production is carried out by many small scale
industries. On the average yield of 200kg can be produced from one tone of tapioca starch.
About 5,000 liters is required to process one tonne of tapioca tubers to yield 200kg saboodana.
Sago is classified into two types viz Roasted sago(commercial sago) and boiled sag sago(Nylon
sago).It is also commercially available in different grades viz,super fine, milky white, best,
pearl and broken. Sago is easily digestible, rich in carbohydrate. It is highly recommended for
quick recovery of patients. When cooked, sago turns opaque white colour to transculent and
becomes soft and spongy. Sago is very heat sensitive, if it subjected to fry,it will turn into a
sticky,gluey mass,which is nearly impossible to separate.
Manufacturing of Sago
The technology of sago production has been greatly improved from low quality starch
produced by sedimentation process to high quality starch produced by fully automated and
mechanized, dewatering centrifugal process. In this process, tapioca roots are transported to
factories. Since the roots quickly undergo deterioration due to microbial attack, most starch
factories apply good practices to process delivered roots within 1-2 days and avoid the storage
of perishable fresh roots. Processed roots are firstly passed through a drum to remove soil,
sand, pieces of peels and impurities. Roots are then passed through the root washer and part of
the remaining peels, called wet peels, with some hard stems or stumps are manually removed.
Washed roots are subsequently chopped and ground by a rasper. Fresh root slurry from the
rasper is passed through a series of extractors, from coarse to fine, where the pulp is separated
from starch slurry. Fermentation is carried out in settling tank for 3-5 days. Water is further
separated by subjecting the starch slurry to a dewatering centrifuge where the water content is
reduced from 60% in slurry to 35-40% in cake. Starch cake is pulverized using spike mills. The
wet starch is subjected to globulation in vibratory units provided with gunny cloth surfaces
forming two pouches. Each pouch or sack can hold 10 to 12 kg.of wet starch powder for
globulation. The globulated starch powder is thengraded in oscillating screens. The sago so
formed is given a mild roasting on hot plates at about 100°C for about 6 to 8 minutes with 12%
moisture content. The roasted sago is then dried in the sun on cemented floor for about 8 to 12
hours depending on the intensity of sun shine. During roasting sago lumps are formed which
passing the material through disintegrate breaks down.
Harvesting
The harvest involves cutting stems at a height of 25 to 34 cm from the ground using a
machete and removing the tubers, making sure not to damage them. This can be done by hand
if the soil is light or using a hoe, a stick or a daba. A maximum of 500 kg of tubers are harvested
daily in compacted soil and up to 1,000 kg tubers are harvested each day in wet and light soil.
The dry season is the best time to harvest cassava because the tubers are rich in starch at that
time, drying is easy and the products can be easily processed and preserved. The early varieties
may mature at between 6 and 8 months on average after planting, whereas the late varieties
require 12 and 19 months under optimal conditions (such as a humid forest region). In the
humid savannah, the late varieties should be harvested 20 to 24 months after planting. Cassava
grows faster in humid lowlands than in high altitude areas. The yield varies from 20 to 30 tons
per hectare for local varieties and from 25 to 70 tons per hectare for improved varieties. In
hostile environments where other crops fail, cassava can provide good yields. In typical
conditions, the yield may vary between 8 to 15 tons of tubers per hectare.
Washing
The roots are normally received from the field as soon as possible after harvest and
cannot be stored for more than two days. Since the presence of woody matter or stones may
seriously interfere with the rasping process by stoppage or by breaking the blades, the woody
ends of the roots are chopped off with sharp knives before the subsequent processing
operations. Dry sieve is used to remove the extra plant fibers, other roots and leaves,etc.
Peeling
The structure of the root permits peeling to proceed smoothly by hand. The roots are
cut longitudinally and transversely to a depth corresponding to the thickness of the peel, which
can then be easily removed. Any dirt remaining on the smooth surface of the core of the root
can now be washed off without any trouble and the peeled roots deposited in cement basins
where they remain immersed in water until taken out for rasping. Frequent treading by foot
cleans any loosely adhering dirt from the roots.
In the larger factories, whole roots are generally processed. The washing here serves to remove
the outer skin of the root as well as the adhering dirt. Provided the root is sufficiently ripe, skin
removal may proceed without the use of brushes. Only the outer skin or corky layer is removed,
as it is profitable to recover the starch from the cortex. The inner part of the peel represents
about 81.5 percent of the weight of the whole root.
In order to accomplish a more effective and fast method of washing, mechanical washers can
be employed. The mechanical washer is a perforated cylindrical tank which is immersed in
water. A spiral brush propels the roots while they are subjected to vigorous scrubbing in order
to remove all dirt. A centrifugal pump is fitted to one end of the machine and connected to a
series of jets arranged along the carrying side of the brush. These jets produce a countercurrent
to the flow of the roots, ensuring that they receive an efficient washing. Another efficient
washer is a rotary drum with an interior pipe which sprays water on the roots. The drum is
either wooden or perforated metal, about 3 to 4 m long and 1 m in diameter, with horizontal
openings; it is mounted inside a concrete tank. In some, rotating paddles are fitted along the
axis. Washing is done by the action of water sprayed, assisted by the abrasion of the roots both
against one another and against the sides of the cylinder or the paddles.The roots are hand-fed
from one end and when they come out at the other they are clean and partially peeled, the action
being continuous. Dirty water and skin are periodically drained out through a small opening in
the concrete tank.

Rasping
It is necessary to rupture all cell walls in order to release the starch granules. This is
usually carried out by pressing the roots against a swiftly moving surface provided with sharp
protrusions, the cell walls are torn up and the whole of the root is turned into a mass in which
the greater part of the starch granules is released. The percentage of starch set free is called the
rasping effect. Its value after one rasping may vary between 70 and 90 percent: the efficiency
of the rasping operation therefore determines to a large extent the overall yield of starch in the
processing. It is difficult to remove all the starch, even with efficient rasping devices, in a single
operation. Therefore, the pulp is sometimes subjected to a second rasping process after
screening. The rasping is carried out in different ways with varying efficiency.
Hand and mechanical rasping
A simple but effective grater is obtained by perforating a sheet of galvanized iron with
a nail and then clamping it around a wheel with the sharp protruding rims of the nail openings
turned outward. The wheel may be driven by hand, but it is often driven by foot like a tricycle,
the worker pressing the roots from above onto the rasping surface which is attached to one side
of a rotating disk equipped with a crank transmission, which is driven by foot. The pulp is
collected in baskets or wooden containers to be carried to the sieves.
Hydraulic raspers
Larger water-powered raspers can be used where running water is available. The
waterwheel is rotated by a flywheel and driving belts to a pulley on the shaft of the rasping
drum. The drum. 20-30 cm in diameter is either attached to a primitive wooden construction or
fitted into a "rasping table." The operator seated at the table, presses the roots against the drum.
The grated mass is forced through a narrow slit between the drum and the shelf before it drops
into the trough, whence it is carried to the sieves. Though inexpensive, they are relatively
inefficient as the rasping plate must often be replaced on account of rapid wear.
Engine-driven raspers
Engine-driven raspers are more economical for the handling of 10 tons of fresh roots a
day. The machine has a rotor of hardwood or drawn steel tube, 50 cm in diameter, with a
number of grooves milled longitudinally to take the rasping blades or saws. The number of saw
teeth on the blades varies from 10 to 12 per centimetre according to need. The blades are spaced
6-7 mm apart on the rotor.
In simpler versions, the rotor is fitted into housing in such a way that the rasping surface
forms part of the back wall of the receptacle for the roots. Facing the rasping surface, a block
or board is inserted which is movable by a lever and turns on an axis near the upper rim of the
compartment. By manipulating this buffer the roots are pressed onto the rasping surface, which
moves downward in the hopper, and the mass is propelled through a slit in the bottom of the
hopper. It is advisable to give the inner surface of the buffer the form of a circular segment
corresponding to the section of the rotor exposed so that, at its extreme position inward, the
distance between rotor and block is only a few mm. Secondary rasping or grinding :
In modern factories, it may be estimated that an effect of about 85 percent is attained at
the first rasping; at these production levels, however, it is economical to submit the pulp to a
second crushing process, either in a second rasper or in special mills where the pulp is ground
between stones. These mills, however, do not seem to have found much favour with tapioca
manufacturers.
In a secondary rasper, the indentation of the saw blades should be somewhat finer, about
10 per cm (25 to 27 teeth per in) as compared with about 810 per cm (19 to 26 teeth per in) for
the primary rasper. The overall rasping effect is raised to over 90 percent by the secondary
rasper.
Fermentation
The term "settlings' includes the whole series of operations for separating the pure
starch from soluble contaminants. The quality of the flour produced depends to a great extent
on the proper performance of these operations, which comprise settling in successive tanks,
settling on flour tables, and the action of modern separators. Each operation can be used alone
or carried out in different combinations. They all result in a more or less concentrated
suspension of starch in pure water.
Settling in tanks
In very small mills, wooden barrels or troughs serve the purpose, but as soon as the
production reaches several hundred kilograms of flour per day it is usual to construct tanks of
cemented brickwork sunk into the ground. The dimensions and the number of tanks are
determined by level of production and convenience of handling (e.g., 2 x 4 m in surface
dimensions and 0.5 to I m in depth). Settling takes longer periods ranging from 6 to 20 hours
depending upon the quantity as well as the size of the settling tank. However, longer the settling
time the more is the action of the enzymes and micro organisms. The upper layer of sedimented
flour, which has a yellowish green tint, contains many impurities and is generally scrapped off
and rejected. The remaining moist flour is then stirred up with water and left to settle again. In
most cases, two settlings suffice to obtain reasonably clean flour. In large factories producing
flour for special purposes, settling may be repeated several times with or without the addition
of chemicals. Stirring a slurry in tank to remove fine dust particles from starch is done manually
which is very unhygienic
Screening
In separating the pulp from the free starch a liberal amount of water must be added to
the pulp as it is delivered by the rasper, and the resulting suspension stirred vigorously before
screening. Mixing with water can be carried out more or less separately from screening, but
more often the two operations are combined in "wet screening" - that is' the mass is rinsed with
the excess water on a screen which is in continuous motion.
Hand screening
In the smallest mills, screening is done by hand. The rasped root mass is put in batches
on a cloth fastened on four poles and hanging like a bag above the drain leading directly to the
sedimentation tanks. The pulp is vigorously stirred with both hands while screening.
Another type of centrifugal separator consists mainly of a horizontal imperforated drum or
bowl with a continuous spiral-ribbon starch remover or scraping device inside. The drum
rotates in a frame with bearings at both ends. Over a gearbox, the drum and the scraper are
driven at slightly different speeds by a direct-coupled motor. The starch milk enters the slightly
conical drum at the narrow end and passes to the other end where the liquid outlet is located.
On its way through the bowl the milk throws off starch grains and other solid matter' which
concentrate at the periphery. Here the concentrate is taken up by the scraper and brought
counter-current to the narrow end where it is discharged with the addition of fresh water. The
purest starch is made by using liberal amounts of soft water. Hard water (high in lime content)
has been known to leave calcium oxalate in the finished product.
Pressing or Dewatering
Pressing or Dewatering carried out using plate frame presser.The misture cntent of wet
starch will be reduced to 35 to 40%.
Pulverization, globulation, grading and roasting
The operations involved are pulverisation, globulation, sizing, roasting,
drying,polishing, screening and packing, pulverisation is done in spike mills and the wet starch
is subjected to globulation in vibratory units provided with gunny cloth surfaces forming two
pouches. Each pouch or sack can hold 10 to 12 kg.of wet starch powder for globulation. The
globulated starch powder is thengraded in oscillating screens. The sago so formed is given a
mild roasting on hot plates at about 100°C for about 6 to 8 minutes. The roasted sago is then
dried in the sun on cemented floor for about 8 to 12 hours depending on the intensity of sun
shine. During roasting sago lumps are formed which passing the material through disintegrate
breaks down.
Drying
The removal of free water from the starch sediment obtained in settling tanks and on
flour tables or from the concentrated slurries produced by separators and purifiers can be partly
accomplished by mechanical means (e.g., centrifugation). The final drying however must
always be performed by evaporation, either in the open air (sun drying) or in ovens. In modern
factories, oven drying is always combined with mechanical drying, the whole operation, as in
all other phases of the process, being conducted so as to take the least possible time. The
mechanical dryers used for this purpose include drying ovens, chamber dryers, drum dryers,
belt dryers, tunnel dryers, pneumatic dryers etc. Though mechanical drying is costly, more
uniform and quicker drying is possible while using mechanical dryers besides facilitating
drying throughout the period irrespective of weather.
Packing
Packaging of sago is carried out in different sizes according to the customer needs.
Health Benefits of Tapioca

Let’s explore some of the numerous health benefits associated with this delicious and
nutritious food.

May Help In Healthy Weight Gain

Although the majority of people are concerned about staying fit, there are also many
who seek options for healthy weight gain. Being underweight can be just as dangerous as being
obese, and tapioca may provide a quick and easy way to gain weight healthily. The high
carbohydrate content (one cup of tapioca equates to 45 percent of daily carbohydrate
requirement) means that it is easy to add bulk and calories to your diet without any unhealthy
cholesterol or saturated fats that can result in other health concerns. The majority of these
carbohydrates may come in the form of sucrose, while a slightly smaller amount comes from
complex sugar amylose. This makes tapioca an ideal choice for people who need to gain
weight, particularly after an illness, injury, surgery or an eating disorder.

Whole and halved raw tapioca with leaves on a wooden table

Tapioca is a popular gluten-free alternative. Photo Credit: Shutterstock

Might Aid In Reducing Birth Defects

According to a study conducted by researchers of Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

in Zurich, tapioca may contain a significant amount of B-complex vitamins, including folic
acid. Adequate amounts of these vitamins during pregnancy have been directly connected to
reducing the chances of neural tube defects in infants.

May Improve Digestion

One of the bonus health benefits of tapioca is that it may contain a wealth of dietary
fiber. Fiber has been directly linked to improving a number of conditions within the human
body, but the most obvious is in terms of digestion. Fiber bulks up the stool, which may help
move it through the digestive tract, thereby eliminating constipation, bloating, and intestinal
pain. Furthermore, soluble fiber may even help boost heart health by scraping excess
cholesterol off the walls of arteries and blood vessels, thereby helping reduce the incidence of
associated issues like heart attack and stroke.
Could Be A Potential Vegetarian Protein Source

Protein is an essential element of human health, and while many people get their protein
intake from meat, fish, poultry, and dairy products, among other sources, vegetarians are
always looking for new ways to remain protein-packed. As you probably know, proteins are
the building blocks of a healthy life! Therefore, tapioca is a wonderful option for vegetarians
because may provide ample amounts of protein. Therefore, your bodily processes, muscle
development, growth, healing, and various essential activities can continue as usual when
tapioca is regularly added to your diet!

May Help Improve Bone Mineral Density

Tapioca may be a rich source of vitamin K, calcium, and iron, all of which play
important roles in the protection and development of bones. Bone mineral density decreases as
we age, resulting in conditions like osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, general weakness and lack of
flexibility. If tapioca is regularly consumed, it may provide our bodies with the vital nutrients
it needs to help promote and protect bone health as we age.

May Prevent Alzheimer’s

Vitamin K does more than promoting osteotropic activity; it may also be important for
our mental health, according to one study published in the journal Medical Hypothesis. It has
been shown that vitamin K may help reduce the chances of developing Alzheimer’s disease by
stimulating neuronal activity in the brain. Alzheimer’s often occurs due to a lack of activity or
mental stagnation; vitamin K may help keep neural pathways active and engaged. It may also
eliminate free radicals that can cause a breakdown of brain tissue. As further research on this
topic is conducted, it has positive implications for the field of neurodegenerative disease in
aging.

May Help Regulating Blood Pressure

According to the Alliance of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Science Societies, tapioca
may contain potassium, another essential mineral that the human body requires. Potassium is
a vasodilator, meaning that it may help reduce the tension and stress in the blood vessels and
arteries. This can increase the flow of blood to parts of the body and reduce the strain on the
cardiovascular system.
 A diet high in potassium (such as the DASH diet) has been linked to the prevention of
atherosclerosis and a reduced chance of blood clots getting stuck and causing fatal events like
a heart attack or stroke. Furthermore, potassium is the key for fluid balance in the body and
when it is in proper balance with sodium, all of the fluid exchanges in the body can be smooth,
further boosting metabolic efficiency and energy.

May Boost Energy

Carbohydrates are considered the source of energy for the body since sugars like sucrose are
broken down into glucose, which provides usable energy. Tapioca may be rich in
carbohydrates, without the negatives such as LDL cholesterol and saturated fats, so it may help
keep energy levels high and increase satiety.

Word of Caution: Cassava produces cyanide, which is an extremely poisonous

compound for humans. So despite the benefits of eating tapioca in various forms, it is important
to remember that cassava can be very poisonous if not prepared, processed or cooked properly.

Commercially prepared tapioca is perfectly healthy to eat, however, don’t attempt to

process or eat tapioca grown or found in the wild, unless you are instructed by someone who
is very familiar with a healthy way of processing it.

Also, since tapioca has a very high carbohydrate and caloric content, if you are trying
to lose weight, you must be vigilant about consuming small portions as part of a healthy diet.

Conclusion

All the technological innovations detailed here are characterized by a high level of
technological maturity, which means they are qualified technologies, fully adopted in Brazil,
and, potentially, ready to be transferred directly, or with small adaptations, to other
international production systems. On the other hand, their positive impacts on society do not
seem to have been properly analyzed to create a vision of their success and how these
technologies can be framed within the readiness scale recently developed by CGIAR (Sartas et
al. 2020).

It is hoped these technology transfer trainings will allow participants to apply the skills
in their own contexts. Therefore, it is important to design a training program that is sustainable
and replicable in other regions or countries.
 Considering this and based on the experiences acquired over the last 15 years, Embrapa
Mandioca e Fruticultura has been trying to improve the implementation of international
training to maximize the returns on investment.

Appropriate selection of participants is crucial. Typically, training candidates are

chosen directly by the beneficiary institution, following the view that innovations can be
transferred simply by intermediaries and change agents (e.g., extension workers) and then
spread throughout the communities of individual beneficiaries. This conception has been
widely refuted (Sartas et al. 2020).

In the first training sessions carried out by Embrapa, the African candidates selected
were predominantly adult professionals, based in national R&D institutions primarily focused
on administrative management activities rather than research. Usually, these individuals held
administrative positions; some were not even involved with cassava crop. This lack of
proximity to cassava production may have hindered their effectiveness as a technology
multiplier inside and outside their institutions.

In the more recent cassava courses carried out by Embrapa, international organizing
institutions (usually CGIAR and African NARIs), training sponsors, and funding agencies have
selected young candidates with an entrepreneur profile, technical professionals, or recently
graduated individuals linked to state institutions, private companies, and/or start-ups. Most
young trainees consider training as essential to financial survival, an opportunity for them to
introduce innovations in their own business and add value to their products.

Embrapa has specified how its trainings could be adapted or suited to address gender
differences; however, we did not see the need to adjust the trainings to meet the preferences of
men and women. The instructors – who are women and men – have noticed some differences
in participation. Women showed more interest in topics related to techniques for preparing
products from cassava processing. Men expressed greater interest in field activities. As the
trainings occasionally require overnight stays or long hours away from home, this may create
some implications that deserve attention to meet the needs and preferences of both men and
women participants.

Participants of the three courses held within the Youth Technical Training Program on
Cassava Post-harvest Processing (2017–2019) are already applying what they have learned in
Brazil, and many of them provide to IBRAF and Embrapa with great feedback on the results
of the Program at the micro level. One of the participants who founded the PaaClee Cassava
Processing Company in 2014, for example, started to invest in training sessions with his
employees, sharing the knowledge acquired during the 1-week course in Brazil. The YTTP on
Post-harvest Processing of Cassava success also resulted in the organization of four YTTP
sessions on Smallholder Agriculture with Senegalese learners and one YTTP session on Civic
Engagement with Angolan learners, the first ones to be organized in bilateral arrangements,
scheduled for 2021 and 2022 (UNDP-IBRAF 2020). During the Fourth International Cassava
Conference (GCP21-IV), held in Benin in 2018, the young woman from Benin, Paula
Gnancadja, a Bachelor in Management of Agricultural and Rural Enterprises, who participated
in the YTTP training the previous year, presented the work “A Young Cassava Farmer and
Processor Building a New Start-Up in Benin,” reporting the success of her start-up (ABB.Sarl),
after returning from Brazil, introducing new cassava processing products, which are being very
well accepted by Benin consumers. She received the GCP21-IV Best Poster Award in the
“entrepreneurship” category.

The technologies that received the greatest interest in the trainings include those
products made from starch (polvilhos), such as beijus, tapiocas, and biscuits (avoador), and the
minimal processing technique as a means for storing roots and using it later as raw material for
chips, cakes, and dough for snacks.

One of the great challenges for the implementation of training for Africans is the great
cultural and language diversity, coupled with the fact that the majority of Brazilian instructors
speak only Portuguese. At the three YTTP courses, most of the African attendees spoke either
English or French, while the Brazilian instructors spoke Portuguese, which create some
communication difficulties.

The fact that Brazil is the center of origin and domestication of cassava explains the
great importance of this crop, as well as the enormous diversity of its use and processing in
different regions of Brazil. This time lag and the great genetic diversity of cassava made Brazil
a major source of technologies for processing, which would later be mechanized and scaled for
industry. Currently, the African cassava-producing countries are investing heavily in both
sectors (family and industrial) to develop their own new technologies and/or to adapt or
improve Brazilian innovations according to their demands. These efforts are welcome for
government development programs, because of the unquestionable importance of cassava to
reduce hunger and increase the income of cassava producers and processors. Therefore, we
believe that the next cassava technologies transfer initiatives between Brazil and Africa should
be extended to technologies, services, and products aimed at large-scale cassava processing
and cultivation.

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