An Introduction to Calculus

Srijan Mahajan
Contents
1 Motivation 1

2 Limits 2
2.1 Left Hand Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Right Hand Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Algebra of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Epsilon-Delta Definition of Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.5 Some Important Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Differentiation 5
3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Properties of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Continuity 9
4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Some Special Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.1 Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.2 Greatest Integer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.3 Ceiling Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.4 Signum Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Differentiability 12

6 Applications of Derivatives 15
6.1 Rate of Change of Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2 Increasing or Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.3 Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.4 L’Hôpital’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.5 Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1
 Abstract

Calculus (or infinitesimal calculus) is the study of continuous change. The word calculus is a Latin word meaning small pebble.
The two major branches of calculus are
ˆ Differential Calculus- It gives a detailed idea about the rates of change (commonly referred to as slopes of a curve).
Sir Issac Newton had major contributions in differential calculus. He published a mathematical treatise in 1665, ”Method
of Fluxions”, in which he gave a detailed explanation of the time derivative. Newton’s notation is used seldom as it is
very messy for higher derivatives1 .
ˆ Integral Calculus- It concerns accumulation of quantities (sum of an infinitely many infinitesimals) and area under a
given curve (function). Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz had major contributions to the field of integral calculus. He gave the
modern notation for both the derivative and the anti-derivative (integral).

Calculus was developed independently in the late 17th century by Sir Issac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. This
caused the Newton-Leibniz Calculus Controversy which broke out in full force in 1711. Even though Leibniz had published his
paper first, some of Newton’s supporters accused Leibniz of stealing his work. Alas, the prevailing opinion in Britain was
against Leibniz2 .
In this short introduction we will cover limits, then wander into the depths of differentiation before returning to limits for a
glance at continuity and then end with integration including some special non-elementary functions.

1 Also Leibniz is cooler.

2 who is clearly the greater mathematician
1 Motivation
’Necessity is the mother of all inventions’, thus, the same way arithmetic was first developed for counting and numbering
items, calculus also was invented for a very specific reason.
The Greeks played an important role in developing the understanding of basic logic and mathematical principles. They used a
method of dividing a n-sided polygon into triangles to find their areas. However, the idea of curved shapes, most notably the
circle especially intrigued them.
They first inscribed a triangle to get a very poor approximation of the area, but by increasing the number of sides of the
inscribed polygon we can get very close to the area required. This method of continuously increasing the number of sides to

Figure 1: A heptagon is a good approximation for a circle

get a better approximation each time is called the method of exhaustion. This is extremely tiresome and takes a lot time3 .
However, their adventure to find the areas of curved shapes did not stop here. They then decided to find the area under
parabolas, ellipses and other curved shapes. But, their adventures were short since only common algebra and approximations
are not going to help us a lot in our journey forward.4
4

1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

x2
Figure 2: A decent approximation for the area under sin 2x − 10
+3

1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

x2
Figure 3: An even better approximation for the area under sin 2x − 10
+3

3 Believe
it or not this was how people calculated π up until the year 1666, when Sir Issac Newton found a ridiculously easier method.
4 Aboveare some methods for finding the areas under the curve using rectangles. This method was used by the Greeks and we will be using a
very similar method to carry out integration ourselves.

1
2 Limits
Consider an object falling freely under the influence of gravity (near Earth surface), then we can say that the distance travelled
by it, s and the time are related as,5
s = 4.9t2
Now, the question stands to find the velocity at a given point in time. But first let us find the average velocity6 between
t1 = 1 second and t2 = 2 second.

4.9(2)2 − 4.9(1)2
< v >1→2 =
2−1
= 14.7 ms−1

Now the average velocity between t1 = 1.9 second and t2 = 2 second.

4.9(2)2 − 4.9(1.9)2
< v >1.9→2 =
2 − 1.9
= 19.11 ms−1

See where I am going? As we reduce the time between the intervals as close to zero as possible, we get the velocity at t = 2
seconds.
t1 1.5 1.9 1.99
<v> 17.15 19.11 19.551
As we reduce the time intervals we get closer and closer to the value 19.6. Now, let us take a look at the graph of the equation
y = 4.9x2 and the slope at x = 2.

So simply speaking, to find the limit of a function we just need to see where the function is going. However, the function
y = 4.9x2 is a continuous function which means it is perfectly defined for all x ∈ R but not all functions are defined everywhere.
2
−4
Let us take the function f (x) = xx−2 , it is clearly not defined at x = 2 since division by 0 is not defined. But if we look at it’s
graph it is discontinuous at the point (2, 4), however it does not seem like it, does it? Thus, we assume the function to be
6

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

2
x −4
Figure 4: Graph of x−2

5 This comes directly from the 2nd equation of motion, however Newton concluded it experimentally.
6 Average velocity is generally represented by < v >

2
continuous (just for the sake it). It looks like the function y = x + 2. Hence putting x = 2, we get 4. Finally, we can say that
2
−4
the function xx−2 tends to 4 as x tends to 2.
x2 − 4
∴ lim =4
x→2 x − 2
But, we cannot plot the graphs of every function as it can get complicated fast. So, let us try to evaluate the limit algebraically.
Let,
x2 − 4
L = lim
x→2 x − 2
(x + 2)(x − 2)
= lim (Here we can cancel the (x − 2) terms since x ̸= 2 but is close to it)
x→2 x−2
= lim x + 2 (Now we can simply substitute the value of x.)
x→2
∴L=4

2.1 Left Hand Limit

When the limit is evaluated from the left hand side, i.e. when x approaches the limit point from the left side, it is called the
Left Hand Limit. It is represented as,
L = lim− f (x)
x→a

2.2 Right Hand Limit

Similarly, when the limit is evaluated from the right hand side, i.e. when x approaches the limit point from the right side, it is
called the Right Hand Limit. It is represented as,
L = lim+ f (x)
x→a
For some functions, the Left Hand Limit and the Right Hand Limit are not equal, then we can say that the limit does not
exist at the limit point.
If lim− f (x) ̸= lim+ f (x) =⇒ lim f (x) Does not exist
x→a x→a x→a

2.3 Algebra of Limits

Given below are some of the algebraic properties of limits, since these are trivial the proofs are left as an exercise to the
reader,

Theorem 1. Limit of sum or difference of two functions is sum or difference of the limits of the functions respectively.

lim f (x) ± g(x) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

x→c x→c x→c

Theorem 2. Limit of product of two functions is product of the limits of the functions.

lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x)

x→c x→c x→c

Theorem 3. Limit of quotient of two functions is quotient of the limits of the functions (given g(x) ̸= 0).

f (x) lim f (x)

lim = x→c
x→c g(x) lim g(x)
x→c

2.4 Epsilon-Delta Definition of Limit

Now that we understand limits, it is time to define them rigorously. We will use something known as the Epsilon-Delta
definition of a limit.
Let f (x) be a real valued function defined on an open interval around c. We sat that the limit of f (x) as x tends to c is L, i.e.
lim f (x) = L, if ∀ϵ > 0, ∃δ > 07 , such that ∀x 0 < |x − c| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ.
x→c
Let us try to apply this definition to solve a simple problem.
7∀ is read as for all and ∃ is read as exists

3
 Example. Prove that lim (5x − 7) = 13.
x→4

ϵ
Solution. Suppose ϵ > 0. Now choose δ = 5 (Here we do not know at the beginning what δ needs to be but we will find
out).
Suppose 0 < |x − 4| < δ.
Check,

|5x − 7 − 13|
=5|x − 4|
=5δ
ϵ ϵ
=5 (For the proof we need |5x − 7 − 13| < ϵ, so we choose δ = )
5 5
∴ |5x − 7 − 13| <ϵ

We can also prove the limits of non-linear functions, but I will not cover it in this article as they can be lengthy but follow the
same algorithm as that for linear expressions.

2.5 Some Important Formulas

sin x
Theorem 4. lim x =1
x→0

Proof. Consider a unit circle, with a sector of angle θ.

Clearly,

[∆ABD] ≥ [Sector] ≥ [∆ABC]

1 1 1
=⇒ tan x ≥ x ≥ sin x
2 2 2
sin x
cos x ≤ ≤1
x
sin x
=⇒ 1 ≤ lim ≤1
x→0 x
sin x
∴ lim =1
x→0 x

1
Theorem 5. The limit lim (1 + x) x = e, where is a special constant called Euler’s Number.
x→0

ln(x+1)
Example. Prove that lim x = 1.
x→0

4
 Solution. This is very simple to prove using the properties of logarithms,
1
L = lim · ln(x + 1)
x→0 x
 1

= ln lim (x + 1) x
x→0
= ln(e)
∴L=1

3 Differentiation
From the example used in the beginning of the section Limits we can also get a good understanding of derivatives. As we
know that the slope of the displacement-time graph gives us the average velocity between the two points, how about we move
the two points extremely close to each other?
Clearly, moving closer and closer gives us the slope of the equation at one point. Thus, we can say that the derivative of a
function is the instantaneous change8
The following are some notations for the derivative of a function,
dn y
ˆ Leibniz Notation dxn or dx f (x)

ˆ Lagrange’s Notation f (n) (x)

ˆ Euler’s Notation Dxn f (x) or more generally, the x is understood and omitted Dn f (x)

ˆ Newton’s Notation is generally used for the time derivative ẏ

3.1 Definition
Consider a function f (x) continuous9 in the interval [a, b]. Now let us take a point c in the interval. The derivative of the
function at the point c is the change in the value of the function divided by the given change in x, i.e.,

f (c + h) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim
h→0 h
Now, rather than considering a given point c, let us take the derivative of a function at any point x. Similarly,

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Let us try to find the derivative of a basic function, f (x) = x.

Example. Find the derivative of f (x) = x and prove it.

Solution. Let us take two points on the line, I will take (1, 1) and (3, 3), let us try to find the slope,
3−1
Slope = =1
3−1
So the slope of the function f (x) = x is always 1a . So we can say that,

f ′ (x) = 1

Let us try to prove this using the definition of a derivative,

(x + h) − (x)
f ′ (x) = lim =1
h→0 h
a If you do not believe me, take any two points on the line and they will always give you a slope of 1.

8 It does sound like an oxymoron but if you always keep in mind the the points are approaching to one of the points, it makes sense.
9 Continuous means that the function has no abrupt change in its value.

5
 Example. Find the derivative of f (x) = xn .

Solution. Using the definition of derivative,

(x + h)n − xn
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
xn +n C1 xn−1 h1 +n C2 xn−2 h2 + · · · +n Cn hn − xn
= lim (Using the binomial theorem)
h→0 h
h(n C1 xn−1 h0 +n C2 xn−2 h1 + · · · +n Cn hn−1 )
= lim
h→0 h
′ n−1
∴ f (x) = nx

Example. Find the derivative of f (x) = ax where a > 0 ∧ a ̸= 1, so that the function is continuous everywhere.

Solution. Using the definition of derivative,

ax+h − ax
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
ah − 1
= lim ax ·
h→0 h
∴ f ′ (x) = ax ln a

Now that we know the derivatives of some common algebraic functions, let us move on to trigonometric functions.

Example. Find the derivative of f (x) = sin x.

Solution. Using the definition of derivative,

sin(x + h) − sin x
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h − sin x + cos x sin h
= lim (∵ sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + sin b cos a)
h→0 h
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x lim + cos x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= 0 + cos x
∴ f ′ (x) = cos x

Example. Find the derivative of f (x) = cos x.

Solution. Using the definition of derivative,

cos(x + h) = cos x
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x
= lim (∵ cos(a + b) = cos a cos b − sin a sin b)
h→0 h
cos h − 1 sin h
= cos x lim − sin x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= 0 − sin x
∴ f ′ (x) = − sin x

Example. Find the derivative of f (x) = tan x.

6
 tan x
Solution. Before using the definition of derivative, we will first find lim x as it will be of use in this proof.
x→0

tan x
L = lim
x→0x
sin x 1
= lim ·
x→0 x cos x
∴L=1

Now, using the definition of derivative,

tan(x + h) − tan x
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 x
tan x+tan h
− tan x tan a + tan b
= lim 1−tan x tan h (∵ tan(a + b) = )
h→0 x 1 − tan a tan b
tan x + tan h − tan x + tan2 x tan h
= lim
h→0 h(1 − tan x tan h)
tan h 1
= sec2 x lim · (∵ 1 − tan2 x = sec2 x)
h→0 h 1 − tan x tan h
= sec2 x

3.2 Properties of Derivatives

Theorem 6.

(f (x) ± g(x))′ = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x) (This proof is trivial and is thus, left as an exercise to the reader)

Theorem 7.
(cf (x))′ = cf ′ (x) (This proof is trivial and is thus, left as an exercise to the reader)

Theorem 8. (f (x) · g(x))′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)

This is the product rule for derivatives. We will now prove this using the definition of derivative,
Proof.
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
(f (x) · g(x))′ = lim
h→0 h
g(x + h) f (x + h)
= lim f (x + h) · + lim · g(x + h)
h→0 h h→0 h
∴ (f (x) · g(x))′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)

Now, we need to keep in mind to not use (f (x) · g(x))′ = f ′ (x) · g ′ (x).

f ′ (x)g(x)−f (x)g ′ (x)

Theorem 9. ( fg(x)
(x) ′
) = (g(x))2

Proof. This is the quotient rule for derivatives. I will not prove this here and is left as an exercise to the reader since it
is very similar to the proof of the product rule.

a
Theorem 10. If we are given a function F (x) = (f ◦ g)(x)

F ′ (x) = (f ′ ◦ g)(x) · g ′ (x) = f ′ (g(x))g(x)

a (f ◦ g) denotes composition of two functions f and g, more precisely, (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)).

Proof. Again, this proof is left as an exercise to the reader.

7
3.3 Implicit Differentiation
An implicit function is a function of several variables. Most of the functions that we deal with are implicit, for example,
x2 + y 2 = 1 which describes a unit circle. Now let us try to find the derivative of x2 + y 2 = 1 at an arbitrary point (x, y).

1
r

−1 1
−1

Figure 5: A unit circle

Example. Find the derivative of x2 + y 2 = 1.

Solution. Let us begin by separating the variables,

p
y = 1 − x2
dy 1
= √ (−2x) (Using the Chain Rule.)
dx 2 1 − x2
−x
=√
1 − x2
Now, we see that we need to separate the variables in order to differentiate a function but that is not always possible, for
example, the function yey = x.10 But clearly, we should be able to find its derivative everywhere, right? Yes, we can but we

Figure 6: x = yey

need to use something known as implicit differentiation. It is very easy and similar to normal differentiation which we already
know.
dy
Whenever you differentiate a y term we multiply the derivative of that y term by dx . It is essentially the Chain Rule that we
dy
are using. Then, we separate the dx to one side to finally get the derivative of the function.11
Now let us try a problem,
10 You can try to separate the x from the y but will fail to do so using elementary functions. It is impossible.
11 Most of the times the derivative will include a y term but there is nothing to worry about as we can differentiate the expression again to get a
nice differential equation but we will not do that here.

8
 Example. Find the derivative of sin x − x2 y + y = 10x.

Solution. Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x,

dy dy
cos x − (x2 + 2xy) + = 10 (Using the product rule for the second term)
dx dx
dy 10 − cos x + 2xy dy
=⇒ = (Separating the to one side)
dx −x2 + 1 dx
So, we can say that implicit differentiation is just a fancy new name for something we already know, the Properties of
Derivatives.

3.4 Higher Order Derivatives

We have been looking at the first derivative of the functions and its meaning (the slope of a function). Now let us define
higher derivatives.
The second derivative is defined as
d2 f d df
dx
=
dx2 dx
Which means that it is the rate of change of the rate of change of a functions (sounds weird). It is a function which
gives us information regarding how fast the slope changes. But how does it concern us? Higher order derivatives are
2
especially important for kinematics, for example, acceleration is the second time derivative of displacement, i.e. a = ddt2s , it
2
comes up in the equation for Simple Harmonic Motion, i.e. ddt2x + ω 2 x = 0 and also in the Schrödinger Wave Equation12
∂2ψ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ 2m
∂x2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 + h2 (E − U )ψ = 0. But how does it behave?
d2 f
Looking at the behavior of the second derivative we can determine the plot of the function. If dx2 > 0, then we can say the
d2 f
function concaves up and if dx2 < 0, then the functions concaves down.

1 1

−1 1 −1 1
−1 −1

Figure 7: Concave Up Figure 8: Concave Down

4 Continuity
Continuity plays an important role in understanding differentiability which deals with when and where functions are
differentiable and when they are not. So, let us begin with the definition without wasting any more time.

4.1 Definition
Suppose a real valued function f on I ⊆ R and let a be a point in the domain of f . Then f is said to be continuous at c if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

We can put this more precisely as

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a− x→a+

Simple enough. Let us try a problem,

4x+5
Example. Determine the points of discontinuity of the function f (x) = x2 −3x+2 .

12Well, I lied a little, it is not exactly the derivative but the partial derivative of the wave function with respect to the spacial dimensions.

9
 Solution. a We already know that division by 0 is not defined, so let us try to find the values of x where we are trying to
do so.
Clearly, x2 − 3x + 2 is 0 at x = 1 and x = 2.
∴ We can say that f (x) is discontinuous at x = 1 and x = 2.
a points of discontinuity mean the values of x where the function is not continuous or discontinuous.

Let us try to elaborate on our definition of continuity. Rather than looking at one point, let us try to look at the bigger
picture.

Theorem 11. A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point in the domain of f .
Now, as a consequence of this ”elaboration”, the size of the domain does not influence the continuity of the function. Even if
the function is defined at only one point, the function can still be continuous!

Example. Prove that every polynomial function is continuous.

This is a very trivial, yet important result so let us prove this statement.
Solution. Let the polynomial function be
n
X
f (x) = ai xi
i=0

Let b be a fixed real number (since the domain of f (x) is R),

n
X
lim f (x) = lim a i xi
x→b x→b
i=0
n
X
= lim ai xi (We can interchange the limit and summation using the Algebra of Limits)
x→b
i=0
Xn
= ai bi
i=0
= p(b)
∴ lim = p(b)
x→b

Thus, by the definition of a continuous function, every polynomial function is continuous.

4.2 Some Special Functions

4.2.1 Modulus
The absolute value or modulus takes any real number as its input and gives its value without any regard to its sign. Thus we
can say that, (
x, if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, if x < 0
Let us take a look at its continuity. Clearly, the domain of the function is R and is also continuous at all points in its domain.

−1 1
−1

Figure 9: y = |x|

10
Thus, we can say that |x| is continuous everywhere. √
There is also another way to define the modulus function13 , |x| = x2 .

4.2.2 Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function or the floor function takes any real number as its input and gives the largest integer less than or
equal to it as the output. It is denoted as ⌊x⌋. E.g. ⌊1.3⌋ = 1 and ⌊−1.3⌋ = −2. Let us take a look at its continuity now.

−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

Figure 10: y = ⌊x⌋

Clearly, the function is discontinuous at all integers14 . Let us try to prove this taking two cases.
Let a ∈ R − I, then,
lim ⌊x⌋ = ⌊a⌋
x→a

Thus, the function is continuous at all non-integer points.

Now, let b ∈ I, if we approach b from the left side,15

lim ⌊x⌋ = b − 1
x→b−

However,
lim ⌊x⌋ = b
x→b+

Thus we can say that, lim ⌊x⌋ does not exist and therefore the floor function is discontinuous at all integers.
x→b

4.2.3 Ceiling Function

The ceiling function is the lesser sister of the floor function. It takes any real number as its input and gives the least integer
greater than or equal to it as the output. It is denoted as ⌈x⌉. E.g. ⌈2.1⌉ = 3 and ⌈−1.3⌉ = −1. You know the drill, let us
take a look at its continuity. Well, there is not much to look at, like the greatest integer function, it is also discontinuous at
all integers.

−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

Figure 11: y = ⌈x⌉

13 thisdefinition will help us in the near future, so keep it in mind!

14 Itjumps at integer values
15 Take a close look at the graph

11
4.2.4 Signum Function
The sign function or the signum function takes any real number as its input and gives the sign of the number as the value. It
is denoted by sgn(x). Thus we can say that, 
−1,
 ifx < 0
sgn(x) = 0, ifx = 0

1, ifx > 0


Let us take a look at its continuity now. Clearly, the function is discontinuous at x = 0, but lets show it.

−1 1
−1

Figure 12: y = sgn(x)

Taking the left hand limit,

lim sgn(x) = −1
x→0−

Taking the right hand limit,

lim sgn(x) = 1
x→0+

Since lim− sgn(x) ̸= lim+ sgn(x), we can say that the limit does not exist and thus, the signum function is discontinuous at
x→0 x→0
x = 0.

5 Differentiability
Remember the definition of the derivative of a function f at some point a in its domain,
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
But what would happen if the limit does not exist? Well, the function would simply not be differentiable at that point.
Thus, let us now give a better definition for the derivative.
The derivative of a function f at some point a in the domain of f is defined as
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
provided that this limit exists.
The next theorem is an important one in the analysis of functions,

Theorem 12. If any function f is differentiable on an interval [a, b], then it is also continuous in that interval.

f (x)−f (c)
Proof. Consider a function that is differentiable at some point c ∈ [a, b], i.e., lim x−c exists. Now, consider the limit,
x→c

lim f (x) − f (c)

x→c
f (x) − f (c)
= lim (x − c)
x→c x−c
= lim (x − c) · lim f (x) − f (a) (Using the Algebra of Limits)
x→c x→c
=0

Thus, we can say that lim f (x) = f (a), which is the definition of continuity at a point! As c is any arbitrary point in the
x→a
interval, all points in the interval fulfill this condition and the function is continuous on the interval [a, b].
The following theorem is left as an exercise to the reader and is used as a lemma to prove the theorem following it.

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 Theorem 13. If f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b], then f (x) has both a minimum and a maximum on the interval.
It is known as the Extreme Value Theorem.

Theorem 14. Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function on its domain and be differentiable on the interval (a, b), such
that f (a) = f (b). Then, ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that, f ′ (c) = 0.

Proof. For this proof we will consider three cases for our function.
Case 1: f (x) = f (a) ∀x ∈ (a, b)
This means that our function is a constant function and thus, f ′ (c) = 0.
Case 2: f (x) > f (a) for some x ∈ (a, b)
Since f (x) is continuous on [a, b], by the Extreme Value Theorem, there exists c such that f (x) is maximum. Thus,
f ′ (c) = 0.
Case 3: f (x) < f (a) for some x ∈ (a, b)
Since f (x) is continuous on [a, b], by the Extreme Value Theorem, there exists c such that f (x) is minimum. Thus,
f ′ (c) = 0.
Clearly, in each case ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0
This theorem is known as Rolle’s Theorem. However, it was not proved in general by Michel Rolle. It was also stated without
proof in Siddhānta Shiromani by Bhāskara II in the 12th century.
Let us take a look at it geometrically,

f ′ (c) = 0
g 2

−2 −1 1 2
−1

(−2, −2)
−2
(1, −2)

Here, we see that the function f (x) = x3 − 3x satisfies the conditions for us to use Rolle’s Theorem, namely,

ˆ It is continuous on the interval [−2, 1]

ˆ It is differentiable on the interval (−2, 1)

ˆ f (−2) = f (1) = −2

Using, Rolle’s theorem, we can say that there exists a point (which in this case is x = −1), where the derivative is 0. Thus, a
local maxima is achieved at some point in (−2, 1).

Theorem 15 (Lagrange Mean Value Theorem). Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function on its domain and be
differentiable on the interval (a, b). Then, ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that,

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
We need to keep in mind that MVTa does not give us the point which satisfies the condition but proves the existence of
such point.
a Mean Value Theorem has been abbreviated to MVT.

Proof. We will begin by defining a new function, g such that g(x) = f (x) − rx. Clearly, g is also continuous on the

13
 interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Now, let g(a) = g(b),

=⇒ f (a) − ra = f (b) − rb
f (b) − f (a)
∴r= (Looks a lot like the expression in the statement)
b−a
Also,
g ′ (x) = f ′ (x) − r (Differentiating both sides)
Using Rolle’s Theorem, for g, ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that g ′ (c) = 0 =⇒ f ′ (c) = r. Finally,

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
f MVT is an extension of Rolle’s Theorem. Again, we look at it geometrically,
Clearly, we can say that

(4, 6)
6

4
(−3, 2.5)
3

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

−2
f ′ (c) = 0.5

−3

x2
Here, we see that the function f (x) = 2 − 2 satisfies the conditions for us to use MVT, namely,
ˆ It is continuous on the interval [−3, 4]

ˆ It is differentiable on the interval (−3, 4)

Using MVT, we can say that some tangent line has the same slope as the secant line joining (−3, 2.5) and (4, 6). The
above given theorems are very important. These help us in all kinds of problems. Let us try a very basic one.

Example. Prove that if f ′ (x) = 0∀x ∈ I, then f (x) = c∀x ∈ I.

Well, obviously we know that the derivative of a constant function (i.e. f (x) = c) is 0. But is it the only function with this
property?

14
 Solution. Let us take any two points a, b ∈ I such that (a ̸= b) ∧ (b > a). Then, by MVT, ∃c ∈ (a, b) which satisfies,

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
=⇒ 0 = (It is given that f (x) = 0)
b−a
∴ f (b) = f (a)

Since the function has the same value at any two points, it is a constant function.
We have discussed enough about derivatives. Let us learn about some applications of what we have learned.

6 Applications of Derivatives
Since the times of the Greeks, the need of calculus has increased from finding the area of a circle to making tall buildings.
Derivatives are an integral (no pun intended) part of our day-to-day lives. We will now discuss some common applications of
derivatives.

6.1 Rate of Change of Quantities

dy
We have already discussed that dx is the rate of change of some quantity y with respect to another quantity x. But more
often than not, these quantities are not directly related but are related to some another quantity, say t.
Consider the following situation,

x = f (t)
y = g(t)

Then, we can say that,

dx
= f ′ (t)
dt
dy
= g ′ (x)
dt
dy
dt g ′ (x)
=⇒ dx = ′
dt
f (x)
dy g ′ (x)
∴ = ′
dx f (x)

Now, let us try to apply this,

Example. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled along the ground away from
the wall at the rate of 2 ms−1 . How fast is its height on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from
the wall?
Solution. Let us try to assign some variables to the quantities we need.
dy
Since we need to find the rate of change of the height, it makes more sense to take it as y (no other reason other than dx
looks better than dx
dy ). Then, let us take the distance of the base of the ladder from the wall to be x.
We also know that the pull gives the point A a velocity of 2 ms−1 , thus,
dx
=2
dt

15
 B

O A Pull
x

Using the Pythagoras Theorem in ∆BOA, we get,

x2 + y 2 = 52 (Since the length of the ladder is 5 m)

Now, differentiating w.r.t time t,

dx dy
2x + 2y =0
dt dt
dy −x dx p
=⇒ =√ (∵ y = 25 − x2 )
dt 25 − x dt
2

dy  −4 dx
=√ · 2 (∵ = 2and we need to evaluate the derivative at x = 4)
dt x=4 dt
 2
25 − 4
dy  −8
∴ =
dt x=4 3


Hence, we can say that the height of the ladder is decreasing at the rate of 8
3 ms−1 .

6.2 Increasing or Decreasing Functions

In many cases we need to know if a given function is increasing or decreasing in a given interval or around a point. Knowing
the behaviour of a function at some points helps us to predict the plot of the function and thus, visualise it better.

Theorem 16. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b). Then,

ˆ f is increasing in [a, b] if f ′ (x) > 0∀x ∈ (a, b)

ˆ f is decreasing in [a, b] if f ′ (x) < 0∀x ∈ (a, b)

ˆ f is a constant function in [a, b] if f ′ (x) = 0∀x ∈ (a, b)

Proof. If f ′ (x) > 0∀x ∈ (a, b). Consider x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] such that x1 < x2 , then, by MVTa

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f ′ (c) =
x2 − x1
=⇒ f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0 (As f ”(c) > 0 and x2 − x1 > 0)
∴ f (x2 ) > f (x1 )

Hence, we get
∀x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] if x2 > x1 =⇒ f (x2 ) > f (x1 )
Thus, f is an increasing function in [a, b].
Similarly, if f ′ (x) < 0∀x ∈ (a, b),
∀x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] if x2 > x1 =⇒ f (x2 ) < f (x1 )
Thus, f is a decreasing function in [a, b].
And, if f ′ (x) = 0∀x ∈ (a, b),
∀x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] if x2 > x1 =⇒ f (x2 ) = f (x1 )
Thus, f is a constant function in [a, b].
aI told you that MVT is very important.

16
6.3 Maxima and Minima
Theorem 17. If f is continuous at every point of a closeda interval I, then f assumes both an absolute minimum value
m and an absolute maximum value M somewhere in I.

∃x1 ∧ x2 ∈ I(f (x1 ) = m ∧ f (x2 ) = M ) ∧ (m ≤ f (x) ≤ M )∀x ∈ I

This theorem is known as the Max-Min Theorem.

a Notice the use of the word closed. It is very important as without the closed interval, the theorem might not hold.

Now, let us define what we mean by absolute extreme values (maxima/minima).

Let f be a function with domain D. Then f has an absolute minimum value on D at some point c if,

f (x) ≥ f (c)∀x ∈ D

and an absolute minimum value on D at some point c if,

f (x) ≤ f (c)∀x ∈ D

Now that we have discussed absolute extreme points, it means that there are some other types of extremes and they are called
local extreme points.
A function f has a local minimum value at an interior point c of its domain if

f (x) ≥ f (c)∀x ∈ Some open interval containing c

A function f has a local maximum value at an interior point c of its domain if

f (x) ≤ f (c)∀x ∈ Some open interval containing c

Enough about the definitions right? Let us dive into the amazing world of finding extreme points of functions!

Theorem 18. It that, if f has a local maximum and minimum at a point c ∈ D, then

f ′ (c) = 0

This theorem is The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values.
Proof. Suppose that f has a local maximum at c. This means that

f (c) ≥ f (x) =⇒ f (x) − f (c) ≤ 0

Using the First Principle of Derivatives and separating the Left Hand Limit and the Right Hand Limit, we get,

f (x) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim ≤0
x→c+ x−c
f (x) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim ≥0
x→c− x−c
Now, since f ′ (c) is both greater than and less than 0, it must be 0 itself.
Similarly for the case of local minimum, we can conclude that f ′ (c) = 0
So, for the extreme points of a function on some interval can lie only at the critical point16 and/or the end points of the
interval (or the points where is f ′ is not defined in some special cases).

Example. Find the extreme points of f (x) = −x4 + 8x on the interval [−2, 1].

Solution. Since the function is differentiable everywhere, the extreme points will only be at f ′ (x) = 0.
√
f ′ (x) = −4x3 + 8 = 0 =⇒ x = 2
3

16 The interior point of the domain of the function f where f ′ is zero is called the critical point

17
 √
3
But, x = 2 is not in the given interval, thus, the extreme values must occur at the endpoints of [−2, 1], i.e.

f (−2) = −32 (Local Minimum)

f (1) = 7 (Local Maximum)

Another useful application of derivatives is being able to predict the nature of the function and thus, plot its graph. But
we will not be doing this here as it is very trivial. Derivatives are also used for business optimizations, etc.

6.4 L’Hôpital’s rule

L’Hôpital’s rule is a technique which helps us to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms fairly easily. This rule, even though
named after French mathematician Guillaume de l’Hôpital, was actually told to him by Johann Bernoulli17 .

Theorem 19. L’Hôpital’s rule states that, if f (a) = g(a) = 0 and f ′ (a) and g ′ (a) exist such that g ′ (a) ̸= 0,then,

f (x) f ′ (a)
lim = ′
x→a g(x) g (a)

Proof. We will prove the left side equivalent to the right in this one.

f ′ (a) lim f (x)−f

x−a
(a)
x→a
= (Using the First Principle of Derivatives)
g ′ (a) lim g(x)−g(a)
x→a x−a

f (x) − f (a)
= lim
g(x) − g(a)
x→a
′
f (a) f (x)
∴ ′ = lim
g (a) x→a g(x)

In the statement of L’Hôpital’s rule, the differentiability of the functions is important. If the functions are not differentiable,
L’Hôpital’s rule can not be used.

ln 3t
Example. Evaluate the limit lim 2 .
x→∞ t

Solution.
ln 3x
L = lim
x→∞ x2
1
3x
= lim (Using L’Hôpital’s rule)
2x
x→∞
1
= lim
x→∞ 6x
∴L=0

6.5 Newton’s Method

Newton’s Method or Newton-Raphson Method provides an algorithm18 to approximate the roots of a polynomial. Let us use
this method to find the roots of a general polynomial y = f (x).
Let us guess a root to our polynomial and call the guess, x0 . We now find the equation of the tangent at the point (x0 , f (x0 ).

y − f (x0 ) = f ′ (x)(x − x0 )

This line cuts the x-axis at (x1 , 0) (say),

f (x0 )
=⇒ x1 = x0 −
f ′ (x0 )
17 Yes, the same guy who taught Leonhard Euler.
18 An algorithm is a set of instructions to get a desired outcome.

18
Now, we repeat this process, but we now use our improved guess, i.e. x1 , thus, the nth improved guess is given by,

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn −
f ′ (xn )

Which gives the famous formula.

Why not use it to find the roots of a simple equation?

Example. Find the roots of the equation y = x2 − 2.

Solution. Using the Newton-Raphson Method,

x2n − 2
xn+1 = xn −
2xn
xn 1
∴ xn+1 = +
2 xn
We start from x0 = 1, then let us tabulate the values we obtain,
n xn
0 1
1 1.5
2 1.416
3 1.414
√ √
Clearly, 2 is a solution to our equation and we also get a solution close to 2, i.e. 1.414. Thus, we can say that the
Newton-Raphson Method works!

19