Book

Chapter 1
Electronics
1
2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONICS
1.1 Electronic Devices

Any device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons through it
is called an electronic device. The branch of physics that deals with the study of
these electronic devices is called electronics. Electronic devices are the building
blocks of all the electronic circuits. Types of electronic devices:
Vacuum tubes- These include vacuum diodes (consisting of two electrodes-
cathode and anode), triode (three electrodes) and pentode (five elec-
trodes).
Solid-state electronic devices
Classify solids on the basis of values of their electrical conductivity/resistivity.
Metals have very low resistivity or high conductivity. ρ ≈ 10−2 − 10−8 .
Insulators have high resistivity or low conductivity. ρ ≈ 108 .
Semiconductors have resistivity intermediate to metals and insulators. ρ ≈
105 − 1.
Semiconductors have a temperature coefficient of resistivity (αR ) that is neg-
ative and high, i.e. resistivity decreases rapidly with temperature. Classify
semiconductors. On the basis of chemical composition:
Elemental Semiconductors: Si, Ge
Compound Semiconductors: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP , polypyrolle,
polyaniline, polythiophene
On the basis of source and nature of charge of charge conductors:
Intrinsic Semiconductors: These are pure with impurity concentration
less than 10−10 .
Extrinsic Semiconductors: The semiconductors obtained by adding
or doping the pure semiconductor with small amounts of certain specific
impurity atoms having valency different from that of the host atoms.
1.2 Valence Bond Model for Intrinsic Semicon-

ductors
1.2.1 Holes
The vacancy or absence of electron in the bond of a covalently bonded crystal
is called a hole. This vacancy serves as a positive charge carrier. It is not a
physical entity1 . What are the characteristics of holes?
1 It is only a way to describe charge motion.
1.3. DOPING 3
It is a vacancy created by the removal of an electron from a covalent bond

of semiconductor.
It has the same mass as (removed) electron.
It has a positive charge of e.
The energy of a hole is higher, the farther it is from the top of the valence
band.
[scale=0.5]electronic1.jpg
Figure 1.1: *
+4 represents Ge or Si
Since each free electron creates only one hole, the number density of free electrons(ne )
is equal to the number density of holes(nh ) which are equal to the intrinsic charge
carrier concentration (ni ).
ne = nh = ni
The total current is given by,
I = Ie + Ih
1.3 Doping
What are the limitations of an intrinsic semiconductor?
They have low intrinsic charge carrier concentration (of both holes and
electrons).
They cannot have higher hole or electron concentration. Thus, have less
usefulness.
The process of deliberate addition of desirable impurity to a pure semiconductor

so as to increase its conductivity is called doping. The impurity atoms added
are called dopants and the semiconductors doped with the impurity are called
extrinsic/doped semiconductors. Requirements for doping are:
The semiconductor should be very pure (99.9999%).
The dopant atom should neatly replace the semiconductor atom. For
this, the size of the dopant atom should be of nearly the same size as the
semiconductor atom.
The dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.
The dopant concentration should be very low (1 ppm).
Types of dopants are:

Pentavalent dopants: They have 5 valence electrons. E.g. As, Sb, P.

We get n-type semiconductors.
Trivalent dopants: They have 3 valence electrons. E.g. In, B, Al. We

get p-type semiconductors.
Doping does not disturb the overall charge neutrality of the semiconductor.
1.4 Valence Bond Model for Extrinsic Semicon-

ductors
Figure 1.2: *
+5 represents pentavalent impurity
1.4.1 n-type Semiconductors

Each pentavalent impurity is an electron donor. Hence, number density of
electrons is more than number density of holes, so, electrons are the majority
charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers.
ne >> nh
every picture/.style=line width=0.75pt

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (220,11) – (370,11) – (370,60) –
(220,60) – cycle ; (200,110) – (390,110) – (390,160) – (200,160) – cycle ; [dash
pattern=on 0.84pt off 2.51pt] (250,88) – (340,88) ; (314,81) .. controls
(314,76.58) and (317.58,73) .. (322,73) .. controls (326.42,73) and (330,76.58)
.. (330,81) .. controls (330,85.42) and (326.42,89) .. (322,89) .. controls
(317.58,89) and (314,85.42) .. (314,81) – cycle ; (322,55) – (322,73) ;
[shift=(322,53), rotate = 90] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line
width=0.75] (10.93,-3.29) .. controls (6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) ..
controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (238,20) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Conduction Band; (251,141) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Valence Band; (318,72)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] -;
Figure 1.3: *
Energy Level Diagram for n-type
1.5. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS 5
1.4.2 p-type Semiconductors

Each trivalent impurity is an electron acceptor. Hence, number density of elec-
trons is less than the number density of holes, so, holes are the majority charge
carriers and electrons are the minority charge carriers.
nh >> ne
For all types of semiconductors,

(220,60) – cycle ; (200,110) – (390,110) – (390,160) – (200,160) – cycle ; [dash
pattern=on 0.84pt off 2.51pt] (250,88) – (340,88) ; (340,97) .. controls
(340,101.42) and (336.42,105) .. (332,105) .. controls (327.58,105) and
(324,101.42) .. (324,97) .. controls (324,92.58) and (327.58,89) .. (332,89) ..
controls (336.42,89) and (340,92.58) .. (340,97) – cycle ; (332,123) – (332,105)
; [shift=(332,125), rotate = 270] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line
width=0.75] (10.93,-3.29) .. controls (6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) ..
controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (251,141) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Valence Band; (238,20)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Conduction Band;
(336,106) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [rotate=-180]
[align=left] +;
Figure 1.4: *
Energy Level Diagram for p-type
ne nh = n2i
The conductivity increases as,
σ = µh nh e + µe ne e
1.5 Energy Bands in Solids

Due to inter-atomic interactions in a crystal, the electrons of the outer shells
are forced to have energies different from those in isolated atoms. Each energy
level splits into a number of energy levels forming a continuous band, called
energy band. An enormously large number of energy levels closely spaced in a
very small energy range constitute an energy band.
The highest energy band filled with valence electrons is called valence band.
The lowest unfilled allowed energy band next to valence band is called conduc-
tion band.
The gap between the top of valence band and bottom of the conduction
band in which no allowed energy levels for electrons can exist is called forbidden
energy gap/energy band gap/energy gap.

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (40,20) – (190,20) – (190,69) – (40,69)
– cycle ; (20,49) – (210,49) – (210,99) – (20,99) – cycle ; (260,11) – (410,11) –
(410,60) – (260,60) – cycle ; (241,86) – (431,86) – (431,136) – (241,136) – cycle
; (260,62) – (260,84) ; [shift=(260,84), rotate = 270] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0;
green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ; [shift=(260,62), rotate
= 270] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (0,5.59) –
(0,-5.59) ; (480,11) – (630,11) – (630,60) – (480,60) – cycle ; (460,110) –
(650,110) – (650,160) – (460,160) – cycle ; (490,63) – (490,107) ;
[shift=(490,107), rotate = 270] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line
width=0.75] (0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ; [shift=(490,63), rotate = 270] [color=rgb,
255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ; (278,20)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Conduction Band;
(71,80) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Valence Band;
(292,117) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Valence
Band; (58,29) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left]
Conduction Band; (271,65.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
1 eV ; (381,32.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] +; (256,112.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] −; (498,20) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Conduction Band; (511,141) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Valence Band; (511,72.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 5 eV ; (71,122) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Conductor; (267,151) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Semiconductor; (521,171)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Insulator;
Figure 1.5: *
Energy Level Diagrams
1.6. P-N JUNCTION 7
1.6 p-n Junction
It is a single crystal of Ge and Si doped in such a manner that half a portion of

it acts as p-type semiconductor and the other half acts as n-type semiconductor.
Due to the concentration gradient, holes begin to diffuse from p-side to n-side
and electrons begin to diffuse from n-side to p-side. As holes diffuse, they leave
behind negative acceptor ions which set up a negative space-charge region (layer
of negative charge). As electrons diffuse, they leave behind positive acceptor ions
which set up a positive space-charge region. Thus, an electric field is set up from
n-side to p-side2 . Hence, no charge carriers are left near the junction.
The small region in the vicinity of the junction which is depleted of free
charge carriers and has only immobile ions is called depletion region.
The accumulation of negative charges in the p-region and positive charges
in the n-region sets up a potential difference across the junction which acts as
a barrier and is called barrier potential. The potential barrier sets up a barrier
field E⃗B in the direction n to p. The current set up by the barrier field is called
drift current.
The diffusion of majority charge carriers across the junction gives rise to an
electric current from p-side to n-side, this current is called diffusion current3 .
The p-side is known as anode and n-side is known as cathode.
1.6.1 Forward Biased
If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal is connected to the n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased. For an ideal diode, its resistance reduces to 0 and thus, it is short
circuited. When the applied voltage V exceeds the barrier potential VB , a large
forward current ([m]) flows in the circuit.
1.6.2 Reverse Biased
If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and the negative
terminal is connected to the p-side, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse
biased. For an ideal diode, its resistance increases to ∞ and thus, it is an open
circuit. A small reverse current ([µ]) flows in the circuit. Find the current in
the circuit. Thus, the current is,
10
i= =1
9+1

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-0.5,xscale=0.5] (240,10) – (290,10) – (290,60) –
(240,60) – cycle ; (290,10) – (340,10) – (340,60) – (290,60) – cycle ; (258,22)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [xscale=0.5,yscale=0.5]
[align=left] P; (306,22) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
[xscale=0.5,yscale=0.5] [align=left] N;

(210,66) – cycle ; (310,16) – (360,16) – (360,66) – (310,66) – cycle ; (260,16) –
(310,16) – (310,66) – (260,66) – cycle ; (260,80) – (310,80) ; [shift=(310,80),
rotate = 180] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75]
(0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ; [shift=(260,80), rotate = 180] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0;
green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ; (228,28) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] p; (331,30) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] n; (298,15) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] +; (299,33) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] -; (261,28) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] -; (293.5,111) node
[align=left] Depletion
Layer;

(284,10) – cycle (260,40) – (284,40) (316,10) – (316,70) (316,40) – (340,40) ;
Figure 1.6: *
Symbol for p-n junction diode

(284,10) – cycle (260,40) – (284,40) (316,10) – (316,70) (316,40) – (340,40) ;
(340,110) – (304,110) (296,140) – (296,80) (296,110) – (260,110) (307.2,125) –
(304,125) – (304,95) – (307.2,95) – (307.2,125) – cycle ; (260,40) – (260,110) ;
(340,40) – (340,110) ;
1.6. P-N JUNCTION 9

(316,70) – cycle (340,40) – (316,40) (284,70) – (284,10) (284,40) – (260,40) ;
(340,110) – (304,110) (296,140) – (296,80) (296,110) – (260,110) (307.2,125) –
(304,125) – (304,95) – (307.2,95) – (307.2,125) – cycle ; (260,40) – (260,110) ;
(340,40) – (340,110) ;

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (290,190) – (254,190) (246,220) –
(246,160) (246,190) – (210,190) (257.2,205) – (254,205) – (254,175) –
(257.2,175) – (257.2,205) – cycle ; (234,22) – (266,52) – (234,82) – (234,22) –
cycle (210,52) – (234,52) (266,22) – (266,82) (266,52) – (290,52) ; (290,52) –
(304.4,52) – (307.6,32) – (314,72) – (320.4,32) – (326.8,72) – (333.2,32) –
(339.6,72) – (346,32) – (352.4,72) – (355.6,52) – (370,52) ; (266,152) –
(234,122) – (266,92) – (266,152) – cycle (290,122) – (266,122) (234,152) –
(234,92) (234,122) – (210,122) ; (290,122) – (304.4,122) – (307.6,102) –
(314,142) – (320.4,102) – (326.8,142) – (333.2,102) – (339.6,142) – (346,102) –
(352.4,142) – (355.6,122) – (370,122) ; (210,52) – (210,190) ; (370,52) –
(370,122) ; (370,87) – (410,87) – (410,190) – (370,190) ; (290,190) –
(304.4,190) – (307.6,170) – (314,210) – (320.4,170) – (326.8,210) – (333.2,170)
– (339.6,210) – (346,170) – (352.4,210) – (355.6,190) – (370,190) ; (310,12.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 9 ; (311,82.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] 1 ; (311,152.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 1 ; (234,232.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 10 V ;

(246,160) (246,190) – (210,190) (257.2,205) – (254,205) – (254,175) –
(257.2,175) – (257.2,205) – cycle ; (290,52) – (304.4,52) – (307.6,32) – (314,72)
– (320.4,32) – (326.8,72) – (333.2,32) – (339.6,72) – (346,32) – (352.4,72) –
(355.6,52) – (370,52) ; (210,52) – (210,190) ; (370,52) – (370,87) ; (370,87) –
(410,87) – (410,190) – (370,190) ; (290,190) – (304.4,190) – (307.6,170) –
(314,210) – (320.4,170) – (326.8,210) – (333.2,170) – (339.6,210) – (346,170) –
(352.4,210) – (355.6,190) – (370,190) ; (210,52) – (290,52) ; (310,12.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 9 ; (311,152.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] 1 ; (234,232.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 10 V ;
[scale=0.5]electronic3.png
1.6.3 I-V Characteristic

Forward Bias Characteristic
The current increases very slowly till the voltage across the diode crosses the
threshold/cut-in voltage4 . After the cut-in voltage, the current increases expo-
nentially.
Reverse Bias Characteristic

At a sufficiently large value of applied voltage5 , breakdown of the junction diode
occurs. The voltage at which it occurs is called Zener breakdown voltage.
1.6.4 Cause of Breakdown

Zener Breakdown
This process occurs in heavily doped junction diodes. Due to heavy doping, the
junction layer is small and EB is high. The breakdown due to the band-to-band
tunneling is called Zener breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown
Find the current in the circuit, given Vk = 0.7 . The current is,
V − Vk 10.7 − 0.7
i= = = 10[m]
R 1000
Find the main line current. First, consider the diode to be reverse biased,
we find that VA > VB , thus current flows from A to B, hence, the diode is not
reverse biased.
Now, since the diode is forward biased,
25 525
Req = [k] i = 25 = 252[m]
12 12
1.7 Junction Diode as a Rectifier

The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called recti-
fication6 . It is done by using a rectifier.
1.7.1 Half Wave Rectifier

i0 i0
idc =< i >= ∧ irms =
π 2
2 Holesare pushed towards n-side and electrons are pushed towards p-side.
3 The drift current and the diffusion current are in opposite direction and at equilibrium,
they cancel each other out. Thus, there is no net net charge flow across the junction.
4 It is also known as knee voltage (V ). For Si, V = 0.7 and for Ge, V = 0.2.
k k k
5 It can be as low as 1.
6 It means converting bidirectional current into unidirectional current.
1.7. JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER 11

(266,70) (266,100) – (230,100) (277.2,115) – (274,115) – (274,85) – (277.2,85) –
(277.2,115) – cycle ; (310,100) – (324.4,100) – (327.6,80) – (334,120) –
(340.4,80) – (346.8,120) – (353.2,80) – (359.6,120) – (366,80) – (372.4,120) –
(375.6,100) – (390,100) ; (230,100) – (230,40) ; (254,10) – (286,40) – (254,70) –
(254,10) – cycle (230,40) – (254,40) (286,10) – (286,70) (286,40) – (310,40) ;
(310,40) – (390,40) – (390,100) ; (241,142.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 10.7 V ; (337,132.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
1 [k];

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (272.09,37.29) – (284.68,48.81) –
(295.21,44.29) – (285.34,63.56) – (306.4,54.53) – (296.54,73.8) – (317.59,64.77)
– (307.73,84.04) – (328.79,75.01) – (318.92,94.28) – (329.45,89.77) –
(342.04,101.29) ; (342.04,101.29) – (329.45,112.81) – (334.61,122.66) –
(313.09,113.2) – (323.42,132.89) – (301.9,123.44) – (312.23,143.13) –
(290.71,133.68) – (301.04,153.37) – (279.52,143.92) – (284.68,153.77) –
(272.09,165.29) ; (272.09,165.29) – (259.51,153.77) – (249.11,158.16) –
(258.71,139.14) – (237.92,147.92) – (247.52,128.9) – (226.73,137.68) –
(236.33,118.66) – (215.54,127.44) – (225.14,108.42) – (214.74,112.81) –
(202.15,101.29) ; (202.15,101.29) – (214.74,89.77) – (209.58,79.92) –
(231.1,89.37) – (220.77,69.68) – (242.29,79.14) – (231.96,59.44) – (253.48,68.9)
– (243.15,49.2) – (264.67,58.66) – (259.5,48.81) – (272.09,37.29) ;
(292.09,75.69) – (272.09,126.89) – (252.09,75.69) – (292.09,75.69) – cycle
(272.09,37.29) – (272.09,75.69) (292.09,126.89) – (252.09,126.89)
(272.09,126.89) – (272.09,165.29) ; (310,219) – (278.5,219) (271.5,250) –
(271.5,188) (271.5,219) – (240,219) (281.3,234.5) – (278.5,234.5) –
(278.5,203.5) – (281.3,203.5) – (281.3,234.5) – cycle ; (202.15,101.29) –
(203,220) – (240,219) ; (342.04,101.29) – (340,220) – (310,219) ; (207,42.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 1 [k]; (327,52.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 2 [k]; (211,142.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] 3 [k]; (297,162.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 4 [k]; (255,262.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
525 V ; (267,14) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] A;
(267,171) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] B;
The output wave is,
1.7.2 Full Wave Rectifier
2i0 i0
idc =< i >= ∧ irms = √
π 2
1.8 p-n Junction Devices

1.8.1 Zener Diode
A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown
region continuously (without getting damaged). It is used as a voltage regulator,
since the voltage across it remains constant (= VZ ) when it is operated in the
reverse breakdown region it.
1.8.2 Photonic/Opto-Electronic p-n Junction Devices

The p-n junctions can be designed so that current through them changes either
by causing electron excitation (from V.B. to C.B.) by light photons, or con-
versely through electron excitation by a suitable bias voltage resulting in the
emission of light photons.
1.8.3 Photodiodes
It is a p-n junction fabricated from a photosensitive semiconductor and provided
with a transparent window so as to allow light ti fall on its junction. It is used
in reverse bias. Uses of photodiodes.
Detection of optical signals
In demodulation of optical signals
In light-operated switches
In electronic counters
In light operated switches
1.8.4 Light Emitting Diode

It is a heavily doped forward biased p-n junction which spontaneously converts
the biasing electrical energy into optical energy.
1.9. JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 13
1.8.5 Solar Cell

It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electricity and is based
on photovoltaic effect of light.
1.9 Junction Transistor

A junction transistor7 is a three terminal solid state device obtained by growing
either a narrow section of p-type crystal between two relatively thicker sections
of n-type crystals (n-p-n transistor) or a narrow section of n-type crystal between
two relatively thicker sections of p-type crystals (p-n-p transistor)8 . It was
invented by J. Bardeen and W.H. Brattain.
1.9.1 Emitter
It is a section on one side of the transistor. It is of moderate size and heavily
doped semiconductor. It supplies majority charge carriers.
1.9.2 Base
It is the middle section. It is the smallest in size and least doped semiconductor.
It controls the flow of charge carriers from emitter to base.
1.9.3 Collector
It is a section on the other side of the transistor. It is the largest in size and
moderately doped semiconductor. It collects the majority charge carriers.
Size: Collector > Emitter > Base
Doping: Emitter > Collector > Base
E-B is forward biased and C-B is reverse biased.
IE = IB + IC (IB << IC )
1.9.4 Current Gains

Common Base Current Amplification Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the small change in the collector current to the small
change in the emitter current when the collector-base voltage is kept constant.

∆IC
α=
∆IE VCB
7 It is called such because the current is transferred from a low resistance circuit to a high
resistance circuit. Transistor = Transfer + Resistor

8 The arrow is in the direction of conventional current.
Common Emitter Current Amplification Factor

It is defined as the ratio of the small change in the collector current to the
small change in the emitter current when the collector-emitter voltage is kept
constant.
∆IC
β=
∆IB VCE
∆IE ∆IB 1 1
IE = IB + IC = +1 = +1
∆IC ∆IC α β
α and β are independent of current if the emitter-base junction is forward biased
and the collector-base is reverse biased9 .
1.9.5 Common Emitter Characteristics

The common-emitter characteristics are the graphs drawn between appropriate
voltages and currents for a transistor when its emitter is taken as the common
terminal and grounded (zero potential), base is the input terminal and collector
is the output terminal.
Input Characteristic
A graph showing the variation of base current IB with base-emitter VBE at con-
stant collector-emitter voltage VCE called the input character of the transistor.
The input resistance ri of the transistor in CE configuration is defined as the
ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage to the corresponding small change
in the base current, when the collector-emitter voltage is kept fixed.

∆VBE
ri =
∆IB VCE
Output Characteristic
A graph showing the variation of collector current IC with collector-emitter
voltage VCE at constant base-current IB .
The shaded region towards the left is called saturation region and the
line is saturation line. Here IC does not depend on the input current IB .
VCE < VBE .
In the cut-off region, both the junctions are reverse biased. Here, IC = 0
and the transistor works like a switch.
In the active region, the emitter-base junction is in forward bias and

collector-base junction is reverse bias and the transistor works like an
audio amplifier.
9 The definitions of α and β do not hold when both the junctions are forward or reverse
biased.
1.9. JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 15
The output resistance ro of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the

ratio of small change in collector-emitter voltage to the corresponding small
change in the collector current, when the base current is kept fixed.

∆VCE
ro =
∆IC IB
Transfer Characteristic
It is a graph showing the variation of collector current IB with base current IC
at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE . It is a straight line.
1.9.6 Transistor as a Switch
VBB = IB RB + VBE = Vi VCE = VCC − IC RC = Vo (ByKirchhof f ′ sLaws)
Cut-off Region
When Vi increases to a low value, there is not enough forward bias to start a
forward current. (IB IC = 0)Vo = VC C.
Active Region
When Vi is further increased, the transistor is said to be in active state.
1
Vi ∝ IC ∝ IC RC ∝
Vo
Here, the output voltage decreases almost linearly with input voltage.
Saturation Region
When Vi is high, large IC flows which causes the emitter-collector to also be
forward biased. Thus, Vo ≈ 0. The transistor is said to be in saturation state
because it cannot pass any more collector current IC .
1.9.7 Transistor as an Amplifier

Power dissipation in emitter-base circuit is,
2
PEB = IE REB
Power dissipation in collector-base circuit is,
PBC = IC2 RBC
Here, IE IC and RBC >> REB , thus,
PBC >> PEB
PEB is the input power and PBC is the output power, this is the amplifying
action of a transistor.
Transductance
It is defined as the ratio of the small change in the collector current to the small
change in the emitter-base voltage. It is also called transfer of conductance.
∆IC
gm = ...
∆VBE
It depends on the geometry, doping levels and biasing of the transistor.
Amplifier
It is a circuit which is used for increasing the voltage, current or power of
alternating form. The A.C. voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio
of the change in the output voltage Vo to the corresponding change in the input
voltage Vi .
∆Vo
Av =
∆Vi
1.9.8 Common Emitter Amplifier

Here, using Kirchhoff’s Laws,
Vo = VCE = VCC − IC RL
Here, the output and input voltages have a phase difference of π.
A.C. Current Gain

∆IC
βac = Ai =
∆IB VCE
D.C. Current Gain

IC
βdc =
IB VCE
A.C. Voltage Gain
∆VCE
Av =
∆VBE
Also,
∆VCE = −Ro ∆IC ∧ ∆VBE = Ri ∆IB
The negative sign indicates that the input and output voltages have a phase
difference of π.
Ro
Av = Ai Ar (Ar = )
Ri
1.10. CIRCUITS 17
A.C. Power Gain
(∆IC )Ro
Ap = = A2i Ar
(∆IB )Ri
1.10 Circuits
1.10.1 Analog Circuits
A signal in which current or voltage varies continuously with time. The elec-
tronic circuits which process analog signals are called analog circuits.
1.10.2 Digital Circuits

A signal in which current or voltage can only take two discrete values, i.e. 1 or
0.
1.11 Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra

1.11.1 AND
The AND operator is ·. It takes in two inputs and gives one output.
Y =A·B
1.11.2 OR
The OR operator is +. It takes in two inputs and gives one output.
Y =A+B
1.11.3 NOT
The NOT operator is¯. It takes in one input and gives one output.
Y = Ā
1.11.4 NAND
It is a combination of NOT and AND gate.
Y =A·B
1.11.5 NOR
It is a combination of NOT and OR gate.
Y =A+B
The NAND and NOR gates are called the universal gates.
1.11. LOGIC GATES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 19

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (210.37,44.07) – (227.43,44.07) –
(230.27,33.31) – (239.77,54.82) – (245.44,33.31) – (254.93,54.82) –
(260.61,33.31) – (270.1,54.82) – (275.78,33.31) – (285.27,54.82) –
(288.11,44.07) – (305.17,44.07) ; (210,79.25) – (227.06,79.25) – (229.9,68.49) –
(239.4,90) – (245.07,68.49) – (254.57,90) – (260.24,68.49) – (269.73,90) –
(275.41,68.49) – (284.9,90) – (287.74,79.25) – (304.8,79.25) ; (210.37,44.07) –
(210,80) ; (305.17,44.07) – (304.8,80) ; (324.24,44.07) – (341.31,44.07) –
(344.14,33.31) – (353.64,54.82) – (359.31,33.31) – (368.81,54.82) –
(374.48,33.31) – (383.97,54.82) – (389.65,33.31) – (399.14,54.82) –
(401.98,44.07) – (419.04,44.07) ; (323.87,79.25) – (340.94,79.25) –
(343.77,68.49) – (353.27,90) – (358.94,68.49) – (368.44,90) – (374.11,68.49) –
(383.61,90) – (389.28,68.49) – (398.77,90) – (401.61,79.25) – (418.68,79.25) ;
(324.24,44.07) – (323.87,80) ; (419.04,44.07) – (418.68,80) ; (304.99,62.03) –
(324.06,62.03) ; (340,161) – (308.5,161) (301.5,192) – (301.5,130) (301.5,161) –
(270,161) (311.3,176.5) – (308.5,176.5) – (308.5,145.5) – (311.3,145.5) –
(311.3,176.5) – cycle ; (270,161) – (160,160) – (160,62) – (210.18,62.03) ;
(418.86,62.03) – (469.04,62.07) – (470,160) – (340,161) ; (257,12.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 1 [k]; (251,102.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] 3 [k]; (357,12.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 2 [k]; (351,102.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
4 [k]; (285,192.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] 525 V ;

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (110,60) .. controls (126.57,60) and
(140,68.95) .. (140,80) .. controls (140,91.05) and (126.57,100) .. (110,100) ..
controls (93.43,100) and (80,91.05) .. (80,80) .. controls (80,68.95) and
(93.43,60) .. (110,60) – cycle (110,40) – (110,60) (110,120) – (110,100) ;
(110.04,65.04) .. controls (123.43,71.14) and (123.5,74.02) .. (110.04,80.04) ..
controls (96.58,86.06) and (96.5,88.88) .. (110.04,95.04) ; (134,20.5) – (166,40)
– (134,59.5) – (134,20.5) – cycle (110,40) – (134,40) (166,20.5) – (166,59.5)
(166,40) – (190,40) ; (190,40) – (190,54.4) – (200,57.6) – (180,64) – (200,70.4)
– (180,76.8) – (200,83.2) – (180,89.6) – (200,96) – (180,102.4) – (190,105.6) –
(190,120) ; (110,120) – (190,120) ; (354.21,60) .. controls (370.78,60) and
(384.21,68.95) .. (384.21,80) .. controls (384.21,91.05) and (370.78,100) ..
(354.21,100) .. controls (337.65,100) and (324.21,91.05) .. (324.21,80) ..
controls (324.21,68.95) and (337.65,60) .. (354.21,60) – cycle (354.21,40) –
(354.21,60) (354.21,120) – (354.21,100) ; (354.26,65.04) .. controls
(367.64,71.14) and (367.71,74.02) .. (354.26,80.04) .. controls (340.8,86.06) and
(340.71,88.88) .. (354.26,95.04) ; (418.43,40) – (418.43,54.4) .. controls
(428.94,54.61) and (437.92,56.61) .. (441.06,59.43) .. controls (444.2,62.26) and
(440.86,65.35) .. (432.64,67.2) .. controls (426.23,68.63) and (417.95,69.21) ..
(409.9,68.8) .. controls (406.76,68.8) and (404.21,68.08) .. (404.21,67.2) ..
controls (404.21,66.32) and (406.76,65.6) .. (409.9,65.6) .. controls
(417.95,65.19) and (426.23,65.77) .. (432.64,67.2) .. controls (439.47,68.86) and
(443.34,71.18) .. (443.34,73.6) .. controls (443.34,76.02) and (439.47,78.34) ..
(432.64,80) .. controls (426.23,81.43) and (417.95,82.01) .. (409.9,81.6) ..
controls (406.76,81.6) and (404.21,80.88) .. (404.21,80) .. controls
(404.21,79.12) and (406.76,78.4) .. (409.9,78.4) .. controls (417.95,77.99) and
(426.23,78.57) .. (432.64,80) .. controls (439.47,81.66) and (443.34,83.98) ..
(443.34,86.4) .. controls (443.34,88.82) and (439.47,91.14) .. (432.64,92.8) ..
(406.76,94.4) and (404.21,93.68) .. (404.21,92.8) .. controls (404.21,91.92) and
(406.76,91.2) .. (409.9,91.2) .. controls (417.95,90.79) and (426.23,91.37) ..
(432.64,92.8) .. controls (440.86,94.65) and (444.2,97.74) .. (441.06,100.57) ..
controls (437.92,103.39) and (428.94,105.39) .. (418.43,105.6) – (418.43,120) ;
(480,120) – (480,105.6) .. controls (469.49,105.39) and (460.51,103.39) ..
(457.37,100.57) .. controls (454.23,97.74) and (457.57,94.65) .. (465.79,92.8) ..
(491.67,91.2) and (494.21,91.92) .. (494.21,92.8) .. controls (494.21,93.68) and
(491.67,94.4) .. (488.53,94.4) .. controls (480.48,94.81) and (472.2,94.23) ..
(465.79,92.8) .. controls (458.96,91.14) and (455.09,88.82) .. (455.09,86.4) ..
(472.2,78.57) and (480.48,77.99) .. (488.53,78.4) .. controls (491.67,78.4) and
(494.21,79.12) .. (494.21,80) .. controls (494.21,80.88) and (491.67,81.6) ..
(488.53,81.6) .. controls (480.48,82.01) and (472.2,81.43) .. (465.79,80) ..
(455.09,71.18) and (458.96,68.86) .. (465.79,67.2) .. controls (472.2,65.77) and
(480.48,65.19) .. (488.53,65.6) .. controls (491.67,65.6) and (494.21,66.32) ..
(494.21,67.2) .. controls (494.21,68.08) and (491.67,68.8) .. (488.53,68.8) ..
(457.57,65.35) and (454.23,62.26) .. (457.37,59.43) .. controls (460.51,56.61)
and (469.49,54.61) .. (480,54.4) – (480,40) ; (504,20.5) – (536,40) – (504,59.5)
– (504,20.5) – cycle (480,40) – (504,40) (536,20.5) – (536,59.5) (536,40) –
(560,40) ; (560,40) – (560,54.4) – (570,57.6) – (550,64) – (570,70.4) – (550,76.8)
– (570,83.2) – (550,89.6) – (570,96) – (550,102.4) – (560,105.6) – (560,120) ;
(480,120) – (560,120) ; (354.21,40) – (418.43,40) ; (354.21,120) – (418.43,120) ;

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (180,78.5) .. controls (196.57,78.5)
and (210,87.45) .. (210,98.5) .. controls (210,109.55) and (196.57,118.5) ..
(180,118.5) .. controls (163.43,118.5) and (150,109.55) .. (150,98.5) .. controls
(150,87.45) and (163.43,78.5) .. (180,78.5) – cycle (180,58.5) – (180,78.5)
(180,138.5) – (180,118.5) ; (180.04,83.54) .. controls (193.43,89.64) and
(193.5,92.52) .. (180.04,98.54) .. controls (166.58,104.56) and (166.5,107.38) ..
(180.04,113.54) ; (244.21,58.5) – (244.21,72.9) .. controls (254.72,73.11) and
(263.7,75.11) .. (266.85,77.93) .. controls (269.99,80.76) and (266.65,83.85) ..
(258.43,85.7) .. controls (252.02,87.13) and (243.73,87.71) .. (235.69,87.3) ..
controls (232.55,87.3) and (230,86.58) .. (230,85.7) .. controls (230,84.82) and
(232.55,84.1) .. (235.69,84.1) .. controls (243.73,83.69) and (252.02,84.27) ..
(258.43,85.7) .. controls (265.26,87.36) and (269.13,89.68) .. (269.13,92.1) ..
(252.02,99.93) and (243.73,100.51) .. (235.69,100.1) .. controls (232.55,100.1)
and (230,99.38) .. (230,98.5) .. controls (230,97.62) and (232.55,96.9) ..
(235.69,96.9) .. controls (243.73,96.49) and (252.02,97.07) .. (258.43,98.5) ..
(269.13,107.32) and (265.26,109.64) .. (258.43,111.3) .. controls
(252.02,112.73) and (243.73,113.31) .. (235.69,112.9) .. controls (232.55,112.9)
and (230,112.18) .. (230,111.3) .. controls (230,110.42) and (232.55,109.7) ..
(235.69,109.7) .. controls (243.73,109.29) and (252.02,109.87) .. (258.43,111.3)
.. controls (266.65,113.15) and (269.99,116.24) .. (266.85,119.07) .. controls
(263.7,121.89) and (254.72,123.89) .. (244.21,124.1) – (244.21,138.5) ;
(305.79,179) – (305.79,152) .. controls (295.28,151.61) and (286.3,147.86) ..
(283.15,142.56) .. controls (280.01,137.25) and (283.35,131.48) .. (291.57,128)
.. controls (297.98,125.32) and (306.27,124.23) .. (314.31,125) .. controls
(317.45,125) and (320,126.34) .. (320,128) .. controls (320,129.66) and
(317.45,131) .. (314.31,131) .. controls (306.27,131.77) and (297.98,130.68) ..
(291.57,128) .. controls (284.74,124.88) and (280.87,120.54) .. (280.87,116) ..
(297.98,101.32) and (306.27,100.23) .. (314.31,101) .. controls (317.45,101) and
(320,102.34) .. (320,104) .. controls (320,105.66) and (317.45,107) ..
(314.31,107) .. controls (306.27,107.77) and (297.98,106.68) .. (291.57,104) ..
(280.87,87.46) and (284.74,83.12) .. (291.57,80) .. controls (297.98,77.32) and
(306.27,76.23) .. (314.31,77) .. controls (317.45,77) and (320,78.34) .. (320,80)
.. controls (320,81.66) and (317.45,83) .. (314.31,83) .. controls (306.27,83.77)
and (297.98,82.68) .. (291.57,80) .. controls (283.35,76.52) and (280.01,70.75)
.. (283.15,65.44) .. controls (286.3,60.14) and (295.28,56.39) .. (305.79,56) –
(305.79,29) ; (180,58.5) – (244.21,58.5) ; (180,138.5) – (244.21,138.5) ;
(329.79,4) – (361.79,29) – (329.79,54) – (329.79,4) – cycle (305.79,29) –
(329.79,29) (361.79,4) – (361.79,54) (361.79,29) – (385.79,29) ; (329.79,154) –
(361.79,179) – (329.79,204) – (329.79,154) – cycle (305.79,179) – (329.79,179)
(361.79,154) – (361.79,204) (361.79,179) – (385.79,179) ; (385.79,29) – (430,29)
– (430,99) ; (350,99) – (364.4,99) – (367.6,89) – (374,109) – (380.4,89) –
(386.8,109) – (393.2,89) – (399.6,109) – (406,89) – (412.4,109) – (415.6,99) –
(430,99) ; (327,99) – (350,99) ; [shift=(325,99), rotate = 0] [color=rgb,
255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (10.93,-3.29) .. controls
(6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) ..
(10.93,3.29) ; (385.79,179) – (430,179) – (430,99) ;

(274,40) – cycle (250,70) – (274,70) (306,40) – (306,100) (306,70) – (330,70) ;
(328,18) – (306,40) ; (306,100) – (283,123) ; (271,12) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] p; (308,12) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] n;

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (264,62.81) – (296,87.1) – (264,111.38)
– (264,62.81) – cycle (240,87.1) – (264,87.1) (296,62.81) – (296,111.38)
(296,87.1) – (320,87.1) ; (318,45) – (296,62.81) ; (296,111.38) – (273,130) ;
(240,220) – (271.5,220) (278.5,200) – (278.5,240) (278.5,220) – (310,220)
(268.7,210) – (271.5,210) – (271.5,230) – (268.7,230) – (268.7,210) – cycle ;
(240,164) – (254.4,164) – (257.6,150) – (264,178) – (270.4,150) – (276.8,178) –
(283.2,150) – (289.6,178) – (296,150) – (302.4,178) – (305.6,164) – (320,164) ;
(240,87.1) – (240,220) ; (320,87.1) – (320,164) ; [shift=(320,118.55), rotate =
90] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (10.93,-3.29) ..
controls (6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4)
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (320,164) – (334.4,164) – (337.6,150) – (344,178) – (350.4,150)
– (356.8,178) – (363.2,150) – (369.6,178) – (376,150) – (382.4,178) –
(385.6,164) – (400,164) ; (400,164) – (400,220) – (310,220) ; (240,36) –
(320,36) ; [shift=(320,36), rotate = 180] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue,
0 ][line width=0.75] (0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ; [shift=(240,36), rotate = 180]
[color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (0,5.59) – (0,-5.59) ;
(305.6,164) – (320,164) ; [shift=(305.8,164), rotate = 0] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0;
green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (10.93,-3.29) .. controls (6.95,-1.4) and
(3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ;
(261,250.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] Vin ; (271,7.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] VZ ; (331,115.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] IZ ; (311,177.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] IL ; (261,129.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] RL ;
(361,125.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] RS ;
[line cap=round,line join=round,¿=triangle 45,x=1cm,y=1cm]

[x=1cm,y=1cm, axis lines=middle, ymajorgrids=true, xmajorgrids=true,
xmin=-0, xmax=4, ymin=-0, ymax=3, axis line style=-¿, xlabel near ticks,
ylabel near ticks, xlabel=Input Voltage, ylabel=Output Voltage ]
[domain=0:2] x; [domain=2:4] 2;

(274,70) – cycle (250,100) – (274,100) (306,70) – (306,130) (306,100) –
(330,100) ; (300,30) – (281.31,51.49) ; [shift=(280,53), rotate = 311.01]
[color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75] (10.93,-3.29) ..
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (310,40) – (291.31,61.49) ; [shift=(290,63), rotate = 311.01]
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (310,12.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] hν;
(268,141) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] p; (301,141)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] n;
Figure 1.7: *
I1 > I2 > I3

(284,60) – cycle (260,90) – (284,90) (316,60) – (316,120) (316,90) – (340,90) ;
(260,90) .. controls (260,70.67) and (275.67,55) .. (295,55) .. controls
(314.33,55) and (330,70.67) .. (330,90) .. controls (330,109.33) and
(314.33,125) .. (295,125) .. controls (275.67,125) and (260,109.33) .. (260,90) –
cycle ; (290,50) – (318.59,21.41) ; [shift=(320,20), rotate = 135] [color=rgb,
(6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) ..
(10.93,3.29) ; (320,50) – (348.59,21.41) ; [shift=(350,20), rotate = 135]
.. (10.93,3.29) ;

(120,70) – cycle ; (165,30) – (185,30) – (185,70) – (165,70) – cycle ; (320,49.63)
– (343.16,49.63) ; (344.51,51.1) – (360.53,68.52) ; [shift=(343.16,49.63), rotate
= 47.4] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75]
(10.93,-3.29) .. controls (6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3)
and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (406.84,49.63) – (389.47,68.52) ; (360.53,68.52)
– (389.47,68.52) ; (406.84,49.63) – (430,49.63) ; (343.16,49.63) .. controls
(343.16,30.5) and (357.41,15) .. (375,15) .. controls (392.59,15) and
(406.84,30.5) .. (406.84,49.63) .. controls (406.84,68.76) and (392.59,84.26) ..
(375,84.26) .. controls (357.41,84.26) and (343.16,68.76) .. (343.16,49.63) –
cycle ; (375,68.52) – (375,100) ; (138,42) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] n; (198,42) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] n; (170,43) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] p; (137,82) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] E; (171,82) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] B; (201,82) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C; (301,32) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] E; (367,102) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C;
Figure 1.8: *
n-p-n Transistor

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1]
(120,30) – (230,30) – (230,70) – (120,70) – cycle ; (165,30) – (185,30) –
(185,70) – (165,70) – cycle ; (320,49.63) – (343.16,49.63) ; (343.16,49.63) –
(359.17,67.05) ; [shift=(360.53,68.52), rotate = 227.4] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0;
(3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ;
(406.84,49.63) – (389.47,68.52) ; (360.53,68.52) – (389.47,68.52) ;
(406.84,49.63) – (430,49.63) ; (343.16,49.63) .. controls (343.16,30.5) and
(357.41,15) .. (375,15) .. controls (392.59,15) and (406.84,30.5) ..
(406.84,49.63) .. controls (406.84,68.76) and (392.59,84.26) .. (375,84.26) ..
controls (357.41,84.26) and (343.16,68.76) .. (343.16,49.63) – cycle ; (375,68.52)
– (375,100) ; (138,42) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left]
p; (198,42) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] p; (170,43)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] n; (137,82) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] E; (171,82) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] B; (201,82) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C; (301,32) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C;
Figure 1.9: *
p-n-p Transistor

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (293,49.89) – (306.89,49.89) ;
(308.11,51.47) – (317.32,63.43) ; [shift=(306.89,49.89), rotate = 52.42]
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (345.11,49.89) – (334.68,63.43) ; (317.32,63.43) –
(334.68,63.43) ; (345.11,49.89) – (359,49.89) ; (306.89,49.89) .. controls
(306.89,36.17) and (315.45,25.06) .. (326,25.06) .. controls (336.55,25.06) and
(345.11,36.17) .. (345.11,49.89) .. controls (345.11,63.6) and (336.55,74.71) ..
(326,74.71) .. controls (315.45,74.71) and (306.89,63.6) .. (306.89,49.89) –
cycle ; (326,63.43) – (326,86) ; (163,50) – (233,50) ; (163,149) – (419.5,150.5) ;
(188,50) – (188,59) – (193,61) – (183,65) – (193,69) – (183,73) – (193,77) –
(183,81) – (193,85) – (183,89) – (188,91) – (188,100) ; (188,100) – (188,121.82)
(201.5,126.68) – (174.5,126.68) (188,126.68) – (188,148.5) (194.75,119.89) –
(194.75,121.82) – (181.25,121.82) – (181.25,119.89) – (194.75,119.89) – cycle ;
(248,50) .. controls (248,43.37) and (254.72,38) .. (263,38) .. controls
(271.28,38) and (278,43.37) .. (278,50) .. controls (278,56.63) and (271.28,62)
.. (263,62) .. controls (254.72,62) and (248,56.63) .. (248,50) – cycle (233,50) –
(248,50) (293,50) – (278,50) ; (257,56) – (270.44,45.25) ; [shift=(272,44), rotate
= 141.34] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75]
and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (326,86) – (326,150) ; (374,50) .. controls
(374,43.37) and (380.72,38) .. (389,38) .. controls (397.28,38) and (404,43.37)
.. (404,50) .. controls (404,56.63) and (397.28,62) .. (389,62) .. controls
(380.72,62) and (374,56.63) .. (374,50) – cycle (359,50) – (374,50) (419,50) –
(404,50) ; (383,56) – (396.44,45.25) ; [shift=(398,44), rotate = 141.34]
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (419.5,50) – (419.5,59) – (424.5,61) – (414.5,65) – (424.5,69) –
(414.5,73) – (424.5,77) – (414.5,81) – (424.5,85) – (414.5,89) – (419.5,91) –
(419.5,100) ; (419.5,139.5) – (419.5,117.68) (406,112.82) – (433,112.82)
(419.5,112.82) – (419.5,91) (412.75,119.62) – (412.75,117.68) – (426.25,117.68)
– (426.25,119.62) – (412.75,119.62) – cycle ; (419.5,150.5) – (419.5,128.68)
(406,123.82) – (433,123.82) (419.5,123.82) – (419.5,102) (412.75,130.62) –
(412.75,128.68) – (426.25,128.68) – (426.25,130.62) – (412.75,130.62) – cycle ;
(419.5,56) – (453,56) ; (419.5,95) – (453,95) ; (134,112.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] VBB ; (254,12.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] IE ; (384,12.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] IC ;
(365.5,112.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] VBB ; (442,68) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Output; (134,72) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] Input; (293,29) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C;
Figure 1.10: *
Common Base Connection

(142,141.72) .. (142,150) .. controls (142,158.28) and (136.63,165) .. (130,165)
.. controls (123.37,165) and (118,158.28) .. (118,150) .. controls (118,141.72)
and (123.37,135) .. (130,135) – cycle (130,120) – (130,135) (130,180) –
(130,165) ; (124,154) – (137.44,143.25) ; [shift=(139,142), rotate = 141.34]
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (175,180) – (175,153) (160,147) – (190,147) (175,147) –
(175,120) (167.5,155.4) – (167.5,153) – (182.5,153) – (182.5,155.4) –
(167.5,155.4) – cycle ; (155,163) – (193.21,143.89) ; [shift=(195,143), rotate =
153.43] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75]
and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (175,120) – (188.5,120) – (191.5,112.5) –
(197.5,127.5) – (203.5,112.5) – (209.5,127.5) – (215.5,112.5) – (221.5,127.5) –
(227.5,112.5) – (233.5,127.5) – (236.5,120) – (250,120) ; (130,120) – (175,120) ;
(130,180) – (175,180) ; (283.19,99.95) – (283.19,45) – (330,45) ; (283.19,99.95)
– (270.74,111.16) ; (281.7,139.71) – (270.74,129.84) ; [shift=(283.19,141.05),
rotate = 222.01] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0 ][line width=0.75]
and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (270.74,111.16) – (270.74,129.84) ;
(283.19,141.05) – (283.19,181) ; (283.19,99.95) .. controls (295.79,99.95) and
(306,109.15) .. (306,120.5) .. controls (306,131.85) and (295.79,141.05) ..
(283.19,141.05) .. controls (270.58,141.05) and (260.37,131.85) ..
(260.37,120.5) .. controls (260.37,109.15) and (270.58,99.95) .. (283.19,99.95) –
cycle ; (270.74,120.5) – (250,120.5) ; (175,180) – (396,180) ; (330,180) –
(330,153) (315,147) – (345,147) (330,147) – (330,120) (322.5,155.4) –
(322.5,153) – (337.5,153) – (337.5,155.4) – (322.5,155.4) – cycle ; (310,163) –
(348.21,143.89) ; [shift=(350,143), rotate = 153.43] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0;
(3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (330,45)
– (330,58.5) – (337.5,61.5) – (322.5,67.5) – (337.5,73.5) – (322.5,79.5) –
(337.5,85.5) – (322.5,91.5) – (337.5,97.5) – (322.5,103.5) – (330,106.5) –
(330,120) ; (330,45) – (394,45) – (396,180) ; (98,140.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] Vi ; (199,140.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] VBB ; (207,92.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] RB ;
(352,146.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] VCC ; (346,72.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] RC ; (247,101) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] B; (286,82) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C; (285.19,144.05) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] E;
Figure 1.11: *
Transfer Characteristic of Base-Biased Transistor

(160,81.72) .. (160,90) .. controls (160,98.28) and (154.63,105) .. (148,105) ..
controls (141.37,105) and (136,98.28) .. (136,90) .. controls (136,81.72) and
(141.37,75) .. (148,75) – cycle (148,60) – (148,75) (148,120) – (148,105) ;
(142,94) – (155.44,83.25) ; [shift=(157,82), rotate = 141.34] [color=rgb,
(6.95,-1.4) and (3.31,-0.3) .. (0,0) .. controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) ..
(10.93,3.29) ; (148,180) – (148,153) (133.5,147) – (162.5,147) (148,147) –
(148,120) (140.75,155.4) – (140.75,153) – (155.25,153) – (155.25,155.4) –
(140.75,155.4) – cycle ; (148,60) – (217,60) ; [shift=(188.5,60), rotate = 180]
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (148,180) – (330,180) ; (252.56,39.74) – (239.22,50.79) ;
(251.02,78.99) – (239.22,69.21) ; [shift=(252.56,80.26), rotate = 219.66]
.. (10.93,3.29) ; (239.22,50.79) – (239.22,69.21) ; (252.56,80.26) – (252.56,95) ;
(252.56,39.74) .. controls (266.06,39.74) and (277,48.81) .. (277,60) .. controls
(277,71.19) and (266.06,80.26) .. (252.56,80.26) .. controls (239.06,80.26) and
(228.11,71.19) .. (228.11,60) .. controls (228.11,48.81) and (239.06,39.74) ..
(252.56,39.74) – cycle ; (239.22,60) – (217,60) ; (252.56,95) – (253,180) ;
[shift=(252.81,143.5), rotate = 269.7] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0
][line width=0.75] (10.93,-4.9) .. controls (6.95,-2.3) and (3.31,-0.67) .. (0,0) ..
controls (3.31,0.67) and (6.95,2.3) .. (10.93,4.9) ; (252.56,39.74) – (330,40) ;
[shift=(284.28,39.84), rotate = 0.19] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0
controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (330,40) – (330,50.8) –
(340,53.2) – (320,58) – (340,62.8) – (320,67.6) – (340,72.4) – (320,77.2) –
(340,82) – (320,86.8) – (330,89.2) – (330,100) ; (330,149.2) – (330,122.2)
(315.5,116.2) – (344.5,116.2) (330,116.2) – (330,89.2) (322.75,124.6) –
(322.75,122.2) – (337.25,122.2) – (337.25,124.6) – (322.75,124.6) – cycle ;
(330,162) – (330,135) (315.5,129) – (344.5,129) (330,129) – (330,102)
(322.75,137.4) – (322.75,135) – (337.25,135) – (337.25,137.4) – (322.75,137.4) –
cycle ; (330,160) – (330,180) ; (330,40) – (400,40) ; (330,180) – (400,180) ;
(114,80.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] Vi ; (91,140.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] VBB ; (171,32.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] IB ; (217,42) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C; (261,82) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] [align=left] E; (283,15.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] IC ; (342,56.6) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] RL ;
(346.5,119.6) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] VCC ; (221,130.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] IE ;
Figure 1.12: *
n-p-n transistor as CE Amplifier (If p-n-p transistor is used, the polarity of
cells is reversed)

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (216,20) – (240,20) .. controls
(253.25,20) and (264,33.44) .. (264,50) .. controls (264,66.56) and (253.25,80)
.. (240,80) – (216,80) – (216,20) – cycle (200,30) – (216,30) (200,70) – (216,70)
(264,50) – (280,50) ; (181,22.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] A;
(177,62.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] B; (286,42.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] Y ;
Figure 1.13: *
AND Gate

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (161,62) – (183.5,62) (188.5,49) –
(188.5,75) (188.5,62) – (211,62) (181.5,55.5) – (183.5,55.5) – (183.5,68.5) –
(181.5,68.5) – (181.5,55.5) – cycle ; (138.5,62) – (161,62) (166,49) – (166,75)
(166,62) – (188.5,62) (159,55.5) – (161,55.5) – (161,68.5) – (159,68.5) –
(159,55.5) – cycle ; (141,62) – (112.43,62) ; (112.14,52) – (112.14,72) ;
(106.14,56.5) – (106.14,67.5) ; (101,59.5) – (101,64.5) ; (222,35) – (272,35) ;
(300,50) – (284,35) – (300,20) – (300,50) – cycle (312,35) – (300,35) (284,50) –
(284,20) (284,35) – (272,35) ; (222,90) – (272,90) ; (300,105) – (284,90) –
(300,75) – (300,105) – cycle (312,90) – (300,90) (284,105) – (284,75) (284,90) –
(272,90) ; (312,35) – (312,90) ; (312,62.5) – (362,63) ; (362,63) – (362,73.8) –
(372,76.2) – (352,81) – (372,85.8) – (352,90.6) – (372,95.4) – (352,100.2) –
(372,105) – (352,109.8) – (362,112.2) – (362,123) ; (362,170) – (362,147.5)
(349,142.5) – (375,142.5) (362,142.5) – (362,120) (355.5,149.5) – (355.5,147.5)
– (368.5,147.5) – (368.5,149.5) – (355.5,149.5) – cycle ; (362,192.5) – (362,170)
(349,165) – (375,165) (362,165) – (362,142.5) (355.5,172) – (355.5,170) –
(368.5,170) – (368.5,172) – (355.5,172) – cycle ; (362,190) – (362,218.57) ;
(352,218.86) – (372,218.86) ; (356.5,224.86) – (367.5,224.86) ; (359.5,230) –
(364.5,230) ; (362,63) – (412,63.5) ; (163,27.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 5 V ; (321.5,146.9) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
5 V ; (378,82.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] R; (213,12.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] A; (216,102.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] B; (403,42.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] Y ;
Figure 1.14: *
Realization of AND Gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Figure 1.15: Truth Table for AND Operator


[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (265,17) – (285,17) .. controls
(298.95,17.54) and (311.42,29.23) .. (317,47) .. controls (311.42,64.77) and
(298.95,76.46) .. (285,77) – (265,77) .. controls (273.57,58.44) and
(273.57,35.56) .. (265,17) – cycle (253,27) – (269,27) (253,67) – (269,67)
(317,47) – (333,47) ; (231,22.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] A;
(231,62.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] B; (336,22.4) node
Figure 1.16: *
OR Gate

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (161,62) – (183.5,62) (188.5,49) –
(188.5,75) (188.5,62) – (211,62) (181.5,55.5) – (183.5,55.5) – (183.5,68.5) –
(181.5,68.5) – (181.5,55.5) – cycle ; (138.5,62) – (161,62) (166,49) – (166,75)
(166,62) – (188.5,62) (159,55.5) – (161,55.5) – (161,68.5) – (159,68.5) –
(159,55.5) – cycle ; (141,62) – (112.43,62) ; (112.14,52) – (112.14,72) ;
(106.14,56.5) – (106.14,67.5) ; (101,59.5) – (101,64.5) ; (222,35) – (272,35) ;
(284,20) – (300,35) – (284,50) – (284,20) – cycle (272,35) – (284,35) (300,20) –
(300,50) (300,35) – (312,35) ; (222,90) – (272,90) ; (284,75) – (300,90) –
(284,105) – (284,75) – cycle (272,90) – (284,90) (300,75) – (300,105) (300,90) –
(312,90) ; (312,35) – (312,90) ; (312,62.5) – (362,63) ; (362,63) – (362,73.8) –
(372,76.2) – (352,81) – (372,85.8) – (352,90.6) – (372,95.4) – (352,100.2) –
(372,105) – (352,109.8) – (362,112.2) – (362,123) ; (362,120) – (362,148.57) ;
(352,148.86) – (372,148.86) ; (356.5,154.86) – (367.5,154.86) ; (359.5,160) –
(364.5,160) ; (362,63) – (412,63.5) ; (163,27.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 5 V ; (378,82.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] R;
(213,12.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] A; (216,102.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] B; (403,42.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] Y ;
Figure 1.17: *
Realization of OR Gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Figure 1.18: *
Truth Table for OR Operator

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (264.81,6) – (309.26,36) – (264.81,66)
– (264.81,6) – cycle (250,36) – (264.81,36) (318.15,36) – (330,36) (309.26,36) ..
controls (309.26,32.69) and (311.25,30) .. (313.7,30) .. controls (316.16,30) and
(318.15,32.69) .. (318.15,36) .. controls (318.15,39.31) and (316.16,42) ..
(313.7,42) .. controls (311.25,42) and (309.26,39.31) .. (309.26,36) – cycle ;
Figure 1.19: *
NOT Gate

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (140,170.5) – (162.5,170.5)
(167.5,157.5) – (167.5,183.5) (167.5,170.5) – (190,170.5) (160.5,164) –
(162.5,164) – (162.5,177) – (160.5,177) – (160.5,164) – cycle ; (117.5,170.5) –
(140,170.5) (145,157.5) – (145,183.5) (145,170.5) – (167.5,170.5) (138,164) –
(140,164) – (140,177) – (138,177) – (138,164) – cycle ; (120,170.5) –
(91.43,170.5) ; (91.14,160.5) – (91.14,180.5) ; (85.14,165) – (85.14,176) ;
(80,168) – (80,173) ; (206,170.5) – (218.6,170.5) – (221.4,160.5) – (227,180.5) –
(232.6,160.5) – (238.2,180.5) – (243.8,160.5) – (249.4,180.5) – (255,160.5) –
(260.6,180.5) – (263.4,170.5) – (276,170.5) ; (316,136.5) – (316,150.71) ;
(316,150.71) – (301,161.37) ; (314.37,188.63) – (301,179.13) ;
[shift=(316,189.79), rotate = 215.39] [color=rgb, 255:red, 0; green, 0; blue, 0
controls (3.31,0.3) and (6.95,1.4) .. (10.93,3.29) ; (301,161.37) – (301,179.13) ;
(316,189.79) – (316,204) ; (316,150.71) .. controls (331.19,150.71) and
(343.5,159.46) .. (343.5,170.25) .. controls (343.5,181.04) and (331.19,189.79) ..
(316,189.79) .. controls (300.81,189.79) and (288.5,181.04) .. (288.5,170.25) ..
controls (288.5,159.46) and (300.81,150.71) .. (316,150.71) – cycle ;
(301,170.25) – (276,170.25) ; (316,66.5) – (316,79.1) – (326,81.9) – (306,87.5) –
(326,93.1) – (306,98.7) – (326,104.3) – (306,109.9) – (326,115.5) – (306,121.1) –
(316,123.9) – (316,136.5) ; (266.5,67) – (289,67) (294,54) – (294,80) (294,67) –
(316.5,67) (287,60.5) – (289,60.5) – (289,73.5) – (287,73.5) – (287,60.5) – cycle
; (244,67) – (266.5,67) (271.5,54) – (271.5,80) (271.5,67) – (294,67) (264.5,60.5)
– (266.5,60.5) – (266.5,73.5) – (264.5,73.5) – (264.5,60.5) – cycle ; (246.5,67) –
(217.93,67) ; (217.64,57) – (217.64,77) ; (211.64,61.5) – (211.64,72.5) ;
(206.5,64.5) – (206.5,69.5) ; (315.5,202) – (315.5,230.57) ; (305.5,230.86) –
(325.5,230.86) ; (310,236.86) – (321,236.86) ; (313,242) – (318,242) ;
(316,150.71) – (423.5,153) ; (142,135.9) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] 5 V ; (268.5,32.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt]
5 V ; (274.5,150) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] B;
(319.5,131) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] C;
(324.5,191) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] [align=left] E;
(414.5,131.4) node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] Y ; (204.5,141.4)
node [anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] A; (230.5,189.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] RB ; (329.5,91.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] R;
Figure 1.20: *
Realization of NOT Gate
A Y
0 1
1 0
Figure 1.21: *
Truth Table for NOT Operator

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (264.81,10) – (287.04,10) .. controls
(299.3,10) and (309.26,23.44) .. (309.26,40) .. controls (309.26,56.56) and
(299.3,70) .. (287.04,70) – (264.81,70) – (264.81,10) – cycle (250,20) –
(264.81,20) (250,60) – (264.81,60) (318.15,40) – (330,40) (309.26,40) .. controls
(309.26,36.69) and (311.25,34) .. (313.7,34) .. controls (316.16,34) and
(318.15,36.69) .. (318.15,40) .. controls (318.15,43.31) and (316.16,46) ..
(313.7,46) .. controls (311.25,46) and (309.26,43.31) .. (309.26,40) – cycle ;
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] Y ; (231,52.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] B;
Figure 1.22: *
NAND Gate

[x=0.75pt,y=0.75pt,yscale=-1,xscale=1] (261.11,10) – (279.63,10) .. controls
(292.55,10.54) and (304.09,22.23) .. (309.26,40) .. controls (304.09,57.77) and
(292.55,69.46) .. (279.63,70) – (261.11,70) .. controls (269.05,51.44) and
(269.05,28.56) .. (261.11,10) – cycle (250,20) – (264.81,20) (250,60) –
(264.81,60) (318.15,40) – (330,40) (309.26,40) .. controls (309.26,36.69) and
(311.25,34) .. (313.7,34) .. controls (316.16,34) and (318.15,36.69) ..
(318.15,40) .. controls (318.15,43.31) and (316.16,46) .. (313.7,46) .. controls
(311.25,46) and (309.26,43.31) .. (309.26,40) – cycle ; (231,12.4) node
[anchor=north west][inner sep=0.75pt] A; (336,32.4) node [anchor=north
west][inner sep=0.75pt] Y ; (231,52.4) node [anchor=north west][inner
sep=0.75pt] B;
Figure 1.23: *
NOR Gate

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Chapter 1

1.1 Electronic Devices

1.2 Valence Bond Model for Intrinsic Semicon-

 It is a vacancy created by the removal of an electron from a covalent bond

 It has the same mass as (removed) electron.

 It has a positive charge of e.

The process of deliberate addition of desirable impurity to a pure semiconductor

 The semiconductor should be very pure (99.9999%).

 The dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.

 The dopant concentration should be very low (1 ppm).

Types of dopants are:

 Pentavalent dopants: They have 5 valence electrons. E.g. As, Sb, P.

 Trivalent dopants: They have 3 valence electrons. E.g. In, B, Al. We

1.4 Valence Bond Model for Extrinsic Semicon-

1.4.1 n-type Semiconductors

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1.4.2 p-type Semiconductors

For all types of semiconductors,

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The conductivity increases as,

1.5 Energy Bands in Solids

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1.6 p-n Junction

It is a single crystal of Ge and Si doped in such a manner that half a portion of

1.6.1 Forward Biased

1.6.2 Reverse Biased

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1.6.3 I-V Characteristic

Reverse Bias Characteristic

1.6.4 Cause of Breakdown

1.7 Junction Diode as a Rectifier

1.7.1 Half Wave Rectifier

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The output wave is,

1.7.2 Full Wave Rectifier

1.8 p-n Junction Devices

1.8.2 Photonic/Opto-Electronic p-n Junction Devices

 Detection of optical signals

 In demodulation of optical signals

 In light operated switches

1.8.4 Light Emitting Diode

1.8.5 Solar Cell

1.9 Junction Transistor

1.9.4 Current Gains

resistance circuit. Transistor = Transfer + Resistor

Common Emitter Current Amplification Factor

1.9.5 Common Emitter Characteristics

 In the active region, the emitter-base junction is in forward bias and

The output resistance ro of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the

1.9.6 Transistor as a Switch

VBB = IB RB + VBE = Vi VCE = VCC − IC RC = Vo (ByKirchhof f ′ sLaws)

1.9.7 Transistor as an Amplifier

1.9.8 Common Emitter Amplifier

Here, the output and input voltages have a phase difference of π.

A.C. Current Gain

D.C. Current Gain

A.C. Voltage Gain

It is a vacancy created by the removal of an electron from a covalent bond

It has the same mass as (removed) electron.

It has a positive charge of e.

The semiconductor should be very pure (99.9999%).

The dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.

The dopant concentration should be very low (1 ppm).

Pentavalent dopants: They have 5 valence electrons. E.g. As, Sb, P.

Trivalent dopants: They have 3 valence electrons. E.g. In, B, Al. We

Detection of optical signals

In demodulation of optical signals

In light operated switches

In the active region, the emitter-base junction is in forward bias and