Errors in Measurements

Dr. M. Abbas Abbasi

31-10-2023

Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Types of Errors 2
2.1 Systematic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Zero Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Scale Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.3 Response Time Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.4 Loading Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Random Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2.1 Rounding Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2.2 Periodic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2.3 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.4 Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.5 Ambient Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Combating Errors 3

4 Error Analysis 3
4.1 Average or Arithmetic Mean Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Deviation from the Average Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3 Average Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4 Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5 Propagation of Errors 7
5.1 Addition and Subtraction Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.2 Multiplication and Division Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1
1 Introduction
In the field of instrumentation and measurements, accurate and precise data are crucial. However, no
measurement is entirely free from errors. Errors in measurements can arise from various sources and can
be classified into different categories. This section discusses the different types of errors encountered in
measurements.

2 Types of Errors
2.1 Systematic Errors
Systematic errors, also known as determinate errors, are consistent and predictable discrepancies between
the measured value and the true value. These errors result from flaws in the measurement system itself
and can often be corrected or compensated for.

2.1.1 Zero Error

Zero error occurs when the instrument does not read zero when the quantity being measured is, in fact,
zero. It can result from a misaligned scale or an improperly calibrated instrument.
Example: A digital caliper reads 5.20 cm when measuring a true length of 5.00 cm. The zero error
is +0.20 cm.

2.1.2 Scale Error

Scale error is a type of systematic error that arises from an inaccurate scale on an instrument. It occurs
when the instrument’s scale is not properly calibrated.
Example: A thermometer reads 101°C when the true temperature is 100°C. The scale error is +1°C.

2.1.3 Response Time Error

Response time error is the difference between the actual change in the quantity being measured and the
instrument’s response to that change.
Example: A temperature sensor takes 10 seconds to respond to a sudden temperature change, and
the true temperature change occurs in 5 seconds. The response time error is 5 seconds.

2.1.4 Loading Error

Loading error occurs when the act of measurement changes the quantity being measured.
Example: When measuring voltage, connecting an ammeter in parallel can affect the voltage across
the circuit, leading to a loading error.

2.2 Random Errors

Random errors, also called indeterminate errors, are unpredictable fluctuations in measurements. These
errors are typically caused by statistical variations and can be mitigated through repeated measurements.

2.2.1 Rounding Errors

Rounding errors result from the need to approximate measured values.
Example: When measuring the voltage across a resistor, the actual voltage is 3.235 V, but the
instrument displays 3.24 V. The rounding error is 0.005 V.

2.2.2 Periodic Errors

Periodic errors are fluctuations in measurements that occur at regular intervals.
Example: A weight scale consistently reads 0.5 kg more every 10 measurements and then resets. It
exhibits a periodic error.

2
2.2.3 Noise
Noise is random, unwanted variations in the measured signal.
Example: When recording sound pressure levels in a quiet room, the measurements fluctuate between
30.5 dB and 31.0 dB due to ambient noise, representing noise in the measurement.

2.2.4 Backlash
Backlash is a type of random error observed in mechanical systems.
Example: When measuring angles with a mechanical dial gauge, backlash may cause the pointer to
overshoot or undershoot the actual value.

2.2.5 Ambient Influence

Ambient influence errors are caused by changes in environmental conditions, such as temperature, hu-
midity, or atmospheric pressure.
Example: The sensitivity of a strain gauge may change with temperature, leading to errors in strain
measurements.

3 Combating Errors
To minimize errors in measurements, it is essential to:

• Calibrate instruments regularly.

• Use appropriate measurement techniques.
• Take multiple readings and calculate averages.

• Identify and eliminate sources of systematic errors.

By understanding the various types of errors and implementing best practices, engineers and scientists
can ensure more accurate and reliable measurements.

4 Error Analysis
Error analysis is a fundamental aspect of measurements that helps us understand and quantify the
uncertainties associated with our measurements. In this section, we will explore various methods for
analyzing errors in measurements. We begin with the concept of the average or arithmetic mean value.

4.1 Average or Arithmetic Mean Value

The arithmetic mean, often simply called the average, is a central value that represents the ”typical”
value in a set of measurements. It is calculated by summing all the measured values and dividing by the
total number of measurements. The average provides a way to reduce random errors and obtain a more
accurate representation of the quantity being measured.
To calculate the arithmetic mean (x̄) of a set of n measurements (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), use the formula:
n
1X
x̄ = xi
n i=1
Where:

x̄ : Arithmetic Mean (Average)

n : Number of Measurements
xi : Individual Measurements

Let’s consider some numerical examples to illustrate the calculation of the average:
Example 1: A set of measurements for the length of a rod (in centimeters) is as follows: 30.5, 30.6,
30.4, 30.7, and 30.3. Calculate the average length.

3
 Solution:
1 152.5
x̄ =
(30.5 + 30.6 + 30.4 + 30.7 + 30.3) = = 30.5 cm
5 5
Example 2: A student recorded the time (in seconds) for a pendulum to complete 10 swings, and
the measurements are as follows: 2.1, 2.0, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 2.2, 2.1, 2.3, 2.0, and 2.1. Calculate the average
time for one swing.
Solution:
1 21.1
x̄ = (2.1 + 2.0 + 2.2 + 2.1 + 2.0 + 2.2 + 2.1 + 2.3 + 2.0 + 2.1) = = 2.11 s
10 10

4.1.1 Exercises
Exercise 1
Measurements of the weight of different objects (in grams): 56.3 g, 57.1 g, 56.8 g, 57.4 g, 56.9 g.

Exercise 2
Temperature readings (in degrees Celsius) in a laboratory over a 5-minute interval: 25.2°C, 25.3°C, 25.1°C,
25.4°C, 25.0°C.

Exercise 3
Length measurements of a steel rod (in centimeters) taken by different students: 98.7 cm, 98.6 cm, 98.8
cm, 98.9 cm, 98.7 cm.

4.2 Deviation from the Average Value

The deviation from the average value is a measure of how individual measurements differ from the average
or mean value. It provides insights into the precision and consistency of measurements. By calculating
deviations, we can identify outliers and assess the spread of data points around the mean.
To calculate the deviation of an individual measurement (xi ) from the average (x̄), use the formula:

Deviation = xi − x̄
Where:

Deviation : Deviation of an Individual Measurement

xi : Individual Measurement
x̄ : Average (Mean) Value

Let’s consider some numerical examples to illustrate the calculation of deviations from the average:
Example 1: A set of measurements for the time it takes for a chemical reaction to complete (in
seconds): 42.5 s, 41.8 s, 42.2 s, 41.9 s, 42.3 s. Calculate the average time and the deviations of each
measurement from the average.
Solution: First, calculate the average time:
1 210.7
x̄ = (42.5 + 41.8 + 42.2 + 41.9 + 42.3) = = 42.14 s
5 5
Next, calculate the deviations for each measurement:

d1 = 42.5 − 42.14 = 0.36 s

d2 = 41.8 − 42.14 = −0.34 s
d3 = 42.2 − 42.14 = 0.06 s
d4 = 41.9 − 42.14 = −0.24 s
d5 = 42.3 − 42.14 = 0.16 s

Example 2: Temperature readings (in degrees Celsius) recorded at various locations in a room:
24.7°C, 24.6°C, 24.8°C, 24.5°C, and 24.7°C. Calculate the average temperature and the deviations of each
reading from the average.

4
 Solution: First, calculate the average temperature:
1 123.3
x̄ = (24.7 + 24.6 + 24.8 + 24.5 + 24.7) = = 24.66 °C
5 5
Next, calculate the deviations for each temperature reading:

d1 = 24.7 − 24.66 = 0.04 °C

d2 = 24.6 − 24.66 = −0.06 °C
d3 = 24.8 − 24.66 = 0.14 °C
d4 = 24.5 − 24.66 = −0.16 °C
d5 = 24.7 − 24.66 = 0.04 °C

4.2.1 Exercises
Exercise 1
Measurements of voltage (in volts) across a resistor in an electrical circuit: 4.78 V, 4.82 V, 4.79 V, 4.84
V, 4.77 V. Calculate the average voltage and find the deviations of each measurement from the average.

Exercise 2
A temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature (in degrees Celsius) in an industrial furnace.
The recorded temperatures for five readings are: 450°C, 452°C, 449°C, 453°C, and 451°C. Calculate the
average temperature and determine the deviations of each reading from the average.

Exercise 3
In a laboratory experiment, a pressure transducer measures pressure (in Pascals) in a closed container.
The recorded pressures for five data points are: 102.2 Pa, 102.0 Pa, 102.3 Pa, 102.1 Pa, and 102.4 Pa.
Calculate the average pressure, and then compute the deviations of each measurement from the average.

4.3 Average Deviation

The average deviation provides a measure of the average magnitude of deviations of individual measure-
ments from the mean. It quantifies the spread of data points and the overall consistency of measurements.
To calculate the average deviation, follow these steps: 1. Calculate the mean (x̄) of the measurements.
2. Find the absolute value of each deviation by subtracting the mean from each individual measurement
and taking the absolute value: |xi − x̄|. 3. Calculate the average of these absolute deviations.
The formula for the average deviation (AD) is given by:
n
1X
AD = |xi − x̄|
n i=1

Where:

AD : Average Deviation
n : Number of Measurements
xi : Individual Measurement
x̄ : Average (Mean) Value

Example 1: A set of measurements for the mass of a sample (in grams): 52.3 g, 52.1 g, 52.4 g, 52.0
g, 52.2 g. Calculate the average mass and the average deviation.
Solution: First, calculate the average mass:
1 260.0
x̄ = (52.3 + 52.1 + 52.4 + 52.0 + 52.2) = = 52.0 g
5 5

5
Next, calculate the average deviation:
1
AD = (|52.3 − 52.0| + |52.1 − 52.0| + |52.4 − 52.0| + |52.0 − 52.0| + |52.2 − 52.0|)
5
1
= · 0.3 = 0.06 g
5
Example 2: Voltage measurements (in volts) taken from a sensor at different time points: 3.8 V, 3.9
V, 3.7 V, 3.8 V, 3.9 V. Calculate the average voltage and the average deviation.
Solution: First, calculate the average voltage:
1 19.1
x̄ = (3.8 + 3.9 + 3.7 + 3.8 + 3.9) = = 3.82 V
5 5
Next, calculate the average deviation:
1
AD = (|3.8 − 3.82| + |3.9 − 3.82| + |3.7 − 3.82| + |3.8 − 3.82| + |3.9 − 3.82|)
5
1
= · 0.1 = 0.02 V
5

4.3.1 Exercises
For each exercise, calculate the average deviation for the provided measurements.

Exercise 1
Measurements of temperature (in degrees Celsius) at various locations in a laboratory: 25.3°C, 25.5°C,
25.2°C, 25.4°C, 25.1°C.

Exercise 2
A pressure sensor records pressure values (in Pascals) in an industrial setting: 101.2 Pa, 101.5 Pa, 101.1
Pa, 101.3 Pa, 101.4 Pa.

Exercise 3
A sound level meter measures noise levels (in decibels) in a factory over a period: 80 dB, 81 dB, 79 dB,
82 dB, 80 dB.

4.4 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is a measure of the dispersion or spread of data points around the mean. It
quantifies the variability or uncertainty associated with a set of measurements.
Calculating Standard Deviation (For n ≥ 20) When the number of observations (n) is 20 or
more, you can calculate the standard deviation using the following formula:
r Pn
2
i=1 (xi − x̄)
σ=
n
Where:
σ : Standard Deviation
n : Number of Measurements
xi : Individual Measurement
x̄ : Average (Mean) Value
Calculating Standard Deviation (For n < 20) When the number of observations (n) is less than
20, you can calculate the standard deviation using the following formula:
sP
n 2
i=1 (xi − x̄)
σ=
n−1

6
Where:

σ : Standard Deviation
n : Number of Measurements
xi : Individual Measurement
x̄ : Average (Mean) Value

Relationship to the Mean The standard deviation provides information about the dispersion of
measurements. A smaller standard deviation indicates that the measurements are closely clustered around
the mean, suggesting higher precision. A larger standard deviation implies greater variability and lower
precision.
Let’s consider some numerical examples to illustrate the calculation of the standard deviation and its
relationship to the mean:
Example 1: A set of measurements for the length of a rod (in centimeters) in a workshop: 100.2 cm,
100.4 cm, 100.1 cm, 100.5 cm, 100.3 cm. Calculate the average length and the standard deviation.
Solution: First, calculate the average length:
1 501.5
x̄ = (100.2 + 100.4 + 100.1 + 100.5 + 100.3) = = 100.3 cm
5 5
Next, calculate the standard deviation using the formula for n < 20:
r
(100.2 − 100.3)2 + (100.4 − 100.3)2 + (100.1 − 100.3)2 + (100.5 − 100.3)2 + (100.3 − 100.3)2
σ=
5−1
r r
0.01 + 0.01 + 0.04 + 0.04 + 0.00 0.10
= = = 0.25 cm
4 4
Example 2: Temperature readings (in degrees Celsius) recorded in a laboratory over a 5-minute
interval: 25.2°C, 25.3°C, 25.1°C, 25.4°C, 25.0°C. Calculate the average temperature and the standard
deviation.
Solution: First, calculate the average temperature:
1 125.0
x̄ = (25.2 + 25.3 + 25.1 + 25.4 + 25.0) = = 25.0 °C
5 5
Next, calculate the standard deviation using the formula for n < 20:
r
(25.2 − 25.0)2 + (25.3 − 25.0)2 + (25.1 − 25.0)2 + (25.4 − 25.0)2 + (25.0 − 25.0)2
σ=
5−1
r
0.04 + 0.09 + 0.01 + 0.16 + 0.00
=
4
r
0.30
= = 0.43 °C
4

5 Propagation of Errors
When performing calculations involving measurements, it’s important to consider how errors in the
measurements affect the uncertainties in the calculated results. There are various rules for propagating
errors, and some of the common rules include:

• Addition and Subtraction Rule: Used when adding or subtracting measurements.

• Multiplication and Division Rule: Applied when multiplying or dividing measurements.

• Power Rule: Used for raising measurements to a power.

• Exponential Rule: Applied when exponentiating measurements.

In this subsection, we will focus on the ”Addition and Subtraction Rule.” However, it’s essential to
be aware of these other rules when dealing with more complex calculations.

7
5.1 Addition and Subtraction Rule
The Addition and Subtraction Rule is used when you are performing calculations involving the sum or
difference of multiple measurements with associated uncertainties. The rule states:
p
δR = (δx1 )2 + (δx2 )2 + . . . + (δxn )2
Where:

δR : Uncertainty in the result (R)

δx1 , δx2 , . . . , δxn : Uncertainties in the individual measurements (x1, x2, ..., xn)

This rule allows us to calculate the total uncertainty in a calculated value by summing the squares of
the individual uncertainties and taking the square root of the sum.
Example 1: You want to calculate the total resistance (R) in an electrical circuit. You have three
resistors with the following resistances and uncertainties: R1 = 10.0 Ω (δR1 = 0.2 Ω), R2 = 15.0 Ω
(δR2 = 0.3 Ω), and R3 = 8.0 Ω (δR3 = 0.1 Ω). Calculate the total resistance and its uncertainty.
Solution: Using the Addition and Subtraction Rule, we can calculate the uncertainty in the total
resistance (R):
p
δR = (δR1 )2 + (δR2 )2 + (δR3 )2
p
= (0.2 Ω)2 + (0.3 Ω)2 + (0.1 Ω)2
p
= 0.04 Ω2 + 0.09 Ω2 + 0.01 Ω2
≈ 0.37 Ω

Now, calculate the total resistance:

R = R1 + R2 + R3
= 10.0 Ω + 15.0 Ω + 8.0 Ω
= 33.0 Ω

Example 2: You are measuring the thickness (t) of a material, and you have two measurements:
t1 = 3.2 mm (δt1 = 0.1 mm) and t2 = 2.8 mm (δt2 = 0.2 mm). Calculate the difference in thickness and
its uncertainty.
Solution: Using the Addition and Subtraction Rule, we can calculate the uncertainty in the difference
in thickness (∆t):
p
δ(∆t) = (δt1 )2 + (δt2 )2
p
= (0.1 mm)2 + (0.2 mm)2
p
= 0.01 mm2 + 0.04 mm2
≈ 0.22 mm

Now, calculate the difference in thickness:

∆t = t1 − t2
= 3.2 mm − 2.8 mm
= 0.4 mm

So, the difference in thickness is 0.0.4 mm with an uncertainty of approximately 0.22 mm.

5.1.1 Exercises
Solve following problems.
Exercise 1: You are measuring the width of a rectangular table using two measurement methods.
The first method yields a width of 100.0 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.2 cm, and the second method yields
a width of 99.8 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.1 cm. Calculate the sum of the widths and its uncertainty.

8
 Exercise 2 : You are measuring the diameter of a circle using two different instruments. The first
instrument yields a diameter of 8.0 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.1 cm, and the second instrument yields
a diameter of 8.2 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.2 cm. Calculate the absolute difference in diameters and
its uncertainty.
Exercise 3 : You are measuring the temperature of a liquid using two thermometers. The first
thermometer yields a temperature of 25.0 ◦ C with an uncertainty of ±0.2 ◦ C, and the second thermometer
yields a temperature of 25.2 ◦ C with an uncertainty of ±0.1 ◦ C. Calculate the sum of the temperatures
and its uncertainty.
Exercise 4 : You want to calculate the total resistance (R) in an electrical circuit. You have two
resistors with the following resistances and uncertainties: R1 = 10.0 Ω (±0.2 Ω) and R2 = 15.0 Ω (±0.1 Ω).
Calculate the total resistance and its uncertainty.
Exercise 5 : You are measuring the thickness (t) of a material. The first measurement yields
t1 = 3.2 mm (±0.1 mm), and the second measurement yields t2 = 2.8 mm (±0.2 mm). Calculate the
difference in thickness and its uncertainty.

5.2 Multiplication and Division Rule

When you perform calculations involving the multiplication or division of measured quantities, you need
to consider the rules for propagating errors. The Multiplication and Division Rule for error propagation
is applied when you multiply or divide two or more measurements, each with its associated uncertainty.
When you multiply or divide measurements, you can calculate the absolute error in the result using
the simple average errors of the measurements involved. Mathematically, for two measurements A and
B with uncertainties ±∆A and ±∆B, the absolute error in their product or quotient is given by:
 
∆A ∆B
∆C = C · +
A B
Where:

C : Result of the multiplication or division

∆A : Uncertainty in measurement A
∆B : Uncertainty in measurement B
A : Measurement A
B : Measurement B

Example 1: You are calculating the area (A) of a rectangle with length (L) and width (W ) mea-
surements. The length is L = 10.0 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.2 cm, and the width is W = 5.0 cm with
an uncertainty of ±0.1 cm. Calculate the area and its uncertainty.
Solution:
   
∆L ∆W 2 0.2 cm 0.1 cm
∆A = A · + = 50.0 cm · + = 1.0 cm2
L W 10.0 cm 5.0 cm

Example 2: You want to find the speed (v) of an object by dividing the distance (d) it travels by the
time (t) it takes. The distance is d = 500.0 m with an uncertainty of ±2.0 m, and the time is t = 30.0 s
with an uncertainty of ±1.0 s. Calculate the speed and its uncertainty.
Solution:
   
∆d ∆t 500.0 m 2.0 m 1.0 s 1.0 m/s
∆v = v · + = · + = = 0.067 m/s`‘‘
d t 30.0 s 500.0 m 30.0 s 15

Example 3: You are calculating the volume (V ) of a cube with side length (s). The side length is
s = 8.0 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.3 cm. Calculate the volume and its uncertainty.
Solution:
∆s 0.3 cm
∆V = V · = 512.0 cm3 · = 19.2 cm3
s 8.0 cm

9
5.2.1 Exercises
Exercise 1: You are measuring the length (L) and width (W ) of a rectangle. The length is L = 12.5 cm
with an uncertainty of ±0.3 cm, and the width is W = 6.8 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.2 cm. Calculate
the area of the rectangle and its uncertainty.
Exercise 2: You want to find the volume (V ) of a cylindrical container with radius (r) and height
(h). The radius is r = 5.2 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.1 cm, and the height is h = 10.0 cm with an
uncertainty of ±0.4 cm. Calculate the volume of the cylinder and its uncertainty.
Exercise 3: You are determining the speed (v) of a car. The distance traveled (d) is 650 m with an
uncertainty of ±2 m, and the time (t) taken is 28 s with an uncertainty of ±0.5 s. Calculate the speed of
the car and its uncertainty.
Exercise 4: You are calculating the density (ρ) of an object. The mass (m) is 380 g with an
uncertainty of ±10 g, and the volume (V ) is 50 cm3 with an uncertainty of ±2 cm3 . Calculate the density
and its uncertainty.
Exercise 5: You are determining the power (P ) of an electrical device. You have measured the
voltage (V ) to be 220 V with an uncertainty of ±1 V, and the current (I) to be 2.5 A with an uncertainty
of ±0.05 A. Calculate the power and its uncertainty.

5.3 Power Rule

The Power Rule is applied when you calculate a power or exponent of a measurement with an associated
uncertainty. This rule is particularly useful when you are dealing with measurements raised to a power,
like calculating the area of a circle (A = πr2 ) or the volume of a sphere (V = 34 πr3 ).
When you raise a measurement to a power, the absolute error in the result is found by multiplying
the absolute error in the measurement by the power applied. Mathematically, for a measurement A with
an uncertainty ±∆A and you calculate a power B = An , the absolute error in B is given by:

∆B = |n · An−1 · ∆A|
Where:

B : Result of the power calculation

∆A : Uncertainty in measurement A
A : Measurement A
n : Exponent or power applied

Example: You are calculating the volume (V ) of a sphere with radius (r) measurement. The radius
is r = 5.0 cm with an uncertainty of ±0.2 cm. Calculate the volume of the sphere and its uncertainty.
Solution: The formula for the volume of a sphere is V = 43 πr3 .

dV
∆V = · ∆r = 4πr2 · ∆r = 4 · 3.14 · (5.0 cm)2 · 0.2 cm = 157.6 cm3
dr
So, the volume of the sphere is approximately 523.33 cm3 with an uncertainty of 157.6 cm3 .
The Power Rule helps you calculate the error when raising a measurement to an exponent, which is
common in various geometric and physical calculations.

5.3.1 Exercises
Practice the Power Rule for error propagation with these exercises. Specify the uncertainties in measure-
ments as ±.
Exercise 1: You are calculating the kinetic energy (K) of an object. The mass (m) is 2.5 kg with
an uncertainty of ±0.1 kg, and the velocity (v) is 5.0 m/s with an uncertainty of ±0.2 m/s. Calculate the
kinetic energy and its uncertainty.
Exercise 2: You want to determine the electric power (P ) dissipated in a resistor. The voltage (V )
across the resistor is 12 V with an uncertainty of ±0.2 V, and the current (I) passing through it is 2.5 A
with an uncertainty of ±0.05 A. Calculate the electric power and its uncertainty.
Exercise 3: You are calculating the work (W ) done by a force. The force (F ) applied is 40 N with
an uncertainty of ±1 N, and the displacement (d) is 6.0 m with an uncertainty of ±0.1 m. Calculate the
work and its uncertainty.

10