BACTERIOPHAGE

Bacteriophages-also known as phages, are viruses that infect and replicate only bacterial cells.
A phage particle is composed of a single type of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) and a protein
capsid that protects the genetic material.

Bacteriophage Structure
The bacteriophage consists of a polyhedral head, a short collar and a helical tail.
Head- The head consists of 2000 capsomeres with double-stranded DNA enclosed within.
Tail- The tail consists of an inner hollow tube which is surrounded by a contractile sheath with
24 annular rings. The distal end consists of a basal plate with tail fibres at each corner. The
bacteriophage attaches to the bacteria with the help of these tail fibres.

Like all viruses, bacteriophages are very species-specific with regard to their hosts and usually
only infect a single bacterial species or even specific strains within a species. Once a
bacteriophage attaches to a susceptible host, it pursues one of two replication strategies: lytic
or lysogenic. 

Lytic Cycle
In the Lytic Cycle, a bacteriophage infects a bacteria and kills it to release progeny virus. This cycle takes
place in the following steps:

 Adsorption
The bacteriophage attaches itself on the surface of bacteria. This process is known as
adsorption. The tips of the tail fibres attach to specific receptors on the surface of the
bacterial cell.
 Penetration
The tail sheath of the phage contracts after adsorption. The base plate and the tail fibres
are attached firmly to the bacterial cell. The phage muramidase weakens a part of the
cell wall and the hollow core is pushed downwards through it. The DNA is injected inside
the bacterial cell.
 Synthesis of Phage Components
The components of new virus particles are produced after the nucleic acid is released
into the cell. The sub-units of phage head, tail and late protein then appear. The
 synthesis is carried out by specific enzymes called early proteins. The nucleus and the
cytoplasm also contain the components of a phage.
 Maturation and Assembly
On maturation, the head and tail protein of phage DNA assemble and each component
of phage DNA is surrounded by a protein coat. Ultimately, the tail structures are added
forming a virion.
 Release
The infected bacterial cell is lysed releasing the progeny phages. The phage enzymes
weaken the cell wall of bacteria during replication

In the lysogenic replication cycle, the phage also attaches to a susceptible host bacterium and
introduces its genome into the host cell cytoplasm. However, the phage genome is instead
integrated into the bacterial cell chromosome or maintained as an episomal element where, in
both cases, it is replicated and passed on to daughter bacterial cells without killing them.
Integrated phage genomes are termed prophages, and the bacteria containing them are
termed lysogens. Prophages can convert back to a lytic replication cycle and kill their host, most
often in response to changing environmental conditions.

FUNCTION of BATERIOPHAGE
 a critical mediator of genetic exchange between pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria
 bacteriophages can alter microbial populations because they prey on specific species of bacteria
while leaving others unharmed
 clinical use of lytic bacteriophages as antimicrobial therapy (phage therapy) in humans exist

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
 many highly pathogenic bacterial toxins are encoded by bacteriophage genomes, such that the
host bacterium is only pathogenic when lysogenized by the toxin-encoding phage.
  bacteriophages are vectors for horizontal gene transfer, including antimicrobial resistance
genes. They also have been engineered to introduce genes into specific strains for clinical effect,
although this use is currently in the testing stage
 their detection can be used as a biomarker for the presence of their host in a complex
environmental sample. This most commonly is used as a surrogate for fecal contamination of
water sources.
 bacteriophages also are clinically relevant for their ability to distinguish strains of the same
bacterial species.
 bacteriophages were the first type of virus to be discovered and were a part of many of the
fundamental discoveries of molecular biology

A virus is an infectious microbe consisting of a segment of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein coat. A virus cannot replicate alone; instead, it must infect cells and
use components of the host cell to make copies of itself. Often, a virus ends up killing the host
cell in the process, causing damage to the host organism. 

They are unique because they are only alive and able to multiply inside the cells of other living
things. Viruses only exist to make more viruses. The virus particle attaches to the host cell
before penetrating it. The virus then uses the host cell’s machinery to replicate its own genetic
material. Once replication has been completed the virus particles leave the host by either
budding or bursting out of the cell (lysis). 

Budding
As the newly formed viral particle pushes against the host cell’s plasma membrane a portion
adheres to it. The plasma membrane envelops the virus and becomes the viral envelope. The
virus is released from the cell. This process slowly uses up the host’s cell membrane and usually
leads to cell death.
Lysis
The virus particles burst out of the host cell into the extracellular space resulting in the death of
the host cell. Once the virus has escaped from the host cell it is ready to enter a new cell and
multiply.

Viruses can be used as vectors by essentially removing their pathogenic parts while retaining
their gene-delivery capacities, making them incredibly versatile tools to carry and deliver
genetic material. Viral vectors have been used in gene therapy, i.e., for the introduction of
functioning genes into human cells. 
Many applications of viruses have been used for agricultural purposes, namely concerning plant
breeding and plant protection.

Many plant viruses have been developed as vectors for either the expression and production of
a specific protein or for silencing by down regulating the expression of a homologous gene
leading to a loss of function, also called virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS)