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Viruses are typically described as obligate intracellular parasites, acellular

infectious agents that require the presence of a host cell in order to multiply.
Viruses are tiny infectious particles that can invade living cells. They are much
smaller than bacteria and cannot reproduce on their own. Instead, they hijack the
machinery of host cells to replicate and spread.

Characteristic Features of Viruses

Living Characters
• Presence of nucleic acid and protein.
• Capable of mutation
• Ability to multiply within living cells.
• Able to infect and cause diseases in living beings.
• Show irritability.
• Host –specific
Non-living Characters
• Can be crystallized.
• Absence of metabolism.
• Inactive outside the host.
• Do not show functional autonomy.
• Energy producing enzyme system is absent.
Here are some of the key characteristics of viruses:
 Acellular: Viruses are not cells. They do not have cytoplasm, organelles, or the
ability to carry out their own metabolism.
 Genetic material: Viruses contain either DNA or RNA, but not both. This genetic
material encodes the instructions for making new viral particles.
 Capsid: The genetic material of a virus is surrounded by a protein coat called a
capsid. The capsid protects the genetic material and helps the virus attach to host
cells.
 Envelope: Some viruses have an additional outer layer called an envelope. This
envelope is made up of a lipid bilayer and proteins. It helps the virus evade the
immune system and gain entry into host cells.
 Obligate intracellular parasites: Viruses cannot reproduce on their own. They must
invade host cells and use the host cell's machinery to make new viral particles.
 Specificity: Viruses are often specific to the type of host cell they can infect. This
is because the virus must be able to attach to and enter the host cell.
 Mutation: Viruses can mutate rapidly, which allows them to evade the immune
system and develop resistance to drugs.

Hosts and Viral Transmission

Viruses can infect every type of host cell, including those of plants, animals, fungi,
protists, bacteria, and archaea. Most viruses will only be able to infect the cells of one or
a few species of organism. This is called the host range. However, having a wide host range
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is not common and viruses will typically only infect specific hosts and only specific cell
types within those hosts. The viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages, or
simply phages. The word phage comes from the Greek word for devour. Other viruses are
just identified by their host group, such as animal or plant viruses. Once a cell is infected,
the effects of the virus can vary depending on the type of virus. Chapter 6 | Acellular
Pathogens 243 Viruses may cause abnormal growth of the cell or cell death, alter the cell’s
genome, or cause little noticeable effect in the cell. Viruses can be transmitted through
direct contact, indirect contact with fomites, or through a vector: an animal that
transmits a pathogen from one host to another. Arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, and
flies, are typical vectors for viral diseases, and they may act as mechanical vectors or
biological vectors. Mechanical transmission occurs when the arthropod carries a viral
pathogen on the outside of its body and transmits it to a new host by physical contact.
Biological transmission occurs when the arthropod carries the viral pathogen inside its
body and transmits it to the new host through biting. In humans, a wide variety of viruses
are capable of causing various infections and diseases. Some of the deadliest emerging
pathogens in humans are viruses, yet we have few treatments or drugs to deal with viral
infections, making them difficult to eradicate. Viruses that can be transmitted from an
animal host to a human host can cause zoonoses. For example, the avian influenza virus
originates in birds, but can cause disease in humans. Reverse zoonoses are caused by
infection of an animal by a virus that originated in a human.

Structure
Viral Genome
The viral genome is a single or segmented, circular or linear molecule of nucleic acid
functioning as the genetic material of the virus. It can be single-stranded or double-
stranded DNA or RNA (but almost never both), and codes for the synthesis of viral
components and viral enzymes for replication. It is also becoming recognized that viruses
may play a critical role in evolution of life by serving as shuttles of genetic material
between other organisms.
Viral Capsid
The capsid, or core, is a protein shell surrounding the genome and is usually
composed of protein subunits called capsomeres. The capsid serves to protect and
introduce the genome into host cells. Some viruses consist of no more than a genome
surrounded by a capsid and are called nucleocapsid or nucleocapsid (Figure 10.3.110.3.1).
Attachment proteins project out from the capsid and bind the virus to susceptible host
cells.
Viral Envelope
Most animal viruses also have an envelope surrounding a polyhedral or helical
nucleocapsid, in which case they are called enveloped viruses (Figure 10.3.310.3.3). The
envelope may come from the host cell's nuclear membrane, vacuolar membranes (packaged
by the Golgi apparatus), or outer cytoplasmic membrane. Although the envelope is usually
of host cell origin, the virus does incorporate proteins of its own, often appearing as
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glycoprotein spikes, into the envelope. These glycoprotein spikes function in attaching the
virus to receptors on susceptible host cells.

Multiplication or Life Cycle of Phages

Phages multiply through two different types of life cycle. a. Lytic or Virulent cycle
b. Lysogenic or Avirulent life cycle. a. Lytic Cycle During lytic cycle of phage,
disintegration of host bacterial cell occurs and the progeny virions are released (Figure
1.5a). The steps involved in the lytic cycle are as follows:
Lytic or Virulent cycle
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(i) Adsorption Phage (T4) particles interact with cell wall of host (E. coli). The
phage tail makes contact between the two, and tail fibres recognize the specific
receptor sites present on bacterial cell surface. The lipopolysaccharides of tail
fibres act as receptor in phages. The process involving the recognition of phage
to bacterium is called landing. Once the contact is established between tail
fibres and bacterial cell, tail fibres bend to anchor the pins and base plate to
the cell surface. This step is called pinning.
(ii) (ii) Penetration The penetration process involves mechanical and enzymatic
digestion of the cell wall of the host. At the recognition site phage digests
certain cell wall structure by viral enzyme (lysozyme). After pinning the tail
sheath contracts (using ATP) and appears shorter and thicker. After
contraction of the base plate enlarges through which DNA is injected into the
cell wall without using metabolic energy. The step involving injection of DNA
particle alone into the bacterial cell is called Transfection. The empty protein
coat leaving outside the cell is known as ‘ghost’.
(iii) (iii) Synthesis This step involves the degradation of bacterial chromosome,
protein synthesis and DNA replication. The phage nucleic acid takes over the
host biosynthetic machinery. Host DNA gets inactivated and breaks down. Phage
DNA suppresses the synthesis of bacterial protein and directs the metabolism
of the cell to synthesis the proteins of the phage particles and simultaneously
replication of Phage DNA also takes place.
(iv) (iv) Assembly and Maturation The DNA of the phage and protein coat are
synthesized separately and are assembled to form phage particles. The process
of assembling the phage particles is known as maturation. After 20 minutes of
infection, about 300 new phages are assembled
(v) (v) Release The phage particle gets accumulated inside the host cell and are
released by the lysis of host cell wall
b. Lysogenic Cycle In the lysogenic cycle the phage DNA gets integrated into
host DNA and gets multiplied along with nucleic acid of the host. No
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independent viral particle is formed (Figure 1.5b). As soon as the phage injects
its linear DNA into the host cell, it becomes circular and integrates into the
bacterial chromosome by recombination. The integrated phage DNA is now
called prophage. The activity of the prophage gene is repressed by two
repressor proteins which are synthesized by phage genes. This checks the
synthesis of new phages within the host cell. However, each time the bacterial
cell divides, the prophage multiplies along with the bacterial chromosome. On
exposure to UV radiation and chemicals the excision of phage DNA may occur
and results in lytic cycle

Classification and Taxonomy of Viruses

Viruses are microscopic entities that can infect living organisms, causing a wide
range of diseases. Unlike bacteria, which are single-celled organisms, viruses are
much simpler and lack the machinery necessary for independent reproduction.
Instead, they invade host cells and hijack their reproductive machinery to make
copies of themselves.
To understand and combat these diverse pathogens, scientists have developed
systems for classifying and naming them. This classification, known as virus
taxonomy, is crucial for studying viral evolution, tracking outbreaks, and
developing vaccines and treatments.
The Authority: The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is the official
body responsible for virus taxonomy. Founded in 1966, the ICTV establishes the
rules and guidelines for virus classification and nomenclature. Every four years,
the ICTV publishes a new report that updates the official virus taxonomy,
reflecting the latest scientific discoveries.
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The System: Ranking from Realm to Species

The ICTV classification system follows a hierarchical structure, similar to the
Linnaean taxonomy used for cellular organisms. Viruses are organized into ranks,
starting with the broadest category, realm, and progressing down to the most
specific, species. Here's a breakdown of the main ranks:
 Realm: The highest level, currently consisting of two realms: Riboviria (RNA
viruses) and Deinoviria (DNA viruses).
 Phylum: A group of realms with shared characteristics.
 Class: A group of phyla with shared characteristics.
 Order: A group of classes with shared characteristics.
 Family: A group of orders with shared characteristics.
 Genus: A group of species with shared characteristics.
 Species: The most specific rank, representing a group of viruses with very similar
properties.
Classification Criteria:
Several factors are considered when classifying viruses, including:
 Nucleic acid type: Whether the virus contains DNA or RNA.
 Genome structure: Whether the genome is single-stranded or double-stranded,
circular or linear.
 Replication strategy: How the virus replicates its genetic material.
 Virion structure: The shape and size of the virus particle.
 Host range: The types of organisms the virus can infect.

Viral Growth Curve

Unlike the growth curve for a bacterial population, the growth curve for a virus
population over its life cycle does not follow a sigmoidal curve. During the initial
stage, an inoculum of virus causes infection. In the eclipse phase, viruses bind
and penetrate the cells with no virions detected in the medium. The chief
difference that next appears in the viral growth curve compared to a bacterial
growth curve occurs when virions are released from the lysed host cell at the
same time. Such an occurrence is called a burst, and the number of virions per
bacterium released is described as the burst size. In a one-step multiplication
curve for bacteriophage, the host cells lyse, releasing many viral particles to
the medium, which leads to a very steep rise in viral titer (the number of virions
per unit volume). If no viable host cells remain, the viral particles begin to
degrade during the decline of the culture.
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The one-step multiplication curve for a bacteriophage population follows three

steps: 1) inoculation, during which the virions attach to host cells; 2) eclipse,
during which entry of the viral genome occurs; and 3) burst, when sufficient
numbers of new virions are produced and emerge from the host cell. The burst
size is the maximum number of virions produced per bacterium.