2821

SECRETS OF
123 CLASSIC
SCIENCE TRICKS
AMD
EXPERIMENTS
BOSTON
PUBLIC
LIBRARY
SECRETS OF
1 23 CLASSIC
SCIENCE TRICKS
AND
EXPERIMENTS
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012

http://archive.org/details/secretsof123clas00lann
SECRETS OF
123 CLASSIC
SCIENCE TRICKS
AND
EXPERIMENTS
EDI LANNERS

TAB BOOKS
TAB Blue Ridge Summit, PA
Inc
 Notice

For children's use only with adult supervision.

Use chemicals or electricity only under adult supervision.

Use fire only with adult supervision.

Keep chemicals off of skin. Wash chemical apparatus.

Follow directions. Be careful. A chemical laboratory at home can be danger-
ous, but it can be lots of fun.
Chemicals can be poisonous even when absorbed through the skin.

Any cut in the skin should be washed immediately with plenty of water.

Don't work alone. Have someone with you, ready to turn off a switch if the
experiment goes wrong— and this can happen with the best of us.

The publisher takes no responsibility for the use of any of the materials or
methods described in this book, or for the products thereof.

FIRST EDITION/THIRD PRINTING

Printed in the United States of America

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, without express

permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability is assumed with respect
to the use of the information herein.

Copyright © 1981 by TAB BOOKS Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lanners, Edi.
Secrets of 123 classic science tricks and experiments.

Reprint. Originally published: Secrets of 123 old-time

science tricks & experiments. C1981.
1. Science— Experiments. 2. Scientific recreations.
I. Title. Secrets of one hundred twenty-three
II. Title:
classic tricks and experiments.
Q164.L26 1987 507'.8 87-1926
ISBN 0-8306-2821-5 (pbk.)

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Blue Ridge Summit, PA 17294-0214
 !

Contents

Introduction 7 The Knife as Nutcracker 50

Columbus's Up-Dated Egg 13 A Blow with a Stick 5i
The Hovering Ladle 13 The Transmission of an Impact 52
The Acrobatic Pencil M Water into Wine 53
The Plate Carousel 15 Which Is Heavier? 54
Floating Kitchen Utensils 16 The Japanese Paper Frog 55
Playing with Matches 17 The Runaway Coin 57
A Tiny Drill 20 The Leaping Egg 59
The Dancing Wineglass 20 A Remarkable Top 59
The Balancing Goblet 22 Artificial Birds 61
The Floating Carafe 22 The Spinning Coin 62
A Homemade Precision Balance 24 The Floating Bread Pellet 63
The Nerve-Racking Game 25 The Freely Suspended Coin 64
Pigs in Clover 26 A New Version of the Magdeburg
The Animate Cardboard Box 27 Hemispheres 66
Where Is the Center of Gravity ? 28 Blowing a Candle out with a
Seeing Is Believing 29 Bottle 68
Peeling an Orange 30 A Passenger-Ferrving Soap
The Bewitched Fidibus 32 Bubble 71
The Compliant Coins 33 Forcing an Egg into a Bottle 72
From Elbow to Hand 34 An Inexpensive Trombone 72
Inertiaand the Checkerboard 36 The Bottle-Harmonica at
And the Coin Is
Still There! 37 Concert Pitch 75
Cup-and-Ball with Dice 38 The Melodious Dulcimer 76
Experiments with Centrifugal Well Grunted 77
Effects 38 Imitation Thunder 78
The Devil-on-Two-Sticks 4i Visible Vibrations 79
A Miniature Boomerang 42 The Water Candlestick 81
A Russian Soap-Bubble Carousel 44 Muslin and a Glowing Coal 82
Chain into Top 45 The Electric Walnut 83
The Ascent of the Napkin Ring 46 The Electric Broomstick 85
The Circling Tumbler 47 Another Way of Fishing 86
The Strength of Straw 48 The Electric Dancers 87
The Induction Top 89 Penumbral Pictures 138
Magnetizing Knife
a 90 The Devil in Reverse 139
A Leyden Jar and an Electrical The Fade-Over Effect 140
Tea Tray 91 How Tall Is the Top Hat? 142
Thermoelectric Currents 94 Optical Illusions with the Help
Drawing with Fire 95 of a Ruler M5
Crystals on a Thread 96 The Man in the Bottle 145
Swim, Little Fish! 98 The Giant Hare 148
The Camphor Boat 99 The Cannibal 149
Floating Iron 100 Your Head on a Platter 151
Drawing a Circle by Cohesion 102 Photographic Compositions i5 2
The Suspended Pencil 103 Shadow Pictures 155
How to Fill a Sealed Wineglass 104 The Singing Doll 165
A Mussel Turbine 106 Playing-Card into Chain 167
A Paper Cornet Waterwheel 107 A Trick with String 168
A Letter Balance for the The Vanishing Ball 169
Summer Vacation 109 Inseparable Companions 170
A Snail-Shell Waterwheel no Magic Spheres 173
A Hydraulic Motor in The Mysterious Knot 173
Experiments with Capillarity "3 The Vanishing Birdcage 175
A Simple Prism 114 The Magic Chain 176
Sundials 116 The Coin in the Bottle 176
The Reflection of Light 118 Where is the Dime ? 179
The Reverse Image 119 The Bewitched Sphere 180
Right- or Left-Sighted ? 121 The Frisky Mouse 182
A Trick with Light 124 Tricky Dice 183
Simulating Spectral Colors 126 The Clutch of Eggs in the Hat 184
Glass Globe into Microscope 128 Flowers for a Friend 186
A Distorted Drawing 129 The Mysterious Hand 187
The Magic Mirror 131 The Patient Impaled 188
Mirror Images without Mirrors 134 The Disappearing Coin 189
The Cabinet of Mirrors 134 Magic with the Magic Egg 190
Hexagonal Circles 137
 !

Introduction

My dear friend,
A while ago I mailed you two old volumes of indoor games entitled
Columbus Egg, together with my suggestions on how they might be
adapted for possible republication. I asked for your opinion on whether a
book of this kind could hope to succeed, bearing in mind the veritable flood
of contemporary works.
I was quite unprepared for the enthusiasm of your reply. I had
looked forward to your opinion on the book as a text, but never expected
your wife and children actually to put the tricks to the test. The fact that you
tried many of them out together is book - it is
fully in the spirit of the
meant to be used as well as read. I have a shrewd suspicion, however, that
you hoodwinked your family into large-scale experimentation simply to find
out whether the delightful pictures bore any resemblance to the detailed
instructions. I bet you felt that you would be sending me back a clutch of
rotten eggs
I must now confess that we put ourselves through the same sort of
fun and games, and stood Columbus' eggs on end by the dozen. We
regularly misappropriated household utensils, upset the cooking, inter-
rupted mealtimes, turned social occasions into demonstrations of our skills,
and our youngest son even tempted our neighbor, a dignified old gentleman,
into trying his hand at childish experiments with knives and corks.
But now for your "whys" and "wherefores." The publishers
originally asked me to collaborate on a book of magic. Publications on that
theme usually address themselves to individuals, and are hence, I feel,
unlikely to encourage group participation. The sorcerer's apprentice, after
all, relies on the ignorance of his audience. If he serves up tricks that are

simple and familiar, he will undoubtedly give the children pleasure and hold
their interest for some time, but if he starts to reveal the secrets of the more
intricate conjuring acts he is bound to strip the latter of much of their
fascination. In these cases what matters is a perfect performance, not the
explanation. Constant practice and endless patience are needed to hold the
attention of a passive audience; only with these may one hope to turn an
illusionary trick into a spellbinding spectacle. It is difficult, however, to

convey on the printed page, so that a book addressed only to the

all this

individual would-be magician is likely to prove a source of discouragement.

We decided, therefore, to elicit the participation of the entire family.
Itwas this consideration that led me to the old models. I had dis-
covered the two volumes of Columbus Egg some time before in a second-
hand bookstore. The owner had given them to me when I purchased a book
on butterflies, voicing the opinion that it was unlikely for anyone to evince
the slightest interest in such childish games now that the toy industry is
swamping the market, year after year, with a stream of new and ever more
marvelous playthings.
The year of publication, 1890, was hidden in the vignette of the first

volume. We may take it that the book was a compilation of articles published
separately in various journals; I discovered some of the old wood engravings
in German and French almanacs, together with different, often much
lengthier, instructions. Other pictures, illustrating or explaining scientific
experiments, have turned up in old textbooks. For two generations they
apparently served our great-grandfathers and great-great-grandfathers as
models for games or as educational aids at home and at school, later to be
ousted by the rise of photography and more abstract illustrations.
You expressed your surprise at the craftsmanlike and detailed execu-
tion of the illustrations which, judged by present-day standards, bear no
economic relation to the text. In other words, why was so much time and
love spent on depicting, say, a carafe and straw modeled in light and shadow
so carefully and realistically, if all that the picture was intended to illustrate
was the strength of the straw ?
Nowadays we have come to rely largely on photographic illustrations
which, as a convenient and efficient method of reproduction, no longer
presuppose the sensitive involvement of the artist with the object to be
depicted. Moreover, we have also become used to a kind of shorthand and
consider repetition to be superfluous. In daily life, we presuppose as generally
known many things that may long since have been forgotten. The old
and texts, by contrast, keep harking back to the antecedents of a
illustrations
given theme and do not hesitate to repeat details that are seemingly of
secondary importance.
Thus if we compare an old introduction to physics with a new one,
we shall be struck by how humorless and puny our abstract signs and symbols
seem beside the amusing and vivid old illustrations. A force whose direction
and magnitude is nowadays represented by an arrow would in earlier times
have been depicted much more tellingly by a flexed and powerful arm or by
a team of plodding draft horses. A child can grasp the elemental force of the

wind when it is personified by an angel blowing as hard as he can, or by an

enraged god of storms using his hurricane breath to drive a huge sailboat
through the ocean waves. In short, science used to be not only easy to
understand, but also amusing and stimulating. Indeed, play was generally
thought to pave the path to knowledge.
The nineteenth century, to which we owe our
scientific games, still
allowed the gods to make themselves
and explored and explained
felt,

creation with their help and "collaboration. " However, we should be quite
wrong if, in nostalgic retrospect, we imagined that the age was a divinely
protected era of innocent recreation.
By that time man's questing intellect had already linked the wheel to
st cam power, and the world was being transformed, as never before, with
incredible speed : a constant stream of new and ever-better machines drove
 .

a wedge between man and his familiar tools. Industries sprang up that re-
quired strange new procedures with levers and wheels; cities grew in size,

and were brought closer together by ever faster traffic. . .

In 1830, the diligent draft horse celebrated its last victory in a race
with a locomotive along the Baltimore-Ohio track. Some ten years later, the
British railroad system could boast a length of more than 2,000 miles. In
1859, oil appeared as a new source of energy alongside steam power, and as
early as 1881 the first electric streetcar was conveying passengers in the
vicinity of Berlin.
Small wonder, then, that people everywhere were making great
efforts tounderstand the new techniques and to wonder how best to exploit
the latest advances. The daily press published innumerable proud and
detailed accounts by scientists and engineers of their inventions and dis-
coveries,and the second half of the nineteenth century embarked upon a
cramming course in physics based on simple examples, realistically and
popularly presented. It is against this background that we may begin to
understand the approach used in this little book, an approach that is no
longer familiar to the modern reader.
The present compilation invites the reader to explore "strange
continents" inside the family home and awakens
the Columbus slumbering
within us all. form of family games using ordinary
This object lesson in the
household articles can give rise to more pleasure and understanding even
today than many a heavy tome eking out its prestigious existence unread
on our bookshelves.
Apart from a few exercises in dexterity, I have only included simple,
elementary games illustrating equilibrium and the center of gravity, inertia,
centrifugal effects, the behavior of liquids and gases, simple optical and
acoustic phenomena, electrical forces and other easily duplicated
experiments.
I agree with you when you say that man gains his best insights when
he is in contact with everyday objects. This view is corroborated not only by
the celebrated apple which fell on Newton's head while he was having an
afternoon nap, and to which he owed his discovery of the laws of universal
gravitation, but also Eiffel Tower, which could hardly
by the ingenious
have been built for the Paris Exhibition of 1889 without some understanding
of the structural properties of such apparently simple objects as straws.
How marvelous it would be if the most fertile brains of this century,
too, had been able to provide similarly splendid illustrations of what goes on
around us Far too often we stand undiscerning and powerless before the
!

manifold problems we face, and wish devoutly that we were granted greater
understanding. Accustomed to life with the mysterious atom, fearful of its

applications in peace and war, we lack popularizers and interpreters of

man's latest achievements and discoveries. Without these "go-betweens,"
we resemble the blind who trustingly follow or fervently condemn without
stopping to consider that they may be lacking in basic insight.
 How many such games could we not do with today, games that reveal
not only the mysteries of physics but also of man himself?
You ask me about the method of reproduction used in this book.
As I said earlier, all the old-fashioned and charming pictures are wood
engravings, or xylographs, which in the middle of the nineteenth century
used to make up the greater part of all illustrations and were widely used,

for instance, in illustrated journals. Meyer's Universal Encyclopedia at the

turn of the century bears the following entry:

Xylography is the art of cutting out of wood blocks, designs that

have been previously sketched in with pen, pencil or brush, or
reproduced by mechanical means, for instance, by photography,
in such a way that the designs are suitable for printing. The proce-
dure is as follows after the wood block, with a standard thickness of
:

-f
inch, has been planed level and smooth on one side, it receives a
thin coating of chalk. The design is applied to this coating, but in
reverse, as a mirror image of the future print, or else it is projected
onto the block by photographic means. The block is then handed
over to the wood engraver, who cuts out all the areas the draftsman
has left untouched, with a graver or solid burin, so that when he
has completed his work the drawing alone will stand out. The block
is now spread with printer's ink and, when applied to paper, will
produce a mirror image of the original. Apart from technical com-
petence, which requires long training and practice, the xylographer
must also have a considerable degree of artistic sensitivity and be
himself an accomplished draftsman, especially when dealing with
designs that do not consist of lines but, like most of the blocks used
by illustrated papers, have been painted or brushed on.

Most of our illustrations came from French studios. Amongst the

signatures I discovered that of the Parisian Henri Thiriat, one of the most
important wood engravers in France.
You maintain that most modern children do not learn games from
their parents and that they participate in competitive games as passive
spectators. I should not put it quite so bluntly. But I agree that, if they do
not take part in spontaneous games, children become stunted in their
intellectual development, a statement that probably applies to adults in

equal measure. Even without our intervention, the growing child makes
tentative attempts at unfettered creation and, by painting, building and
modeling, erects bridges to his or her environment. We adults value games
and play far too cheaply ; in addition to a few e\ enings in the bow ling alley or

at the card table, we one kind of sport, and the

are at best involved in just
lazier and less socially inclined amongst us are quite satisfied to sit back and
do nothing but watch our televisions. Psychology teaches us that game
playing covers a much wider spectrum than we generally think. It is a self-

10
rewarding activity, one that has no ulterior motives. In their rhythmical
comings and goings, in their encounters with objects and society, their
involvement and activity, players see themselves as being in immediate
and significant contact with the mainstream of life. Roles, imaginary
situations and illusions are acted out from the second year of life onward,
the young child still failing to grasp the make-believe character of his or her
games. Playing comes into its own in the preschool and early school period.
However, creative play continues to be the basis of our working life, leading
beyond youth to adult games and occasionally taking on the character of
serious intellectual, artistic and industrial activity.
In conclusion, I may perhaps be allowed a few words about the
title; the legendary egg of Columbus was probably foisted like a veritable

cuckoo's egg, even during his lifetime, onto the great Genovese, who dis-
covered America under the Spanish flag. As is well known, we refer by a
"Columbus's egg," to an astonishing solution or completion of an apparently
insoluble problem or task; to a creative idea that overcomes all obstacles.
Our titular hero, Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), being convinced of
the spherical shape of the earth, intended, by following the curvature of the
earth, to reach the east coast of Asia while sailing toward the West, although
that part of the world had never before been reached from that direction,
and although most of his contemporaries still held the ancient belief that
the earth was flat.
After his voyage, which despite many setbacks he completed success-
fully, his achievements were challenged and his detractors scoffed that

others could undoubtedly have made the same discovery.

It is at this point that the legend comes in. It tells us that Columbus

put the following question to his denigrators: "Can any of you stand an egg
on its head?" When they had all responded with embarrassed silence,
Columbus is said to have stood the egg on the table on its crushed end,
mortifying and astounding the braggarts with his simple solution.
In reality, this trick was devised, not by Columbus, but by one of his
compatriots, the brilliant architect, Filippo Brunelleschi (1377- 1446),
who, as Vasari reports in his Lives of the most eminent Painters, Sculptors
and Architects (1550), offered it to his opponents when they declared that
his proposed cupola for the cathedral in Florence was a castle in the air.
This revision, however, in no way detracts from a legend whose effect does
not depend on whether it was devised by Brunelleschi or Columbus. The
crucial point is the challenge it poses not to consider everyday tasks as a
:

chore, but to meet them in a creative spirit, in play no less than in real life.
Good-bye for now, my dear friend,
Yours affectionately,
Edi Lanners

P.S. Does work come before play, or does play come first

11
 Columbus's Up-Dated Egg
Legend has it that, at a dinner given thoroughly mixed. If the egg, now
by Cardinal Mendoza, those who divested of its divinely ordained
had previously scoffed at Columbus inner order, is held upright for a
were dumbfounded and humiliated time between the fingers, the heavier
when he successfully stood an egg yolk will sink to the bottom, lending
upright by tapping its end, a feat of much weight that,
the lower part so
both physical and mental agility. if the egg down on a table and
is set
Students of the human psyche will balanced with some patience, it will
conclude that Columbus must have remain in an upright position.
employed a hard-boiled egg for it Not so simple, but by no means
seems unlikely that the alleged effect difficult, is the experiment depicted
on the illustrious company would in our illustration.
have been quite so overwhelming The top of a cork is hollowed out

and unequivocal had a raw and so that the blunt end of an egg fits
fragile egg, woefully deprived of its neatly into it. If the cork is now
shape, besmirched the clerical table. placed over the egg and weighed
But let us leave Columbus' solution, down on either side with a fork, the
admittedly impressive but com- center of gravity of the whole system
paratively banal, to penetrate further is shifted downward. After several
into the mysteries of equilibrium attempts, and slight changes in the
by asking: "How can a raw egg be position of the cork and the egg,
stood on its head?" stable equilibrium is attained, with
The reader will smile condescend- the result that, as the illustration
ingly, for he or she commands quite shows, the egg and its burden can
a few more or less elegant drolleries be balanced gracefully on the rim of
and subterfuges. Thus, all you need a bottle - to the great astonishment
do is shake the egg vigorously until of the assembled company.
the white and the volk have been

The Hovering Ladle

Hovering is a most mysterious ing," need a point of support. Let us
business. Does a bird hover? The give it to them and stick the point of
commonly held view is that it does, a half-opened pocketknife, held in a
but strictly speaking it does not. It horizontal or near-horizontal
"rests" on the were in a
air, for if it position, into the edge of the table.
vacuum the miraculous powers of its As is shown in the illustration, it

wings would desert it, and it would must be imbedded just enough to
plummet to the ground. Hence we support the ladle. The position
must not take it amiss if the ladle adopted by the two "performers" is

and the knife, which are here sup- most intriguing, especially when
posed to suggest the idea of "hover- they are set swinging very gently.

13
The spectators will invariably be and falls off the edge of the table
amazed. We, who are privy to the with a clatter.

secret, will give a superior smile, for

we know that the spectators'
astonishment will increase even
further when we pour a little sand
into the ladle, or weigh it down in
some other way.
"Will it rise or sink?" we ask our
audience.
The unanimous reply is naturally
that it will sink, as any object that is

weighed down tends to do.

Our two "performers," the knife
and the ladle, however, seem deter-
mined to play a joke; the first rises
and the ladle goes with it,
in the air,
and the more we weigh the latter
down the more upright a position
will the former adopt, until it reaches
a certain point, ends the performance

The Acrobatic Pencil

Take a pencil, not too short, but the point of a penknife (or any other
otherwise of any shape, and push in knife) not far from its tip. Gradually
bring the handle toward the point of
the pencil, until the latter, resting on
the index finger, remains in balance.
This happens just as soon as the
center of gravity beneath the point
is

of support, that underneath our

is,

finger. The slope of the pencil

depends on the angle between the
handle and the blade of the knife,
the pencil will be vertical when the
center of gravity ot the knife is in
line with the pencil. Those having
exceptionally sensitive fingers should
ensure that the pencil is not too
sharp, tor, weighed down by the
knife, its point will press quite
deeply into the finger tip; you may,
of course, introduce a small piece of
leather or cloth in order to minimize
that danger. knife placed on the first two, thus
Incidentally, the experiment can producing a veritable tower which
be performed just as successfully leaves nothing to be desired in the
with a match instead of a pencil; boldness of its execution.
indeed it gains in appeal thanks to Care must, however, be taken, for,

its trifling size. Nor is that all: we as the structure grows, the blade may
can balance another match on the snap shut by itself, thus causing a
end of the first, but in this case it is disagreeable as well as unwelcome
best to use a smaller knife. With a injury to the finger. It is better, and
little skill, the game can be further safer, if the "tower" is erected on
extended, and a third match and the cork of a stoppered bottle.

The Plate Carousel

If we ask the good lady of the house request. But if she has had occasion
for a plate,informing her that we to notice that we sometimes perform
shall be trying to balance it on a a well-nigh impossible trick without
needle, it is ten to one that mindful causing the slightest damage to even
of her crockery, she will refuse our the most fragile objects, she may yet

15
be persuaded to lend us the precious the inclination of all four forks must
plate, and, with some trepidation, be roughly the same. If our prepara-
the dangerous needle as well. We tions have progressed satisfactorily
shall need in addition a stoppered thus far, then we may load the plate
bottle, two corks and four matching with the four forks, placed at the four
forks. These objects, too, are easily points of the compass around the
come by, and as soon as we have edge, and finally place the plate on
them we can proceed to the con- the blunt end of the needle, whose
struction of our needle-borne plate point we have pushed vertically into
merry-go-round. the cork of the stoppered bottle.
To begin with, we obtain four After several adjustments, we shall
half-cylinders by cutting each cork discover the point at which the whole
in two lengthwise. The cuts must be system is in equilibrium; indeed,
made with a very sharp knife, other- with some care - for instance by
wise the cut surfaces will be too blowing or gently tapping - we can
rough. If this is unavoidable, then even set the plate in motion and
we must carefully smooth the cuts cause it merry-go-
to turn like a
with a file. We now push the four round, slowly and then faster
at first
forks into the ends of the cut sur- and faster until the good lady of the
faces of the corks, taking care that house is proved right after all and
they are not completely perpen- she has to lament the loss of a plate,
dicular to the latter; the illustration consoling herself, perhaps, with the
shows the approximate angle very thought that she has sacrificed it to
clearly. It goes without saying that further the noble art of equilibration.

Floating Kitchen Utensils

This simple experiment, too, can the two connected objects in one
demonstrate that it is possible, with hand and place the edge of the plate
equipment readily found in most - bottom upward - on the rim of the
households, to perform the most decanter. With the other hand we
astonishing balancing feats, if only hang the hook of the soup ladle over
we are inventive enough and give the edge of the skimming ladle and
free rein to the imagination. gradually, by making careful adjust-
First, we take a decanter (or a ments, discover the position at
similar vessel with a high neck), which the whole system is in stable
which we fill with water, and also a equilibrium.
plate, a skimming ladle and a soup The audience will not be slow to
ladle, each of whose handles must applaud, and we may finally call in

have a hook. Thus equipped wc the lady of the house so that we can
return to our experimenting or demonstrate, to her astonishment,
demonstration table, attach the that her kitchen utensils can serve
skimming by its hook to the
ladle for purposes quite other than the
edge of the plate and wedge it there production of the occasional sirloin
with a slice of cork. Next we pick up roast of beef with cream sauce.

i6
 Playing with Matches
The tricks that follow, for which we the one shown in the upper part of
need a box of matches, are again the same illustration: the third
both very simple and most effective. match must be placed between the
We begin by splitting a match very joined tips of the first and second
carefully at its non-striking end; the matches and the whole then raised
end of another is then cut into a with the fourth match.
wedge and positioned in the slit of Providing our public shows just
the first, so that the two form an a little appreciation, we may treat
acute angle. Next, we place the two them to an amusing encore. A match
interlocking matches on the table is placed on the table, and an even
and lean them against a third, so number of others laid across it, each
that all three stand up as shown in with one end resting on the table
the lower part of the illustration on and the other pointing upward; the
page 1 8. All the preparations for our heads must point alternately in
little entertainment are now com- opposite directions, as shown in the
plete,and we ask if anyone thinks he on page 18. We again ask
illustration
or she can lift up the whole frame- our audience to use a single match
work with the aid of a fourth match. to up all the others in the order
lift

There will be much shaking of in which they are arranged on the

heads, and many vain attempts, table. It is unlikely that anybody will
since the only possible solution is consider this task too difficult; those
present will try to solve the problem
in many and various ways - but in
vain! It they do not know the trick
the matches will collapse in utter
contusion every time they are
touched. We, for our part, now place
the match we are allowed to use
parallel to and on top ot the one at
the bottom. If we take hold ot the
lower (first) match, we are able at
once to lift up the rest in the
required manner, the unsuccessful
contenders being inordinantly in-
censed at not having hit upon this
extremely simple solution them-
selves.
Once we have performed this
trick, we can add \ct another little
diversion. We state that with the
help ot some ot our matches we can smile incredulously, and perhaps
turn ink into oil. The bvstanders will even la\ a wager, which needless to

s
say, we win, tor we quickly place of the matches, to wit
seven matches on the table, thus:

For variety, and particularly in the

presence of those who are familiar
The gamblers will by now have with this trick, we can think up
begun to feel rather uneasy, for no quite a tew other examples, with the
doubt they will have guessed that proviso that all the pairs must have
we are about to effect the trans- an equal number of matches, and
formation by a simple rearrangement spell out distinct concepts.

A Tiny Drill

19
Is it possible to drill a hole through and ask an assistant to move the
a nail, simply by blowing? No, it is knives to and fro until equilibrium
not, we shall be told; you must use is attained. Our preparations have
a sharp instrument, or better still a been completed.
lathe or a special drill. Quite right! We now place the entire structure
So let us make use of equilibrium on the point of the needle, pre-
and the law of gravity to manu- viously inserted in to the bottle cork.
facture just such an implement. We Once again we must try to find
only need a few objects, to be found equilibrium by carefully and lightly
close at hand: a needle, two pen- touching and moving the structure.
knives of equal weight, a corked Just a modicum of practice is needed
bottle and an extra cork. for success. Once the nail and its
We begin by sticking the nail into load are in balance, we begin to
the spare cork, and the blunt end of rotate the two knives, the cork and
the needle into the bottle cork. Next the nail by blowing at them. We
we open both penknives and stick have kept our promise: because the
them into the spare cork on either needle is of tempered steel and the
side of the nail, asshown in the nail of softer metal, the former bores
illustration. We
must now make sure gradually into the latter like the
that the center of gravity of the two finest of drills, producing an ever
knives lies exactly at some point in deeper hole until the rotating nail is

the nail. To that end, we place the finally bored through.

latter on the tip of one of our fingers,

The Dancing Wineglass

We obtain two empty wine bottles glass is balanced by the weight of
of equal size and cork them in such the handles. So much tor the pre-
a manner that the corks protrude to parations; now tor the actual per-
the same extent from the necks of formance of our experiment: it a

the bottles. The tops of the two small metal sphere, a coin or a
corks have previously been cut into button, is attached to a thread and

wedge shapes. For our experiment dipped into the liquid, the glass
we also need two knives with fairh standing on the tips of the kni\es
heavy handles, which we now la) will sink down, only to readopt its

across the wedge-shaped corks so earlier position as soon as the sphere

that the tips of the knives touch. or coin is lifted out of the glass. This
Where they meet, we now stand I process can, ot course, be repeated
fine glass goblet and pour water or time and again and has a most
some other liquid into it until the agreeable effect.

2
 Moreover, we can lend the object, we are able with ease to
experiment even greater charm if we allow the glass to sway in time to
invite our host's child to sit at the the music, thus affording our public
piano and play us a nice dance
little a spectacle that is surprising and
at not too quick a tempo. By dipping charming to boot.
and lifting the suspended metal

21
 The Balancing Goblet
In this demonstration and those that
follow, we shall be engaging in ex-
perimental physics, and will prove
that it is possible, with some in-
genuity but without any special
preparations or complicated equip-
ment, to demonstrate intriguing
physical effects in the simplest of
ways, thus not only entertaining our
audience but at the same time
stimulating their intellects with
instructive displays.
Let us begin with an easy but
nonetheless elegant experiment,
based on the theory of equilibrium.
Our task will be to balance a wine-
glass on the ends of three sticks and
to that end we take out three
matches. We pick up two of them,
cross them and hold them firmly table, passes beneath another match,
between two fingers of our left hand, rests on a third and has its free end
making sure that the top match is in the air.

horizontal. Then we push a third The construction of a similar

match obliquely under the upper device of larger dimensions - with
half of the vertical, and over the rods, rulers or knives - should pose
right side of the horizontal match. no further problems. If we again
In this position, we place them on place an object of some weight on it,
the table, and shift them slightly an ashtray, lor instance, or - as our
until they form an equilateral tri- illustration shows a delicate wine-
angle in the middle. Now the small glass, it will not be endangered in
improvised stand is ready and will any way, for the solidity of our slight
support any object of medium weight structure is b\ no means reduced by
without giving way or collapsing. by the extra burden, but rather
Each match has one end on the enhanced with the increased pressure.

The Floating Carafe

The variation of the previous experi- a relatively firm structure. Our
ment, depicted on the lacing page, is illustration shows clearly how the
no less interesting to perform. The knives must be placed; their arrange-
carafe appears to be floating in mid- ment corresponds exactly to that of
air and yet the three knixes provide the matches described before. We

11
proceed as follows: a knife is first inserted between the blades at the
held in a vertical position, the blade top right. The knives are not held
pointing to the right; a second is by their handles but by the backs of
placed across it horizontally, the the blades, so that the blades them-
blade on top, and the third is selves face inward. The blade of the

23
third knife passes under that of the our egg, their positions correspond-
first and over that of the second. ing to those of the three knives.
When we have made these prepara- After several trials and slight modi-
tions, we place the handles of the fications of the positions of cork and
knives on the rims of three wine- egg, we will reach the required
glasses, and this structure, too, can equilibrium. The cork must be
now easily accommodate a fragile slightly hollow at the bottom so that
vase with no risk of breakage. it fits the egg fairly closely. This
As if this were not spectacular extremely delicate construction will
enough, the experiment (as so many present a most astonishing spectacle!
others described in this book) can be We cannot, of course, guarantee
combined with another balancing that no mishap will befall the egg,

trick, say, with a slight variation of if it is raw, or the carafe. We would

the one described on page 13, in advise, therefore, that the carrying
which we balanced an egg on the capacity of the knives be first tested
rim of a bottle. To do this, we stick by appropriate pressure of the
three forks into the cork on top of fingers.

A Homemade Precision Balance

After all these parlor tricks, we shall corks pushed over the ends of the
now proceed to the construction of a knitting needle (see Fig. 3)and
practical object: a precision balance, move them and fro until the
to
with which we will be able to equilibrium of our precision balance
determine the weight of small and is finally established.
even minute quantities. As a pointer or indicator we use a
As a support, we select a square stiff wire running vertically through
bottle, some eight inches in height, the central cork of the beam, with
made of transparent and with
glass two strips of paper attached to its

a broad neck, in the rim of which we lower end to facilitate the reading of
have cut a small groove with a tri- the position of the pointer inside the
angular file (see b in Fig. 3 on page bottle; to the top of the wire we
25) diametrically opposite the tiny attach a small cork which can be
dimple or hole a made with the point moved up and down at will and
of the file. Our scalebeam is a Serves as a regulator. When the
knitting needle, with half a cork beam has come to rest, we scratch
pushed to its center in which two two lines with the file on opposite
sewing needles are inserted in such sides of the bottle; they represent
a way that their ends fit into the the zero point.
hole a and the groove b. The pans Now, while it is possible to buy an
are cut out ot smooth, stiff card- official set of weights lor our home-
board and hung by silk thread or made balance, and with their help to
fine brass wire. To attach the pans file a scale into the side of the bottle,
to the beam we again use two half the following procedure is fairly
accurate and certainly much cheaper: milligrams) without any difficulty.
take a piece of card from a sheet For still smaller weights the balance
weighing, say, 180 grams per square may not be sensitive enough, but
meter (the usual weight of a post- just in case we can always make
card), and cut out the requisite squares with sides measuring
number of squares, each with sides 23.5 mm, each of which will weigh
measuring 74.5 mm; every square 1^ gram (100 milligrams). (If
will weigh 1 gram (see Fig. 2). By desired, coins may be used as troy
dividing the squares diagonally, we weights: one U.S. cent weighs
can produce weights of ^ gram 48 grams, that is, exactly jq ounce.)
(500 milligrams) and | gram (250

The Nerve-Racking Game

Our illustration shows a balancing equipment is a convex metal lid with

game, or, more precisely, puzzle, to a raisededge and a hollow in the

which its inventor, doubtless bearing middle. A small ball (say, a marble)
the weak nerves of mankind in mind, that fits exactly into the central
name of "The
gave the appropriate hollow, is placed on the lid, which is

Nerve-racking Game." The basic then moved to and fro with the

25
 -

object of rolling the ball into the

hollow. This task may be solved in a
number of ways, but they all demand
a measure of agility. Experienced
players allow the ball to climb up the
convex surface with a slight initial
jerk, at the same time inclining the
lid in such a way as to roll the ball
up the inclined plane until it reaches
the center.
There is, however, a relatively
simpler solution, and one that allows
the ball to reach its destination more
quickly. Let us assume that the ball the ground. With this ruse, the
is very close to the edge: now, puzzle can always be solved, no
instead of trying to take the ball to matter where the ball is placed on
the hollow, act as if you were trying the lid. Once we have acquired the
to bring the hollow to the ball. In requisite skill, the trick can be per-
other words, move the lid in exactly formed even with closed eyes, pro-
the same direction as the ball ad- vided the original position of the ball
vances. This action, for which the is known. It is best, generally, not to
precise amount of force must, of use both hands but to hold the lid

course, be used, is akin to, say, the loosely and easily in one hand, and
action of shoveling something out of to manipulate it in that fashion.

Pigs in Clover
A puzzle similar to the last originated The object of the game is, by
in the ingenious United States. It cautious manipulation of the base,
has the delightful name of "Pigs in to move the "pigs," represented by
Clover" and its solution, too, tiny balls or marbles of a suitable
demands not a little patience. The si/e, from the outermost ring into
toy, which anyone capable of cutting the sty, that is, into the covered box.
paper can easily make, consists of a This puzzle is tar from easy to
round cardboard box that may
flat, perform and great difficulties may
be decorated on the outside in any be encountered, particularly by the
wa\ desired. Inside, on the circular novice, for even it the first two or
base, two walls arc affixed parallel to three pigs are successful!) herded
the circumference at equal distances into the sty, the last the usual
from it and each other, each wall number is tour often pro\es very
having a "gate" cxactl\ opposite the stubborn, rolling about and engaging
other. At the center of the box is a in capers that in no wa\ meet with
small, round, covered "house/' open our intentions. And then, just as the
to one side, which the inventor has last pig is close to home, the slightest
"
designated the "st\ of clums\ movements will suffice

26
despite our efforts - tor one or more any number of pigs, but the larger
of the pigs safely gathered in, to the herd, the more difficult the task
break out of the sty once more. and the requisite measure of
Needless to say it is possible to have patience.

The Animate Cardboard Box

This toy consists of a small oblong agility, greatly enhanced by the
box with rounded ends measuring shape of the box, produces a most
approximately 2" \" |", which singular effect: if the little box is
anyone can make - with a little laid on its side at one end of a
ingenuity - by following the model movable surface, say a household
depicted on p. 28. If it is painted, tray, and that end of the tray is
or otherwise decorated, the attraction raised, the box will scurry to the
of our little box is greatly increased, other end, mysteriously somer-
but even with an unpretentious saulting as it moves along, to finish
appearance it will prove capable of up at the raised edge of the tray in a

the most remarkable achievements. strange position, often vibrating and

For inside we place a lead ball whose shaking like a nervous animal. If the

^7
tray is now lifted at that end, the
little box will start on its return
journey, and if, once it is halfway
there, the direction of the tray is

changed once again, the box will

come to an irresolute stop, before
following the new course.
The overall impression is astonish-
ing in the extreme, and this home-
made marvel costs next to nothing
to produce!

Where Is the Center of Gravity?

The center of gravity of most we wet the entire surface of the
regular figures is well known ; that of parallelogram (that surface only, not
others may be easily computed; but the whole piece of paper) which is

for a great many, and particularly for casih done b\ dripping water on to
irregular figures, it cannot be stated it very carefully. We now float the
in advance. Imagine, for instance, whole sheet ot paper in a bowl (see
cutting Texas \er\ carefully along the illustration) and gently touch
its borders out of a map of the any part of the moist parallelogram
United States. Where is the exact with a pin. The floating paper will

center of gravity of the resulting immediately move until the inter-

piece of paper? Which town can section of the diagonals conies to lie

boast that it is the center of gravity under the pin, and if we move the
<>tTexas? This question is easilj pin the paper will respond. The
answered by experiment, and shows reason is that the tip of the pin is

but let us not anticipate, and rather pulled in different directions by the
describe how the sought -alter center adhesive force of the water on the
of gravity can be found. paper, and equilibrium is only
We had best start with a simpler reached when the water is distri-
ease We moisten the tip of a pencil buted evenl) around the pin, that
and draw a parallelogram with two is, around the center of gravity - in

diagonals on a piece of paper. Next the case of Our parallelogram, the

2<S
intersection of the two diagonals. If parallelogram, and float the surface
now, to answer our original question, of the drawing on water in the
we draw the outline of Texas or of manner we have indicated, we shall
some other state or country on the find its center of gravity with no
piece of paper instead of the difficulty at all.

Seeing Is Believing
Here is a most diverting experiment, support your body by leaning your
one that has caused great hilarity head against the wall and your arms
wherever we have demonstrated it, on a chair. Then try to lift the chair
especially in a company of some- off the floor with both hands, and
what corpulent ladies and gentlemen stand up straight. You will invari-
of the older generation! If you wish ably fail to do hard though you
so,
to try it you had best arm yourself may try, since the center of gravity
with all the willpower at your com- of your body in the position
mand, take up a position a good described (with the chair off the
eighteen inches in front of a wall and floor) has traveled up toward your

29
 shoulders, and the major part of
your weight is now supported by
your head, as the gentle reader will
immediately and strikingly discover
during a performance of this experi-
ment. If, however, you refuse to
accept your helplessness, and insist
that - in spite of the laws of gravity -
you can return to an upright position,
then, even if you are allowed to
dispense with the chair and make
powerful jerking movements, you
will be proved utterly wrong - at
best you will come away with a fine
bump on your head.

Peeling an Orange
For the following trick we need an delicately horizontally and through
orange and a sharp, pointed knife. the middle, taking care not to
The four diagrams below illustrate damage any of the strips, so that we
the different phases of our proce- are left with two equal halves.
dure. First we make a few simple Needless to say, the cuts shown
cuts in the orange peel, as shown on on Figs. 1-3 must also be made on
Fig. i ; then we make a series of the other side of the orange, which
incisions parallel to the first (Fig. 2) is not illustrated. If everything is

we end up with several

so that done correctly and the separation of
narrow strips. The next step (Fig. 3) the two halves completed properly,
is to join the side strips to the then the sections will automatically
central double strips at the top as come apart displaying the most re-
well as at the bottom. Finally (Fig. markable entanglements as shown in

4), we cut the entire orange very the enlarged illustration on the right.

30
3i
 The Bewitched Fidibus
"What you bet me," a friend
will of paper spiralled down with light-
once asked me, "that you will not ning speed onto my hand, so that I

immediately drop this fidibus, or dropped them in alarm.

paper spill, when I light it at the The bottle of wine was lost, but
top?" Curiously examined the
I what exactly had happened ?
paper my friend held out to me. He While the strip of paper was still
had cut out a piece about one foot uncreased, my friend had pulled it
long and an inch wide, had carefully tightly over a sharp edge, thus giving
folded it across in the middle and itsome tension and causing it to roll
now held the two ends together up into a spiral. Next he had placed
between his thumb and his index the ends of the strip together in the
finger, so that the spill pointed direction opposite to that in which
upward. ittended to curl up, creasing it in the
"Very well; I'll bet you a bottle middle so that the spill described
of wine," I said a little cautiously, above was formed. As soon as the
aware that without the bet he would crease had been burnt through, the
not surrender the secret. two ends shot down separately by
My friend now handed me the virtue of their elasticity, and forced
ends of the strip, struck a match, and me to drop the spill.
lit the spill at the crease; hardly had I may have lost the bottle of wine,

he done so than the end was burnt but I more than made good the loss
through, the paper strip divided at by repeating the wager with quite a
the top, and the two burning pieces few other friends!

33
 The Compliant Coins
For this experiment, which requires
no small measure of agility, we need
just a dozen small coins which we
carefully place in a pile on a plate.
We now ask our audience if any-
one can place the coins on the table
in the exact order in which we have
arranged them, without touching
them by hand.
The answer is a general shaking of
heads.
"You're going to use another of
your tricks, a Columbus's egg or
whatever you call it," a skeptical
voice may be heard.
"Indeed, the success of the experi-
ment does depend on a slight ruse,
but, as you know, I do not engage
in sleight of hand, but try to demon-
strate the effects of physical laws in
the most simple but instructive
manner; in this case, I shall not be
using magic but shall rely on a
physical effect, namely, inertia."
This preamble may persuade our
audience to try for themselves, but
all their attempts are likely to end in
abvsmal failure.
33
 We, for our part, lift up the plate pile, retaining their original position.

with the coins about a foot above the Every one of our readers will be
table, briskly drop it two-thirds of able to perform this experiment
the way down and then quickly pull gracefully and with assurance after a
it toward us. The coins, deprived few attempts, though, as we have
of their point of support by this said,some measure of agility is
maneuver, fall onto the table in a indispensable.

From Elbow to Hand

We take seven matching coins, which again on the application of very
must not be too small, place them simple physical laws. Those who
on top of one another, and bend our wish to master it had best begin by
right forearm until it is horizontal, catching coin in the manner
a single

the hand held near our head. Now described.Through the sudden
we transfer the pile of coins to our forward movement of the arm, the
elbow and ask: "What is the quickest coin is flung forward in an arc; the
and simplest way of getting these hand, too, creates an arc, though a
coins into our right hand ?" larger one and at greater speed. The
While the spectators are still two arcs intersect and if, after some
thinking about the problem, we practice, we manage to make the
swing our forearm suddenly forward hand traverse its same
arc in the
until the whole arm is stretched out time as the coin traverses own, its

horizontally and - the seven coins the coin will automatically end up
are in our hand! The action has in the hand, and all w e ha\ e to do
taken place at such lightning speed is to hold it.

that the spectators still wonder how The experiment may now be
this feat was performed. repeated with two coins on top of
"It's simple - they traveled each other, and the reader will find
through the air," we explain. Clearh that this is scared} more difficult to

there could have been no sleight of
hand, for if we had just produced a
different set of coins, what had
happened to the ones on our elbow :
The audience would surely have
heard them clatter onto the floor.
And, indeed, this trick, too,
involves no magic, but is based once
perform than with a single one,
since both coins receive the same
impetus in the same direction and
hence remain together. It is then
only a matter of practice before the
number of coins may be increased to
seven or even more.

34
35
 Inertia and the Checkerboard
Inertia is reflected in the tendency complete halt, it still does so too
of all bodies to preserve their state quickly for us to follow suit: the
of rest or of uniform movement, in lower part of the body of anyone
a straight line. Hence, if we wish a sitting in a seat is, it is true, so
body to behave differently we must closely linked with the train that it

give it time to do so. That is why the comes to rest the moment the train
railroad train driver does not start stops, but the trunk does not yield
steam and the car driver
off at full immediately and swings forward,
does not put a foot down hard on unless, by way of precaution, the
the gas pedal when starting off in passenger has taken a seat facing
the vehicle. Similarly, it is impossi- backward. And woe betide anyone
ble to bring an automobile to a who has risen from the seat before
sudden stop, and only in the gravest the train stops! For then, while your
emergency does the driver ram a foot feet stand firm, the rest of your body
on the brake as hard as possible. sways forward and hence far too
When we sit in a train, we can hear readily topples over.
from the screech of the brakes that On the checkerboard, too, this
they are being applied long before effect is easily demonstrated. Let us
the train enters the station. And build a tower out of the counters,
when it finallv does come to a and knock one of the lower counters

a
out with a thin piece of wood, say a counters have time to overcome their
ruler or the lid of the checkers box, inertia and to follow the movement,
holding the wood in as near to a with the result that the tower
horizontal position as possible. The collapses. But if the counter is given
counter naturally moves because of a quick, hard, blow, it alone will be
the sudden impact. If the ruler is knocked out and the rest of the
applied fairly slowly, the remaining tower will remain in place.

And the Coin is Still There!

For another admirable demonstra- the side of the cardboard nearest us
we need
tion of the effects of inertia, a very sharp flick with the index or
a piece of cardboard from which we middle finger of the right hand. The
very neatly cut out a square cardboard will shoot into space
measuring some 5 5 inches, using a while the coin, indifferent to the loss
very sharp penknife and a ruler, and of its support, will come to rest on
making sure that the square is as the tip of our finger. We can, of
clean-cut as possible with no rough course, substitute other objects of
edges. the same sort of weight for the coin,
We now place the square on the or use other supports, or, indeed,
tip of our left index finger, balance carry out the experiment on a much
it, and place a fairly large coin on larger scale.
top. We should be able to tell when And if you should fail at the first

the center of the coin is right over attempt, you may start with an easier
the tip of our finger. Now we give variation in which the sudden flick-

37
ing away of the cardboard can be between the thumb and index finger
dispensed with. Instead, you can of the right hand; with this method,
snatch the cardboard away from the too, the coin will end up on the tip
tip of the left index finger with a of the left index finger.
sudden jerk, having grasped it firmly

Cup-and-Ball with Dice

Our illustration shows how to doing this.

prepare an experiment which once is To accomplish this feat, we do not

again exceedingly simple to perform, toss the second die up, but allowing
but which is nevertheless likely to it to fall from our fingers, quickly
prove perplexing to those not in the move the beaker downward, where-
know, for in this case, too, a trick is upon both dice, deprived of their
involved which will first have to be centers of gravity, adopt the initial

explained or fathomed out. velocity of their fall, that is, they

With our right hand we pick up a move downward more slowly than
leather beaker, of the sort used in our hand, the first die remaining
games of dice, together with two within the confines of the beaker and
dice. The object of the game is to the second responding readily to our
convey the two dice into the beaker wishes.
one after the other. We must, You see, dear reader, solutions
therefore, toss the first die into the are simple enough, provided we
air and catch it in the beaker, which know how to apply physical forces
is easy enough to do with a little so as to achieve the desired effects,
dexterity. It is a great deal more and here, symbolically speaking, is

however, having tossed up

difficult, the catch. It is best, therefore, if an
the second die, held between two experiment, like so many things in
same way, to catch it
fingers, in the human life, is first tried out on a
again without making the first die small scale, the better to sharpen
jump out of the beaker; very rarely our wits for what greater challenges
indeed will the beginner succeed in we ma\ have to meet.

Experiments with Centrifugal Effects

If a body is swung in a circle, we in a circle (see page 47). If the full

refer to the force resulting from its glass is rotated with the correct
attachment to the center of the circle initial velocity, not a drop of water
as the centripetal force. Con\crsel\, will be spMled, because, since the
the body is affected by a force acting centrifugal force is greater than the
away from the center, which we call weight of the water, the water is

the centrifugal force. This force is forced to the bottom of the glass.
the basis of the well-known experi- The spin drier is based on the
ment of tying a piece of string to a same principle. It consists of a metal
glass of water and swinging it around cylinder with a great many small

J8
39
4o
holes in its wall. If this container is spinning it vigorously as you do so.

filled with wet clothes and then It can easily be caught again even
rotated rapidly, the centrifugal effect when, as in our illustration, the
will come into play: the wet articles napkin ring ends up underneath,
of clothing are thrown against the though still exactly in the center of
perforated wall of the cylinder and the plate. If the axis of rotation is

the water forced out. suddenly changed, the ring will be

An attractive and surprising flung to one side. Should the reader
experiment which, moreover, does have little faith in his own agility

not require lengthy preparations, is when performing this experiment, or

shown in our illustration. Take a should he be concerned about the
flat plate, place a napkin ring about safety of valuable crockery, he may
half-an-inch high at its center, hold use a cardboard disk instead, pro-
the plate firmly by the rim in the vided it is not too large; the experi-
palms of both hands and toss it up, ment will be no less effective.

The Devil on Two-Sticks

Every rotating body has a pivotal particles are conserved, so that the
point or axis of rotation, that is, a axis of rotation, perpendicular to
point or rectilinear series of points these particles, can only be displaced
that do not take part in the rotation. in a parallel direction. This is best
The axis of rotation may be held in shown by playing with the top in
position by a mechanical device as the air rather than on the table.
in the flywheel of a steam engine or Such an aerial top is the so-called
it may be free as in a bicycle; indeed, devil-on-two-sticks, or diabolo, a
it can simply be a mathematical double tin cone used in conjunction
concept without a physical presence, with a string attached to two sticks.
as in a rolling hoop or a spinning The devil is put on one of the sticks,
coin. All celestial bodies rotate the string is wound around the
about a free axis. devil's waist, and the other stick is

A well-known example of a free jerked away very quickly. As a result,

axis is provided by the spinning top the free axis will preserve its direction
in all its various forms. In it, as in with a force that is the greater the
all the last-named examples, inertia faster the rotation and the larger the
ensures that every particle rotating mass of the top. If the axis has been
about the axis tends to cling to the set at a slant from the start, the top
plane of its orbit, and can only be will rise obliquely in a parabolic orbit
forced out of it by an external force; and return obliquely in a continua-
this is known as the conservation of tion of that curve. The problem then
the plane of rotation. The top will is to catch it at its waist with the taut
not stand still as a result; on the string in such a way that it rebounds
contrary, it is always on the move; into the air.

but the planes of rotation of all the

-M
 A Miniature Boomerang
In the hands of the Australian boomerang twists through the air
aborigine, the boomerang is an like a screw, that is, rotates about its

exceedingly dangerous weapon, one own and deals its victim a

axis,

that he knows how to wield with mighty blow before falling to the
deadly accuracy. It he is tracking ground. If it misses the target, it will

game and wants to kill or stun he it, move in a small upward arc and
raises and aims the weapon, swings return to its starting point. A skilled
it back over his shoulder and, hunter can send his missile in any
running hard, flings it at his quart), direction he chooses, killing birds
which he rarely misses. The and small mammals at a distance of
some two hundred paces - the cocka- same flight path.

too no less than the fleeing kangaroo How can we explain these
in the bush. Against men, too, the astonishing and unusual effects?
boomerang can be a most perilous When we flick the boomerang, we

weapon, for we are unable to tell, as impart double movement to it,

a
we see it approaching, which way it that is, a quick rotation and a general
will turn and where it will strike. impetus; the rotation forces it to rise
In order to study this strange obliquely into the air and to conserve
projectile in flight, let us construct its plane of rotation until the impetus
a small cardboard model (see the is exhausted. At this point it will
illustration), taking care to make one still be turning but instead of rising
side slightly heavier than the other. higher, its weight will cause it to
We now fit our small boomerang at fall. Since, however, it also tends to
-
an angle of 45 under the nail of our conserve its plane of rotation, the
left index finger and flick it away resistance of the air will cause it to
with the thumb and index finger of return, in a direction parallel to this
the right hand. The projectile will plane, to the man who threw it in the
rise and whirl through the air, first place.
finally coming to a stop but, instead A great deal of practice is required
of falling to the ground, it will then for success with a boomerang; first
return to its starting point along the attempts are likely to end in failure.

43
 A Russian Soap-Bubble Carousel
For a change, let us now make a Since the perimeter measures no
toy whose charm gladden the
will more than 6+2 + 6+2 = 16 inches,
eye. We take an eighteen-inch-long a remainder of two inches will pro-
straw, straight and joint-free and trude at one end - we make sure it
bend it four times to obtain a is the thinner of the two. We now
rectangle measuring 6X2 inches. insert this remainder into the thicker

44
end, so that the rectangle is quite through the lateral sections of the
closed. With a second straw, we frame and the rectangles of the
construct a rectangle of the same "wheel." We now glue the three
length (6 inches) but wider than the rectangles together, taking care to
first by the thickness of two straws, keep them at 6o° from one another,
and with a third, a rectangle just and also glue them to the wire axle.
1 1 inches in width. We now place We next cut out six small cardboard
the third rectangle inside the first, disks, which we attach loosely with
the second around theand first, pieces of thin wire to the six cross-
arrange the three rectangles in such sections of the wheel, drawing the
a way that they are placed at 6o° ends of the pieces of wire through
from one another, thus constituting the centers of the disks. This done,
the diameters of a virtual hexagon. we blow six soap bubbles about i^
We have now made the wheel of our inches in diameter and attach them
carousel. The frame, base and two to the disks,which we have pre-
struts are easily added. Wherever viously moistened with soapy water.
joints are needed we cut small slits If we turn the crank, we shall
or add a little glue. All that remains have before us the glorious spectacle
to be done is to bore through the of revolving soap bubbles, all

vertical side sections of the frame shimmering with the iridescent

with a thin, red-hot wire at intervals colors of the rainbow, and shall be,
of six inches, and also through the moreover, in possession of a toy that
centers of the longitudinal sides of affords us an excellent illustration of
our three rectangles; finally we push the effects of adhesion, interference
a wire shaped like a crank at one end and molecular force.

Chain into Top

A fine illustration of the effects of rotation, continue, it will maintain
rotation is afforded by the experi- this circular shape.
ment pictured on p. 46, for which we An interesting variation is the
need a string some 16 to 20 inches following experiment: instead of the
in length, and a slender chain metal chain we attach a button to
circlet measuring about ten to the string at a slight angle. If we
fourteen inches long. again hold the string in the tips of
We fasten the circlet to one end our fingers and twist it, the button
of the piece of string and hold the will rotate in its oblique position, but
other end between thumbs and fore- if we increase the force of the
fingers. If now we twist the string rotation the button will adopt a
evenly, causing it to turn quickly horizontal position. Simple though
(Fig. A of the illustration), the chain this effect may be, it is nevertheless
will gradually assume the shape of a put to practical use by engineers in
horizontal circle (Fig. B), and as the construction of various kinds of
long as our efforts, and hence the machinery.

45
 The Ascent of the Napkin Ring
Let us apply ourselves to centrifugal
effects and rotation for the last time.
As a festive finale, so to speak, let
us imagine a splendidly set table, as
our illustration suggests, with an
animated company, to whom we put
the following question: "Do you
believe that this napkin ring can rise
into the air at my behest, and end
up neatly around the neck of one of
"
these bottles 1
While the assembled company
are still puzzling over the answer,
and we have surrendered to the
pleasant state of luxuriating in our
superior knowledge, the lady of the
house may step up to the table with
a smiling, "\\ hy should the napkin
ring not heed m\ behest as well?"

46
and with a quick rotation of her fore- down, no longer subjected to the
finger stroke the inner wall of the impetus of the rotation, and lands
ring, until the latter starts to rotate around the neck of the bottle.
and rises up from the table. She then And we have humbly to confess
leads it up and above the neck of the that we have no monopoly when it

bottle, stops moving her finger - and comes to this particular Columbus's
hey presto! the napkin ring drops egg.

The Circling Tumbler

It is in virtue of the centrifugal force tional pull toward the center.
which manifests itself with every Gradually, however, as this giant
rotation, that the rotating parts have ball began to cool by radiation, the
a tendency to escape from the axis rotation quickened and the tendency
of rotation. The reader will know of the gaseous particles to escape
that Laplace and Kant based their from the center increased, until
views of the origin of the planetary they broke away from the
finally
systems on this very manifestation. gaseous sphere, and the first planet
Where our planets now follow came into existence.
their paths, aglowing gas sphere of The following experiment allows
inconceivable size and temperature us to follow this process on a small
is said to have rotated at a moderate scale. Let us take a hoop of the kind
speed, the gaseous particles being children play with, place not too
kept in their places by a gravita- large an object, say a pebble or a

47
 .

potato, on the inside edge at the against the bottom of the tumbler.
bottom, and then rotate the hoop For the performance of this
evenly with our arm outstretched. experiment, the tumbler is stood on

The pebble will follow the move- a cardboard disk and tied to it with
ment and remain in its original string in such a way that it cannot
position. Even more surprising is fall off when the string is swung
the experiment illustrated above, around a given central point. The
and already mentioned in brief on circling motion which we impart to
page 45, in which the centrifugal the filled tumbler with our hand or
force is made manifest by the fact arm must, however, be executed
that the water, in its attempt to with some skill and, most important,
escape from the center, is forced be at the proper speed from the start.

The Strength of Straw

By "strength," we mean the re- a straw and put it in the carafe in
sistance a body puts up to the the manner shown in our illustration.
separation of its parts. This It we now offer to lift the carafe,
resistance will prevent tearing, which is fairly heavy, by the straw,
breaking, crushing or twisting. we shall undoubtedly see a great
Our engineers and mechanics have many incredulous faces around us.
precise knowledge of this phenome- But we can safely wager that, pro-
non, so much so that they are able vided we do not tarn the experiment ,

to tax no more than a fraction of the will work every time. It the straw is

strength of the materials they use left in the water too long, however,
from only a tenth to a quarter in the it will soften, and then we shall have
case of wood, and up to a third in to be prepared tor broken glass.

the case of metals. Some of the most Our audience will undoubtedly
insignificant and delicate objects be astonished at the success ot our
often have the greatest strength, for experiment. Some ot them will be
instance a cocoon or a cobweb. Thus struck by the bend in the straw , and
a thread made by a spider, one maj venture the opinion that the
square millimeter across, can take a experiment is based on the lever
weight of half a ton without break- principle. This is not the case, tor
ing. Most people will also be sur- the sole purpose of the bend is to
prised by the strength and carrying ensure that the straw remains in the
capacity of a strait bottle: the experiment relies purely
To demonstrate this, let us ask for on the tensile strength of the straw.
a carafe half-filled with water, bend

4*
49
 The Knife as Nutcracker

Can an object, say a knife, dropped then give the door frame a violent

from the height of an ordinary door, thump with our fist and the knife
attain sufficient momentum to crack will come plummeting down but it

a walnut? will usually hit the ground to one

People are sure to think that it side of the right place. What must
cannot, and yet we can promise that we do to make sure that it will hit

it work every time! Let us

will the nut without fail? The answer is

therefore, by way of a test, stick a very simple: we dip the handle of

sharp knife very gently, so that it the knife into a glass of water so that
just stays in place, into the molding a single drop is suspended from it.

at the top of a door frame - only The drop will not take long to fall

where we are allowed to do so, to the floor, and we now place the
needless to say - gauging the point nut where the drop landed. If we
at which the knife is likely to hit the thump the door frame once again,
floor as closely as possible, and the knife will fall down and
placing the nut on that spot. Let us unfailingly crack the nut.

50
 A Blow with
Perhaps one or other of our readers
has come across a trick that used to
be performed at fairs - along with
allthe other mechanical diversions
that served to amaze the public -
and was performed as follows : the
demonstrator would produce a thin
wooden rod and invite two children,
each holding an open razor, to take
up positions facing each other at
either end of the rod. Then a paper
ring was hung over the blade of each
razor and the ends of the rod placed
a Stick
in the two rings. The demonstrator
now quickly gave the middle of the
rod a heavy blow; the rod snapped,
but the paper rings were neither
torn nor cut by the razors.
The same experiment can also be
performed in the manner shown in
our illustration. Pins are stuck into
the two ends of a stick, which we
then rest on two wineglasses placed
on two chairs. If we now give the
middle of the stick a heavy blow, it
will break in two but the glasses will
5i
not suffer the slightest damage. naturally the stick tends to move
Occasional tricks of this fair- downward. This effect overcomes
ground type, simple and showy the resistance of the stick well before
though they may appear to be, often the disturbance is transmitted to its

prove highly instructive. The ex- ends, and hence to the wineglasses.
planation of the experiment just The result is spectacular: the center
described is extremely simple. The of the stick falls victim to the sudden
descending cudgel hits the middle of influx of energy, while its ends are
the stick with great force and unaffected and remain in place.

The Transmission of an Impact

What do we understand by impact? is, the transmission of the impact,
It is the collision of at least two there is a in most
range of apparatus
bodies, of which one (or more) must physics closets, including row of a

be in motion. Its effects are exceed- ivory balls suspended at the same
ingly brief but relatively strong. height, which is the most familiar of
More precisely, an impact produces all. If we lift the ball at the end of

a compression and is propagated the row and let it drop back onto its
with a certain velocity. In order to neighbor, that and all the adjoining
demonstrate this second effect, that balls will receive a blow but will not

5*
move from their places; they will method is to reach into what we hope
nevertheless transmit the impetus isan amply filled money box and to
toward the ball at the other end of place a row of coins on the table, as
the row, which will be repelled more shown in our picture. If we flick the
or less strongly depending on the first coin with the tip of our finger
force of the impact. This apparatus against the second, all the other coins
can be reproduced with a little will remain in place, except for the
inventiveness and skill by the last, which will be repelled.

simplest of means. The quickest

Water into Wine

To change water into wine - which
of us would not like to be able to do
that on occasion! Our experiment
calls for three wineglasses. Of these,
two (a and b) must be as alike as
possible; the third one (r) must be
smaller and its rim, in particular,
must have a smaller circumference.
We place the two glasses in the
first

bottom of a bucket of water so that

they are completely filled and no air
bubbles adhere to them; to that end
we moisten them inside and outside
with wet fingers. Next we turn the
glass h upside down in the bucket,
and, placing on top of glass a,
it

remove the two glasses from the

bucket and put them on a plate.
After most of the water has run off
from the outside of the glasses, we
mop the rest off carefully with a soft
cloth, so that the glasses are now
quite dry on the outside but com-
pletely filled with water on the inside.
We then place glass c, containing
some red wine, on the upside-down
foot of b and try to transfer the wine
from c to b without touching either
a or b.

The problem can be solved very

simply: we place a wick (if need be a
length of yarn will do) in glass c in

53
such a way that the middle of the acting as a kind of syphon. Where b
wick lies at the bottom of the glass and a meet, the wine will, thanks to
while its two ends hang down over capillary action once again, seep into
the rim almost to the foot of c. We the water. Because of its less specific
can now let nature take its course. gravity, it will then rise in b and
Capillary action will cause the v\ ine gradually displace the water, until
to rise into both ends of the wick and it can be plainly seen to fill glass /;

to drop down on glass b, the wick entirely, and our task is completed.

Which Is Heavier?
Our illustrations provide a graphic The reader will be inclined to answer
description of an attempt to deter- in the affirmative. However, no such
mine the specific gravity of two blending occurs; instead, the water,
liquids, namely water and wine. By as the heavier of the two bodies, will

specific gravity we refer to the

relative density of a substance, or
more precisely to the ratio of the
mass of any volume of the substance
to the mass of an equal volume of a
standard substance. In the case of
liquids and solids, the latter is

usually water (at 39 F or 4°C), and

with gases it is usually air (at
standard atmospheric pressure, i.e.

the pressure exerted by a column of

mercury 760 mm
high at a sea level
temperature of 50/ F or i5°C.)
But back to our experiment! We
again take two identical wineglasses
and fill one (1) with red wine and
the other (2) with water. We cover
the second glass with a sheet of
writing paper and then place it

upside down on the wine-filled

glass (3). Now we pull the writing
paper out very slightly (4), which
requires great care lest we move the
glasses; nor must the area of contact
between the two liquids be too great.
What happens next' Will the water
and the wine blend with each other 1

54
flow into the lower glass and vessels will have changed places: the
gradually replace the wine, which glass originally filled with water will
will ascend, in the same proportion, now contain the wine, and the glass
into the upper few
glass. After a originally filled with wine will
minutes, the contents of the two contain the water.

The Japanese Paper Frog

This delightful object, made from this operation with all eight surfaces
folded green paper, comes from of the folded paper, you will have
Japan, and although patience is made the shape shown on Fig. 5.
required in its making, even the Now you must fold every surface
least nimble-fingered should have once again, turning the tip s toward
little difficulty in completing it. the central axis (Fig. 6), and being
First cut out a square piece of particularly careful with the folds at
paper (Fig. i), and fold it along the the points. Fig 7 shows what has to
two diagonals a. Then turn it and be done to complete the frog. Taking
fold it along the two lines b. When the upper points a, make two
this has been done, it is a simple creases to create the forelegs; the
matter to make the shape shown on two lower tips a are used to form the
Fig. 2. Next fold the ends b and a rear legs. The left side of Fig. 7
as shown on Fig. 3. You will now shows the tips before they have been
have a series of eight small surfaces folded; the right side the completed
around the axis oa. Pick up the paper legs.
at b and fold it carefully so as to A charming spectacle with which
produce two new points, as shown to delightyour brothers, sisters and
on Fig. 4. Once you have repeated parents on a long winter evening!

1 "~~^^ 1

b ~^^~ £-

55
5«
 The Runaway Coin
On suitable occasions, and with the is much more likely, however, to
help of a conical glass, such as a so- giveup after several vain attempts.
called champagne flute, with a Another may even go so far as to
relative small diameter at the lip, cast doubt on our magic powers, but
and two silver coins, say a dollar and we can soon put a stop to this
a quarter, we can surprise our impertinence, for all we need do to
audience with a rather clever trick. solve our task is to blow hard at the
We place the smaller coin at the edge of the coin on top, which, as a
bottom of the glass and the larger result, will turn through a right
over it like a lid, as shown in our angle. The downward-turning part
illustration. Now we
undertake to of the coin exerts pressure on the
remove the smaller coin from the air under the lower coin, which
glass without touching either the becomes so compressed both as a
larger coin or the glass itself, boldly result and because of the blowing
maintaining that it will obey our that the smaller coin is hurled in an
command. There will probably be arc out of the glass. Hardly has this
some one amongst our friends who happened than the larger coin
will, after some thought, volunteer reverts to its horizontal position and
to perform the experiment, and he the "lid" is shut again.
may even hit upon the answer; he

57
58
 The Leaping Egg
"What you give me," we were
will the table.
once asked by a friend, "if I remove "Well done, you have proved your
a hard-boiled egg from this glass point. We have to confess that we
without touching it with my fingers are utterly dumbfounded - the
or with any other object?" The experiment itself is straightforward
triend, as our illustration shows, was enough but the effect is quite
sitting in front of a wineglass with astonishing."
the egg inside. "You'll be even more surprised,"
"You are well known as a con- our friend declared with a smile,
jurer," we replied with a smile. "But placing a second wineglass behind
you can't possibly impress us with the first, "when I tell you that I can
that sort of trick." "Why not?" regulate the strength and direction
"Because what you are going to do of my breath in such a way that the
is so obvious. The trick is much too egg will leap from the first glass into
simple." "Oh, I see, you think that the second."
all I will do is pick up the glass by "Off you go, then."
the stem and let the egg roll out. He puffed up his cheeks again,
Nothing of the kind!" "Well then, began to blow and, with a daring
let's see what you can do." leap, the egg duly jumped from the
Our friend placed the egg inside first glass into the second.
the glass, making sure that about one We were unsparing in our
third protruded from the top, puffed appreciation.
up his cheeks, began to blow into "Yes, it is a delightful experiment,
the glass and - hey presto! - with a isn't it?" said our friend. 'All it

graceful bound, the egg landed on needs is a fair amount of practice."

A Remarkable Top
Can anyone make a top that can paper by drawing in the diagonals,
start to spin on its own? No? Then and then balance the paper by
we must spring into the breach putting the center we have thus
ourselves, for now that the question determined over the point of the
has been put, you, dear reader, will needle. First, however, we bend two
no doubt expect an answer. opposite corners of the paper over,
All we need for our entertainment one downward and the other up.
is a cork, a needle and a piece of Now we can start the experiment
paper cut into a square or rectangle. by putting our hand unobtrusively
We place the cork on the table, fairly close behind the top, as the
stick the thick end of the needle into illustration shows. It will not be
it, find the center of the piece of long before it begins to move, and

59
it we take our hand away it will a great many toys, for instance, the
come to a stop. Hence it only spiraling top balanced on a pin over
seemingly starts moving of its own a warm our own experi-
stove. In
accord. It is clear that the moving ment, the proximity of our hand,
force emanates from our hand. provided it is warm, produces a
What is the explanation of this rising current of air which is caught
curious phenomenon? Is it mag- beneath the downturned corner and
netism ? That answer is not totally starts rotating the paper, whose
implausible, but does not fit the position on the point of the needle
case. What we have here is a very ensures that it is subject to the
simple mechanical effect caused by minimum of friction. The warmer
the heating of the air. The fact that the hand, the faster the rotation.
air can transmit its motion to other, Those, incidentally, who suffer from
solid bodies, we know from the sails poor circulation cannot hope to
of a windmill, from the sailboat, the perform this experiment easily, if

air balloon and so on, but also from at all.

 Artificial Birds
The example of Icarus, who attached very least, that is, there were no
two wings to his shoulders with wax reports that, like so many of his
in order to toward the sun, found
fly predecessors and successors, he had
that they melted when he drew too broken his neck.
near, and was thus badly let down A great deal of talk was also
by his invention, has been followed, caused by a tailor from Ulm, who
despite his and numerous other had to pay for his courageous flight
failures, by many imitators. with a cold bath in the Danube.
Quite a stir was caused in 1786 by To those who are interested in
a young Frenchman whose flying aeronautics and mechanics we would
machine was based on a similar like to commend the two little models
principle. It consisted of a kind of of artificial birds depicted in our
yoke attached to his shoulders, with illustration. Their mechanism is

two movable and hinged shafts sup- simple enough, but extremely in-
porting the wings. The front wings genious. The driving force of the
were operated by hand, the rear beating wings is provided by a broad,
wings by foot. Considerable success tightly wound elastic band; the other
was claimed for the inventor - at the details of the mechanism are clearly

61
shown in the illustration. At the top larger mechanical bird, weighing no
of the picture we can see a smaller lessthan 1^ pounds, which, with a
artificial bird with lowered wings. head wind of twelve feet per second,
The wingspan is 14 inches; the covered a distance of just under 100
rubber band is 5 inches long and feet.

weighs about | ounce; the total (The reader should bear in mind
weight is about one ounce. The little that these models, like all the games,
machine becomes airborne just as tricks and experiments described in
soon as the elastic band is activated this book, were devised in the nine-
and released, and it can cover a teenth century, that is, before the
distance of twenty yards and more. invention of the airplane!)
The inventor also made a much

The Spinning Coin

Can anyone start a coin spinning as naturally we shall not wait to be
wind about its own axis
fast as the asked twice. We ask our neighbor
and then keep it going for some for the dollar he has just been using
time? (but if its edge has worn smooth, we
"Nothing could be easier!" should find another coin with a well-

exclaims our neighbor at the table - milled edge), mark each end of one
with a superior expression. He of its diameters carefully, place it on
produces a silver dollar from his the table, lift it with two needles
pocket and stands it on edge, then, which we fit carefully to the exact
supporting the coin with the index pointswe have marked, bring the
finger of his left hand, he gives it a whole up to our mouth and blow
hard flick with the middle finger of at the top half of the coin. The
his other hand. The dollar will spin pressure of the air will cause the
round its axis so quickly that the coin to spin about its axis with great
eye cannot follow its motion, until speed.
gradually its speed decreases, and But how do we determine the
after a few wavering, circling diameter of the coin ? To prepare for
motions it falls down flat on the this we use a pair of compasses and
table. a piece of paper to produce a circle
No one can accuse us of being bad that has approximately the same
sports, and we applaud him circumference as the coin, and draw
enthusiastically. But then we remark a straight line through the center.

very meekly that we had been think- If we now place the coin in the
ing of a quite different and slightly middle of this circle, it is a simple
more complicated solution. matter to mark the ends of the
Naturally, we shall be challenged to diameter on the edge of the coin.
prove our greater brilliance, and as

62
 The Floating Bread Pellet
Not so long ago, we had occasion to bread over the little hole, hold the
watch a well-known physicist tube up horizontally and blow
enthrall a fairly large audience with continuously into the open end, the
a series of experiments, among pellet will rise into the air from its

which the following, simple though position at rest and continue to float
it is, attracted loud applause. as long as the stream of air continues
In this experiment, the end of a Should the reader
to flow. try this
narrow metal tube is rendered air- experiment for himself he will find
tight with whatever will do the job, it highly effective. The floating
and a hole measuring approximately pellet, incidentally, brings to mind
fa
inch in diameter is drilled about fairground shooting galleries and
\ inch from the sealed end. If we those table tennis balls that are
now place a small pellet of cork or held three feet or more up in the air

S3
by jets of water from a fountain, It there is no tube of metal close
only to be made to drop down again at hand, it should not be too difficult

by fluctuations in the force of the to substitute some other object, such

jets, thus offering the marksmen as a small length ot reed or bamboo;
rather elusive targets while they the effect will be no less spectacular.
dance up and down.

The Freely Suspended Coin

THERE are problems that can only be methods, unhappil) meeting failure
solved b\ those who have been let each time, while the expert will pick
into the secret. One such is the up the coin with the tips of his
problem ot how to attach a small fingers,rub the coin energetically
coin to a vertical wooden surface against the surface, then suddenly
without resorting to any kind ot stop and push the coin hard against
adhesive or mechanical de\ ice. Those the wood where it remains.
not in the know will try several It we now ask our somewhat

<>4
65
perplexed spectators what physical paper on which we have drawn with
effect may cause the coin to adhere them.
to the surface, we shall probably be In our little scientific game, how-
told that it is the force of adhesion. ever, the imprint on the coin
This answer, however, is tar from prevents such close contact. Instead,
correct, for though it seems that with the friction and the sudden
adhesion must be involved, it is not pressure we have applied, heat
in fact. True, two smooth surfaces almost totally displaces the air
may adhere closely to each other between its markings, with the result
after they have been pressed tightly that the outside air now exerts
together, and their adherence is the enough pressure on the coin to make
greater the larger the contact area. it stick to the wall. If this experiment
Thus well-polished silver and should not succeed at the first
copper plates, placed on top of each attempt, it is advisable to change
other, will adhere so closely that either to a coin that has a deeper
they behave like a single solid. impression, but that is also, perhaps,
Similarly, we may find that our lighter, or to use a different surface,
charcoal or pencil will stick to the or perhaps to change both.

A New Version of the Magdeburg Hemispheres

Otto von Guericke's experiment placed rim to rim they fit together
with the famous Magdeburg hemis- perfectly. Then stick a candle stump
pheres was intended to demonstrate to the bottom of one of the glasses,
the tremendous force of air pressure. place the glass on the table and
To that end he used two sizeable ignite the bestower of light and
hemispheres made of brass and warmth. You must now find a piece
copper, one of which was provided of strong paper, moisten it with
with a tube. Guericke fitted them water and place it on top of the
together so that they formed a glass. Then pick up the second glass
complete sphere and then evacuated and place it upside down on the
the air inside with the help of the paper, as the illustration shows. The
air pump he had invented. In the adhesion of the two glasses, separated
event, it took the combined power of by the paper, must be perfect if the
thirty horses to tear the two hemi- experiment is to succeed. The
spheres apart. candle will soon go out, the air in
You will, of course, be familiar the lower glass having become
with this experiment, tor you are considerably rarefied. you now
It

bound to have studied it in your pick up the top glass, the lower glass
physics lessons at school; what you will remain attached to it and be
may not know, however, is that \ou lifted up as well. The pressure of the

can imitate famous

this historically atmosphere outside holds the two
experiment with the help of two tumblers firmly together, just as it
tumblers. Take two glasses ot the did with the two Magdeburg hemi-
same size, making sure that when spheres in the classical experiment.

66
67
There will be times, admittedly, that ment will succeed, provided all the
the paper between the two glasses other arrangements have been made
will burst, but even then the experi- as we have described them here.

Blowing a Candle out with a Bottle

The heading above appears to which is just under an inch across,
promise a very curious experiment. with the ball of our left hand, but in
To perform it, we use our right hand such a way that we can produce a
to pick up an ordinary wine bottle small aperture by lifting our hand
by its base. We close the opening, very slightly. This aperture we now

68
cover with our mouth, and then we shown in the illustration below,
blow very hard into the bottle tor and bring it up to within
some three to tour seconds, quickly about an inch of the flame of a
closing the aperture again with the burning candle, which will be blown
ball of our hand. As a result, the air out by the fairly strong gust of air
in the bottlebecomes compressed. released as soon as we once again
All that needs to be done now is to move our hand very slightly away
turn the bottle upside down, as from the neck of the bottle.

69
70
 A Passenger-Ferrying Soap Bubble
Each of our readers has no doubt like these led us to the idea of making
blown soap bubbles, and is aware the largest possible soap bubble and
that they float upward because they attaching the figure of a tiny
are filled with breath from our lungs balloonist to it. This is not some-
which, because of its higher thing we achieved without difficulty,
temperature is lighter than the air but anyone can do it if the experi-
outside. If the right equipment is to ment is performed carefully. To that
hand, it is possible, of course, to fill end, you should cut a manikin one
the soap bubbles with hydrogen, in inch tall from a piece of tissue paper,
which case they need to have a tie it to one end of a slender length
diameter of only 2 inches to rise of thread, to the other end of which
quickly to the ceiling. Experiments vou must attach a |-inch disk

7i
of fine, white writing paper. The careful contact. If you now slightly
thread is tied to the paper manikin vibrate the soap bubble pipe, the
and the small paper disk by simple bubble will break off* and, like a
knots. The disk can be made to stick balloon with its balloonist, rise gaily
to the soap bubble, as shown in our into the air (see p. 71), causing great
illustration on p. 70, by simple but mirth to any spectators.

Forcing an Egg into a Bottle

It may easily be demonstrated, even will have finished burning fairly
without an air pump, that dense air quickly and will no longer be giving

exerts very much greater pressure off heat, will gradually cool and at
than rarefied air. To prove this, we the same time become denser. As a
ask the lady of the house for a hard- result the air pressure in the bottle
boiled egg, and with her permission will be greatly decreased and give
fetch an ordinary carafe from the most peculiar phenomenon,
rise to a
kitchen or the sideboard. We care- and an ultimate catastrophe. For the
and then make a
fully peel the first, egg, yielding to atmospheric pres-
paper This latter we set on fire,
spill. sure, will gradually travel down the
and throw it burning into the bottle. neck of the bottle, hugging it tightly
What happens next? The air in the and elongating like a snake, sliding

bottle is expanded by the heat and down ever more quickly until finally
partly escapes, so that within a fairly it ends up with a thud at the bottom
short space of time only a small of the bottle.
amount ot rarefied and heated air is Although we did not attempt it

left inside the bottle. We now ourselves, this experiment can doubt-
quickly place the peeled egg, which less be performed with other objects,
we have kept close at hand, on the say a soft rubber ball, a suitably
neck of the bottle, like a cork, but si/ed cooked potato, large plums or
do not push it down. What ensues? similar fruit; enterprising readers
The air in the bottle, since the spill are encouraged to tr\ for themselves.

An Inexpensive Trombone
It is well known that bird song can end slighth oxer a spirit flame to
be imitated most effectively by make amouthpiece, we can turn it

rubbing a glass tube along its length into a musical instrument whose
with a piece ot "soft eork. K\actl\ the tone is reminiscent ot that ot a trom-
same effect can also be attained it the bone. To do we roll a piece ot
this
cork is rubbed along an ordinal") cardboard around the tube and glue
glass bottle. The resulting sounds its edges together so that the length
will var\ with the speed ol the of the tube is doubled. This double
action. If, instead, we take a glass tube is make a good
long enough to
tube a toot diameter of
long with a trombone with a low pitch. By
just under an inch, and expand one moving the cardboard tube up the

7^
73
74
glass tube, we decrease the length perseveres, become an accomplished
of the vibrating column ot air, and artiste.

gradually raise the pitch as we We know a young man, whose

proceed. portrait the reader will find on the
This type ot instrument resembles facing page, who plays this primitive
we make bold to say - the antique instrument with such skill that

sackbut. It is not at all difficult to people shake their heads in wonder

play: the layman will be able to at the purity and perfection of the
divert himself with it and, it he notes he produces.

The Bottle-Harmonica at Concert Pitch

To create the bottle-harmonica (or necks and attaching them to the
musical bottles) shown in the poles at equal intervals. The empty
illustration we must take two bottles may now be tuned by pouring
ordinary chairs and rest a wooden water into them. We will not specify
pole or better still a bamboo stick the precise amounts ot water needed
on the seats and a second pole on the for any bottle, though it would not
backs. We then hang any number of be too difficult to do so, preferring
wine bottles from the poles by tying to leave this task to the musical
lengths of fine twine around their talents of the performers themselves;

75
here, too, an ounce of practice is judgment. Our own experience
worth more than a pound of theory! limits us to the observation that well-
The instrument is played with trained musicians may safely be
long-handled wooden hammers, allowed to give a concert in an
similar in appearance to croquet enclosed space, but that if they want

mallets and, because of its ample to practice they had best take to the
size, it can be used by two or even open air, if possible in a remote part

three people at once. As for the best of the garden, lest they strain delicate
technique, we again reserve our nerves bevond endurance.

The Melodious Dulcimer

To conclude our gallery of im-
provised instruments, we should
like to show you, dear reader, how
to construct a dulcimer, an instru-
ment on which it is possible to play
and charming pieces of
delightful
music and which, at the same time,
helps us to study the laws governing
the vibration of strings. The
plicity of these laws offers much to
interest us, since strings can be
actuated in conjunction with a
sounding board or by plucking,
striking, pulling with a plectrum or
by blowing. In all these cases, it is
never one simple vibration that is
produced but, depending on the
multi- manner and place of the actuation, a
whole series of harmonic overtones small wooden dice, which we push
in addition to the fundamental. To to and fro until the strings sound the
enter into the subject in any further notes of the scale. If we wish, the
detail would take us too far afield. outside of the little box can now be
To construct our musical instru- prettily painted, or, according to
ment we need an ordinary,
first taste, given a light or dark stain, and
clean and undamaged cigar box and, our dulcimer is finished. All we
as the illustration on the facing page need now is to add two small strips
shows, two rows of small nails which of whalebone; one end of each is
are knocked in at regular intervals stuck into a cork that has been care-
close to the top edges of the box. We fully cut and filed down until it is
now stretch fine brass wires between shaped as shown at C. With these
each pair of nails, and insert a care- two little hammers reader can now
fully planed square measuring rod try their skill and - let us hope! -
{AB) under them on the left-hand after some practice produce truly
sideand then, at a slant, a line of delightful results.

Well Grunted!
If we are amongst close friends or and squeaking away, the demon-
within our family circle, and if there strator ties a knot in the napkin at
is a volunteer present who will not the back of the volunteer's head, so
take a somewhat crude joke amiss, that the cornershang down on either
we can perform the following and then gently
side like ears,
"experiment.'" The demonstrator touches the white cloth at two spots
puts a wineglass in our plucky in the region of the eyes with a cork
volunteer's mouth, as the first blackened over a candle flame.
illustration shows, and wraps his "Please continue, if you will, with
head in a napkin, saying: your sound waves. Now, ladies and
"I shall be asking our esteemed gentlemen, can you all make out the
friend to be kind enough to make a sound wave picture? Does it not
series of loud sounds, while I, for bear the most striking affinity to the
my be holding the napkin
part, will sounds you are hearing? We could
tightly at the back of his head so call it the grunting picture, don't
that all the sound waves can you think? But what are you doing,
impinge upon it. At the same time I ladies and gentlemen, you must not
would ask the audience to kindly laugh, or the whole effect will be
observe the most scrupulous silence. lost. I really must ask you. ." . .

The napkin is now around your But to no avail, laughter resounds

head, so you may start producing the from all sides, drowning out the
sound waves. Make prolonged, and gruntings of the surprised volunteer,
deep sounds, for instance an o or a //, who soon tears the napkin from his
as well as a shrill e, and try to face to discover to his indignation
achieve a really good effect." that he alone does not know the
While the volunteer is grunting reason for all the mirth.

77
 taUMfti

Imitation Thunder
The sound of claps and prolonged middle of his hands and is tauth
rolls of thunder ean be produced stretched. Holding the loose ends
in an easy but startling wa\ with a of the string in one hand, we now
piece of string. We ask someone pluck it like a violin. If we use our
who does not have to be a child, as fingernail, thunderclaps or loud
on page 79, lor the
illustrated rumblings will be heard. We can cut
experiment is unlikch to tail to the sound short by squeezing
at will

impress even adults to put his the string between thumb and fore-
hands over his ears, then we pick up finger. Cannon fire, too, can be
the string (which had best be fairly imitated in this way. The longer the
thin and have tightly twisted strands) string the louder will be the effect.
and wind it around the head of the Most readers will know how to
volunteer so that it runs across the imitate the sound of bells, but for

78
those who are not privy to the secret, fingers, which we then use to stop
we shall briefly describe this no less up our ears. If the poker is now set
surprising experiment. We suspend swinging and allowed to strike some
an iron rod, some three feet long, object, we shall hear a sound
say a poker, from a doubled piece of reminiscent of, but much more
string, and wind the two ends of the beautiful than, that of a great bell.
string around each of our fore-

Visible Vibrations
A fundamental law of the science of a brook, rattlings, rumblings and
of acoustics goes as follows : every so on. In the case of sounds, by
body producing a sound is in a state contrast, the listener has a very
of vibration; by the term vibration definite, continuous sensation that
we understand the regularly re- can be described as periodic, that is,

peated to and fro movements of the repeated at regular intervals. The

source of the sound. We distinguish underlying mechanical process can
between noises and sounds. The be easily exemplified with the help
former make an irregular, varying of a very simple experiment.
impression, as, for instance, the A wineglass is turned upside
roaring of a waterfall, the babbling down and a small pendulum, made

79
8o
of a piece of string and a shoe button
begged from a shoemaker or taken
from a discarded boot, is fastened to
the stem of the glass. The button
must hang as far down the side of
the glass as the illustration on page
80 shows. Once these preparations
have been completed, we hold the
The Water Candlestick
When we returned home after dark
one night, and struck a match in the
bedroom to light a candle, we dis-
covered to our dismay that the
candlestick was missing. The night
before, the candle had burned down
and the candlestick had been re-
moved for a new candle to be fitted.
Would we have to retire to bed in
the dark, possibly breaking some
glass up by the base between the
tips of the ringers of one hand, and
tap the side of the glass with a pencil
lightly held in the other hand. The
glass will give off a sound, and while
thissound continues the button will
perform hops along the glass wall,
thus illustrating the vibrations.
precious object while groping about
in the room ? But wait a minute, the
candle stub was still lying on the
bedside table. Quickly, before the
match burned out, we lit its wick.
But we were now in the rather
unenviable position of holding the
burning stub between our fingers,
while we looked around for some-
where safe to put it. Then we were
81
suddenly put in mind of the night candle burned hollow, that is, its

light that used to burn in our edge stayed up like a rim, and it
nursery, and we quickly set to work. soon looked as if the flame was
We picked up a nail, heated its tip screened by a ground glass cylinder.
in the candle flame and pushed it After some time, we hit upon the
into the bottom of the candle stub. explanation that at first seemed to
Next we poured water into a glass elude us: the heating effect of the
and introduced the weighted stub flame was opposed by the cooling
into the water. We had chosen a nail effect of the water, and at the edge of
of exactly the right weight: the the candle the latter was the greater
candle stub sank so that its top was of the two. The strange manner in
just level with the water surface. As which the combustible material was
the candle kept burning, the stub being consumed could be explained
grew shorter, but it also grew lighter in no other way.
and rose, so that we did not have to We stayedup watching the water
fear its premature extinction. candlestick for some time and,
And so everything went according because of this quite ordinary but
to plan. However, another pheno- nevertheless fascinating discovery,
menon greatly surprised us: the we nearly forgot to retire to bed.

Muslin and a Glowing Coal

Those bodies which very rapidly will demonstrate.
absorb the heat of others and We take a copper sphere some 4 5
distribute it quickly throughout their inches in diameter and cover it with
mass are called good conductors of a piece of muslin or fine linen,
heat; by contrast, those bodies in pulling the cloth tightly over the
which this process takes place very sphere and holding it at the bottom
gradually are known asbad con- so that the sphere is supported by it.

ductors. Thus, if we heat one end of Then we pick up a piece of coal

a length of wire over a flame the from the fire with a pair of tongs,
other end will very quickly become place it on the upper pole of the

so hot that anyone foolhardly enough sphere, and blow on the coal until
to pick it up will drop it almost it glows. Although the coal is now
immediately. This does not, of red hot the muslin does not burn,
course, happen with a piece of wood, the reason being that the copper,
which we can hold in our hand until which of all the metals is the best
the flame almost reaches our fingers. conductor of heat, absorbs all the
Few people will believe, however, heat so quickly that none can go into
that it is possible to touch a piece of the cloth. An experiment that
muslin with a glowing coal and leave surprises quite as much as it adduces
the cloth intact. And yet it can be a convincing demonstration of the
done, as the following experiment conduction of heat!

82
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The Electric Walnut

How often has not some trick, some An electric walnut is something
magical been explained as a
teat, altogether novel, and however
result of the powers of electricity, unlikely it may sound it is produced

although this particular natural easilyenough. Simply rub the blunt

force has no connection whatever end of a walnut - which is being
with it? For experience teaches us held, pointed end upward, between
that the applause is the greater the thumb and middle finger, with the
more improbable the whole thing index finger lying on top - on your
sounds. coatsleeve or some woolen cloth.

83
Sn V^'
After it has been rubbed tor a time, ward, is pinched into the resulting
the audience will be astonished to see slit; the nut will then cling to the
that it remains hanging from the on its
finger as soon as the pressure
index finger, and can only be freed walls ceases. Now
we can hold it up
with a slight tug. triumphantly and with due solemnity
If you now ask someone else to before the gaze of the astonished
repeat the experiment, he is sure to audience, who needless to say, will
fail. Why?Because he does not know be full of admiration for the
the trick that is needed to succeed illusionist.
with this little bit of hocus-pocus! This trick ought not to be repeated
The rubbing of the nut serves no too often, if the secret - elasticity,
purpose whatsoever, and merely instead of electricity - is not to be
helps to confuse those not in the discovered. The rubbing on the
know. During the rubbing, however, cloth, of course, must be carried out
the middle finger and the thumb with an air of great importance. The
must exert strong pressure on the opening of the nut may be assisted
seam of the nut, so that it opens up beforehand by a preliminary
at the top and the skin of the inddx splitting of the seam with a thin
finger, which is being pushed down- blade.

The Electric Broomstick

85
 .

If we suspend a pith ball from an a rod of ebonite rubbed with fur,

insulating silk thread (best of all is a then the ball repelled by the glass
thread taken from a white silk will be attracted by the ebonite and
ribbon) and bring it close to a glass the one repelled by the ebonite will
rod that has been rubbed with silk, be attracted by the glass.
it will be attracted, only to be A similar experiment - do not be
immediately repelled. If we then alarmed - can be performed with a
touch the ball with our hand, it will broomstick. Balance the latter, as

be attracted all over again, only to be the illustration shows, on a table, so

repelled once more. Clearly the pith that halt ot it protrudes over the
ball has received an electric charge edge and can be set swinging by
from the and retains that
glass rod, anyone blowing at it. Then take a

charge because it is suspended trom thick stick ot sealing wax, rub it

a silk thread. When it is touched fairly hard against anything woolen,

with the hand, it surrenders its lor instance a coatslecve, hold it
charge, returns to its original state, close to the upper or lower end ot
is attracted all over again - that is, the broomstick, and the latter,
recharged - and then repelled. Such without having been actualh touched
an electrified ball is attracted by by the sealing wax, will begin to
everybody not carrying an electric swing noticeably. This surprising
charge, tor instance by a nearby effect is based on the electric charges
metal object the clearest sign that present and can, in this case, serve
it does indeed carry a charge. It we to demonstrate that electricity is not
now suspend two such pith balls confined to certain bodies, but that
and electrify one with a glass rod all bodies have wh.it is known as

rubbed with silk, and the other with latent electricity

Another Way of Fishing

Tin. toy is depicted in our illustra- we can add a square cardboard box
tion will give the little ones a great without its base or lid that is, open
deal ot pleasure. First we must at the top and at the bottom to

assemble the fishing tackle: the rod serve as an aquarium, coloring the
is a stick 12 to 18 inches long, sides suitably.
the line borrowed from the
is For the game it sell, we la) the fish
sewing basket, the hook is fashioned down on the table or in the aquarium
trom a pin (see insert in the / and define the rules ot play. The
illustration) and a small ball ot winner is the one who catches the
sealing wax. It we can shape the largest number offish fust, and he is

latter to look like a worm serving as awarded some sort ot prize. It goes
bait, the appeal ot the game is sure without saying that each contestant
to increase. Next we cut small fish must be provided with a fishing rod.
shapes out ot thin paper and use We need not go into detail as to the
crayons to color in the eyes, scales wa\ the fish are caught, tor the
and fins. It we are skillful enough reader is well aware that the sealing

86
wax can be electrified by friction iron inserted in their mouths. The
and will therefore be capable of equipment gains in durability in this
attracting various objects. The way and may be brought out tor use
anglers can, however, also make use during idle hours time and again.
ot magnetic effects, in which case There is no need to say, "Enjoy
they must attach small horseshoe yourselves," with this game, tor
magnets ends of the fishing
to the experience has taught us that no one-
lines; the fish must be cut out of can fail to derive great amusement
heavier paper and small pieces of from it.

The Electric Dancers

Electricity, which plays so impor- should be about 2 inches above the
tant a role in industry and the table top. Next we cut out a number
modern home, can, in its simplest of small figures with scissors: ladies,
manifestations, serve for many gentlemen, harlequins, frogs, imps
diverting experiments and games. and so on, which should not be
To prove this claim, we use an taller than about | inch, a little
ordinary sheet of glass measuring smaller than the figures shown at the
some 15 < 18 inches and place it top of our illustration. They are
between two fairly thick volumes, best cut from sheets of paper of
asour illustration depicts; the glass different color, which will give them

87
a verj pleasing appearance. better still, a silk cloth, crumple it

\\ e now place the little figures into the shape ol a ball, warm it

between the sheet Ol dass and the slightly and then rub the top ol the
where they can be laid down
table, ulass \er\ hard with it. We shall be
flat next to each other in an\ order able to observe immediately how the
we like Then we take a woolen or, electricity produced in this wax

HN
attracts the paper figures, tor they rubbing the glass, the merry pro-
will suddenly stand upright and leap ceedings will continue tor a little

up to the glass ceiling of their little while, and once the dance has finally
ballroom, only to be repelled and to come to an end, a slight touch of the
tall back down onto the table, there hand on the glass is sufficient to
to begin their lively and comical revive the little figures once more.
dance all over again. It we stop

The Induction Top

Whenever metal is moved in the peculiar effect known as induction.
vicinity of a magnet - inside a To that end we spin a top, con-
magnetic field, as it is usually called sisting of a disk of soft iron, in the
the magnetic field will tend to arrest usual manner with a piece of string.
the movement. This effect has been When the top is at rest, it is attracted
applied most ingeniously to the im- by a horseshoe magnet placed in its
provement of various scientific vicinity;however, if the top is
measuring instruments, but here we spinning and the magnet is brought
shallmerely describe a very simple close toit in such a way that the

experiment, intended to persuade shanks of the magnet are vertical to

the reader of the existence of the the plane of the disk, the top will

89
begin to dip away, and its inclination strength of the repulsion decreases
will be the greater the stronger and with the decreasing speed of the
closer the magnet. Once the speed of rotation. When the speed dwindles
the rotation has dropped below a to below a certain point, repulsion
certain threashhold, however, the makes way for attraction. That induc-
attractive force gradually predomi- tion currents are indeed responsible
nates, so much so that the top finally for this phenomenon is shown
attaches itself to the magnet. by the fact that the rotating top will
The explanation of this curious be attracted by the magnet when the
phenomenon is simple enough. shanks of the latter are parallel and
When the disk rotates with great close to the edge of the former. In
speed in the vicinity of the magnet, that case, for reasonswhose elucida-
itbecomes the seat of induction tionwould take us too far afield, no
currents. These currents and the induction currents are set up in the
magnet repel each other, and the disk.

Magnetizing a Knife
A steel rod may be magnetized care being taken that the two
merely by being stroked with a magnets never touch.
powerful magnet. That halt of the In what follows we shall describe
rod which is destined tobecome the how a table knife can be rendered
north pole is stroked some ten times magnetic, proceeding as shown in

on either side with the south pole of the illustration on page 91. The
the magnet, the motion being started blade of the knife is placed on the
firmly at the center of the rod and underside of a coal shovel, and is

continued with moderate speed then stroked with the top of a

beyond the end before the magnet is closed pair of tongs, always in the
returned in an arc to the center. same direction, from the handle to
Similarly, the half intended as the the tip of the blade, the knife being
south pole is stroked with the north turned over from time to time so
pole of the magnet. It is helpful to that either side is thoroughly
attach the rod to the table by a small stroked. If this operation is con-
iron band fitted over its exact center. tinued for some forty to fifty
More powerful magnets can be made seconds, the blade will be magne-
if the opposite poles of two magnets tized, and will now lift a needle or a
of equal or near equal strength are steel nib with great ease.
placed over the center of the rod in The magnetism produced in this

such a manner that each forms an way persists for a long time. This
angle of 30° with its half of the rod, simple process is not usually
both magnets then being guided at deseribed in textbooks of physics,
the same speed along the rod and and yet is interesting enough to
beyond. In this case, too, it is best to invite study. Closer investigation
return them to the center of the rod will show that the tip of the blade
b\ making an arc through the air. has become the north pole.

90
A Leyden Jar and an Electrical Tea Trolley
Making a Leyden jar is not at all edge being left around the top 2-4
diffieult. We procure a cylindrical inches deep, depending on the
glass, as shown in the illustration, size of the glass. Then we lay a
warm it and line it, inside and out, cardboard disk, of exactly the same
base and sides, with aluminum foil. size as the base, over the bottom of
It there are bumps or bubbles in the the glass, and finally provide a
foilthat prove impossible to remove wooden lid for the jar. We drill a
by rubbing, we must make a clean hole through the center of both the
cut with a sharp knife and rub again lid and the disk, and thread a metal
until the foil is quite smooth. The wire, rod, or tube, which must be
work is started on the inside of the some 3 inches taller than the
glass, the base being lined first and glass container, through it. We now
care being taken that the foil goes add a metal sphere to the upper end
right up to the inside wall of the of the rod, and a bunch of aluminum
glass (making several cuts, if foil to the lower end, thus bringing
necessary!). The sides are then the rod into contact with the inner
dealt with in the same way, as is the lining of the glass - and our Leyden
outside of the glass, an uncovered jar is ready.

9i
9*
 The reader might well think that We can also make a very simple
nothing could be simpler, and yet we generator for charging our Leyden
have devised a formula that achieves Taking a lacquered tinplate
jar.

the same end in a matter of seconds. tray,some 12-15 inches long,

We simply take a tumbler, fill it halt' we place it on top of two wine-
lullwith lead shot, stick a silver glasses. Then we cut a rectangle
spoon in it, and - we have our out of cardboard to which we glue
Leyden jar. two paper handles, and if we now

93
place our construction on a warm tray with one of our knuckles. If we
cooker to dry out, then lay it on the use a coffeespoon to draw the
table and brush it hard with a stiff charge instead, transferring the latter
clothes brush, the paper will soon be to our Leyden jar and repeating the
strongly electrified. Lifting it off the process several times, the charge in
table, we place it on the tray and the jar can become so great that
touch its edge; we can now draw a when we discharge the jar the
spark half-an-inch long from the sensation may be most unpleasant.

Thermoelectric Currents
A lovely experiment! It is true that the rim ot the wheel is an alloy of
one has to go to the trouble of nickel and copper; the spokes are
making the necessary apparatus, but copper wire; the hub is a small plate
this should give our readers few of sheet copper; in addition we need
headaches. some soldering solution and tin. We
To begin, then. The apparatus use a cylindrical object to shape the
consists chiefly of a many-spoked rim of the wheel before soldering it

wheel, made of various materials: together; once this is done we attach

04
the spokes by bending their ends under the plane of the wheel (see
around the rim and then soldering the illustration), the wheel will be set
each in turn. The copper plate in motion. The finer the copper wire,

serving as the hub is soldered to a the taster will be the motion. (For a
single spoke; the other spokes wheel with a diameter of 4 inches
merely serve as supports. The hub is it is best to use 0.05- to 0.075-inch
shaped like a dish, with the concave wire.) The experiment represents the
side turned downward. We make a transformation of thermal into
small indentation in its center to electrical and ultimately into
receive the needle that will carry the mechanical energy. Through the
whole apparatus. The needle is heating of the soldered rods, an
pushed into a cork which, in turn, is electric currentis set up which is

inserted into a candlestick. To make communicated toward the opposite

sure that the apparatus will stay in a
horizontal position, we hang
cardboard pennants (tour
from the spokes. If we now heat any
one ol the soldered spots on the rim
of the wheel with a candle flame and
hold a horseshoe magnet on the
opposite side so that it lies over and
soldering point and the rim of the
small wheel. Once there it forks back and
will do) returns to the first soldering point.
Without the help of the magnet
nothing would happen, because the
two effects would cancel out; with
the magnet, however, rotation will
always take place.

Drawing with Fire

Apparently blank sheets of paper roughly. When dry, the drawing is

can provide amazing entertainment completely invisible, enabling us, if

by revealing singed figures, such as we should so wish and if we are in

that shown in the illustration. The the right company, to give the ex-
preparations are so simple that a periment the semblance of a little
brief description should be enough bitof magic. First we light a match,
to allow anyone to produce a "fire blow out the flame and with the still
picture" for himself- provided he glowing tip touch a carefully chosen
can draw a little. spot on the drawing - or rather, on
We dissolve saltpeter in cold water the apparently blank paper. The
until the solution is saturated, which saltpeter will catch fire immediately,
we can recognize by the fact that, and the flame will faithfully follow
despite vigorous stirring, some salt the lines that have been drawn with
particles remain bottom of the
at the the solution, until finally the figure
glass. Using this solution and a isburned out of the paper.
pointed paintbrush, we draw the This experiment is not entirely
outline of an animal or some object unknown, but it is bound to afford
on blank sheets of thin newspaper, great amusement, especially if the
and allow the paper to dry tho- drawing is of a jocular nature.

95
 Crystals on a Thread
A MOST remarkable crystallization bodies are fully immersed, as our
experiment may be performed by illustration shows. If we now leave
dissolving as much soda in water as the whole arrangement to its own
the latter can absorb. When the devices tor a while, an amazing
crystals no longer vanish, despite crystal structure will begin to grow
repeated stirring, we can be certain on the bean: spiky needles ot soda
that the solution is saturated Wc attach themselves to it and soon
then decant the clear liquid carefully cover it completely so that it looks
into a second vessel, take a thread like a small hedgehog, the bean itselt

and tie one end to a red chili bean being completely hidden from sight.
and the other to a supporting wire, Bj contrast, the bod> attached to the
glass rod or match. In the same way, lett side ot the carrier (in our

ITC attach a nonporous body, tor illustration, a small, round stone ot

instance a pebble or a piece ot glass. the kind children use in their games)
to our crossbar, which we then place does not alter its appearance in an\
across the top ot the glass \ end con- w J\
taining the liquid, so that both The cause ot the cr\stal formation
Q7
around the bean is not difficult to of crystal needles; the greater the
find.Unlike the round stone, the power the body has to absorb water
bean is highly porous and hence the more pronounced the crystal
hygroscopic, that is, it absorbs formation. The stone, on the other
water and swells. But only pure hand, is not porous, and hence
water is absorbed; the dissolved neither absorbs water nor rejects the
soda is rejected and attaches itself to soda. This experiment, easily per-
the outside of the bean in the form formed, will gladden everyone's eye.

Swim, Little Fish!

We cut a little fish, about 2 inches beforehand). Not content with this,
long, from a sheet of ordinary we seize the opportunity to show off
writing paper, not forgetting the our artistic talent, too, reaching tor
caudal, dorsal and ventral fins (it is our crayons and giving the little
advisable to sketch the outlines in fish a scalv coat as true to nature as

98
we can make it, keeping the back a much better, much more interesting,
dark grayish brown and the abdomen up our sleeve. We take a small oil
slightly lighter: yellowish brown can, of the kind used for sewing
shading off into violet and then machines, hold its spout directly
white. It our fish is to be a trout, we over the circular hole in the paper

must not forget to scatter black fish, and let a drop of oil tall into it.
spots all over its body. When we are The oil will immediately attempt to
satisfied with our handiwork, we use spread over the surface of the water,
a pair of scissors to cut a narrow- but, finding itself obstructed by the
strip from the tail to the middle (see edges of the circle, it escapes
the illustration) where we cut out a through the narrow channel toward
circle. Now we fill a shallow dish the tail, and is then released. As a

with water, and place the fish care- result of the recoil effect, the paper
fully on the surface of the water, so fish, like a cannon that has just been

that the upper side of the paper fired, will follow a direction opposite
remains absolutely dry. Our next to that of the oil flow, that is, it will
objective is to persuade our little swim forward. Try it for yourself; it

fish to swim across the dish. How do will afford great pleasure to any
we do that? By blowing, for in- children present, and to vourself as
stance ? No, we have something well!

The Camphor Boat

Our picture shows a small boat that turn to our experiment proper,
has been cut with scissors from a which promises to be of great
piece of aluminum foil and then bent interest. We carefully place our little

into shape. It is flattened at the back, work of art in the water, and find
or the stern, where there should that it sails splendidly. And if we
also be a small cut in the shape of a then place a drop of alcohol into the
wedge; you try to copy the illus-
if wedge-shaped cut in the stern with a
tration, you will not find the task pipette or a pair of tweezers, as soon
difficult in any way. To lend the end as the drop comes into contact with
product a pleasing, eye-catching the water, the vessel will make a
appearance, we can add a small mast sudden move forward, so violent, in
made from a straw with a colorful fact, that we have reason to fear our
flag flying from the top. Those who passengers may become seasick! The
wish to go further may also people explanation of this effect - of the
the deck with small paper sailors and forward movement, that is, and not
a few brightly painted paper pas- of the seasickness -is simple enough:
sengers, ladies and gentlemen from at the bow and at both sides, the boat
every corner of the globe, not for- lies in unadulterated water, which
getting to give the Captain his offers far less resistance to its
rightful position. progress than the alcohol and water
Our artistic preparations having solution at the stern; it is this dif-
advanced thus far, we can finally ference in pressure that causes the

99
 move forward.
boat to paper fish. The boat's motion will be
The same pleasing effect can be more or less responsive depending
obtained it instead of alcohol we use upon the type of substance used. And
some other volatile substance, such if we place some camphor in the same
as ether, chloroform, essential oils spot, its vapors will not only pro-
and so on. We saw this demonstrated duce the same effect, but also cause
earlier in the case of the swimming the boat to cruise about for hours.

Floating Iron
An interesting experiment is illus- fill a wineglass ncarh to the rim with
trated on the facing page and entitles water and ask the owner of the
even the layman to assert boldly that nearest sewing box if we may choose

he can make iron float in the from the supply of needles one that
stricter sense of the word, of course, is not too large the sort that is

tor every child knows that iron ships found pincushions of indus-
in the
have been floating across the seven trious seamstresses the world oxer.
seas tor a good long time. Hut that Next we take a piece of writing paper
does not concern us here. from our desk and cut out a rect-
To perform our experiment, we whose sides is longer
angle, one of

ioo
than the needle. We place this piece depends on its material properties -
of paper on the surface of the water as it has absorbed a certain amount
and lay the needle on top of it. Now of water, in other words has become
we shall be able to make the in- saturated. More surprising still to
teresting observation that the paper our audience is the fact that the
sinks just as soon - and the time needle will retain its floating position

IOI
 :

on the surface of the water even will be even more assured it we oil

without its paper support. the needle slightly before we place

The success of this experiment it on top of the paper.

Drawing a Circle by Cohesion

If we look at a glass filled with repulsion, which tends to separate
water, we tend to think that the them.
liquid is evenly distributed through- So far, we have been experiment-
out the container and that it is in ing with fairly large quantities of
perfect equilibrium. As we know, water; let us now demonstrate
however, by no means the
this is cohesion with the help of a smaller
case. At least two forces are at work quantity of liquid, but one that
attraction, which tends to keep the and
exhibits two lateral surfaces
particles of the liquid together, and hence can develop twice the normal

102
tension! To that end, we first dis- that is, cohesion and adhesion have
solve one ounce of soap and one counterbalanced the weight of the
ounce of sugar in about three- liquid, as you will no doubt have
quarters of a pint of water. Then we worked out for yourself. If we now
fashion a small square wire frame tie the ends of an ordinary silk
consisting of a simple loop on one thread together and loop it deftly
side, wide enough to be grasped over this layer of liquid, the thread
easily and surely between the will retain its irregular shape and
thumb and index finger. If we now position ; but as soon as we pierce
pour the solution into a dish, dip the surface of the liquid in the center
our frame into the liquid and lift it of the loop with the tip of a pencil or
out again, we shall see that it is some similar instrument, the liquid
filled with a thin layer of water willimmediately withdraw to the
which seems to have hardly any edges of the loop and the thread will
weight, since it barely sags at all. assume the shape of a perfect circle.

The more liquid runs off, the thin- A singularly interesting experiment!
ner and smoother the laver becomes.

The Suspended Pencil

Adhesion only comes
bodies are in close contact with each
between
other. It manifests itself
solids and also between solids and
liquids. Thus two polished metal
surfaces pressed together will
into play when glassand similar materials are in-
variably made wet by water, wine,
vinegar and many other liquids, but
fatty or oily substances are not, as
the reader well knows.
The following experiment is

adhere very firmly. This is the basis intended to demonstrate that, under
of the locksmith's well-known trick favorable circumstances, the force of
of grinding down two metal rulers so adhesion has a considerable carrying
finely that, placed on top of each capacity. We take one thick and one
other, they stick as tightly together thin lightweight wooden pencil, and
as if they were one. place them lengthwise on top of
Even more intimate is the contact, each other, the thicker one upper-
or rather the adhesive effect, if one most. Now we pour a few drops of
of the bodies is a liquid. Thus, as water into the gap between the two.
the reader knows, if a solid is im- On closer observation, we shall
mersed in a liquid and pulled out discover that the water has adopted
again, a layer of liquid will generally the form of two small concave arcs a
adhere to it. In everyday life we say and /;, show n at the top of our
as
that the body has been made wet by illustration (page 104). At the same
the liquid. This effect, however, time, the adhesive force has come
occurs only when the adhesion be- into play along both arcs with the
tween the solid and the liquid is result that the thinner, lower, pencil
greater than the cohesion of the adheres firmly to the upper and
latter. Thus metal, wood, porcelain, thicker one.

103
 How to Fill a Sealed Wineglass
THE reader may be familiar with the the wine had also to disappear,
If"

conjuring which an cmpt\

trick in then our "magician" would conjure
wineglass is replaced by a lull one up an obliging soul, who would
without either of the two glasses throw himself upon the glass and
being touched by hand, or in any empt) ii with obvious delight. The
other way. One of our quick-witted reader might be forgiven, therefore,
friends, who always ready with a
is for expecting our experiment to be
joke, used to deal with this problem based on a similar diversion; this is
simply by lifting the little table on far from being the ease, however,
which the two glasses stood, turning lor we intend to stick to our more
it around and putting it down again. serious scientific games.

104
105
 We take, then, two ordinary wine- spreads over the base, trickles over
glasses, with rims of equal diameter, the edge and down the sides of the
and place one upside down on top of reversed upper glass, and collects
the other, as shown in the illustra- inside the lower glass. Before the
tion, so that they appear to be experiment began we made sure that
hermemetically sealed. If we now the two glasses were dried as
pour a liquid, preferably water, very thoroughly as possible.
slowly from a third glass over the This experiment demonstrates
base of the upper glass, might well it that the sealbetween the two glasses
be assumed that the liquid will run was not really perfect and that the
down the sides of the two glasses water could find a way between the
and end up on the table. To the two rims, the displaced air inside
astonishment of those not familiar escaping by the same route (cf. the
with this experiment, however, this experiment described on page 53).
does not happen. Instead the water

A xMussel Turbine
To make handsome turbine
the than the lateral supports and must
shown we take a
in the illustration, be made in such a way that it can
large round wooden box without a turn without hindrance at both top
lid, which should not be difficult to and bottom. We fit a thick and well-
obtain, and insert a small outlet pipe rounded cork, which as the illustra-
made of wood or metal near the tion shows, will be taking up the
bottom it may be possible to find
; a driving belt, above the midpoint of
discarded pipe stem which would do the axle, that is, near the top. For
excellently for the purpose. To make the wheel itself, we take a larger
the container, that is, wooden
the round piece of cork or wood, cut out
box, watertight, the seams must be evenly sized teeth and attach mussel
well sized and the inside of the base shells to them with small screws, so
and walls painted with lacquer or oil that some twelve such shells are
paint. When this is done, we place a arranged concentrically side by side.

large button in the middle of the This wheel, too, is fitted onto the
base; it should have a slight depres- vertical shaft.
sion, as it will serve as the resting 'we now wish to set our turbine
It

point or pivot for the \ertiele axle. in motion we need only direct a
Next we must construct two small slender but powerful jet of water
vertical supports at opposite sides of (either from a container placed
the box and attach a strip of wood higher up, or, better still, from a
with a hole drilled in its center to hose attached to the faucet) at the
their upper ends. This central hole inside of One ol the mussel shells.
must be exacth above the depression This appealing little machine
in the button on the base, repre- it perhaps with the addition of another
sents the upper support or pivol belt-driven machine will then
of the axle, which is slighth longer speedily start to operate.

106
 A Paper Cornet Waterwheel
Oir paper cornet waterwheel intersect the circumference, we draw
presents a striking spectacle, its in the tangents, eight straight lines,
primitive construction notwith- and our regular octagon is ready to
standing. It main of
consists in the be cut out with a fretsaw.
an octagonal wooden disk, which we When we have made these pre-
must make first. To do so, we draw parations, we drill a hole in the
a circle with a pair of compasses on a center of the disk wide enough for
small piece of board selected for the an axle to be pushed through. Each
purpose. Inside this circle we draw end of the axle rests on a strong
a diagonal and cross it with another wire support fitted with an eyelet on
at right angles through the center. top and pushed vertically into a
We divide the resulting four right fairly heavy chopping board. We
angles with the pair of compasses in now tack eight paper cornets of
the familiar manner into two halves equal size, made from stiff but fairly
each, and draw a line through each thin cardboard, to the circumference
dividing point to the circumference of the wheel, making sure that they
of the circle. Where these lines all point in the same direction. For

107
greater durability, we can give the powered by water from the faucet,
paper cornets and the wood good a and the wheel may also be used as
coat of varnish before we start our an excavator by modifying the
little machine. The driving force is support and extending the axle. In
water, which we supply from a that case, however, we shall need an
pitcher, having, if necessary, made alternative source of power, a longer
suitable provision for the overflow. axle for our wheel and the addition
The little device can, of course, be of a driving belt.

1 08
A Letter Balance for the Summer Vacation

We are taking our summer vacation place the letter on the pan - and
in some mountain health resort. It find that the stick does not sink
rains and rains, which we naturally down as far as the pencil mark. No
find most unwelcome, for we are
hardly able to step outside the front
door. So we write letters instead, in
which we describe the glorious
summer weather at length, in the
hope that the envy of those left at
home will compensate us somewhat
for our spoiled vacation. This is an
arduous undertaking, and the letters
grow fairly long and have to be
weighed.
Because there is no letter balance
available, we have no option but to
make one for ourselves. We have
enough weights, for we know that a
U.S. cent weighs exactly ^ ounce.
For the balance itself we use
an old broomstick found under a
seat in the summerhouse; quickly
we saw off a piece of the handle
about 10 to 12 inches long, tack a
visiting card to the top end and
attach a small heavy metal object to
the lower end with a piece of tape
and a small nail. Then we obtain a
narrow vessel, fill it with water
tall

and immerse the stick in it. Since

our weight is not very large, the
piece of wood with its cardboard
"pan" will stick out of the container.
Now we place ten one cent pieces
(exactly one ounce) on the visiting
card, and watch the stick sink
deeper into the water. With a pencil
we mark the level of the water, and
check it again by taking the coins off
the pan and then replacing them.
Now we remove the coins once more,

109
extra stamps are needed, and - hey saved the trouble of having to
presto! - the letter is in the mailbox. reduce the deficit of the post office
And so our dear ones at home are by paying postage due.

The Snail-Shell Waterwheel

We first procure the shells of twelve being careful, of course, not to shift
to eighteen edible snails, then use a the shells while we glue them in

fretsaw to cut out two plywood disks place. We must also insert small
of equal size and push a dowel rectangular wedges between the axle
through their center to form an axle. and the two wheels, gluing them to
We attach the snail shells to the cir- both so that the disks do not revolve
cumference of both disks so that like wagon wheels on their axles, but

theyall point outward and in the are firmly attached. Now we place
same direction; this, we readily the axle of our waterwheel on the
admit, is quite a delicate operation. prongs of two uprights attached to
W ire and sealing wax will not do the the base and provide a gutter at the
job properly, and we have to resort bottom. We then push a large cork
to a different bonding agent, over the projecting end of the axle,
perhaps a good all-purpose glue, across which we run the driving belt

10
which is best made of stout canvas move downward under its pressure
of the appropriate width. to empty into the gutter and the
Now a few brief words on the container placed underneath. If it is

operation of the waterwheel: if a jet intended to run the machine con-

of water from a large vessel with a tinuously, perhaps to keep a second
long, narrow spout at its base is little workshop busily occupied,
directed at the openings of the snail then a constant flow of water
shells, the latter fill with water and must be provided.

A Hydraulic Motor
Here we have a toy that can be "motor" can run smoothly. Apart
made with a minimum of effort out from this wheel, we also attach a
of the simplest material but that can smaller transmission wheel, again
nevertheless be put to practical use. made of cork and, facing it, on the
All we need for its construction is second shaft, another transmission
four walnuts, a wooden board with wheel, and connect the two wheels
four posts at the corners, several rods, by a fairly taut band or belt. To the
a fairly large cork, reeds and tapes front end of the transmission shaft,
of various lengths, and sundry we fit the device illustrated on page
containers. 112; but more about this later.
Let us begin with the four posts, The power is provided by a water
which must be fixed very firmly to container and a siphon, both of
the board because they will be which must be placed higher than
supporting the entire mechanism. In the rest of the equipment. The
particular, they have to accommo- higher the container, the more
date two square, fairly thick driving power will be generated. The siphon,
shafts. The front shaft will carry the as our picture shows, is made from
wheel and must be slightly stronger a walnut and three lengths of reed.
than the transmission shaft at the The spout must, of course, be twice
rear. The wheel consists of a central as long as the suction tubes. So
body, six spokes and as many that the siphon is kept firmly in
scoops. The body is made from a position, the suction tubes should be
which must be as solid
large cork, attached to the side of the container
and nonporous as possible for or else weighed down. If we suck
maximum stability. The six spokes water through the spout, it will
are attached to it at equal intervals continue to flow as long as the
and in the same plane so
that any suction tubes remain immersed in
pair of opposite spokes forms a the liquid. Once the siphon has been
straight line. To the ends of the activated, we position it in such a
spokes we attached the nut shells. way that the stream of water falls
This must all be carried out with onto the scoops of the waterwheel.
great precision and everything fitted The overflow is caught in a con-
together very firmly so that our tainer plared beneath the wheel;

in
as soon as it is full, it can be used to illustration, the artist has combined
replenish the upper reservoir. the apparatus with a little butter
\s the reader will see from the churn. To make the latter, we need a

12
suitable lidded container for holding of that of the peg attached to the
the cream. Next, we construct the shaft; the strokes can therefore be
device that we mentioned earlier. lengthened or shortened at will. In
This consists of a disk with a the experiment illustrated here,
number of perforations, which however, it is best not to choose too
moves in two directions, vertically long a stroke since otherwise the
and horizontally, as it beats the vessel containing the cream would
cream. The range of both move- have to be too wide, a factor which
ments is exactly double the length would not be favorable to butter.

Experiments with Capillarity

As the reader well knows capillarity causing the sides of the container to
results from both the mutual become bowed.
attraction or cohesion of the par-
of one and the same substance,
ticles
Experiment 2: If we make a soap
and also from the mutual attraction,
bubble with a funnel and then
or adhesion of the molecules of
release it, it will shrink perceptibly,
different substances. It is because of
because the molecules of the liquid
cohesion that drop of water or
a
tend to move closer together. The
mercury retains the shape of a small
effectbecomes even more obvious if
sphere when placed on a greasy
we stop blowing before the bubble
plate, instead of dispersing, and it is
has finished forming, and leave the
because of adhesion that we need
bubble suspended on the funnel: the
force to separate two highly polished
bubble will flatten out and even
glass or metal plates in close contact
withdraw inside the funnel.
with each other. The joint effect of
both these forces, that is, of adhesion
and cohesion, thus explains the Experiment 3 We hang one thin
:

phenomenon of capillarity, at least wooden rod from another by threads

in part. The same effects are and suspend them from a small
responsible for a whole series of hook, so that the rectangle AB CD
striking phenomena, some of which (Fig. 3) is formed. If we now dip the
are described below. whole into the solution we used
earlier for making the soap bubbles,
we shall find that the shape of our
Experiment Fold the sides of a
i : figure has been altered : the con-
very thin piece of paper to make a tracting force of the soap skin has
flat box with a depth of about an curved the threads on either side of
inch. If a small amount of water is the rectangle inward and has hence
poured into this container, after it drawn the rods closer together
has first been moistened on the (Fig. 4). The tendency of the liquid
inside with a wet brush, the water to decrease its surface area can thus
will curve inwards at the edges, be plainly demonstrated.

113
 A Simple Prism
If we allow sunlight to pass through section of the original white beam;
a prism, we may observe the 4. the boundaries of the spectral
following effects: i. the light rays colors differ from the corresponding
are deflected (refracted); 2. the boundaries of the white light: they
composed (white) sunlight is split are curved, whereas the former were
into its spectral components, each straight.
of which is deflected differently, red These effects are usually studied
least of all and violet most; 3. the with the help of polished glass
spectrum which consists of seven prisms. We can, however, substitute
main colors (red, orange, yellow, a cheap water prism for the expen-
green, blue, indigo and violet), takes sive glass instrument by allowing the
up more space than the cross rays of the sun to fall perpendicu-

114
H5
larly on a piece of cardboard into from the window constitutes the axis
which we have cut two rectangular of the cylinder. Since the surface of
windows, obtaining as a result two the water is no longer parallel to the
parallel beams that produce two surface of the base we have produced
rectangular white images on the a splendid water prism. We may
white paper lying on the table. Now study all we have des-
the effects
we take an ordinary cylindrical cribed with one of the two beams
tumbler with a plain base, fill it one- while the other will help us to
and hold it at
third full with water determine the degree of the deflec-
such an angle beneath one of the tion and of the color dispersion.
cardboard windows that the beam

Sundials
On the assumption that the reader is The illustration below
familiar with the principles govern- depicts a strip of paper that has
ing the construction of sundials, we been varnished or soaked in oil,

mention two that may

shall briefly divided into hours, and glued to a

be produced by very simple means. cylindrical glass tumbler stopped

116
with a piece of cork or wood (/;). A to a piece of canvas, with a dial
metal rod (<) is inserted vertically in drawn on B. There is a folding top
the middle of this disk to form the D, with a central slit through which
pointer whose shadow will indicate the pointer C may be pushed and
the time in accordance with the attached to B. We insert the pro-
position of the sun. The tumbler tractor (b) through a slit in one of
rests on a hinger board E F, which the shorter sides of B, attaching it to
can be set at a slant as required with A beneath; purpose is to position
its

the help of two small props. B in accordance with the local

Of similar construction, but more meridian, the props (a) serving to
practical, is the sundial depicted on maintain this position. The pointer
this page, which can easily be con- C when lit by the sun casts a shadow
structed from ordinary cardboard. It on the dial from which the time can
consists of two pieces of cardboard, then be told.
A and B, glued on the reverse side

117
 The Reflection of Light
Light is known to physicists as law of intertia. Their dimensions and
matter consisting of extraordinarily relations with other bodies have been
small particles. It is assumed that determined, together with a series of
these minute particles, though effects involving their powers of
weightless, are subject to the general attraction and repulsion; these

118
investigations, however, are by no the stone and reemerges at so sharp
means concluded; many luminous an angle that it becomes totally-

phenomena have not been fully reflectedand the stone assumes an

explained to this day. almost metallic sheen as a result. Of
The reader will be familiar with all precious stones, the diamond is

one of the most common effects in known to have the smallest critical

this sphere, namely refraction, angle, that is, the smallest angle of
thanks to which a stick immersed in incidence beyond which light under-
water will appear bent at the point of goes total internal reflection, and this
immersion. This happens because explains its exceptional brilliance.
the light rays which the stick trans- The following is an easily per-
mits to the eye are deflected as they formed experiment if we look at the
:

leave the water. flame of a candle through a glass of

If light travels from a denser to a water, with the eye slightly lower
rarer medium, we may observe what than the water surface, then we shall
is known as total internal reflection. behold the reverse image of the
It is thanks to this effect that air candle against a dark background.
bubbles in water look like shining This is due to the reflection of the
pearls, and it also explains the bril- slanting rays, which having hit the
liance of many precious stones: part surface of the water cannot continue
of the incident beam passes through in a straight line.

The Reverse Image

Every one of our readers probably
knows that a camera obscura
produces reverse images, that is,
turns objects upside down. The
same is true of all the images
received by our retina, our eye, in
fact, acting as just such a camera
obscura, except that our brain
corrects the mistake. We
mention
it forms
this fact at the outset since
the basis of the explanation of the
some four inches away from your
eye and place a pin between the card
and the eye. The image of the pin
willdisappear from in front of the
card but reappear, standing on its
head, to the rear of the small hole we
have made (see the illustration, top
right on page 120). The pin must be
viewed against a window or a lamp.
The small hole serves merely as a
slit for admitting the light (Fig. 2A,

experiment we shall now describe. this page) which casts the shadow of
Take a visiting card and pierce a the pin upside down onto the retina.
hole in it with a pin. Hold the card We can achieve the same result in

19
a different way. If we hold the hole eye, or rotate it, a network of little

in the card very close up to our eye branches will appear after a while in
(about 1 1 inches away) and almost our field of vision. What we have
close the eye, we shall see our "before our very eyes" is the image
eyelashes upside down, that is, of the network of veins in the retina.
pointing upward. And if we move (This particular experiment does not
the card to and fro in front of the always succeed at first trv.)

Right- or Left-Sighted?
"Whatever can be meant by 'right- with one eye; indeed, there are
or left-sighted?' "many of our occasions on which it is impossible
readers will wonder. It is well known to see with both, because the visual
that most people are more agile with impression of the one interferes with
the right hand than they are with that of the other. Whoever looks
the left, but that with some the through monocular telescope or a
a
opposite is the case. Left-handed microscope, whoever sights along a
people are feared with good reason on rifle while hunting or in the army,

the fencing ground because they are will need only one eye since there is

unnatural opponents for the no work for the other to do. But the
ordinary right-hander. But most layman very often finds himself in
people also believe that what is true difficulty in such cases, being unable
of the hands does not apply to the to stop himself from using the other
eyes. After we generally use both
all, eye! The most obvious thing to do,
eyes, whereas we do not always work of course, is to shut it, but many
with both hands simultaneously. people can only do that by holding
Indeed, it is generally supposed that one hand in front of it, or by
the positioning of our eyes gives us a pressing the eyelid down. Or else,
great advantage over most animals, having taken note that those
since we are able to view the same practiced in this art can close their
object from two different view- other eye without using their hand,
points, and as a result to identify its they try vainly to follow their
physical shape, properties and example, pulling all sorts of faces in
importance at a single glance, while the process. Now it is a moot point
a bird, a chicken, for instance, may whether the eye that is not involved
have its suspicions about an object should be shut, or whether it can
but is unable to make up its mind remain open. If both eyes are open,
until it has examined the object with a picture is naturally formed on
first one eye and then the other, each retina; but do we necessarily
repeatedly turning its head to do so. have to take cognizance of both
In general it is true that we rely on images? Often enough, we find our-
the impressions gained visually by selves staring into space while our
both eyes, much as we lift up very thoughts are busy with something
heavy objects with both hands. quite far removed we do not give;

However, if need be, we can also see our surroundings a thought, that is,

121
we take no notice of our visual im- our eves in such a wa\ that we can
pressions, so that afterward we have look at one sheet with one eye and at

no idea at all of what our eyes have the other sheet with the other eye.
seen. That this "non-seeing" can \\ e shall not be able to read both
also affect just one eye when both pages at once, of course, but can
are wide open is shown by the focus when we like on one or the
simple experiment depicted in our other, although both eyes remain
We make two tubes
first illustration. open all the time. It takes a simple-
from cardboard or paper, about act of will for one eye to sec properly
i foot long and some 2 inches in and for the other to stare blankly.
diameter. Next we place two dif- may thus be argued that we
It

ferent sheets of newspaper on the often make use of onl\ one eye,
table and hold the tubes in front of even when we keep the other wide

122
open, and, accordingly, that we do r. _: -.: jit. •••.-
ie^iie '~t:~i: i
-
not have to exclude the other eye Tin i: ?•.-- . is tzt:- :
- ..::-

by holding a hand in front of it or by sighted? This, too, can be settled by

shutting the eyelid, even when 1 y.TT.T'.i iXT'iT-.TT.iT.:. - 7. ' z ?hil! '?.
.

aiming a gun, looking through a :

-. . izi.T :._?:-::; •=
:T7. i ?:.:_:;
microscope or engaging in any other Pierce a hole in a sheet of paper with
activity requiring the use of only one i Ti~.::'.. t'.i:z i $?::t.z s'r.n: ::'

eye. However, it has been shown ?iT'f :t. :'-.z :it'.z - ~t :

x

that we do not use either eye at inches away from the eyes, and draw
random for seeing, but that we i t'.iz'l ::::'.z it. _: :'~.z >::r :
:'
i

always prefer one to another. The $tt*i'.'. :::-. .

- ::
'•''•
::r. '?•: ir. = ;• ?>
:'

human race can be divided into -:zz . 7z~. '?.

.i ::: ---: >hee: :

- .--- ir.z t::-> zrr.id t<z ?.z TiT-z- Tz:-- z-zT :

_- :i:t it.z :'r.z

--}
table, slightly nearer the latter, and with his eyes, inclines his head
move it about until the black circle slightly to the right, follows through
can be seen through the hole. Next, the straight line from his eye to the
keeping the paper still, close first the target with his right hand and finally
left eye and then the right. In most throws the stone at this level with his
cases, the circle will disappear when right arm. This is, no doubt, how it
the right eye is closed, indicating has always been, and it is probable
that we could see the circle with both that hereditary factors have played
eyes or with only the right eye open, their part in moulding this
but not with the left eye alone. In preference for the right eye.
other words, when both eyes are It might be thought that the
open, the left does no work, so that unequally sharp vision of the two
the viewer may be said to be right- eyes implies a preferential use of the
sighted. If the reverse takes place, keener one. This is undoubtedly so
then we have a left-sighted person. over long distances when those who
We know that there are many are short-sighted in the right eye will
more right- than left-sighted people. invariably use the better, left, eye.
We may conclude, after some re- But does not mean that they are
this
flection, that there is some casual left-sighted, for as soon as they look
connection between this phenome- at an object nearby, the right eye
non and the right-handedness of comes into action and takes over
most people, though we cannot from the left. Needless to say, those
really say which is the cause and who are blind in the right eye are
which the effect. Since time imme- necessarily left-sighted. Such
morial, man has drawn a bow, pulled people will point a gun on their left

a trigger and flung a stone with his or, if they have to point it on the
right hand, using the left for support right, will turn their heads to aim
or, in conjunction with the arm, for with the left eye. Any left-sighted
keeping his balance. If we watch a person will have to do the same, or
boy aiming a stone at a target, we else close the left eye firmly, thus
shall see that he lifts the stone lc\ el forcing the right to sight the target.

A Trick with Light

In a darkened room, we move
table up against a white wall or
against a plain curtain; on the table
we place the cover of
hook in which we have previously
cut two stars. Both stars are four-
pointed and congruent, although one
isturned 45° in respect of the other.
In front of them we place two
a candles, the tops of whose wicks are
level with the central points of the
stars \\ e must experiment with the
a note- positions of the candles on the table
in order to ensure the coincidence of
the centers the stars cast on the wall.
If we temporarily screen both lighted
candles, and then remove one of the
screens, a four-pointed star will

124
appear on the wall. If we then modified in various ways. Thus we
remove the second screen as well, can magnify the light of one of the
the star will be transformed into an candles, and hence the brightness of
eight-pointed one. We
shall notice one of the four-pointed stars, by
that its - doubly illuminated - center placing a globe-shaped glass filled

is particularly bright and, what is with water in front of it. Or else we

more, in the shape of an eight- can hold a red slide in front of one
pointed star, although one that does candle and a blue one in front of the
not correspond to the large star other, whereupon the star will have
either in shape or in position : the four red and four blue points, and a
points are shorter and blunter and violet center. Resourceful readers
lie between the points of the larger will no doubt be able to work out
star. further variations of their own; what
This phenomenon, which bears a we have tried to do is to encourage
distant resemblance to the fade-over you with the help of an easily
effect in photography, may be performed experiment.

125
 Simulating Spectral Colors
Fig. i on the right depicts a find that the red constituents merge
disk which should have a dia- in /?, the violet in V. The retina is

meter of exactly i^ inches; one situated at £, betw een R and V. In

half of the disk must be completely order to see a red object against a
black, and the other half must have black background, which is only
four concentric sets of curves, three possible if the image falls on the
black arcs to each set. The disk must retina, we must adapt our eye in
be placed in quick rotation, for such a way that its lens becomes
which purpose we can use the more curved, so that, as a result of
rotation device depicted in Fig. 2, increased refraction, the junction R
top, or a drill. At a given rate of of the red rays is shifted toward E.
rotation, which differs from one By contrast, to see a violet object
observer to the next, the brightly lit clearly, we must relax the lens. A
disk will display concentric rings of white object against a black back-
color, although the disk itself has ground cannot, strictly speaking, be
nothing but black-and-white com- seen clearly or sharply, for if the lens
ponents. This effect seems inexplic- is strongly curved we obtain a clear

able at first sight; but it soon red image R with a faint violet edge
becomes clear that what we have v,and if it is more relaxed, the
here is a natural phenomenon : as image becomes violet ( J ) inside a
everynone knows, white is com- red edge r, and if we imagine a
posed of all the colors of the median adaptation (accommodation)
spectrum, and these colors can be of the lens then neither red nor
separated, as we have learnt from violet will predominate; instead the
the prism. What we have before us, image (/>) willbe blurred around the
therefore, are artificially produced edges and too large.
spectral colors. But why do the Now let us rotate the disk in an
individual constituents of white light anticlockwise direction, say, five
manifest themselves in this particu- times a second. During the first one-
lar experiment? We shall try to tenth of a second we shall see the

suggest the reason. black semicircle, for which no

In Fig. 1, let L be the lens of our accommodation is needed; then
eye,and let the straight lines black-and-white stripes will appear

impinging on it from the left be alternately at the edge of the disk,

rays of white light. Now, as the the white stripes with a red rim
reader knows, the individual com- merging into black. Now accommo-
ponents of white light are refracted dation comes into play, but slighth
in different ways, red the least, overshoots the mark. As a con-
violet the most. Let us confine sequence, the more central stripes
ourselves to these two constituents, appearing after one-fortieth of a
and if we slighth exaggerate the second will look white with a yellow
dimensions in our figure, we shall edge merging into black. After a

126
further one-fortieth of a second, the rotation, however, the eye sees full
third group appears in the form of circles, not just small arcs, of a
white stripes with green ec a particular color. The distinctness of
followed by a fourth group in the depend on the powers
the effect will
form of white stripes with blue to of accommodation of the eye, which
violet edges. Because of the quick varies from one observer to the next.

127
 Glass Globe into Microscope

128
It may frequently happen that we tube, fill it with pure water and
want to magnify a small insect we plug the mouth of the tube tightly
have caught, or the opalescent wing enough to prevent the water from
of a butterfly, or some other object, leaking out when we turn the tube
and if we have no lens or microscope upside down. Next, as is shown in

to hand, or perhaps do not own the illustration, we take a length of

them at all, we are in some difficulty. wire,winding one end several times
Our illustration and the accom- around the tube, and bending the
panying description are intended to other upward so that it is level with
demonstrate that in these circum- the center of the globe. If necessary,
stances the reader has no need to we can file that end to a sharp point
abandon the project, provided he is for spiking the object we want to
in possession of a glass globe. With examine, or a piece of paper on
its help he can fashion a lens, ad- which we have previously mounted
admittedly very primitive but it. We have solved our problem, for

serviceable all the same, and thus if we now hold the glass globe in
obviate the need to acquire expen- front of our eyes like a magnifying
sive equipment. glass, we shall find that the insect or
We take our glass globe, which if specimen on the other side is con-
possible should be joined to a glass siderably enlarged.

A Distorted Drawing
In a spherical mirror, everything When we look at ourselves in a
seems reduced and the in size, cylindrical mirror, we appear our
further the object is from the mirror natural size, but as thin as a rake,
the smaller is the image. This optical and if we turn the mirror round so
phenomenon is associated with the that the top is we appear
at the side,
convexity of the reflecting surface. to be dwarfs but preserve our
Since a sphere is curved evenly all natural girth. Both effects are dis-
over, the objects it reflects appear torted images that make us laugh,
evenly reduced in size, so that the and that is the reason why such
images look like true miniatures of mirrors are found in so-called fun
the objects. Things are quite dif- houses in amusement parks. Oddly
ferent in a convex mirror that is not enough, we consider the distorted
perfectly spherical, for instance in a image in the first case as too thin,
cylindrical mirror. In cross section, and in the second case as too broad
the latter will show the same rather than too short.
spherical curvature as the sphere, Let us go back to the first case:
but its longitudinal section is a plane the mirror does not alter our height
surface. As a result, a cylindrical at all, but decreases our width. If
mirror acts lengthwise like a plane we now draw a human figure which
mirror, that is, it reflects everything is intentionally much too broad in
in its real size, while sideways it relation to its height, and hold it in
behaves like a spherical mirror. front of the mirror, the latter will

129
cure the corpulence of the drawing
very simply by decreasing its width
in the way we have described, per-
haps by exactly the right amount to
arrive at a normal human body. In
other words, the mirror has
converted t distorted image to
normal proportions. Things are not
so eas\ if instead of holding the
130
drawing in front of the mirror, we
place it underneath. The height is
then somewhat affected as well, and
curvatures of various kinds are
produced, [fall this can be com-
pensated for in the drawing, and the
mirror is placed on top of it, we sec a
perfect l\ normal, distorted mirror
image of the drawing.
 The Magic Mirror
Ghostly apparitions on most he will see is his own mirror image.
illusionist stages are based on the use But if the door is suddenly opened
of a pane of glass, which, like all and very bright (perhaps electric)
glass plate, has the double property lightis shone onto the glass plate

of reflecting and transmitting light. from the rear, the viewer's own
The old platinum magic mirror is mirror image suddenly vanishes and
based on the same principle: it in its place there appears whatever
consists of a plate of glass coated on has been placed in the empty space
the back with a layer of platinum behind the frame - our picture
so thin that the glass remains shows a devil's head. His surprise
transparent. It is possible to produce will certainly be quite comical!
patterned glass with reflecting There are sundry other experi-
inscriptions, decorations or figures in ments along these lines. For instance,
the same way. For this purpose, the magic mirror is fitted into the
if a

glass is first coated with platinum frame of a door whose panels have
over its entire surface, and then the been removed, we shall have a glass
platinum layer is inscribed with the door with a very curious property: if
desired patterns or letters (in mirror it divides a brightly lit room from a
writing), and the drawing etched in. dark passage or antechamber, the
Of particular interest, too, are the latter will be illuminated from the
ordinary magic mirrors mentioned at room although, to anyone inside that
the beginning, which are variously room, the glass will look like a
transparent or opaque, depending on mirror. We can also coat the inside
whether they are lit from the front or of spectacle lenses with platinum, so
the rear. A large pane of glass is that the wearer is able to see
fitted into an ordinary mirror frame through the lenses which, from the
which has had a large opening cut in outside, look like opaque mirrors. In
the back and is fitted with a door the same way, we can replace
that will open and shut. This magic window panes with one-way mirrors
mirror must not, of course, be sus- that allow us to look out into the
pended from the ceiling but must street, but nobody to look inside.
give onto a niche or some other Nodoubt a great many other uses
recess so that the door at the back of for the magic mirror may be
the frame can be opened and the devised, the most difficult aspect
glass illuminated from the rear. being the procedure by which the
When this is done, it will be possible platinum is applied to the glass. For
to see through the glass everything thiswe procure some concentrated
that was previously hidden behind platinum chloride and sprinkle oil of
the mirror. Thus, if a large picture lavender over it. We then paint the
or similar object is placed behind the resulting viscous fluid onto the glass
pane, the viewer will not notice it with a good brush, taking great care
while the frame door is closed: all not to let any dust settle. Next, the

131
IP
133
platinum has to be baked on. The slowly. If it is then rubbed with a
mirror is placed in a drying room for linen cloth and a little permanent
a short while, transferred to a baking white, it is ready to be put to the
oven, and finally allowed to cool mam uses we have mentioned.

Mirror Images without Mirrors

As everybody knows, not only practice extremely convincing
mirrors produce reflections, but any deceptions, and many a traveling
sheet of glass placed against a fairly showman hasknown how to exploit
dark background will reflect rays it to full advantage. Thus we may be
from a brightly lit object, and hence sitting in the audience at a fair-

make it appear as a more or less ground booth and fail to notice, as

clear mirror image. We can easily the curtain rises, that the poorly lit

prove this to ourselves by strolling stage is separated from the even

past the display windows of a store. darker auditorium by a huge pane of
The experiment depicted in our plate glass inclined at an angle of
illustration provides similar proof. If about 20°. We watch the scene
we place a pane of glass in a vertical unfolding behind the glass. Then
or near vertical position on a table in suddenly, in the course of some
a darkened room, and put one bloodcurdling action, a ghostly
playing card in front ofit and figure looms up and glides over the
another behind it, adding a candle stage toward the hero, who, showing
for better illumination, then after a incredible courage, runs his sword
few trials and errors we shall find through the figure or fires a gun at
exactly where to place the cards so it - all without in any way endanger-

that, looking atthem from the front, ing the life of someone who, in a
we can them both side by side,
see coordination with the hero, has
one directly, through the glass, and created the surprising effect from a
the other beside it as a mirror image. sunken area in front of the Stage,
This simple fact can help us to effectively deceiving the audience.

The Cabinet of Mirrors

In our search for interesting scien- ment and magnification of the old
tific curiosities, we discovered a kaleidoscope. The apparatus is

device that we would specially extremely simple.

commend to all those anxious to Weneed three large unframed
combine physical with amusing mirrors of equal size, which we place

effects. What we have in mind is not vertically in such a position that

so much a noveltj .is a rearrange- their bases form an equilateral

134
135
triangle and the mirrors constitute a arrangement, the image of an object
three-sided prism with their is reflected as an infinite number of
reflecting surfaces facing inward. We symmetrically arranged groups
must also arrange some access to our whose points of incidence and
mirror cabinet, either from below, reflection lie in the corresponding
from above or else by moving one of extensions of the planes of the three
the mirrors aside. In the arrange- mirrors. Our illustration shows no
ment depicted in our woodcut, more than a small part of the mirror
entrance was made through a trap- images cast by three visitors inside
door in the floor. the cabinet. These three people saw
When anyone steps inside this their figures reproduced in infinite

mirror cabinet, he will see his image sets of six persons each, the reflec-
being reflected over and over again. tionsgrowing increasingly smaller
This effect is due to the fact that, in until theyappeared to be lost in the
a mirror, the angle of reflection of a dim horizon. Needless to say, the
beam of light is equal to its angle of effect will be even more vivid ii six

incidence, so that, with our present people step into the cabinet.

136
 Hexagonal Circles
"Would you think it possible that a distance of three to six feet.
the little white circles on the black "Well, are the circles still round ?"
background you can see in the we ask him.
picture could be made to look Reluctantly, he will have to admit
hexagonal ?" that they now seem to be so many
!"
"No, I wouldn't hexagons; indeed, if he is a careful
"You are a doubting Thomas, but observer he will also inform us that
"
you'll soon learn. the spaces between the circles are no
We set up the page so that our longer black, but gray or even
doubter is looking at the circles from lighter.
This experiment is based on the
so-called irradiation effect, thanks
to which the edges of the circles
seem to overlap and hence the
circles appear larger and to have
lost their true shape.
A related optical illusion can be
produced with a white triangle on a
blackfield and a black triangle on a
white field. You may pride yourself
on your eyesight, but all those who
are asked which of the two triangles
is the larger will decide in favor of
the white one, although the two
triangles are in fact congruent.

137
 Penumbral Pictures
When parents and children gather gratitude if we enlarge your reper-
around the family table on long toire with the following little known,
autumn and winter evenings, the though not new, act. When light rays
little ones in particular invariably are allowed to fall on a paper disk, a
enjoy a show of shadow pictures. All dark shadow or umbra surrounded
that is needed for conjuring up the by a penumbra is produced behind
drollest of figures in this way is a the paper, and even if the silhouettist
bright light, a white wall and a pair is not an expert, he can use this
of nimble hands. phenomenon produce the most
to
Those who are more advanced in striking effects. Let him take a piece
this art may like to add paper sil- of stiff card and, using our first
houettes, and since the toy industry figure as a guide,draw a picture. He
has not as yet, or only just, dis- must then cut out the parts that are
covered shadow play, we must make to look bright, and if he now holds
them ourselves. This form of self- the remainder close to the wall on
expression can be recommended for which the shadow is cast, the umbra
its own sake since, as the saying goes, will predominate and the silhouette
if you want a thing done well, do it will have a sharp, clean, outline
yourself. (Fig. 2).But as the cutout is moved
We feel that we will earn vour further and further away from the

138
wall or screen, softer shades will be tance and meticulous cutting of the
added to the umbra (Fig. 3), card it is thus possible to produce
rounding the portrait off in a sur- shadow pictures of considerable
prising and most pleasing manner. artistic merit.

By careful calculation of the dis-

The Devil in Reverse

So-called positive afterimages may images, which reproduce the bright
be simply and easily perceived by sections of the object as dark areas,
anyone looking fixedly for a short or conversely, reproduce the dark
time at a brightly lit object, the sections as bright. We can obtain
frosted bulb of an electric lamp, for these if we stare at a bright object
instance, and then closing his eyes continuously and then, instead of
or looking at a dark background. The closing our eyes, direct our gaze at a
resulting afterimage is brightest of white or otherwise bright surface.
all if we view the object for no more The parts of the retina that were
than one-third of a second. In previously exposed to the dark areas
addition, there are negative after- of the object retain their full sensi-

139
 :

tivity. As a result the contrast

between bright and dark is com-
pletely reversed.
An amusing example of this
effect is afforded by our illustration
a white imp on a black background
that may be easily reproduced
should this book not be close at
hand even by those with a minimum
of artistic skill. If we stare at this
white inhabitant of the nether
regions, concentrating particularly
on the black spot in the middle
until our eyes tire, and then gaze at
a bright surface, say, a sheet of
paper, or, better still, a white ceiling,
a rectangular will loom
white surface
up before our eyes within which a
black devil will gradually emerge.
The experimenter should not be
discouraged if the devil does not ap-
pear immediately; some people may
even see the devil before they see the
surface. In any case the reader
would do well not to put too much
on his eyes,
strain that irreplaceable
organ of vision.

The Fade-Over Effect

The term "irradiation" refers to the rind that the black lad) on the white
fact that the light rays emanating background looks more slender and
from particularly bright objects not on the
petite than the white lady
only excite those parts of the retina black background. Indeed, the
on which the image is formed, but illusion is maintained to some extent
also affect the neighboring parts of even when the ladies are viewed
the retina as if the latter had received from close quarters \nd yet both
the light themselves. Hence the ladies are c\actl\ the same si/e, as

impression in the brain is such as to measurement will easily establish.

make the object look larger than it Were our illustration life-size, the
really is. effect would, of course, be more
To prove this point, the reader striking still.

need only \ iew the black and white If we have a cloth with alternating
ladies in our illustration from a black and white stripes of the same
distance of about five feet; he will width, the black stripes will appear

140
narrower than the white. This can be
demonstrated if the figure on the
right is magnified by a factor of ten.
If this figure is viewed from a
distance of ten to twelve feet, the
white stripe will look much broader,
and also longer, than the black.
Finally, we should like to mention
an irradiation phenomenon that may
be reproduced with great ease.
Following the illustration on p. 142,
draw a narrow black cross on a
square of white paper. If the square
is observed very intently, the ends of
the cross seem to retract.

141
 How Tall Is the Top Hat?
The entertaining experiment illus- spot twice the height of the hat.
trated on page 143 always arouses a In fact, all of us estimate the
good deal of surprise. One of those height of an object differently,
present is asked to estimate the depending on whether we view it at

height of the demonstrator's top hat eye level, or at an angle. The reader
by pointing to the spot on the wall will, of course, be aware that from
he thinks the hat would reach if it the top of a tower or monument
were set down on the floor. people appear very much smaller
At first our volunteer will look at than when they are seen at street

us pityingly, as if to say "What do

: level.

you take me for? My eyes aren't \\ e can try another amusing

nearly as bad as you seem to think." experiment with our top hat, by
"Let's put it to the test, then. Off asking those present how tall they
you go!" think the hat is in relationship to its

Our friend will shrug scornfully, width. They will be particularly

take one more look and indicate a cautious following the embarrassing
spot on the wall. We take the hat off experience of the first volunteer,
and hold on the floor to check the
it having learned that the laugh is

accuracy of his judgment. always on the loser. Each in turn will

Great merriment all around! voice a different opinion, one guess-
Our friend, however, is somewhat ing that the hat is 1 \ times as tall as
embarrassed for, as everyone present it is broad, another saying 1
\
times,
can see, he has overestimated the a third 1] times, and so on. We can
height of the hat by at least a hands- be fairly sure that no one will come
breadth. And all others who are not up with the right answer, namely
in the know will without doubt fare that the height of the hat isthe same
the same, some even indicating a as its width, unless someone in the

142
143
i
44
audience happens to be a hatter, who into account, for if they did they
willhave good reason for being in would quickly realize that the width
the know. AB is equal to the height CD, as
But why this widespread mis- may easily be checked by measuring
understanding? the dimensions of the hat depicted
It is simply that people do not on page 144.
usually take the turned-up brim

Optical Illusions with the Help of a Ruler

As we saw earlier, optical illusions with the result that the latter looks
can be created through the use of the "waisted."
so-called irradiation or fade-over The same effectmay be observed
effect. The latter is based on the if we are in a darkened room and
fact that illuminated surfaces not look at a slit or small aperture that
only seem larger than dark surfaces admits a beam of light. It will seem
of the same size, but that they may that the aperture is much larger than
also look quite other than they really it really is. The same effect will also
are. If we hold a flat wooden ruler appear if we look at the ridge of a
up close in front of our eye and roof against the setting sun; the
against the flame of a candle or a ridge will seem curved even if it is

lamp, as the keen young man is perfectly straight. In these last two
doing in our illustration (p. 146), then examples, the light encroaches upon
the ruler will seem to have a concave the dark, or not directly illuminated,
indentation on the line running from parts of the objects in question and
the eye to the flame. In other words, apparently alters their appearance.
the light of the flame seems to This fact is well known to painters,
encroach upon the ruler at this spot, sculptors and civil engineers.

The Man in the Bottle

That our illustration is a faithful To photograph the man in the
woodcut reproduction of an actual bottle, we place the latter, which,
photograph may be hard for you, needless to say, must be transparent,
dear reader, to believe at first. We in front of and fairly close to the
can assure you, however, that the lens. Some distance away, beyond it,

process to which we owe this sur- we stand the man against a dark
prising and original oddity is background and on a platform
extremely simple; the following- covered with a black cloth.
directions will enable every amateur We then make sure, by looking
photographer to produce similar through the viewfinder of our
effects, and with some degree of camera, that both objects appear to
ingenuity and skill he may even be the same size, that is, that the
succeed in surpassing our own bottle seems to enclose the man,
achievement. moving the man or bottle back-

145
146
147
ward or forward if necessary. \\ c and to be, moreover, a friend who
now photograph man and bottle will not take a bit of fun amiss, then
separately and successively on one we will use. not a medicine bottle,
and the same negative. The film is but a clear white wine bottle, and,
developed in the usual way. and the ifwe append some humorous verses
positive develop - to thephotograph, we shall have a
If the man should happen not welcome and amusing family or
;. to despise a brimming bottle. birthday keepsake.

The Giant Hare

\Yherk\er did these two lucky quite extraordinary size - a miracle
fellows obtain their gigantic har.
:
of nature that makes our naturalist
The photograph on which our friends shake their heads incredu-
illustration is based was apparently lously. And they are right to do so,

obtained in a single shot, so that our for this photograph, too, is based on
friend the hare must have been of

148
 !

It is well known that hands crossed
in front of the chest or stretched out
toward the camera look dispropor-
tionately large on photographs, the
reason being that they were closer to
the lens than the rest of the body.
Our snapshot is based on the same
principle. For when it was taken,
the hare was not hanging from the
stick carried by our two intrepid
hunters, but from a fine wire much
closer to the lens of the camera than
the men, and so placed that the hind
legs of the hare appeared to cross
over the stick when examined in the
viewfinder. As a result, friend hare
eained in size over the hunters, as
the photograph shows, and a single
shot was enough to produce this
result.But what about the equip-
ment from which the hare was
suspended and which cannot be
seen in the picture : The animal was
simply hung from a dark wire that
ran down the middle of the dark
tree trunk in the background and
hence remained quite invisible in
the photograph.
Amateur photographers among
our readers should not find it too
difficult to copy this example, should
an opportunity arise, or to crack
similar photographic jokes for their
own enjoyment and that of others.

The Cannibal
Here is another joke photograph, bellows (counting from the ground-
which shows a guest who, with the glass plate) so that the rest of the
imperturbable composure of a body is blocked out. Next the plate
cannibal, has just picked up his knife is inserted and a photograph of the
in order - or so it would seem - to head is taken.
start feasting on the head that has The plate and the sheet of card-
been served up to him - his own board are now removed, and pre-
The answer to the puzzle is the parations are made for the rest of the
same as that described in the pre- picture.
vious experiment, and is far from The man sits down at the table
difficult to achieve. The photograph further away from the camera than
is taken against a dark background, before, and the table and platter are
provided here by a doorw ay giving positioned in such a way that the
onto a dark storeroom. The lens is head, drawn in outline on the
focused on the background, and the ground-glass plate with a pencil,
head of the man, who is standing appears to be lying on the platter.
fairly close to the camera, is The plate is then reinserted and a
observed through the ground-glass second photograph is taken. As a
viewer. It's relatively large outlines result, the head will seem to be
are then drawn on the ground-glass lying on the dish, just as shown in
plate and a blackened piece of card- our illustration.
board is placed in the first fold of the

149
1
5o
 Your Head on a Platter
The most curious effects can be focusing the lens on the dark door-
produced by composite photographs, way, we ask the "guest" to move
that is, by making two exposures on close to the camera so that his head
one and the same plate. For this and will look disproportionately large.
the following experiments we first Next we take a pencil and draw the
need a plate-back camera with a outline of his head on the ground-
bellows, and then a dark background, glass plate, cut a hole the same size
say an open door giving onto a dark and shape in a blackened sheet of
room. This was the basis of the cardboard and place the resulting
photograph below, in which a stencil in the first fold of the bellows
guest is offered his own head on a (that is, right in front of the photo-
platter, to his ill-concealed horror. graphic plate) so that only the cut-
To produce this kind of effect we out area (the head) is lit up. Then we
must proceed as follows: after introduce the photographic plate and

15
take a picture of the head. That plate back in again and take another
is now removed, and the rest of the photograph. The picture of the head
photograph prepared. The guest is not affected in any way because of
takes his seat with an expression and the dark background, and the end
attitude of horror, and the servant result is our very strange picture.
holds a napkin-covered platter in Once again we leave it to those of
such a way head drawn on
that the our readers who are fond of experi-
the ground-glass plate appears to be menting to devise other composi-
lying on it. (We have, of course, tions -perhaps a dinner party where
previously taken the cardboard out all the participants are the same

of the bellows.) We put the plate person.

Photographic Compositions
Although photographic collages can frame. If a photographic plate is

nowadays be created much more inserted in the camera, and the slit is

easily with the help of ingenious moved up or down past the plate by
darkroom techniques, the reader the steady rotation of the crank, the
may be interested to learn something plate will be exposed wherever light
about the older method from which falls on it through the slit. It is

the wood engravings shown on these essential to turn the crank \er\
on the right. steadily so that the plate is evenly
While the composite pictures of exposed. It should also be noted that
the preceding pages made use of the board with the slit has a pointer
dark backgrounds, the following
pictures, taken against various
backgrounds, were created with
what is known as a "frame with
adjustable slit." Let us first examine

this surprisingly simple invention

(on the right).
It consists in the main of a tightly
fitting wooden case attached to the
back of the camera with an aperture
the size of the plate at its center.
This case supports a long frame
protruding above and below the
camera (Fig. I, /.'). Inside this frame
and beneath two short boards, there
is a longer, black board that can be

moved from the top of the frame to

the bottom, and that is provided
with a central slit. Fig. 2 shows
the outside and the back of the

•52
53
154
and a graduated scale (front edge of point the camera is shut, the plate is
frame. Fig. 2) indicating the position removed, the gymnast climbs down
of the slit at any given moment. from the chair and takes up his
It is a very simple matter to position underneath the chair. The
produce composite photographs photographer compares the position
with the aid of this adjustable device. of the chair with the outlines drawn
If we look at the two gymnasts, one on the viewerto make sure that the
of whom carries the other on his move when the
chair did not
head, we shall see that they are one gymnast climbed down. The plate is
and the same person. The pictur. is reinserted, and the second part of
the result of two exposures. To the photograph is taken, the crank
create it, the chair is fastened to the being turned so that the pointer runs
wall at a height of four to : down the rest of the scale.
and the gymnast climbs onto it. The photograph on page 153 -

taking up the required position. The much more difficult to take. It

photographer examines the ima.
section by section, through the slit
while turning the crank, and n<
how far the pointer must move along
the scale until the seat of the chair
and the tops of the chair legs come
into view; in addition he draws the
outlines of the chair on the ground-
by one and the
consists of four poses
same person, and involves three
: c s (instead of two) horizontal zones, the
centralone being divided into a
leftand a right half, each of which
must be taken separately. To that
end. the slit must be provided with
a slide capable of shutting oft" its

Next, he inserts the left or right side temporarily, or else

photographic plate, and turns the
crank once again from the starting
position until the pointer
traveled as far as before. At this
the whole frame must be turned
through 9c \ so that the slit becomes
r and can be moved from left
vertical
to right, or vice versa

Shadow Pictures
Before we examine true shadow stand perfectly still. Because our
pictures, we should like to mention a subject will cast a sharp silhouette on
technique that enables even the the paper, anyoi ;• move a

poorest of draftsmen to catch the pencil around the outline of the

likenesses of his friends with telling shadow. We can then remove the
verisimilitude. We take a sheet of :rom the wall, go over the
paper, white on one side and black lines again where they may not be
on the other, and pin it to the wall clear, and cut out the drawing. Now
so that the white side faces the room. all we have to do is to reverse the

Next we place a bright light on a cutout, stick it onto a white piece of

table at an appropriate distancefrom paper, and the result is a black
the wall, and ask the person whose silhouette. If we have deployed even
portrait we are about to draw to step the minimum of skill, the likene— is

between the lisht and the wall and to senerallv a verv sood one.

55
56
 After some practice, even the slightlyagape with expectancy. Since
beginner measure of
will acquire a no prey is available the fox opens its
skill in this technique and produce jaws wide and yawns several times,
portraits as good as the ones shown but we need have no fear that our
at the top of our woodcut. More- attentive audience will find that
over, those who can handle a panto- infectious and do likewise (below).
graph will be able to reduce the size
Following this demonstration of
of these silhouettes at will, and thus
our skill, we portray a human
perhaps produce an album to
silhouette, namely an oarsman
treasure for many years to come.
guiding his craft safely through
Let us now turn our attention to
ripple and wave while traveling
shadow pictures proper, for which
gently downstream. The right hand
we need nothing more than a white
is easily bent into the shape repre-
wall, our two hands and a bright
senting theman; a small piece of
light. Our fingers must not, of
wood attached to the thumb
course, be stiff and awkward, or else
we shall produce only the most
unshapely monstrosities. Should any
readers wish to devote themselves to
this delightful and amusing art, and
not at times possess the requisite
agility,they must practice, in the
knowledge that, with persistence,
they are bound to be rewarded with
success.
Let us begin our performance with
the reproduction of a fox. The
positioning of the fingers is extremly
simple, as our illustration shows.
The fox's muzzle, long and pointed,
reflects cunning and slvness, and is

157
represents the oar, a paper cutout
held between index and middle
fingers, the hat.

Now comes Mr. Hercules. This

strongman holds a weighty dumb-
bell in his hands and a chair
between his teeth. The doll's house
will supply the latter; the dumbbell
is made from a small rod and bread

pellets.

The elephant is a most comforting

and friendly animal. Its eye is

particularly appealing, it swings

its long trunk to and fro like a
pendulum, rolling it up and then
pointing it straight out in front
the right hand to form the bulbous
again. Those who wish add to the
to
nose of the habitual drinker. The
effect can enlist a third hand to feed
little finger casts the shadow of the
it an apple (a bread pellet); it will
strongly jutting chin on the wall,
grasp the apple with its trunk and
while the hat, once again cut from
devour it with obvious enjoyment.
paper, is held between thumb and
And here comes the cheerful index finger. The stretched-out arm
tippler. We use the index finger of with the bottle is formed bv the left

i
58
hand and part of the arm; a piece of
cloth falling from the right to the
left arm makes the body. Needless to

say, the tippler is allowed to indulge

his passion, taking a swig or two now
and again.

Now for the juggler, who performs

a most astonishing balancing feat
with an egg on a stick. For the stick The charming rabbit needs the
we need a long match the egg is cut
; participation of both hands, as the
out of stiff paper and fits into a slit in illustration below makes clear.
the match made with a knife. The This graceful animal is extremely
hat, also cut out of paper, is tucked lively: it moves its ears and drums
between index and middle finger, vigorously with its forelegs; it can
and the match together with the even sit on its hindlegs and beg.
egg is tied to the thumb.

159
 The North American Indian, too,
must not be left out of our reper-
toire. The leading role here is played
by the right hand, which has to
shape the face; the left hand is bent
with fingers spread to produce the
silhouette of the feather finery.

For the bull we need both hands.

The projecting muzzle is formed by
the right hand, while the left

represents the head and the

threatening horns.

The German naval officer is

slightly more difficult. The right

hand has the main job, the formation
of the face, its ring and little fingers
forming the walrus moustache. The
helmet is made with the left hand,
thumb held vertically upward and
little finger protruding.

The wicked wolf has, it is true,

screwed its eves shut, but it has a

[60
i6i
 B ^BL

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15m A wA.

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162
terrifying set of fangs. The latter, as A merriment will be
great deal of
the illustration shows, is represented caused by all shadow pictures,
these
by the finger tips of the right hand. as we can assure the reader from our
When the wolf opens its jaws wide own experience, and this effect will
and snaps them shut again, it truly be enhanced even further if the per-
makes one shiver with fear and former is able to link the pictures
dread. with an amusing commentary. He
will, however, have to acquire, by
The angler, by contrast, has a
constant practice, a certain amount
much more peaceful look about him.
of skill in the quick formation of
He is part of a scene in which
successive shadow pictures before he
practiced fingers deftly reproduce
can hope to command the attention
the bobbing boat, the eager antici-
of a happy circle of spectators.
pation of a good catch, and finally
the exultant reaction to the sight of a The four silhouettes of well-
fishon the end of the line - all of known late nineteenth-century
which will delight the spectator (see political figures (pages 163, 164, 165)
the picture on page 161). are intended, by way of a conclusion,
as encouragement to you, dear
The Punch and Judy show (page
reader, to try your hand at reproduc-
162) which does call for more than
ing the silhouettes of contemporary
average skill, should also evoke loud
statesmen.
applause from the audience.

163
 'I -

<>4
 ^gjgjr

The Singing Doll

The drollexperiment depicted in nomy of a toothless oldwoman,
our illustration is admirably suited especially in a dim light. The artist
to evoke great merriment at the can practice moving the thumb,
family table, particularly amongst which forms the lower lip and the
the younger members, although chin, in time to a song (warbled in
adults, too, are sure to be enter- the nasal manner of old folk) or a
tained. To the knuckles of the index piece of dialogue, so that the old
and ring fingers of either the right or woman's mouth appears to open and
left hand, we apply a few bold close, and, at intervals, she can
strokes of charcoal to draw two eyes cough or sneeze with the appro-
and two nostrils, as shown in our priateaccompanying movement. No
illustration. The thumb, pressed matter how serious the mood of the
tightly against the index finger or company, this act is bound to cause
turned slightly downward by it, laughter.
serves very well as a toothless mouth. The illusion becomes complete if

The knuckle of the index finger the artist himself stands behind a
forms the nose, above which the two suitably hung linen cloth, so that he
eyes are located. If this face is now cannot be seen by the audience, and
wrapped in a cloth, it will take on a holds the doll above this curtain,
close resemblance to the physiog- as in a Punch and Judy show.

i6 5
i66
 : ;

Playing-Card into Chain

Is it possible for a small piece of 2. Bend back the open edges A
card, like an ordinary playing card, and B so that a perfectly straight
to be cut in such a way as to produce crease is produced
a chain more than three feet in 3. Fold the card across the middle
length, and for the links made in this from C to D ;

way be joined without any glue?

to 4. Cut the doubled-over card with
In fact, anyone in possession of a the scissors along the vertical lines
penknife with a very sharp blade and marked in the illustration, at
a pair of scissors can perform this intervals of a \ inch as far as the
trick, provided he takes care. He split and the turned-back edge.
should examine the figures below 5. Open out the card, fix it to a

closely and then set to work drawing board and insert the pen-
i. Split the card along the edges A knife alternately over and under the
and B with the penknife to a depth cut-out strips, at the same time
of about ^ inch; this is easily done, lifting them from one of the split
since every playing card consists of edges.
two sheets stuck together; 6. Proceed on the other side in the

67
same way in reverse, so that alter- another lengthwise with the scissors
nate strips are cut free from the along the lines shown to obtain a
edge. Now the card can be separated closed chain of eight, ten or twelve
into two intertwined and linked links, depending on whether the
parts. card was cut into ten, twelve or
7. Finally, cut one link after fourteen strips.

A Trick with String

Taking a piece of string some six attempts to stop us by placing an
feet long, and very pliable so that it index finger at any point in the
may easily be bent into all sorts of string figure that he wishes. The
loops and coils, we hold the two chances are a hundred to one that
ends between the thumb and index our volunteer will choose that part
finger of the right hand and make of the figure marked with 0. When
the figure that is shown on the left of we pull the ends of the string, he
our illustration. Those who find this very quickly realizes that the string
too complicated can arrange the slides smoothly past the tip of the
string on the table before picking up finger that is meant to hold it back.
the two ends (A and B). Now we set Let us start afresh!
ourselves the task of pulling the We arrange the string on the table
string off the table while a volunteer again, and now say that if the

168
volunteer places his finger once more we have made a slight change in the
on the same spot he chose before, his way we arrange the loops of string
finger this time will be caught and he on the table; it is only when he
will have succeeded in what he looks at the two figures side by
originally set out to do. The side and compares them carefully
volunteer will again place his finger that he will notice the difference. In

on the spot o, convinced that we are the figure on the left, the right string
about to be proved wrong. We pull, leads straight into the loop a,
and his finger is well and truly whereas in the figure on the right it

caught in the string. leads first into the next loop, so that
How did this come about? loop a now appertains to the left end
The volunteer fails to notice that of the string.

The Vanishing Ball

Let us now turn our attention to multicolored ball, which he allows
black magic, which, although it is the spectators to examine closely,
not quite as "black" as it seems, still and then places a transparent glass
calls for some practice and skill from box on the table, puts the ball down
the performer. beside it, covers each with a different
The magician produces a small, cloth and promises that, upon his

169
command, the ball will travel into at a height of about \ inch, a
the box. After tapping the latter with polished nickel plate is hinged to one
hismagic wand, he pulls the cloth of the sides and, when lifted against
over it away, and displays the ball in the vertical wall, can be held in
the box. Now he pulls away the position with the clasp C, acting as a
second cloth and shows that there is catch, so that the rubber ball lying
nothing underneath it. The magician between the plate and wall cannot be
again covers the box with a cloth, seen and the box appears to be
while he ostentatiously crumples up empty.
the other, taps the box with his The solid ball, after having been
wand, pulls the cloth away and the shown to the audience, is not in fact
ball has disappeared. When the covered with the crumpled cloth, but
crumpled cloth is lifted up, it is seen discreetly dropped into an open
that the ball is not there either. The drawer (A) at the back of the table.
magician looks astonished, goes up The box is then covered with the
toone of the spectators and pulls other cloth, the catch is turned so
the ball out of his pocket. that the metal plate releases the
The magician has, in fact, been squashed which then resumes
ball

using two balls of the same size and its During its second
spherical shape.
color, one solidly stuffed with horse- disappearance, the box is turned
hair and the other elastic and while the cloth is placed over it so
yielding to the slightest pressure; it that the rubber ball under the
is

is the first that he displays to the metal plate on the floor of the box
audience. The cube-shaped box (B) and hence cannot be seen, while the
isframed in wood, fitted with hinges other ball, which the magician has
on the top for opening the lid and previously concealed in some part of
provided with six glass walls; his clothing, is skillfully pulled out
opposite the lid, that is, on the floor, of the spectator's pocket.

Inseparable Companions
The magician asks one of his The handkerchief is now a red color.
audience to provide him with a small The magician apologizes, and,
key and a handkerchief. He loads the placing the handkerchief on a dish to
key into a blunderbuss, places a dry, sets fire to by mistake; the
it

small box tied up with string some handkerchief is completely burned.

distance away, tires at it and hands He expresses his deep regrets, and
it to the owner of the Ice) tor sate asks how much it cost; he then loads
keeping. He then pushes the hand- the charred fragments into the
kerchief into a bottle, but quickl\ blunderbuss, and fires them at the
pulls it out again with the exCUSC box. He now asks for the latter to be
that he has chosen the wrong bottle. handed to him, cuts the string

170
around it, and pulls another tied-up the bottle with the open bottom
box from inside it, that box holding is pushed over a bag fastened to the
yet another, and so on. The last box edge of the table (Fig. 2) which
contains the key and the undamaged already contains the key, and the
handkerchief. magic wand is pushed down to
The blunderbuss is an ordinary force the handkerchief into the bag,
stage pistol, with the bell of a small whereupon the dyed cloth is pulled
tin trumpet fastened to its mouth. out of the bottle (Fig. 3) and burned
It is loaded with a blank, and, while in the dish (Fig. 4). The last two of
this is being done, the key is the nesting boxes have no floor, and
dropped into a bag or basket the smallest is kept hidden at the

attached to the far edge of the table. edge of the table. While pulling out
The bottle (Fig. i) is partitioned into one box after another, the magician
two equal sections, A and B, of pushes the penultimate discreetly
which B has no floor; A is filled with over the last, in which he has just as
spirit dyed red with aniline, and a discreetly secreted the handkerchief
thin piece of cloth inserted well and the key, cuts the strings and
before the performance. The pulls out the two objects to the not
borrowed handkerchief, carefully inconsiderable astonishment of all
rolled up, is pushed into section B, those present.

171
7^
 Magic Spheres
The three small balls are made of and nimbly drops the ball from the
wood varnished in various colors, hemisphere into it (Fig. 3); then,
and go with three thin tin hemi- still showing two balls in his hand to

spheres that fit over them tightly and the audience, he puts the hat to one
must be colored to match (Fig. 5). side, and quickly fits the hemisphere
While the magician displays one in his hand over the sphere, dis-
of the balls, rolling it across the playing the second sphere in the hat
table,he picks up the appropriate to the audience. Similarly, he can
hemisphere unnoticed with the other pretend to drop one sphere through
hand, orders the ball to stop, the hat, by throwing in the hemi-
quickly fits it into the hemisphere, sphere and at the same time drop-
picks up the two together, holds ping the ball onto the floor. While

them both between thumb and bending down to pick it up, he

middle finger, and then lets go of
the ball, making it look as if he had
been holding two balls in his hand
(Fig. 1). While he is bent over,
ostensibly to pick up the ball,
fits it quickly back into the hemi-
sphere, picks up another ball with
quickly removes the hemisphere
from the hat.
The magician then displays one
red and one white ball, with the
he hemisphere on the white ball so that
the audience is looking at two red
balls. By nimble sleight of hand he

his free hand, and nimbly slipping ofT now produces balls of matching and
the hemisphere, displays three balls different colors alternately (Fig. 4),
to the astonished audience (Fig. 2). finally dropping the hemisphere
The magician now announces, unobtrusively into a basket fastened
holding two balls in his hand, that under the rear edge of the table,
one of them will appear mysteriously whereupon he hands the balls
inside a hat. He points to the latter, around to show that they are solid.

The Mysterious Knot

"Ladies and gentlemen! You see other ends. Now, do you think that
before you two identical ribbons. it will be possible for me to free the
Would one of the ladies present be bracelets while you are holding the
kind enough to lend me her brace- ends of the ribbons, indeed even
lets for a short time? She will have after the ribbons have been knotted
them back quite undamaged. I now around the bracelets for greater
thread the ribbons through the safety? Please be good enough to
bracelets, and ask you, Sir [one of hand me one end of the ribbon, say
the spectators], to hold these ends of the right one, and you, Sir, the other
the ribbons in your hand, and you, end, that is, the left one. I shall tie a
Sir [another spectator], to hold the knot and return the ends of your

173
ribbons to you. Please don't pull too may be easily pulled out by the
tightly. I now touch the knot with knot. We now draw the ribbons
the tips of my fingers and, hey through the bangles (see the top
presto! the bracelets drop off", the illustration), and hand the ends to
knot has disappeared and the our two spectators. Each will be
ribbons are undamaged." holding both ends of a single ribbon,
For this trick, we need two rather than the ends of two ribbons.
ribbons of the same color, length and The t\ ing of the knot lea\ e the
thickness. We fold one {AA*) end to spectator, who pre\ ioush held /

end, and give it a sharp crease in the and A\ with A

and B\ and the
middle with a hot iron. We treat the other spectator, who had held B and
second ribbon (B B') in the same /?', with B and /'. This mix-up is

way. We then place the two creases sure to go unnoticed, but as a result

on top of each other so that the ends the bracelets with the knot around
A and A' lie on the left and the ends them are now held together b\ the
B and B' on the right. Next, we sew seam alone. If we finally, while
the creases together with a thread of apparent!) brushing the knot with
exactly the same color as the ribbons. the tips of our fingers, pull the
The thread may have a small knot at thread out of the ribbons, the brace-
one end but, for the rest, the seam lets will immediately drop off.

must be loose so thai the thread

174
 The Vanishing Birdcage
The magician shows the audience
birdcage and then picks up a small
box into which he places a few small
objects he borrows from members of
the audience, such as a ring, a coin,
or a postage stamp, supposedly for
use later as a sign that the birdcage
has not been changed over. The
effect is greatly enhanced if it is
a denly seems to remember the bird-
cage, listens out for a few seconds,
and then claims that he can hear the
bird sing, suggesting some spot, for
instance theroom next door, in
which the cage will be found. Some-
one goes tolook, and finds that the
magician has been telling the truth.
The magician now takes the little

possible to procure a ring large box out of the cage and returns the
enough to slip around the neck of borrowed objects to their owners.
the bird inside. The cage is then For this trick we need a small
covered with a large cloth which is birdcage about 8 inches long, 6
waved around and finally grasped at inches broad and 5 inches high, a
two corners and tossed up into the large enough cloth that has been
air. Both cage and bird have gone! doubled over and sewn at the c
The magician continues for the time corners to a wire frame A (see the
being with another trick, but sud- illustration). This frame must be the

175
same size as the base of the cage. Now the magician steps in front
When the cloth is displayed to the of the table and distracts the atten-
audience, it is held up by the two tion of the audience with another
corners of one edge in such a way trick while an assistant unobtrusively
that the shape of the frame does not takes the cage through the curtain-
show through. Behind the table, covered doorway and places it

which is covered with a cloth and wherever the magician has decided
placed fairly close to a door, there that it will eventually be found.
is a large upholstered chair onto Since the cage itself has no secret
which the magician slides the cage devices, it can be handed to the
when he lifts the cloth. audience for closer inspection.

The Magic Chain

It is often advisable, during an happens, however, is that ring C,
enthralling performance of tricks and all the other rings in turn below
based on sleight of hand, to intro- it, one by one, each
twist over
duce a short entr'acte so as to divert dropping down one link. Since this
the spectators' attention. The so- all happens very quickly, the

calledmagic chain illustrated for the audience thinks it has seen ring A
reader on the next page is particu- traveling down the length of the
larly well suited for this purpose. It entire chain, and is deeply impressed
consists of a large number of inter- by what it considers an amazing
twined rings, and since the general feat.

effect is based on an optical illusion This type of chain can be made b\

the trick may be performed without an\ plumber, indeed by an\ one of
much practice. our readers, except for the soldering,
Once the chain has been display ed which is best left to an expert. The
to the audience, the magician picks rings are of tin-plated iron or brass
up the top ring A (Fig. i) with one wire, which is wound tightly around
hand and pulls the ring B to one side a rolling pin twenty or thirty times
with the other, whereupon the chain and then cut lengthwise along a

will automatically fall into the straight line. The resulting rings .ire

position shown on Fig. 2. And if ring arranged and linked as shown in

1 is then suddenly released, it Fig. 2,and the open ends soldered

seems to the observer that it slides together.It does not matter whether

down all the wj\ from the top of the the number of the links is odd or
chain to the bottom. What actualh even.

The Coin in the Bottle

Wosi people will be astonished duced through the narrow neck.
when a magician produces a bottle \fter this amazing bottle has been
containing a coin so large that it passed from hand to hand, the
could not possibh have been intro- magician asks if anyone feels able to

176
177
extract the coin, for which purpose acclamation from his astounded
an ordinary small pair of pincers is audience.
provided. The audience answers The solution is \er\ simple: the
with a shake of their heads, although experiment two identical
calls for

some smart aleck will probably offer coins whose diameter must not be
the suggestion that the bottle be greater than two and a hall times
smashed releasing the coin that wa\. that of the inside of the neck of the
The magician now steps up to the bottle. The magician cuts three
table with the bottle, turns the grooves with on the edge of
a file

bottle upside down, reaches inside one of the coins, and then uses a
the neck with the pincers, and the fretsaw to divide the coin into three
coin drops onto the table. 1 le hands almost equal parts, cutting carefulh
around the coin and the empty around the outlines of the head,
bottle as proof of his achievement eagle or other device, so that each
and is bound to earn general part can easily go through the neck

178
of the bottle. While sawing, special the "coin" is pushed into the bottle,

care must be taken to follow the one part bends forward and another
profile and the outline of the back of bends back, but all will return to the
the head as closely as possible, so right position once they are inside
that the cuts remain indiscernible. the bottle thanks to the pull of the
The three parts are now fitted back rubber band. The coin is removed in
together, heated to a fairly high the same way with the pincers, and
temperature and held closely in quickly exchanged for the other kept
position with a tight rubber band, which is then handed
in readiness,
which will adhere after cooling. As around amongst the audience.

Where is the Dime?

The magician spreads a freshly to feel the spot so as to make sure
laundered, colored handkerchief on that the coin is still in place.
the table, asks for a dime and places "Hocus-pocus abracadabra
it in the middle of the cloth in full sintoque fix!" These words flow
view of the audience. He then folds solemnly from the magician's lips, in

each corner of the handkerchief in the tone usually employed by

turn across the coin, and as an extra magicians at public performances.
precaution asks one of the spectators The first corner of the handkerchief

79
is pulled away, then the second, the handkerchief, and the other corners
third,and the fourth. General are folded over it. YA hen the corners
astonishment - the dime has are eventually unfolded, no one will
disappeared. notice that the magician does not
How was this done ? remove, as he ought, the fourth or
The performance of this piece of topmost corner first, but the first
magic is simplicity itself; the corner instead, to which the wax and
explanation can be found in our coin now adhere, quickly secreting
illustration. Near the corner of the the coin itself in the palm of his
handkerchief he first lifts up is a hand. He then very slowly lifts the
dark spot, on which the magician second, third and fourth corners,
must press a small piece of wax, and to the astonishment of the
kept hidden in his hand until the spectators, the coin - "Hocus-
right moment. As soon as the wax pocus abracadabra sintoque fix !" -

sticks to the material, it is pressed has disappeared.

onto the coin in the center of the

The Bewitched Sphere

A WELL-KNOWN French magician effect is produced apart from the
:

used to cause a great sensation central channel, the sphere also has
whenever he performed with a large- another, curved, one, whose two
metal sphere which he persuaded to ends join the central channel \er\
move up and down in time with the close to its ends. Those who know
music on a piece of string wound the secret will not, therefore, thread
around his fingers, and which he now the string through the straight
and then brought to a sudden halt. channel but through the curved one,
The way in which this effect was and when the string emerges at the
produced used to puzzle his other end no one will be the wiser.
audience a great deal, and his light The magician, for his part, need only
wooden sphere has ever since been a tauten the string to a lesser or
children's favorite and one that, in greater extent to dela\ the sphere's
skillful hands, provides a great deal progress, or, indeed, to bring it to a

of enjoyment. At first sight, the complete halt, b\ increased friction.

sphere looks like a large tennis ball On the left of our illustration we
with a cylindrical channel bored see the bewitched sphere floating in
right through its center. However, this wa\ between the magician's
when the string inserted in this hands, which are positioned one
channel is held at each end, the above the other.
sphere will not drop suddenl) down It a wooden figure such as a

the string as might be expected to

it clown, a juggler or an imp, was
do, but very graduallx sinks down, drilled through in the same wa\ as

even stopping at tunes, to continue the sphere, and substituted for it,

downward onl) when is permitted. it the performance would be even

Our illustration shows how this more surprising.

So
i8i
 The Frisky Mouse
Itinerant peddlers often sell small This fascinating and delightful
mice which will run across the back game is based on an optical illusion.

of your hand as if they were real Let us look at it more closely.

animals, tamed and trained. To stop The mouse, made of wood (or
them falling off his hand, the papier-mache), is flat underneath
peddler will usually, before the and fitted with a little hook on top,
"mouse" has reached the edge, around which the loop of a thread
place the edge of his other hand just over a foot in length has been
next to the first (see below), so wound, the free end being tied to a
that the small rodent moves from coat button. The mouse is placed on
one hand to the next, and so on ad the back of the hand, which is
infinitum. slowlv drawn downward so that it

182
appears as if the little beast were from a piece of soft wood. The base
moving across thehand in an is left flat, the two ears are fashioned
upward direction. As soon as it out of pieces of cardboard, two small
reaches the edge of the hand and is black beads are fitted for the eyes,
about to fall off, the other hand is the whiskers are made from
a few
quickly placed over the first, bristles and the from a suitable
tail

whereupon the process can be piece of string; a small hook is fitted

continued. behind the head and the body is
This trick can be performed by painted as true to nature as possible;
anyone, since it requires no special finally a fine silk or other thread is

equipment and involves very little attached to the mouse in the mannar
expense. described. And the rest follows, as
The body of the mouse is carved we have said.

Tricky Dice
The dice trick described in what been asked to count the points - let

follows is based on the fact that two us say 5 (4 and 1) - the dice are

opposite sides of a die invariably picked up with thumb and index

add up to 7 points. finger (Fig. 1 of our illustration).
After two dice have been thrown The opposite sides underneath now
on the table and the audience has add up to 9, but the magician takes

183
care not to demonstrate this fact. "Now, ladies and gentlemen, " the
Instead, he tries to confuse the magician continues, "let us try it the
audience by giving the dice a other way around. Let us subtract
quarter turn between his finger, so instead of adding. Here we have two
as to show 5 and 3 (Fig. 3), thus times six points [position 1]. I shall

causing the spectators to conclude turn my hand over, to show you the
that they are in fact seeing the reverse side [giving the dice a
opposite faces to sides 4 and 1. quarter turn once again]. What do
After twisting his hand so as to they add up to now? As you see, the
bring the dice back to their original answer is nine. Now I would ask
position,and again showing the you, Mr. So-and-so, to touch the
spectators sides 4 and 1 (Fig. 4), the side, which you can sec adds up to
magician turns to his audience with twelve [while moving his hand the
the following words: "Ladies and magician has returned the dice to
gentlemen! You can see that the their original position), seven times
sides of these two dice add up to 5 with the magic wand. I shall now
and have satisfied yourselves that the put the dice down on the table and
underneath sides add up to 8. May ask you to turn them over. How
I now ask you, Mr. So-and-so, to many points are there " "Two!" ;

touch the underneath of the dice The reader should be warned that
with this wand. Your touch will add there are some positions of the dice
one point to the sides. I shall now with which this trick cannot be
place the dice on the table and ask performed. In such cases, he need
you them over. How many
to turn merely drop the dice "accidentally'"
l
points do you make it now?" and start all over .main.
"Nine!" General astonishment.

The Clutch of Eggs in the Hat

This is a splendid trick. While eggs. To prove that this is by no
making some appropriate remarks, means the case, the hat can be
the magician shows the audience a turned upside down several times
hat, an unfolded handkerchief and for, in fact, only one egg is involved
an egg, which he removes from a and those apparently
in the trick,

basket containing several eggs in full removed from the hat are not really
\ie\\ of the audience. He then puts returned to the basket as the
the basket to one side. audience is made to believe.
The selected egg is dropped into The explanation is as follows a

the hat, and the handkerchief thread about eighteen inches

quickly follows; when the handker- long is fastened with wax to a
chief is pulled out again an egg hollow, blown egg. It has a little-

appears as well. The handkerchief is hook at one end b\ which it is

put back in the hat, another egg is attached to the handkerchief, as

pulled out with it, and the process is shown in our illustration. The rest
continued as if the hat were full of takes care of itself, for it is hardly

184
necessary to point out that only one table it will, for example, move to
egg removed from the basket, that
is and fro upon command, dance in
the empty side of the handkerchief time to music, balance on the end of
is displayed, and that the two a stick, and so on. A long horsehair
together are returned to the hat. may be used instead of a thread; it

The egg may be used for several not only has the necessary fineness,
other tricks as well if the thread is but also considerably greater
long enough; when placed on the strength.

85
 Flowers for a Friend
A little cylindrical container A which is filled with the flowers. The
(Fig. i) is placed on the table cylinder, with B inside it, is pressed
together with a large cylinder C, firmly over A, touched with the
which is closed at the top (Fig. 2). magic wand, and then raised, leaving
The magician holds the small A and B combined on the tabic. If
container out for inspection to the the magician has a magic wand with
audience, pours some soil into it, a telescoping mechanism, he can
sprinkles on a few seeds, boldly (apparently) introduce the latter into
claims that he will make the the cylinder to persuade the public
flowers grow, and places the that there is nothing inside.
cylinder over the container. After a Simpler still is another way of
suitable interval, he lifts up the conjuring up a bouquet, illustrated
cylinder to reveal a pretty nosegay 1 and 3. This time, an
in Figs.
in the small container. empty wineglass is placed on the
What is the secret? Hidden inside table. The magician borrows a top
the cylinder, made of cardboard or hat and claims that, with its help, he
thin tin (Fig. 2 C), is yet another will cause a bouquet to appear in the
container, B, and it is the latter glass. While directing the attention

186
of the public to the glass, he inserts
the middle finger of the hand
holding the hat into the stemholder
of the bunch of flowers kept in
readiness beneath the edge of the
The Mysterious Hand
The magician needs two chairs,
across the backs of which he lays a
large transparent sheet of glass.
it he places a hand in a cuff,
fashioned of papier-mache or soft
wood. Hand, table and chairs are
placed directly in front of the
audience who can see that no
mechanical devices are involved.
As soon as the hand is resting
safely in the center of the glass plate,
the magician steps back and begins
table, conceals the flowers in the hat
and brings the latter down over the
wineglass, releasing his finger from
the stemholder and placing the
flowers, as required, in the glass.
to fire questions at this inanimate
object. The hand immediately comes
On to and the fingers lift and rap
life,
several times on the glass, counting
in this way, for instance, the points
of one or several dice that are rolled
onto the table, or indicating the
ordinal position of various letters of
the alphabet, or performing a host of
similar feats. Needless to say the
magician knows in advance how
many points will show, for he uses
187
specially loaded dice which always of silk, rayon or the like is tied, say at

end up in the same position, and A, at the rear of the stage. It runs
naturally he has an assistant to right across the stage and ends in

whom he indicates, by carefully the wings at B. It is here that the

framed questions, what letter is on assistantis hidden from public view

the table, or the age of a particular and uses the string so skillfully that
person, and so on. the spectators may well think the
The drawing above reveals the hand is alive and that the fingers are
rest of the secret. A verv thin thread rapping by themselves.

The Patient Impaled

A doctor sits on the stage. A patient of miracles! - the patient declares
comes in suffering from terrible that the pain is completely gone.
stomach cramps, and is asked The solution to this riddle is quite
whether he has eaten or drunk too simply the device shown on the
much, whether he has a cold, and so top right of our illustration. It is a

on. The case seems very compli- hollow half-girdle made of metal,
cated. "There is nothing for it," which the magician has fitted under
says the doctor, "we shall have to the patient's \est. The two apertures
resort to a radical cure. Your at the ends of the girdle correspond
stomach will have to be pierced and to two button holes in the patient's
,,
cleaned with a special tape. The special clothing, one in front and one
doctor now seizes a six-foot blade at the back, so that the blade can go
with an eye through which a long clean through. Since the blade is

ribbon has been threaded. The thin and very flexible, it fits easih
patient retreats in obvious panic. into the curvature of the girdle. We
There is a great deal of arguing, said that the patient put up a tierce

with assurances from the doctor resistance when the doctor went for
that the cure is perlecth harmless, him. Needless to say, his real

and the patient putting up a fierce purpose was to tit the tip of the
resistance until the ver\ last moment, blade into the front button hole,
when the naked blade is thrust into whereupon the blade could follow its

his body. The doctor has sprung
forward, plunging the blade in and
pulling and the ribbon right
it
through the other side, and miracle
path around the body unimpeded.
Since the blade becomes "shortened"
by this process, it must be pulled
"through" the bod\ quickly.

SS
 The Disappearing Coin
Take a large coin, mark it with some sure that no exchange has taken
sign in full view of the audience, place.
cover it with a cloth, and then ask To perform we need a
this trick,
one of the spectators to hold it over a glass disk (Figs. 2 and 3 A) and a
glass of water (see the illustration on thin elastic band, to one end of
page 190, Fig. 1), asking him to drop which we have attached a small hook
the coin into the water as you pull made from a bent pin, and to the
the cloth away. He does as he is told, other some wax. The elastic band is
but the coin is not in the water! attached by its hook to the lining of
Claiming with great conviction that the coat sleeve, and once the marked
the coin must now be in the posses- coin has been returned to the
sion of one of the spectators, the magician after inspection by the
magician steps up to the person in audience, it is pressed onto the
question and pulls the coin out of sticking wax so that, when the free
the astonished man's pocket, ear or end of the band is released, the coin
where you will. He shows the mark springs into the cuff. It is the glass
on the coin to the audience, who are disk, which must, of course, be the

189
same size as the eoin, that is The discovery of the coin on the
covered with the cloth, and that the person of one of the spectators
unsuspecting spectator actually poses no problem. The magician
drops into the glass of water. The simply pulls it unobtrusively out of
transparent disk cannot be his sleeve, removes the wax with a
seen in the water and the coin thus bent finger, and allows the coin to
appears to have vanished into thin reappear where he chooses
air.

Magic with the Magic Egg

We began our ramble through the (Fig. i) until it disappears
world of tricks, games and experi- completely from sight. When we
ments beloved of our grandparents open our hands again, one is holding
and great-grandparents with a the egg, while the scarf has found its

balancing egg, and we shall now way into theeggcup (Fig. 3).
bring it to a close with a true piece of \ good trick, and the reader is

black magic. about to learn how it is done.

In an eggcup stands an egg, that The egg
in the cup is not real, and

we cover with an egg cozy. We is,moreover, only half an egg. It is

produce a silk scarf and draw it attached to the cup, which is open at
slowlv into the hollow of both hands the back, in such a way that it can be

[90
flipped up and down. Inside this While we cover the cozy on the
device a scarf has been hidden from eggcup with our left hand, we
the beginning, identical with the one quickly flip down the upper part of
we made disappear between our the cup with our right and the scarf
hands. Where did that one get to? It makes its appearance. The cup must
went into the eggwhich appeared in not be let out of our possession,
its place, and which was, in fact, either, lest some inquisitive person
made of metal, through an oval tries to examine it at closer quarters.
opening to be found in its back It is best to perform another trick
(Fig. 2 F). We are very careful not immediately after this one, so as to
to show the opening, nor must we distract the attention of our
allow the egg to leave our hand. audience.
We lift the egg cozy from the egg, Or we can bring down the curtain,
and in its place the audience now lestsomeone accuse us of having
sees the scarf (Fig. 3). fobbed him off with a rotten egg at
The solution is simple. the very end . . .

191
IQ2
 BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

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*y.

Boston Public Library

ADAMS i ?i6i

BRANCH] ,987
YA
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cates the date on or before which this
book should be returned to the Library.
Please do not remove cards from this
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 —
Secrets of 123 Classic Science
Tricks and Experiments

Edi Lanners

123 tricks, games, puzzles, and experiments

that make science fun for the whole family!

Would you believe a dancing egg How about an electric wal-

. . .

nut ... A swimming paper fish ... A coin suspended in mid-air

. . . Drawing with fire Impossible?
. . .

Not when you have unique and fascinating book that re

this
veals the secrets and scientific principles behind these and over 100
other mind-teasing tricks and experiments. Chock full of old-time
science tricks and experiments, this thoroughly enjoyable book will
provide hours of educational fun for the whole family.
These captivating projects will appeal to the curiosity of every
child; arouse his or her interest in science; and almost effortlessly
get across some of the basic principles of physics, chemistry, phys-
iology, and electricity. It's a gold mine of ideas for school and science
fair projects and a treasure trove of easy-to-perform "magic" tricks
that are ideal for party entertainment. Best of all, no special skill or
experience is required to conduct and enjoy these amazing and sur-
prisingly simple tricks and experiments. You won't need any fancy
—
equipment either only ordinary objects found around the house.
Based on parlor tricks and scientific curiosities popular at the
end o the 19th century and earlier, each feat is fully describee with
:

step-by-step directions and superb illustrations patterned after old-

fashicned wood engravings. Included are card tricks, coin tricks, and
tricks demonstrating centrifugal force, inertia, gravity, and other
scientific phenomena. There are experiments that deal with mirror
images, the effects of light, optical illusions, shadow play, string tricks,
vanishing tricks, and strange and seemingly impossible photographic
effects.
From first page to last, this is a collection of easy-to-perform
tricks and illusions that will provide hours of fascination for children
and adults —of all ages ... for many years to come.

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