Glossology Goldsmiths

noun
adverb
pronoun
dictionary
Undergraduate study in linguistic terminology
English
phonetics
conjuction
Introduction
to English grammar
morphology
synonyms and antonyms
Language
Geri Popova and
Shakuntala Soden
syntax
Vowels and consonants
2022
EN1023
verbs
Adjective
semantics
diagraph
phonology
preposition
etymology
terminology
Academic direction by
Introduction to
English Language
Geri Popova and
Shakuntala Soden
EN1023
2022
This subject guide is for a Level 4, 30-credit course offered as part of the University of
London’s programmes in English: BA, Diploma of Higher Education and Certificate of
Higher Education. For further information please see: london.ac.uk.
This guide was prepared for the University of London by:
Geri Popova, Goldsmiths, University of London.
Shakuntala Soden, Goldsmiths, University of London.
Convenor: Gabriel Ozón, The University of Sheffield
This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that
due to pressure of work the authors are unable to enter into any correspondence
relating to, or arising from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject
guide, favourable or unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide.
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Published by: University of London

© University of London 2012. Reprinted with minor revisions 2022.
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Contents
Contents
Course learning outcomes and assessment criteria........................................ 1

Learning outcomes................................................................................................................. 1
Mode of assessment............................................................................................................... 1
Assessment criteria................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the course................................................................. 3
Course objectives...................................................................................................................... 3
Learning outcomes................................................................................................................. 3
Scope of this guide.................................................................................................................. 4
Mode of assessment............................................................................................................... 4
Reading......................................................................................................................................... 5
Suggested study timetable................................................................................................. 7
How to approach the examination................................................................................ 8
Chapter 2: The nature of language................................................................... 11
Essential reading....................................................................................................................11
Further reading.......................................................................................................................11
Introduction.............................................................................................................................11
What is language?.................................................................................................................11
What is 'a language'?...........................................................................................................12
The differences between animal communication and
human language....................................................................................................................14
Acquiring language..............................................................................................................15
Can animals learn a language? Experiments and unusual situations.......19
Explaining language acquisition...................................................................................20
Summary...................................................................................................................................20
Learning outcomes...............................................................................................................21
Sample examination questions......................................................................................21
Chapter 3: The origins of English...................................................................... 23
Further reading.......................................................................................................................23
Introduction.............................................................................................................................23
English through the ages: a short time-line for contextualisation..............24
The Indo-European language group............................................................................24
The history of English..........................................................................................................25
The invasions of Britain.....................................................................................................25
English as a world language............................................................................................28
English is a world language, but will it remain so?.............................................29
Chapter 4: The sounds of English..................................................................... 33
Further reading.......................................................................................................................33
Introduction.............................................................................................................................33
Phonetics: the sounds speakers make........................................................................34
Transcribing sounds.............................................................................................................34
i
EN1023 Introduction to English Language
Speech organs .........................................................................................................................35

Vowels and consonants .....................................................................................................36
Place and manner of articulation ................................................................................36
Voicing ........................................................................................................................................37
Characterising vowels ........................................................................................................37
Variation in speech sounds and the notions of phoneme
and allophone .........................................................................................................................38
Learning outcomes ..............................................................................................................39
Sample examination questions .....................................................................................39
Chapter 5: Sounds and grammar...................................................................... 41
Further reading.......................................................................................................................41
Introduction.............................................................................................................................41
Phonological words..............................................................................................................41
Syllable........................................................................................................................................43
Sounds in connected speech............................................................................................43
Chapter 6: The grammar of words.................................................................... 45
Further reading.......................................................................................................................45
Introduction.............................................................................................................................45
The notion of word ...............................................................................................................46
Derivation..................................................................................................................................47
Inflection....................................................................................................................................49
Morphemes and allomorphy...........................................................................................50
Chapter 7: The grammar of sentences.............................................................. 53
Further reading.......................................................................................................................53
Introduction.............................................................................................................................53
Structure.....................................................................................................................................54
Syntactic categories..............................................................................................................55
Phrase structure.....................................................................................................................55
Constituency tests.................................................................................................................57
Semantic roles and syntactic functions.....................................................................58
Chapter 8: The meaning of words.................................................................... 61
Further reading.......................................................................................................................61
Introduction.............................................................................................................................61
The meaning of meaning ..................................................................................................62
One meaning or many........................................................................................................63
Meaning and lexical relations........................................................................................64
Componential analysis.......................................................................................................66
Prototypes.................................................................................................................................67
Collocation.................................................................................................................................68
ii
Contents
Chapter 9: The meaning of sentences.............................................................. 71
Essential reading ...................................................................................................................71
Further reading ......................................................................................................................71
Introduction ............................................................................................................................71
Words and sentences ..........................................................................................................71
Sentences, utterances and propositions ...................................................................73
The meaning of meaning again ....................................................................................74
Meaning as truth ..................................................................................................................74
Presupposition .......................................................................................................................77
Chapter 10: Pragmatics and discourse ............................................................. 81
Essential reading ...................................................................................................................81
Further reading ......................................................................................................................81
Introduction ............................................................................................................................81
Speech acts ...............................................................................................................................85
Grice and the Cooperative Principle ............................................................................86
Politeness theory ..................................................................................................................87
Appendix A: Sample examination paper ........................................................ 89
Appendix B: Examiners’ comments on the sample examination paper .... 93
Advice to candidates on how Examiners calculate marks...............................93
Introduction ............................................................................................................................94
General remarks ....................................................................................................................94
Comments on specific questions...................................................................................96
Appendix C: Bibliography ...............................................................................103
iii
Notes
iv
Course learning outcomes and assessment criteria
Course learning outcomes and

assessment criteria
This course introduces students to basic terminology and concepts in
the study of the English language. Students get a general introduction
to English linguistics, including phonetics and phonology (the study of
speech sounds), morphology (the study of words), syntax (the structure
of sentences), and semantics (the study of word and sentence meaning).
The aim of the course is to give students a basic critical understanding
of the theoretical notions used in these disciplines, as well as of the
range and variety of approaches to them. The terms and concepts
introduced in this course are of relevance to the study of literary texts in
any of the English Literature units. Students who complete this course
may also wish to take Varieties of English at Level 5, Language and
Gender and/or Language and Media at Level 6.
Learning outcomes
By the end of the course you should:
• have good knowledge of the basic structure of the English language
• have sound understanding of the basic terminology and concepts
relevant to the study of languages
• develop a basic critical understanding of the range and variety of
traditions and approaches to the study of languages
• have improved basic skills in written expression and critical analysis.
Mode of assessment
One three-hour unseen examination.
Assessment criteria
You will be assessed according to your ability to:
• use basic linguistic terminology
• demonstrate solid understanding of linguistic theory and research
• apply techniques of linguistic analysis to appropriate data sets and
discuss them critically
• demonstrate good knowledge of the basic structure of the English
language.
1
Notes
2
Chapter 1: Introduction to the course

If you are taking this course then you probably have an interest in
language. We hope that your study of the material that we have
included here will develop this interest and will suggest to you some
ideas of how to pursue it. Our aim is to give you a broad overview of
the main areas of study within linguistics: the study of language. We
also aim, through the sources we have listed in the following chapters,
to direct you to some useful textbooks and research monographs that
will enable you to expand your knowledge and understanding.
Language is an essential part of being human and what sets us apart
from the other species on the planet and its study is a fascinating field.
However, an understanding and sensitivity to language can be useful
in many other fields, for example creative writing and literary studies.
Students who complete this course may also wish to take Varieties
of English at Level 5, Language and Gender at Level 6, or Language
and Media at Level 6. To be awarded the BA English Literature with
English Language or the BA English Literature and English Language,
students must take Introduction to English Language. Introduction
to English Language is a Level 4 course carrying 30 CATS credits.
We have set out the objectives of the subject guide in more detail
below, together with some other essential information and advice. We
hope that you will find these useful and that you will enjoy your study
of this subject.
Course objectives
As you study this course you will gain a general introduction to English
linguistics and engage with the following sub-disciplines:
• phonetics and phonology (the study of speech sounds)
• morphology (the study of words)
• syntax (the study of the structure of sentences)
• semantics (the study of word and sentence meaning); and
• pragmatics (the study of speaker meaning).
Learning outcomes
We expect that by the end of the course you will:
• have a good knowledge of the basic structure of the English
language
• have a sound understanding of the basic terminology and concepts
relevant to the study of language
• develop a basic critical understanding of the range and variety of
traditions and approaches to the study of languages
• have improved basic skills in written expression and critical analysis.
3
Scope of this guide

This subject guide is not designed to be an overview of the whole
field of English language and linguistics. It will largely be up to you to
structure a course of study for yourself which will consist of topics or
issues outlined in this guide. The guide is not, therefore, the course
itself, but a guide to how an appropriate course of study could be
constructed by you. The range of material outlined in the guide is the
minimum needed for you to sit the examination with confidence.
In the examination simple regurgitation of the illustrative material

in this subject guide constitutes plagiarism (academic dishonesty)
and as such will be heavily penalised. You must adapt the material in
ways appropriate to the syllabus you have decided to follow, which
will be based on this guide. Examiners always look unfavourably at
examination answers that consist solely of the illustrative material
presented in this or any of the other subject guides.
This guide is intended as a model of how you might organise your

programme of study, but you will be expected to adapt the model
to suit the programme you decide to follow. Each chapter focuses on
a selection of topics, some of which you may like to study in depth.
However, you are not limited solely to the topics discussed. There
may be others connected with a particular area that you will decide
to focus on. This will become apparent to you during your own study
and research. You will be expected to gain your own critical and
independent perspective on the topics covered in the guide.
Mode of assessment
Important: the information and advice given here are based on the
examination structure used at the time this guide was written. Please
note that subject guides may be used for several years. Because
of this we strongly advise you to always check both the current
Regulations for relevant information about the examination, and the
virtual learning environment (VLE) where you should be advised of
any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully check the rubric/
instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow those instructions.
You will find sample examination questions at the end of each chapter
and a sample examination paper at the end of this guide. The guide
also contains a sample Examiners’ commentary.
The examination paper will be quite wide-ranging, and will contain
questions on a selection of topics from the course as a whole. As
well as instructing you to answer three questions, the rubric would
normally remind you not to present substantially the same material
in any two answers, whether on this paper or in any other parts of
your examination. This is one reason why it is important to prepare to
answer questions on a range of topics.
In addition to the usual assessment criteria, you will be assessed
according to the degree to which you have achieved the learning
outcomes of the course and in particular according to your ability to:
• use basic linguistic terminology correctly
4
• demonstrate solid understanding of linguistic theory and research

• apply techniques of linguistic analysis to appropriate datasets and
discuss them critically
• demonstrate a good knowledge of the basic structure of the English
language.
Remember, it is important to check the VLE for:
• up-to-date information on examination and assessment
arrangements for this course
• where available, past examination papers and Examiners'
commentaries for the course which give advice on how each
question might best be answered.
Reading
Notation
For ease of reference, this subject guide includes notation to indicate
whether readings are available in the Online Library and/or in the
virtual learning environment (VLE), as follows:
[OL] Available in the Online Library
[VLE] Available to download from the VLE.
Please note: This information is current at the time of printing and is
subject to change. In the case of textbooks, earlier or later editions may
be available. Please check the VLE regularly for updates (see Online
resources for further details).
For your work on this course you will need to read in depth and be able
to critically discuss at least one source that gives a general introduction
to the study of language. We have used the following source for the
guide itself:
Yule, G. The Study of Language. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2020) seventh edition [ISBN 9781108499453]; www.cambridge.org/
us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/english-language-and-
linguistics-general-interest/study-language-7th-edition?format=HB
There are other very good introductory books you could use, of course.
For example, we often cite or recommend readings from:
Duran-Eppler, E. and G. Ozón English Words and Sentences: An Introduction.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012) [ISBN 9780521171878].
Fromkin, V., R. Rodman, and N. Hyams An Introduction to Language. (Boston,
MA: Cengage Learning Inc, 2017) 11th edition [ISBN 9781337559577].
Or you could look at:
Plag, I., S. Arndt-Lappe, M. Braun and M. Schramm Introduction to
English Linguistics. (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2015) third edition
[ISBN 978310378382]. [Available in the Online Library]
Another useful and general source, which you can also use as a
reference book, is:
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2018) third edition [ISBN 9781108437738].
5
You may want to purchase and have your chosen introductory source
to hand so you can work with it without time constraints.
The course ranges over a number of topics, however, which are
themselves vibrant areas of study. We are hoping that you will
delve into books that present these areas in a bit more depth. We
don’t expect that you will read these books in their entirety and as
thoroughly as those we mentioned above. In the following pages we
will sometimes direct your attention to particular chapters or pages
of these books. We expect that you will use them to broaden and
systematise your knowledge of the topics covered by the course. Below
we direct your attention to some of the sources that will appear in the
Essential and Further reading sections of the chapters to come. You will
find the full details at the end of this section.
The following books can help you learn more about the history of
English and its spread around the world:
• Fennell (2001)
• Jenkins (2015)
• Culpeper (2015).
There are a number of books which provide introductions to phonetics
and phonology. For this course we have worked with the following
source:
• Roach (2009).
There are many introductions to morphology, too. We have chosen the
following as a recommended source:
• Carstairs-McCarthy (2018).
For the study of the structure of sentences we have relied on:
• Burton-Roberts (2016).
There are also sources that cover both word structure and sentence
structure. You may find these very useful too, and you can use some of
them as reference books as well. We will mention:
• Huddleston and Pullum (2005)
• Börjars and Burridge (2019).
Another fascinating area of linguistic research is the study of meaning.
We have included a few sources here, for example:
• Riemer (2010)
• Saeed (2015).
And finally, the last chapter of the course turns its attention to the area
of pragmatics and discourse analysis. A number of sources could be
useful here; we particularly recommend the following:
• Thomas (1995)
• Cameron (2001)
• Cutting (2014).
There are alternatives for many of these books. We mention some
of these in the sections where we outline our recommendations
for further reading, and in the chapters of the guide themselves.
6
The details of all the sources cited in the guide can be found in the
bibliography at the end.
Börjars, K. and K. Burridge Introducing English Grammar. (London: Hodder
Education, 2019) third edition [ISBN 9781138635319].
Burton-Roberts, N. Analysing Sentences: An Introduction to English
Syntax. (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2016) fourth edition
[ISBN 9781138947344].
Cameron, D. Working with Spoken Discourse. (London: Sage, 2001)
[ISBN 9780761957737].
Carstairs-McCarthy, A. An Introduction to English Morphology.
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018) second edition
[ISBN 9781474428972].
Culpeper, J. History of English. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015) third edition
[ISBN 9781138891753].
Cutting, J. Pragmatics and Discourse: A resource book for students. (London
and New York: Routledge, 2014) third edition [ISBN 9780415534376].
Fennell, B. A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. (Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers, 2001) [ISBN 9780631200734].
Huddleston, R. and G. K. Pullum A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar.
Jenkins, J. Global Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. (London and New
York: Routledge, 2015) third edition [ISBN 9780415638449]. [Available
in the Online Library]
Riemer, N. Introducing Semantics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2010) [ISBN 9780521617413].
Roach, P. English Phonetics and Phonology: A practical course.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) fourth edition
[ISBN 9780521717403].
Saeed, J. I. Semantics. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015) fourth edition
[ISBN 9781118430163].
Thomas, J. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. (London:
Longman, 1995) [ISBN 9780582291515].
Suggested study timetable

Below is a suggested 22-week outline which gives you an idea of how a
syllabus could be constructed for this course:
Weeks Syllabus content
Introductory readings on language; how linguists study
1–2
language; prescriptive and descriptive approaches
Language as a property of humans; how language differs from
3–4
other forms of communication; how humans acquire language
The history of English and its spread around the world; English
5–6 as a global language and new varieties of English; English as a
first and as a second language
7–9 The sounds of language: phonetics, phonology, prosody
10–11 Word structure: morphology
Sentence structure: constituency tests, phrases, different
12–14 approaches to language analysis (theoretical grammars;
descriptive grammars; systemic-functional grammar)
Approaches to word meaning (sense and reference, prototype
15–16
theory, componential analysis), lexical relations
7
Weeks Syllabus content

Sentence meaning: truth-conditional semantics, structural
17–18
ambiguity
Language use in context: pragmatics, Speech Act Theory, Grice’s
19–21
Maxims, politeness theory
Revision and review: draw up a schedule of topics to revise and
22–24
possible examination questions that may be asked
How to approach the examination

If you have followed the suggestions offered in the subject guide,
read as much of the suggested syllabus as possible and engaged
with the topics under consideration, you should be well prepared for
the examination. However, in order to do justice to yourself and the
subject on the day of the examination, it is useful to think about your
examination technique. Certain basic procedures should be followed.
• If possible, read a sample examination paper from a previous year so
that you are familiar with the range and type of questions you might
expect to encounter (see also the Sample examination paper at the
end of this guide).
• Use the sample examination paper to practise writing timed
examination answers.
• In the examination always read the rubric carefully twice and follow
the instructions given.
• Read the whole paper through before choosing which questions to
attempt. Leave yourself sufficient time to answer all the questions
you are asked to complete; if you do run out of time, write down in
note form all the points you would have included, as you may be
given credit for an outline of an answer which you have not had
time to write in full.
• Proof-read it: at the end of the examination, read through what you
have written, correcting spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc. and
check titles and names of authors for inaccuracies; simple errors or
slips can detract from a good answer.
This advice may seem obvious, but following it is essential for good
examination performance in any subject. To further develop and
improve your examination technique in relation to this paper, you
should read the Examiners’ commentaries from previous year(s), which
are available on the virtual learning environment (VLE) for English.
You should also remember the following advice about choosing – and
reading – examination questions.
Choosing the question

One of the most important examination techniques is the ability to
choose the kind of question that you are well equipped to answer,
one that will enable you to demonstrate the particular knowledge and
skills you have acquired during your course of study. For instance, if a
question asks you to discuss the status of English in the world today,
you will need some historical knowledge of the development of the
language in order to answer adequately. You are free to organise the
8
essay the way you want, but it needs to present a coherent and fluent
argument. Your points need to be supported with evidence. A first-
class answer will always show some independence of thought and so
this would be your chance to argue your own position on the topic you
are discussing. Most questions (for example, one on the global status
of English) might include comparing and contrasting opinions and
research, critically engaging with the material you are discussing before
coming to an informed judgement of your own.
Reading the question

In order to answer questions effectively, it is important to understand
what you are being asked to do. Look at the terms of the question
(namely, whether you are invited to consider, compare, contrast,
define, analyse, evaluate or discuss) and make sure you do what the
question asks you to do. If you are asked, for example, to Discuss Austin’s
framework for classifying speech acts, drawing on the concepts of locution,
perlocution and illocutionary force and you are asked to illustrate your
discussion with examples to support the points you are making, it
will not be sufficient to simply outline and describe the concepts. A
descriptive account is one that can simply be learnt from the texts
you have read and will not demonstrate your ability to analyse and
evaluate what you know. The question is asking you to critically engage
and evaluate (as all examination questions do) Austin’s framework,
drawing on the research that has been done in this area, not only by
Austin but by other scholars. You might want to draw on the work of
another linguistic philosopher, John Searle. You might then go further,
offering a critique of the frameworks. While you would undoubtedly
draw on researchers and scholars, such as Jenny Thomas to make your
argument, you would also exemplify the points you make with your
own examples. You would evaluate the theories and also criticisms that
have already been made. In this way you would come to an informed
judgement of your own.
Writing essays and examination answers in linguistics

In selecting topics on which to write practice essays, remember that
your essays will be preparing you to answer examination questions,
and therefore you should select essay topics that relate to the
questions you will be revising for.
Online resources
Please note that additional study resources may be available to you
for this course. A particularly important resource is the VLE for the
English programme, which you can access via the Student Portal – see
the Student handbook for details of how to log in. The VLE is the place
where you will interact with your assigned tutor group for that course
and additional material may be added throughout the year.
9
Notes
10
Chapter 2: The nature of language
Essential reading
2020) seventh edition [ISBN 9781108499453] Chapters 1–2 and 12–14.
Further reading
MA: Cengage Learning Inc, 2017) 11th edition [ISBN 9781337559577].
Graddol, D., J. Cheshire, and J. Swann Describing Language. (Milton Keynes:
Open University Press, 1994) second edition [ISBN 9780335193158].
Kuiper, K. and W. Scott Allan An Introduction to English Language. (London:
Palgrave, 2017) fourth edition [ISBN 9781137496874].
Lightbown, P. M. and N. Spada How Languages Are Learned. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2013) fourth edition [ISBN 9780194541268].
Introduction
In this introductory chapter, we consider what language is, its nature
and origins and what it is exactly that sets human language apart from
the communication of other living creatures. We start by looking at
how language can be defined. We try to identify its characteristics by
comparing human language and animal communication. We explore
issues of language acquisition and consider whether other animals
can learn to speak, drawing on experiments where this has been
attempted. We look at what happens if children aren’t provided with
the optimum conditions for acquiring spoken language and how this
affects them in the short and the long term.
What is language?
According to Fromkin et al. (2017) the fact that humans possess
language is the thing that distinguishes them from other creatures. It is
certainly true that we use it continuously in our interaction with others
(whether formal or informal), in our dreams and sometimes to talk to
ourselves. Language forms a part of almost every situation you can
possibly think of. But what do we mean by language? And what is it
that we know about language that enables us to use it?
You can look up information about language, or definitions of
language, in dictionaries and linguistic textbooks or on the internet. To
start you thinking about the term, here is a definition from McArthur
and McArthur (1998, 334):
LANGUAGE
A human system of COMMUNICATION which uses structured vocal sounds and
can be embodied in other media such as writing, print, and physical signs. Most
linguists currently regard the faculty of language as a defining characteristic of
being human.
11
Learning activity
Now spend some time considering this definition and look up some others in
books and on the internet. Do you think that this definition includes all that
should be included? Has anything been left out or is there anything you don’t
agree with?
Following on from this activity, we could make an observation, for

example, that animals are omitted from this definition. We could,
however, suggest that the definition probably encompasses sign
language, although it seems to give primacy to speech. It doesn’t
seem to take account of non-verbal communication such as gestures,
facial expression (all that is variously called ‘body language’). The
communicative aspect of the definition suggests that it involves more
than one party, although we can also point to situations where we talk
to ourselves, when we are dreaming and so on. Are there any other
observations you can make about this definition? Are there any points
with which you disagree?
What is 'a language'?

There is a great deal of ambiguity in how the term ‘language’ is used.
As Graddol et al. (1994, 4) observe, we can use it to describe an ability
that humans possess (as we did above) or we can use it to describe
a particular language or variety of a language and, as they point out,
usually when we refer to ‘a language’ we are referring to an entity or
something like the language in which this subject guide is written:
English. In this subject guide we will consider the English language in
a number of ways. In the next chapter we will consider its origins and
its particularly powerful position in the world today. In the rest of the
subject guide we will learn how to describe and analyse the English
language using linguistic terminology. At this point, however, let us
return to the definition of McArthur and McArthur (1998, 334) because
if language is a human system of communication (something we will
debate during the course of this chapter) and if English is a language
with which speakers communicate, what do speakers know about a
language?
If you know a language, a language which is a human system of
communication such as English, you know about its sound system.
Fromkin et al. (2017) remark that if you know only English, your
unconscious knowledge of its sound system will influence the way
you pronounce a word in any other language you may try to speak.
Your knowledge of a language also means that you can combine the
sounds of this language into words in ways which are acceptable to
you and other speakers. In addition, you also know how words can be
sequenced together. For example, a speaker of English will recognise
that the sentence in (1-a) is a sentence or utterance that ‘works’ in
English. They would also know that (1-b) is one which is not allowed.
That is why there is an asterisk in front of the words to show that it is
not one which speakers of English would find acceptable.
12
(1) a. Elaine put the book on the table

b. *the book put on the table Elaine
And, finally, to know English (or any other language) means to know
what sentences and words mean.
Human language is also creative: we can invent new ways of saying
or expressing things. There are many thousands of new words that
have come into the English language recently. For example, a whole
vocabulary has developed in the last few decades to take account of
the explosion of computer technology and the internet.
Learning activity
• wireless technology; memory stick; browser; mouse are examples of words that
are used in connection with computers. What other observations can you
make about these words or their components?
• Do you know what the following mean?
a. She suffered a wardrobe malfunction when performing on stage.
b. The car behind rear-ended me.
c. Have you seen the prequel yet?
Can you think of some other words that have entered the English language
recently?
The creative aspect to human language also means that we can

construct and understand new combinations of words. Fromkin et
al. (2017) remark that no dictionary could document all the possible
sentences of a language, but in the languages we know, we can
produce (and understand) sentences we have never seen or heard
before. Here is an example from Fromkin et al. (2017):
Daniel Boone decided to become a pioneer because he dreamed
of pigeon-toed giraffes and cross-eyed elephants dancing in pink
skirts and green berets on the wind-swept plains of the Mid-west.
Despite the fact that you have probably never seen this sentence
before, it is likely you will understand it (even if you think it is quite
strange). The point which sentences such as this illustrate is that you
can make up new sentences and understand what they mean without
having come across them before. Your knowledge of the language(s)
that you speak allows you to do this and to make sentences very long
and complex.
We noted that McArthur and McArthur’s definition of language
emphasises that language is a human system of communication. This
seems to suggest we are making the observation that animals don’t
use language. Nevertheless we can all probably point to instances
where we (and others) communicate with animals (for example, we
talk to our pets) and animals communicate with us (and also with one
another). If we are suggesting, however, that it is only humans who
use language, then what is it, exactly, that is different about human
communication from the communication used by other living beings?
13
The differences between animal communication

and human language
First of all, we can make a distinction between language and
communication. While we may suggest that language is a particular
feature of being human, that does not mean that communication
can only take place through language. It may be one of the main
things that happens through language but that is not the only way
to communicate. Moreover, it is not only humans who communicate;
animals and insects do too. One difference is in the property of
reflexivity (Yule, 2020). Humans can think and talk about language. In
addition, animal communication seems to be for the present moment;
animals don’t seem to be able to refer to some past or future time as
humans can. This is called displacement. It is documented, however,
that honeybees provide an exception to this because they appear
to have an advanced communication system which allows them to
indicate where sources of food are (see Mangum (2010)).
A further unique feature of human language is that there is usually
no ‘natural’ link between a linguistic form and its meaning. The
relationship between linguistic signs and what they signify is arbitrary
(see de Saussure (1983)). This can be illustrated by thinking about the
word cow and the four legged creature it signifies. The word for cow is
different in, say, French and other languages; this exemplifies the lack
of link between word and meaning. There is, however, a small class
of words called onomatopoeic words which might be cited as an
exception. These are words which seem to sound like what they mean.
An example of an onomatopoeic word would be splash.
Animal sounds seem to be linked to whatever is being communicated,
and the number of signals seems to be limited or finite. Certain sounds
or signals will be used for particular situations or at particular times.
This suggests that animal communication is non-arbitrary (see Yule,
2020).
Learning activity
List some onomatopoeic words in English. Onomatopoeic words vary across
languages even when referring to the same thing. Using the internet, research
some examples of such variation.
In the last section, we drew attention to the ability of humans to come

up with new words to describe concepts and ideas. This is called
productivity or being creative. We consider this creativity further in
the chapter The Grammar of Words, where we discuss morphology and
consider the ways in which new words are formed. The way animals
communicate, however, indicates that each signal is fixed for whatever
is being referred to (fixed reference). A further unique feature of
human language is that it is acquired through cultural transmission.
We acquire a language by interacting with other speakers: not from our
genes. We can illustrate this by considering a hypothetical child born in
Japan to Japanese parents but who is adopted at birth and brought up
by English speakers in the UK.
14
Learning activity
• What physical characteristics would that child have?
• What language would it learn to speak?
• What about a puppy who had a similar experience?
These examples, which are all covered by Yule (2020), indicate to

us that humans seem to be born with a predisposition to acquire
language, but that the language that they acquire will be the one they
hear around them when they are small. The acquisition of language(s)
fascinates anyone who has observed children learning to speak over
a period of time. It has fascinated linguists too and is the subject of
intensive and very interesting research. We will look at the acquisition
of language(s) in the next section.
There is one more characteristic of human language to consider,
however, and this is called duality or double articulation. This describes
the fact that we can produce individual sounds without any meaning
but when they are combined they can produce certain meanings and
this can be different depending on the combination. As Yule (2020)
points out, bin means something different from nib. Animals, on the
other hand, do not seem to do this. It does not appear to be possible
to break down or reorder a dog’s barking or a cat’s meow into separate
elements that produce particular meanings.
Acquiring language
As infants and very small children we appear to have an ability to
acquire language without explicit instruction. Children learn with
ease the language spoken around them. In fact, they will learn more
than one language from birth if they are growing up in a multilingual
environment (Fromkin et al. (2017) refer to this as bilingual language
acquisition). Sometimes, however, humans learn additional languages
later in life. They might pick them up without explicit instruction,
or they might learn them in a more conscious way, being taught by
others, perhaps in a classroom and with the help of textbooks. In
certain situations this distinction is important, so when they want to
be precise, linguists are careful to distinguish between acquisition
and learning (we will use the terms interchangeably, however). You
can review the use of these terms in the glossary of terms at the end of
(Yule, 2020), or indeed in other dictionaries of linguistic terms.
If we try to pick up a language being spoken around us later in life, we
often find that we can’t do it as easily or as well as infants and young
children. It might be that our language learning abilities are lost with
age – a position known as the critical period hypothesis which we
discuss below. The differences in learning our first language(s) and any
subsequent ones later in life have led to the appearance of two distinct
linguistic sub-fields: first language acquisition and second language
acquisition. We discuss each of them very briefly below. Chapter 13
in Yule (2010) is devoted to the former, whereas Chapter 14 is devoted
to the latter. There are of course many linguistics books and articles
devoted to each of these sub-disciplines. In the Further reading section
15
we have recommended a book which discusses both in an accessible

and reader-friendly way: Lightbown and Spada (2006). Another source
that discusses both is Meisel (2011). No doubt your own research will
lead you to other introductory texts. There are also resources on the
internet, although it is important to make sure that a source found on
the internet is trustworthy.
First language acquisition

We acquire our first language (or languages) very quickly: by the time
we go to school we are already rather proficient language users. We
learn them without the need to be taught and/or corrected explicitly.
And, for the vast majority of us, success is guaranteed.
The process of learning a first language is strikingly similar across
individuals. There seems to be a recognisable pattern, or path, that
we all follow (although we might follow it at a different rate). Linguists
have observed a number of stages that the child acquiring language(s)
goes through. You might have witnessed some of these stages yourself
if you have observed the early years of small children in your family
or outside, or if you have had children yourself. These stages are also
widely documented in the literature of child language acquisition. In
this subject guide we refer to some of the main stages, drawing mainly
on Yule (2020) and Fromkin et al. (2017). You will find more detailed
discussions in Chapter 1 of Lightbown and Spada (2006) and, should
you decide to pursue an interest in this subject, in books devoted
wholly to first language acquisition, such as Clark (2009).
To begin with, babies can do little more than cry. Gradually, however,
they learn to coo and, later on, babble. Babbling (producing sequences
of sounds like da-da or ma-ma) doesn’t sound much like language,
but is significant. Babbling helps the baby practise speech sounds (we
will devote a later chapter to these). In fact, the twelve most common
consonants in the world’s languages can be heard in the vast majority
of infant babbling, although the babbling slowly changes to involve
only sounds of the language the child is exposed to (Fromkin et al.,
2017). Finally, and to the delight of all around, some time between
nine months and eighteen months the child says its first recognisable
word. This is the one-word, or holophrastic, stage. The two-word
stage follows, between eighteen and twenty four months. This is
when children begin to combine words such as baby eat or baby chair.
Although at this stage infants have limited resources, they generally
learn to make as much use of them as possible by using a single word
or a two-word combination with a variety of meanings depending on
context (see Yule (2020) and Fromkin et al. (2017) for examples). During
this time children are constantly expanding their language skills,
however. Next, typically between two and two and a half years of age,
comes the telegraphic (or multi-word) stage. At this point children can
put together several words like baby all dirty or mummy sit chair but
their speech lacks many grammatical markers like articles, prepositions,
auxiliary verbs and others. The various grammatical categories of the
language (for example negation) are also learned gradually and in
recognisable stages that seem to be very similar across individuals. You
can read more about this in Lightbown and Spada (2006, 3–8).
16
To accomplish the feat of language acquisition a child needs to be

exposed to language. Although it doesn’t need instruction, it needs
interaction with its parents and/or carers. When interacting with a
child, adults often modify their own speech: they use exaggerated
intonation, babytalk, slower speed, more pauses, more questions and
more repetition (see Peccei (2011) for instance for a more detailed
account). This modified speech is often called child directed speech
(CDS), or caregiver language. You may have also heard the somewhat
obsolete term motherese. The importance of such modification of
the input is disputed, but the importance of input itself is not. What is
more, it seems that unless input is available in the early years of life, the
ability to acquire language is diminished. This is known as the critical
period hypothesis – we discuss it next.
The critical period

What happens if a child is not exposed to language in their early years?
Will they ever be able to speak and how do we know? It is not as if you
can simply perform a scientific experiment to find out, as deliberately
depriving a child of socialisation and people to communicate with
is clearly an extremely cruel thing to do. So our knowledge and
understanding in this area is informed by cases where, for one reason
or another, this situation has occurred. We will briefly outline two, one
of which is certainly a case of child cruelty and neglect.
The critical period: the case of Genie

Genie was an American child who was confined and isolated in a small
room until the age of thirteen with very little human company. She was
tied to a chair and only visited very briefly to be given food. Her father
didn’t like noise and took this to extremes, because Genie was beaten
every time she tried to make a sound. She had no access to television
or radio either. She acquired very little language. In 1970 her partially
sighted mother left her dominant father and sought help from social
welfare. An observant welfare officer realised that something was very
wrong as Genie seemed much smaller than she should have been for
her age. Moreover, she couldn’t use language, but soon she started
to try. She began to be able to speak and seemed to understand a
substantial number of words. The grammar that she used was quite
simple. She was investigated by researchers and tests showed that the
hemisphere of the brain that deals with language, the left hemisphere,
remained undeveloped. Genie did learn language through teaching
but the language that she learnt was limited. She learnt many words
but her language did not have much grammatical structure. You can
find out more information about Genie on the internet and some other
details are provided by Fromkin et al. (2017).
Learning (spoken) language the hard way: the case of Vincent

Vincent was a hearing child whose parents were deaf. He acquired
American Sign Language (ASL) as his first language. A deaf child who
has deaf parents will naturally acquire sign language in a similar way to
children learning to speak. In the US, the sign language that children
acquire is likely to be ASL. This will be different to British Sign Language
(BSL) and ASL has more in common with French sign language (SLF)
17
than BSL. This is because a teacher from the French school where SLF
was developed went to the US and developed it there and trained
teachers and children. It is important to note that ASL is not a language
which recreates English word order and meaning. This would result
in an artificial language. ASL is a language in its own right with its
own grammar. Every word has its own movement and hand shape.
You could not analyse the sign for the word decide as a sequence
of separate letters, however. It’s a movement and a hand shape
simultaneously (see Fromkin et al. 2017, Figure 1.2 where the hand
shape and movement for decide is shown).
Although Vincent was able to watch and listen to the television, he
wasn’t exposed to ‘live’ English until just after the age of three. His
progress in acquiring English was slow and abnormal (when compared
to other young children acquiring their first language). Moreover, he
used a number of devices he seemed to have carried over from ASL.
Here are some examples drawn from (Aitchison, 2000, 116–117) of
some features which emerged when he started to speak:
• His utterances were often short e.g. You-uh-oh ‘you made a mistake’;
• His vocabulary was idiosyncratic, e.g. puter was a general, all
purpose verb, while you could mean ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’;
• Sometimes what he said was difficult to analyse, for example You rrr
meant ‘it goes rrr’; rrr car meant ‘the car was towed’;
• He tended to copy around a word, meaning that he put the same
form on each side of another form: You house you? meant ‘Do they
[those buses] go to your house?’
Some details about Vincent’s progress in learning spoken English are
documented in Aitchison (2000) and Todd and Aitchison (1980).
The cases of both Genie and Vincent show us that, although acquiring
language is a seamless process under ‘normal’ circumstances, these
circumstances seem to include exposure to the ‘live’ version, that is
people talking around you and to you. If this doesn’t happen, then
the results are abnormal. The case of Genie is a harrowing story of
abuse and neglect so even when she was ‘discovered’ the mental and
psychological traumas went far beyond simply not being able to speak.
In the case of Vincent, even though he was quite young, when he
started to use spoken language his progress was slower than is usual
for children acquiring speech.
Second language acquisition

As we saw in the last section, to learn our first language(s) we need
exposure within the critical period. Once we have become competent
language speakers, however, we can keep learning additional
languages all our lives. The interest in learning languages later in life
has spawned the field of second language acquisition (despite its
name, this is the study of any number of languages learned later in life,
not just a second one).
There are a number of differences between a baby acquiring her
first language and an older human being embarking on the project
of acquiring a second one. An older human being will know how to
18
produce speech sounds (albeit the ones of their first language) and
will be able to use other aspects of their first language knowledge. For
example, they will be able to put together more than one word from
the word go. However, such a learner will also typically have less time
to devote to language learning, and might be more anxious about
the learning process and their performance. The outcomes of second
language acquisition are also typically different: not all learners will
achieve complete success, in fact relatively few will. The likelihood
of success might depend on age (so the critical period hypothesis is
important here again), but age is only one factor when considering
achievement. We might also want to take into account how much input
and interaction a learner gets, how motivated they are to learn, what
their attitudes are to the language they are learning and to the culture
associated with it.
Learning activity
Read more about the differences between first and second language acquisition
(for example in Chapter 2 of Lightbown and Spada (2006)). Find someone who
has acquired a second language later in life or, if appropriate, use your own
experience. In what way was the process of second language acquisition different
from first language acquisition for this person (or yourself )?
What determines whether a second language will be learned as

well as the first language? Use your reading and reflect on your own
experience or that of a suitable person you know well.
In one of the previous sections we discussed the differences between
human and animal communication. We concluded that the systems
of animal communication are different from ours, that is, they are
different from human language. Could animals learn human language,
however? We will look at some of the experiments that try to answer
this question in the next section.
Can animals learn a language? Experiments and

unusual situations
Two scientists, Winthrop and Luella Kellogg, brought up their baby son
with an infant chimp called Gua in the 1930s in order to see whether
chimpanzees can learn language. Although Gua could understand
approximately 100 words at 16 months (more than their son!) she
didn’t progress. Their son learnt that I say what I mean differs from I
mean what I say but Gua couldn’t understand either of these sentences
(Fromkin et al., 2017). Another chimp, Viki, brought up by two scientists,
Catherine and Keith Hayes, managed not only to learn but also to say
some words, but not very many.
In the 1960s two psychologists, Allen and Beatrice Gardner, attempted
to teach another chimp (Washoe) ASL because, although chimps have
difficulty making different sounds, they are quite manually dexterous.
Human children who acquire sign language do so in a similar way to
children learning spoken language: without explicit teaching. At the
age of four (in 1969) Washoe could make eighty-five different signs,
including some sign combinations such as: gimme tickle, open food
drink and more fruit (see Yule 2020).
19
There are other documented cases of chimps such as Sarah, Koko, Lana,
Sherman and Austin. There is also the case of Nim Chimpsky (named,
of course, after Noam Chomsky). In contrast to Washoe, he was taught
to sign under very controlled experimental conditions and seemed
to learn about one hundred and twenty-five signs. However, he didn’t
sign spontaneously: it was mostly because he was prompted to do so
by his trainers. In addition, there was almost no creativity in the way
he used the language that he had learnt. As we have observed, the
creative aspect of language is one defining characteristic of human
language. Details of some of these animal experiments are provided by
Yule (2020) and Fromkin et al. (2017) or you can research them on the
internet.
Explaining language acquisition

We have observed that humans are very good at acquiring languages,
especially early in life. An important question we haven’t touched
upon, however, is how we learn. One of the earliest explanations, which
comes under the label of behaviourism and is now rejected, is that we
learn by imitating the proficient speakers around us.
Learning activity
What arguments have been put forward against behaviourism? Use your reading
to answer this question (for example, Chapter 1 in Lightbown and Spada (2006)).
Other explanations have been advanced since. An influential one is

that we are born with brains that are hardwired to learn languages, or
that we have innate abilities to learn human languages and possibly
some basic knowledge of the properties that are common to all human
languages (this is sometimes referred to as the innateness hypothesis,
see (Yule, 2020)). Other scholars put more emphasis on general
cognitive abilities and the role of interaction; for example, followers
of the psychologists Piaget and Vygotsky (you can find out more from
Chapter 1 in Lightbown and Spada (2006)). Any explanation will have
to take into account the characteristics of first and second language
acquisition, and the differences between them.
Summary
In this chapter, we have worked through some aspects of human
language to get you thinking about what language is, how we use
it and what it is we know about a language, even if that knowledge
is unconscious and we do not have the metalinguistic knowledge to
describe what it is that we know. We have considered the primate
experiments and unusual human situations that enable us to
demonstrate what appear to be the optimum conditions necessary to
acquire human language.
By working through the chapters that follow you will start to develop
a knowledge and awareness which will allow you to analyse what
it is that you already know about the language that you speak.
These chapters will focus mainly on the English language but other
languages can be analysed in the same way, although different rules
20
will be applicable. The chapters will consider areas of linguistics such

as morphology (word structure), syntax (sentence structure), semantics
(linguistic meaning) and pragmatics (speaker meaning).
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, and having completed the relevant reading
and activities, you should be able to:
• describe and discuss theories related to human language
• discuss the concept of language and the differences and similarities
between language and communication
• explain some of the ways in which linguists study language and the
experiments that have been done.
Sample examination questions

1. Discuss the similarities and differences between the way human
beings communicate and how other living creatures communicate.
What does the research tell us about the ability of other animals to
learn language?
2. Discuss the innateness hypothesis. If a child acquires a sign
language (for example, American Sign Language) as their first
language, does this provide support for the hypothesis? What does
this tell us about the way human beings acquire language?
3. Discuss the similarities and differences between acquiring a first
language and learning a second language. Draw on theories and
research to support your discussion.
21
Notes
22
Chapter 3: The origins of English
Essential reading
Culpeper, J., P. Kerswill, R. Wodak, T. McEnery and F. Katamba (eds) English
Language: Description, Variation and Context. (London: Palgrave, 2018)
[ISBN 9781137571823] Chapters 15–16. [Available in the Online Library]
Fromkin, V., R. Rodman, and N. Hyams An Introduction to Language.
(Boston, MA: Cengage Learning Inc, 2017) eleventh edition
[ISBN 9781337559577] Chapter 11.
Gramley, S. The History of English. (London: Routledge 2018) second edition
[ISBN 9781138501096] Chapter 1.
2020) seventh edition [ISBN 9781108499453] Chapter 17.
Further reading
Bauer, L. (ed.) Watching English Change: Introduction to the Study of
Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. (Harlow:
Longman, 1994) [ISBN 9780582210899].
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 1996) [ISBN 9780333609842].
Crystal, D. The Stories of English. (London: Penguin 2005)
[ISBN 9780141015934].
[ISBN 9781138891753].
York: Routledge, 2015) third edition [ISBN 9780415638449]. [OL]
Kretzschmar, W.A. Jr. The Emergence and Development of English.
Introduction
In this chapter we look at the history of the English language from
its origins to its position in the world today. We track the progress of
English as it has moved from being relatively negatively evaluated in
terms of prestige and status to its position of status worldwide where it
is now a global language. Today, second language speakers outnumber
native speakers by around 3:1 and the ratio is growing. It is often used
as a lingua franca (a common language), a means of communication
between people who cannot speak each other’s native or first
language. In addition, there are many Englishes and many standard
Englishes; for example, Indian Standard English, American Standard
English, South African Standard English, etc. While we will mainly focus
on the origins, history and development of English, we will touch on
the standardisation process, although that will be considered more
fully on a Level 5 course, Varieties of English.
23
English through the ages: a short time-line for

contextualisation
Scholars (such as Fennell (2001, 1)) who take a sociohistorical and
cultural approach to the history of English sub-divide it into four
stages:
Old English 500–1100 difficult for the modern reader,

needs to be learnt
Middle English 1100–1500 still difficult for the modern reader
(for example, Chaucer)
Early Modern English 1500–1800 some difficulties, but getting easier
(for example, Shakespeare)
Modern English 1800–today not many comprehension problems
(for example, Jane Austen)
Defining the periods in this way, however, can be problematic because
there is no exact time when one period stops and another starts. The
approach that Fennell (2001, 2) takes involves marking each period by
a historical event. So the Old English period starts about fifty years after
the invasions of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, while the Middle English
period is defined by the Norman invasion in 1066. Early Modern English
is heralded by the beginning of the Renaissance, and the printing press
was also brought to Britain at around this time. This period ends with
the American Independence and, as Fennell (2001, 2) notes, this is the
time when other national varieties developed (in addition to English in
the British Isles). There are other events that are relevant to these time
periods. Fennell has listed these at relevant points during her book.
The Indo-European language group

English, German, Polish, French, Greek and Latin (and many other
languages) belong to the Indo-European family of languages.
Linguistic reconstruction, which involves recreating a previous and
unrecorded language, proposes that what is referred to as the proto-
language, *Indo-European, is the original language of a very large
number of languages, from a wide geographical area. The source
language, the parent language, is, however, a ‘fictitious, reconstructed
entity (Fennell 2001, 23) in the sense that it is unattested (there is no
actual evidence) and that is why it is given an asterisk (refer to Fennell
(2001, 23) for further elaboration of the points mentioned).
Study the small selection of languages from the Indo-European family
shown in Yule (2020) or in Fennell (2001, 23). Look at the branches
and sub-branches: relatedness means that German speakers can learn
Swedish more easily than they can Russian. Celtic languages, as you
can see, are part of the Indo-European language, but belong to a
different subgroup to English. They are not part of the West Germanic
group.
24
Learning activity
Look at the table below which contains the names of the numbers from one to
ten in four languages, reproduced from (Fennell, 2001, 19). What do you notice
about the list?
English German Swedish Finnish

one eins en yksi
two zwei två kaksi
three drei tre kolme
four vier fyra neljä
five fünf fem viisi
six sechs sex kuusi
seven sieben sju seitsemän
eight acht åtta kahdeksan
nine neun nio yhdeksän
ten zehn tio kymmenen
You will notice that there are similarities between the English, German
and Swedish languages that are not shared by Finnish. This is because
Finnish, despite its geographical proximity to the areas where the other
languages are spoken, comes from a completely different language
family: Finno-Ugric.
The history of English

The first inhabitants of Britain that we are aware of were the Celtic
tribes (including the Britons) who had come there in approximately the
middle of the first millennium BC (Crystal, 2018). There is, however, very
little Celtic influence on the English language, although there is some
in place-names, as this table from (Culpeper, 2005, 2) shows us:
Cities: Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow, London, York

Rivers: Avon, Clyde, Dee, Don, Forth, Severn, Thames, Usk
Regions: Argyll, Cumbria, Devon, Dyfed, Glamorgan, Kent, Lothian
Learning activity
What areas of the British Isles have a large number of Celtic place-names? Why?
The invasions of Britain

Over the course of several centuries the British Isles was invaded by
several groups who brought their languages with them. However,
there are few written records so there is not much evidence about the
language in the British Isles before the Anglo-Saxon invasions in the
5th century. Before the Anglo-Saxons, Britain had been invaded and
then controlled by the Romans who had replaced the Celts. The Celts
were either killed or pushed to the edges of Britain, although some
remained and had contact with the Romans (Fennell, 2001, 56). The
Romans occupied Britain for about four hundred years until the Roman
Empire broke up. During the Roman occupation, Britain was a province
of the Roman Empire and was ruled from Rome (Freeborn, 2006, 11).
25
The history of place-names is a continuing indication to us as to which

languages were dominant. The Romans latinised Celtic place-names
rather than making up new names. London is a word of Celtic origin so
the Romans called it Londinium. Here are a few more examples of their
influence, drawn from Culpeper (2005, 3):
a. castra = a camp, walled town (e.g. Lancaster)
b. portus = a port (e.g. Newport)
c. via strata = paved way, a street in a town (e.g. Stratford)
While Britain was ruled by the Romans the official language of
government was Latin. This was spoken in the British Isles by the
Romans who were living there, but it was also spoken by the Britons
who worked for the Romans or had to deal with them. There is a term
to describe these people from Britain, who came into a great deal of
contact with or worked for the Romans: Romano-British (see Freeborn
2006, 11). At this time the language of the British Isles was British, a
Celtic language (today we still have the Celtic languages, Welsh and
Breton (Britons migrated to Brittany in the sixth century to escape
the Anglo-Saxons) and Cornish, Irish and Scots Gaelic. None of these
languages resembles English, which comes from the sub-family of West
Germanic languages (Freeborn, ibid).
Roman power declined in the 4th century, making way for the next
group of invaders. The language, English, comes from this second
wave of invasions. Its roots are in the Germanic dialects of those
tribes from North Western Europe who started to invade Britain in
449CE, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The invasion was slow,
taking over two centuries. There was some integration between the
invaders and the local population but the invaders never reached the
North and Western points which is why the Celtic languages survived.
Many place-names developed during this time showing Anglo-Saxon
influence as this list from Culpeper (2005, 5) indicates:
burh = fort (e.g. Canterbury)
dun = hill (e.g. Swindon)
feld = open land (e.g. Macclesfield)
ford = river crossing (e.g. Oxford)
tun = farm, village (later develops into town) (e.g. Eton)
ing = place (e.g. Clavering)
ingas = followers of (e.g. Hastings, Reading)
ham = settlement, homestead (e.g. Northam)
hamm = enclosure, land in a river bend (e.g Chippingham)
According to Fennell (2001, 59) the Old English period begins in
449CE, although she places it at 500CE as it would have taken some
generations after this wave of invasions for it to develop. A third set
of invaders came in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries: the Vikings from
Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Although they took over the East of
England, King Ælfred, King of Wessex, won a battle with the Danish
King in 878 and the Danes retreated east of a line running from Chester
to London. Those living to the east of this line came under Danish law
(Culpeper, 2005, 6).
26
Middle English 1100–1500

The fourth wave of invaders were the Normans (headed by William the
Conqueror, Duc de Normandie) in 1066, bringing the Norman variety
of French with them. This was the last time Britain was invaded and it
is also the event which precedes what is known as the Middle English
period. French became the prestige language in the British Isles: the
French invaders became the ruling class but the English peasants
continued to speak English. Most place-names were not changed, but
sometimes the family or lord of a particular area influenced the place-
name:
Melton Mowbray (Roger de Moubray)
Leighton Buzzard (the Busard family)
Stansted Mountfitchet (the Montifiquet family)
(examples from Culpeper, 2005, 8)
This era included the time of Chaucer but there were many other
writers at this time. They all wrote in their own dialect of English.
There are a lot more texts from this period than there are from the Old
English period. There is evidence of much variation in language use
and the differences between texts are very noticeable. The London
dialect became more widely used towards the end of this period (see
Fennell 2001, 114–115).
Early modern English 1500–1800

It was during this period that a standard form of the English
language came into being, particularly in writing. Factors leading to
this development included Caxton’s printing press which enabled
literacy and books to reach the masses, particularly the middle
classes. Once mass printing evolved, the language was codified in
various dictionaries and grammar books. We look more into the
standardisation process in another course (Varieties of English).
Modern English 1800–present day

Over the course of several centuries, the English language has adapted
and developed, changing (as all languages do) to suit the needs
of its speakers. Structurally, it has transformed from being a highly
inflectional or synthetic language to becoming an analytic or isolating
language. This means English today is much more reliant on word order
than on the ending of words to show us grammatical information. It
is important to note, however, that English in the British Isles today
is not very different from the English of 1800. The core structure of
the English language as we know it today was established by the
eighteenth century. Since that time, there have been some structural
changes (for example, in morphology (the way words are formed) and
syntax (word order)) but these are few (see Fennell 2001, 171–175).
The major changes have been (and continue to be) in the vocabulary
of the language; for example, in the areas of technological or scientific
progress.
27
Learning activity
Can you come up with some areas of everyday life which, in recent decades, have
resulted in vocabulary expansion?
In the recent history of English, vocabulary has continued to change. There have
been a few grammatical changes too, but not many. Another area of language
that is often said to have remained unchanged more recently is spelling. Do you
agree with such claims? You might want to think of the impact newer forms of
communication (internet forum chat, text messaging, emails) have had on the
way English is written down.
English as a world language

We have looked at the development of the English language in the
British Isles during the previous centuries. English, however, is no
longer confined to mother-tongue speakers on a small island off
the coast of Europe. In more recent times, the English language has
become a world language, a global language, spoken by millions of
people all over the world. For most English speakers it is not a first
language (we refer to a person’s first language, or their native language
as their L1; subsequent languages that a person learns are referred to
as their L2). Non-native speakers outnumber native speakers by about
3:1, and this is set to grow.
Reasons for the impact of English and its spread are many, but the
influence of the US as an economic power, and the decline of the
influence of the Soviet Union are major contributors. Added to these
are other historical factors, such as the slave trade, colonisation and the
‘discovery’ of new territories such as North America, Australia and New
Zealand. We also cannot ignore the influence of computing technology,
including the worldwide web and, as part of that, the massive role that
companies such as Microsoft and Apple have to play.
The spread of English can be described by two diasporas or dispersals
of English (see Jenkins 2015). The first concerns the explorers and their
expeditions and the subsequent settling of countries and continents
such as North America, Australia and New Zealand by large-scale
migrations of native English speakers from England, Ireland and
Scotland in the form of convicts and other settlers. The varieties of
English that the settlers brought with them eventually merged and
developed, and became the varieties of English linked to those areas
that we know today. The effect of the first diaspora has been the
emergence of new first language varieties of English.
The second diaspora is linked to the slave trade and the colonisation
of other countries in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries such as
India, some African countries and also South-east Asia. The Englishes
connected to the second diaspora are second language varieties and
they are often negatively evaluated when compared to those of the
first diaspora or English in the British Isles. They are known as the ‘New
Englishes’.
English speakers can be classified into three broad groups:
• those with English as a native language (ENL): mostly speakers from
the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
28
• those with English as a second language (ESL): for example, the

English spoken in India, Nigeria and Singapore
• those who have learnt English as a foreign language (EFL): English
does not have an official purpose in their country. Note, however,
that while English used to be learnt as a foreign language in order to
speak to native English speakers, today it is more commonly used as
a lingua franca in communication with non-native speakers. This has
led to the further classifications of ELF (English as a Lingua Franca)
and EIL (English as an International Language) (see Jenkins 2015).
There are difficulties with these classifications (see Jenkins 2015):
• ENL is not a single variety: it varies from country to country and
within regions
• pidgins and creoles don’t fit into these categories (see below)
• groups of ENL speakers live in ESL territories (for example, India,
Hong Kong)
• groups of ESL speakers live in ENL countries (for example, UK, USA)
• the categories don’t take account of code mixing and code
switching
• a native speaker’s competence is usually considered superior to that
of a non-native, but this is controversial. A native speaker may have
a smaller vocabulary/use less complex grammar than a non-native
speaker.
Pidgins are contact languages which develop between groups that
come together but don’t share a lingua franca (for example, in trade
situations or during wars such as the Vietnam War). They have a
simplied grammatical structure and vocabulary. They don’t have any
native speakers. A creole, however, emerges when the pidgin becomes
the native language of a group of people. It becomes more elaborate
and extensive, functioning just like any other language.
Code mixing and code switching describe strategies whereby
speakers may blend two languages together or switch languages
within utterances or conversations.
English is a world language, but will it remain so?

It may well be the case . . . that the English language has already
grown to be independent of any form of social control. There may
be a critical number or critical distribution of speakers . . . beyond
which it proves impossible for any single group or alliance to stop
its growth, or even influence its future. (Crystal, 2003b, 190).
The above is a powerful quote which encapsulates issues to do

with the spread of English, particularly the point where there is the
suggestion or observation that English does not really ‘belong’ to a
single group or area anymore. To end this section, here are some points
about the growth of English. You should note, however, that many of
the figures quoted will already be out of date and, in any case, they
are only estimates as many of these statistics are impossible to verify
accurately. This section draws on Jenkins (2009, 52--53) and Crystal
(2003b).
29
Facts and figures:

• there are approximately 350 million ENL speakers
• there are approximately 350 million ESL speakers
• estimates vary, but EFL speakers are likely to number around 1
billion
• non-native speakers outnumber native speakers by about 3:1
• the majority of international organisations in the world make official
use of English
• since the 1960s many countries use English as the normal medium
of instruction for higher education
• the English language teaching business is a major growth industry
• over a half of newspapers are published in countries where English
has a special status
• most academic journals in any country are published in English
• international aviation personnel such as pilots and air traffic
controllers need a certain level of competence in English as they will
be required to use it in their work
• the majority of all released feature films are in English.
However:
When the growth in internet technology started, usage was entirely in
English but this had reduced to about an 80 per cent presence on the
internet in 1995. By 2001 the figure was around 60–70 per cent. There
has been some discussion as to whether English will remain dominant
in this context as the presence of other languages has grown since
then.
As Jenkins (2015) details, English is not an easy language to learn.
The main difficulties are to do with spelling, pronunciation and
grammar. Spanish, on the other hand, could be a possible language to
replace English as an international language one day. It is simpler to
pronounce, its spelling and verb systems are less complicated and it
is becoming more influential both in the EU and the USA. In addition,
there are over 50 million Spanish native speakers living in the US.
Mandarin Chinese is another possible replacement for English (see
Crystal 2018, Jenkins 2015).
Why has the English language become so important?

You might want to think about whether the position of English in the
world today is due to its intrinsic linguistic qualities, or whether it is
more likely to do with the powerful status (political, military, economic)
of those who speak it. Whatever your thoughts, by prioritising English,
or making it an official language and using it in contexts such as
government, the media, courts, education, it then becomes necessary
to be proficient in English in order to progress. Even in contexts where
it has no official status it may be prioritised and taught as a foreign
language, which further consolidates its position.
30
What are the benefits of having a world language?

We can argue that, on the plus side, having a global language, spoken
by virtually everyone, obviates the need for interpreters as it operates
as a lingua franca. In this way, communication is facilitated, which is
important, especially as people are more mobile both physically and
electronically than used to be the case. On the other hand, we could
argue that there is a negative impact, for example, people will not
be motivated or see any reason to learn other languages. This may
accelerate the phenomenon of language death: minority languages
are likely to disappear more quickly. Finally, it might be the case that
ENL speakers may be in a more powerful position than those who learn
it as an L2 (or second language). This is a point with which you may
disagree, if you think back to the point that has been made that some
non-native speakers’ competence might, in fact, be greater than the
competence of many native speakers of English.
The future of English

It is impossible to predict the future in relation to English, but here are
some scenarios which have been discussed by various scholars:
• there is the possibility of increasing multidialectism or perhaps
multilingualism
• there is the possibility that English might break up into mutually
unintelligible varieties as Latin did and, indeed, it may have already
done so (this is referred to as the Decline and Fall Thesis – see
Cameron 1995, 111)
• there is the suggestion that the proportion of those who have
English as a first language will continue to decline (8 per cent in the
1950s to less than 5 per cent by 2050)
• there is a possibility (which we have already referred to) that
another language, for example, Spanish or Chinese might one day
supersede English as a global language.
Learning activity
• Why is English currently the most important international language? List some
reasons both from your own knowledge and understanding and on the basis
of the reading you have done.
• Why do you think English is sometimes referred to as a killer language?
• What is your reaction to the following and what issues does it highlight about
the differences between learning English and any other modern foreign
language?
Most people quite simply do not learn English to speak to native-speakers. On
the other hand, people learn Spanish, as I am doing at present, because they are
interested in Hispanic culture for some reason (work or pleasure) and will therefore
want a spoken and written model which will further this aim. There is a world
of difference between English and, in fact, all other living languages at present.
((Prodromou, 1997, 19) quoted in (Jenkins, 2009,43))
31
Learning outcomes
• contextualise and chart the English language against historical
developments
• explain how the English language has developed and changed
• discuss the position of English in the world today and what some of
the implications of this are.

1. Discuss some of the positive and negative consequences of the fact
that English has changed little structurally since around 1800.
2. Discuss some examples of words that English has borrowed from
different languages. What do those words reveal about the contact
between English and the languages it has borrowed from?
3. Discuss the status of English as a global/international language. Is it
beneficial? Why/Why not? Discuss your reasons, evaluating both the
positive and negative aspects.
32
Chapter 4: The sounds of English
Essential reading
Cahill, L. Discovering Phonetics and Phonology. (London: Macmillan 2019)
[ISBN 9781137545718] Chapters 3–4.
Roach, P. English Phonetics and Phonology: A practical course. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2009) fourth edition [ISBN 9780521717403]
Chapters 1–5.
You can also consult the website of the International Phonetic Association.
The IPA chart is available to download from the website.
Further reading
Ladefoged, P. and S. Ferrari Disner Vowels and Consonants: An introduction
to the sounds of languages. (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) third
edition [ISBN 9781444334296].
Ladefoged, P. and K. Johnson A Course in Phonetics. (Boston: MA:
Wadsworth, 2014) seventh edition [ISBN 9781285463407].
Note that different textbooks may reflect the sound system of different
varieties of English (British English versus American English, for
example).
Introduction
As we saw in Chapter 2 entitled The nature of language, we humans
have developed a system of communication that is built out of
structured vocal sounds (or speech sounds). We have also developed
ways to record our speech with graphical symbols – letters, or as
linguists sometimes call them, graphemes – but a writing system is
not an essential part of language. Languages, including English, can,
did and do exist without writing. They cannot exist without speech
sounds. At this point you may well object, because the last sentence
is, strictly speaking, wrong. People who are deaf have developed an
equally complex system of communication that is built out of gesture
and movement in three-dimensional space: sign language. We
mentioned sign languages earlier. They are the object of some very
exciting linguistic research which we regrettably cannot cover here as it
is beyond the scope of this course. Our aim in this chapter is to discover
the fundamental principles underlying the organisation of speech
sounds in English.
33
Phonetics: the sounds speakers make

When it comes to speech sounds, there are a few questions that are,
in some sense, obvious: How do we make them? How can we describe
their properties? How do we hear them? Each of these questions is
answered in detail within a sub-area of the discipline of phonetics.
How we pronounce speech sounds is a matter for articulatory
phonetics. The properties of the sounds themselves are studied
within acoustic phonetics. Finally, how we hear sounds (namely,
how the sound waves entering our ears translate into perceptions in
the brain) is a matter for auditory phonetics. Speaking has a purely
physiological side. We use our bodies to produce and perceive speech
sounds. Sounds (vibrations or air waves) are registered by our ears and
transmitted to the brain. Although the auditory system and speech
perceptions are very interesting areas of investigation, we will not be
able to give them much space. We will also not give much space to
the purely physical properties of speech sounds (for example, their
frequency, amplitude or harmonic structure). We need to say a few
words, however, about how sounds are recorded on paper, that is,
about the transcription of sounds.
Transcribing sounds
With the learning activity below we invite you to think why we need a
special system for recording sounds on paper that is different from the
usual way we write English down.
Learning activity
Think about how words are pronounced in Received Pronunciation (RP) and
how they are recorded in writing (the authors are most familiar with British
English and RP, so unless we explicitly say so, this is the variety we have in mind;
RP and alternative terminology for the standardised accent associated with
Standard British English are discussed in Chapter 1 of (Roach, 2009). Look, for
example, at the underlined parts of the following words and say what sound they
correspond to: nation, ship, machine?
Now do the opposite: find the same letter or combination of letters and say what
sound it stands for in a number of different words, for example what is the sound
that corresponds to the letter ”u” in the following words: burn, cut, put?
Your answer to the first question above is that all the underlined
letters represent the same sound. And the second question hopefully
led you to conclude that the same letter can stand for a number of
different sounds. The point we wish to make is that we can’t rely on
spelling when we talk about how words are pronounced. Linguists
have developed a special system of symbols to indicate speech sounds
to avoid the problems that using conventional spelling leads to. This
system of symbols is called the International Phonetic Alphabet devised
by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) and the symbols used
are usually put together in the IPA chart. You can find the IPA chart
in Roach (2009, xii) or by accessing the website of the International
Phonetic Association. The sound in the words in the first question
above, for example, is designated by the symbol /ʃ/, whereas in the
34
second question the letter ”u” corresponds to the following sounds: /ɜ:/
in burn, /ʌ/ in cut, /ʊ/ in put. It is important, when discussing how words
are pronounced, not to be misled by how they are spelled.
Learning activity
English is notorious for its ‘difficult’ spelling, because there are many mismatches
between sounds and symbols like the ones we illustrated above. Are you familiar
with other languages and/or other scripts? Can you think of similar mismatches,
cases where there isn’t a perfect correspondence between sound and symbol?
Having introduced a system for transcribing sounds we will talk in

some detail about how they are produced and how the place and
manner of their articulation can be used to classify them into different
kinds. We start with a brief description of the organs that take part
in the production of sounds. There is more about this in Chapter 2 of
Roach (2009).
Speech organs
We use our bodies to pronounce sounds. This section is devoted to the
organs that contribute to this.
Learning activity
Before we describe the articulation of sounds, try to pronounce slowly and
distinctly a few simple English words like my, go, read, mum. Observe what
happens in your body: what organs help you pronounce these words? Are you
aware of the different sounds that form the words? Which of them can you make
longer? Why is it difficult to lengthen some sounds (the first sound in go, for
example) but easy to lengthen others (the first sound in my, as well as the second
sounds in both go and my)?
Speech sounds are vibrations, or waves, transmitted most frequently

through air, although they can be transmitted through other media, for
example liquid (research suggests that babies can hear speech sounds
in the womb and even start learning language while still in utero).
To produce speech sounds we propel air from our lungs through the
windpipe, the larynx and the vocal tract and then out via the nostrils
and/or mouth. We modify the sounds we make by modifying the
shape and mutual position of the organs used in speech production,
called articulators. The articulators are the pharynx, the soft palate
or velum, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge, the tongue, the teeth
and the lips. These organs have an important role to play in producing
speech sounds. For example, try to produce the sound /m/ and observe
closely what your mouth is doing. You will have noticed that to produce
/m/ you moved your lips together and pressed them to each other. As
you will see soon, it is for this reason that one of the characterisations
of /m/ is as a bilabial consonant (from the Latin bi- ‘two’ and labia
‘lips’). You will find a description of the articulators above the larynx in
Chapter 2 of Roach (2009).
35
Learning activity
What other sounds are produced by pressing the two lips together?
Look at the table in the IPA chart for pulmonic consonants. You will see in the top
row characterisations like bilabial, labiodental, dental. Try to pronounce some of
the consonants in the columns below each of these labels and link the way the
consonants are pronounced to the labels and to the articulators described above.
In the next section we will look at the distinction between vowel

sounds and consonant sounds.
Vowels and consonants

Try to pronounce the sound /b/. This is also a bilabial sound: you press
your lips together when making it. You may also notice that, unlike /m/,
it is difficult to ‘hold’ /b/, or to lengthen it. This is because to produce
this sound you need to create a complete closure in your mouth, build
up some air behind it, and then release this air. Now pronounce /a/.
This one should be easy to lengthen. Perhaps this is why if we need
to shout loudly we may choose to shout /a/, rather than /m/. When
you pronounce /a/ you don’t bring articulators into contact in your
mouth, the air can come out of your lungs and go out through your
open mouth fairly unobstructed. Sometimes scholars say that sounds
that are produced without obstructing the air flow are vowels, and
those that are produced by creating an obstruction for the airflow are
consonants. However, not all consonants are made by closing off the
airflow completely, as in the case of /b/. Try /w/: you don’t press any
articulators to each other in such a way that air cannot escape at all.
Compare /w/ with /ʊ/: the two are not all that different, perhaps.
Although obstructing the airflow (or not) remains an important way
to characterise sounds, it may not always solve the vowel versus
consonant dilemma. This is why linguists have suggested that the
real difference between vowels and consonants is not how they are
made, but rather how they work in language: whether they can go in
the beginning and/or end of words and what other sounds you can
combine them with. Take the following example: imagine a word that
begins with the sounds /dr/, for example dry. Try to come up with a
word that has one of the sounds /m/, /s/, /w/, after /dr/ for example.
Chances are that you can’t do it. At least not if you are a speaker of RP
English. And the reason for this is that English allows only very few
combinations of three consonants one after the other at the beginning
of words. You can have vowels after /dr/, though; for example in words
like dragon, drama, drop, druid, dredge and others.
Place and manner of articulation

When we asked you to pronounce sounds above we directed your
attention to two characteristics: what articulators are used (for
example, the two lips) and how the sound is made (for example, by
obstructing the air flow completely). The former is usually referred to as
place of articulation and the latter as manner of articulation. Speech
sounds are often described in terms of their place and manner of
articulation: this is indeed the approach in Chapter 3 of Yule (2020). So,
36
for example, sounds that are pronounced with the aid of the two lips
or at the place of the lips are bilabial, sounds that are pronounced with
complete closure of the articulators are called plosives.
Learning activity
Look at the table for pulmonic consonants again. This time look at the labels in
the first column. You will see that here sounds are characterised according to their
manner of articulation. Familiarise yourself with the meaning of the various labels
and try to pronounce the sounds in the table.
Given that vowels are pronounced (as a general rule) without obstruction in
the mouth, is it possible to characterise them in terms of place and manner of
articulation?
Pronounce carefully the sounds /f/ and /v/ trying to determine their place and
manner of articulation. Are any of them different for these two sounds?
When answering the question above you may have noticed two things:
that it is difficult to distinguish between vowels by appealing to place
and manner of articulation and that /f/ and /v/ have identical place and
manner of articulation (you can confirm the latter by referring to the
IPA chart). So we need to find out how to characterise vowels and what
distinguishes /f/ and /v/. We start with the latter in the next section.
Voicing
The difference in sound that you perceive in pairs of sounds like /f/ and
/v/, or /s/ and /z/ for example is due to different positions of the vocal
folds, or vocal cords which are found inside the larynx. When the vocal
folds are close together the passage of the air through them makes
them vibrate. Sounds produced with such vibration are voiced. When
the vocal folds are wider apart, the air passes through them without
causing vibration and the sounds produced are voiceless. You will find
this discussed in Chapter 3 of Yule (2020) and, in more detail, in Chapter
4 in Roach (2009).
Characterising vowels
For vowels (which are voiced) the passage of air through the mouth
remains relatively unobstructed. The sound is still made primarily in
a particular part of the mouth (front, middle or back) and the tongue
moves up and down, so it can be in a low, mid or high position. You can
test these for yourself. If you make an /ɪ/ sound like the one in the word
hit you should be able to tell how a high and front vowel is made. If you
make an /ɔ/ sound as in the word hot you should be able to tell how a
low and back vowel is made. You can read more about how vowels are
described in Chapter 3 of Yule (2020). Chapters 2 and 3 in Roach (2009)
will also be useful – they will help you extend your knowledge and get
fuller explanations of some points.
As often happens in linguistics, the two books (and others you may
come to read) do not always agree. Some of the ways in which speech
sounds, as well as other aspects of language, are described remain
the object of ongoing debate and research. This is not something to
worry about. You only need to understand the points in the debate and
appreciate why a controversy exists.
37
Variation in speech sounds and the notions of

phoneme and allophone
So far we have talked about speech sounds as if they are easy to
pinpoint and remain constant as we speak. This is not the case. When
we articulate words we don’t pronounce every /p/ or every /ɪ/ in the
same way. But we perceive them to be the same. Let’s try to illustrate
this point. Try to pronounce carefully and emphatically the word pot
and the word spot. Pay particular attention to the sound /p/ in the two
words. You might notice that when you say pot there is a little puff
of air right after the /p/. You can put a hand in front of your mouth to
try and feel it. The puff of air should disappear when you pronounce
spot. The sound /p/ appears to have two variants in English: one at
the beginning of words with a puff of air or aspirated, and another
after /s/ which is unaspirated (the actual distribution is a bit more
complicated, but we need not go into it here). If we want to transcribe
the two sounds to this level of detail we would normally transcribe
the aspirated sound like this: [p] and [ph]. What will happen if you
pronounce the word pot with an unaspirated [p] and the word spot
with an aspirated [ph]? Nothing very dramatic. You will be understood,
although native speakers of British English will probably think they can
detect a slight accent. In fact, if you are a non-native speaker you might
well be pronouncing all your p-sounds without aspiration or vice versa
because in some languages that’s how they are articulated. There are
languages, however, like Hindi for instance, where the aspiration of
sounds like /p/ makes a great deal of difference: if you substitute one
for the other you get a different word. Because in Hindi substitution
leads to change of meaning, we say that in that language /p/ and /ph/
are different phonemes. By contrast, in English we would say that [p]
and [ph] are allophones of the same phoneme.
Learning activity
• Linguists have a test for identifying phonemes in particular languages: the
minimal pair test. To establish whether two speech sounds are phonemes
or allophones in a particular language you try to find two words that are
pronounced exactly the same except for one sound and have a different
meaning. If you can, then what you are dealing with are phonemes. For
example /bɪt/ and /pɪt/ are a minimal pair in English because having /b/ or
/p/ makes a difference to the meaning of the word. In English the length
of the vowel is similarly meaning changing so /ɪ/ and /iː/ are two different
phonemes. Try to find another minimal pair to show that this is the case.
• Different languages may have different phonemes. Can you think of any
examples? Try to show that you are right by coming up with appropriate
minimal pairs in the two languages.
Identifying phonemes is no longer about just the physical properties

of sounds: it is also about how physical properties of sounds are
integrated in the grammar of languages. The role sounds play in the
grammar of a language is no longer a matter for phonetics, however. It
is part of another area of linguistics: phonology. It is this area that we
will discuss in the next chapter.
38
Learning outcomes
• discuss and demonstrate the difference between pronunciation and
spelling
• use transcription symbols for phonemic transcription and
demonstrate familiarity with the IPA chart
• discuss using appropriate terminology how speech sounds are
characterised in phonetics and phonology
• understand and be able to discuss the distinction between
phonetics and phonology.

1. Discuss the distinction between phonetics and phonology. To
what extent and how are these two disciplines relevant to the
grammatical descriptions of language?
2. How do linguists describe the consonants of a language?
39
Notes
40
Chapter 5: Sounds and grammar
Essential reading
[ISBN 9781137545718] Chapters 5 and 11.
Cambridge University Press, 2009) fourth edition [ISBN 9780521717403]
Chapters 8 and 14.
Further reading
See also the remaining chapters in Roach, P. English Phonetics and
Phonology: A practical course. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2009) fourth edition [ISBN 9780521717403].
Introduction
In the previous chapter we started talking about the place sounds
have in grammatical description. As you saw, just describing properties
of sounds is not sufficient. Languages utilise these properties in
different ways. For example, some languages make certain distinctions
like aspiration significant (for example, Hindi) and others don’t
(for example, English). The discipline that looks at how sounds are
integrated in the grammar of a language is called phonology. It is
phonology that we will talk about in this chapter.
Learning activity
• You are already familiar with a very important phonological notion: the
phoneme. Please review this notion and extend your reading about it as
appropriate.
• Remind yourself also of the minimal pairs test. You will find material on this
in Chapter 4 of Yule (2020).
The next phonological notion that we want to discuss is that of

phonological words.
Phonological words
We will start this section with a learning activity. We hope that this
activity will show you that, as a speaker of English, you already have a
lot of knowledge about phonological words.
Learning activity
• Consider the putative English words below. Which of them, do you think, are
words of English, which could be words of English that you simply don’t know,
and which in your opinion could never be English words:
a. hlend
41
b. lend
c. pend
d. fremz
e. mzee
f. ndee?
You probably included lend in the list of English words, pend and fremz you
probably thought are possible but not actual English words (accidental gaps
as Yule (2020) calls them), and hlend, mzee and ndee you probably included in
the list of words that can’t possibly be English words.
• Now check whether other speakers of English agree with your judgements.
When you make judgements about possible and impossible words

in a language you are using your (unconscious) knowledge of what
sounds are permitted next to each other in that language. For example,
consonants can’t follow the sound /h/ in English (so much so that
Roach (2009, 10) takes this to be a definitional property of consonants).
This is why you excluded the word hlend from the list of possible
English words. This is not an inherent property of these sounds,
however. Russian is perfectly happy to put them next to each other in
the word xlopok ‘cotton’, for example.
Learning activity
If you speak languages other than English, try to think of sound combinations
that are permitted in those other languages but not in English (or vice versa).
The possible patterns of sounds are often called their distribution, or

perhaps more frequently, are referred to by the term phonotactics. To
know a language means to know its phonotactics. And in fact we hope
that the little experiment above has shown you that all speakers of
English do know this (although of course one has to be mindful of the
fact that bilingual speakers might transfer knowledge of one language
to another, and that English is not one uniform entity but in fact a
collection of varieties).
Phonotactic constraints are, in fact, quite complex. You might have
thought that the putative word ndee is not really a possible word of
English because a combination of sounds like /nd/ is not allowed. But it is:
it occurs in lend. A more precise statement will be that /nd/ is not allowed
at the beginning of words, but is allowed at the end of words. Even more
precise descriptions of English will have to use the notion of syllable
when explaining phonotactics. For example, to explain the distribution
of the sound /ŋ/ in English, we have to be able to say that it does not
appear at the beginning of syllables. It is the syllable that we will turn
to next. Before we do that, however, a brief note: sometimes languages
borrow words from other languages. In general, a language will try to
modify borrowed words to fit its own sound patterns, but this could
take some time. In the meantime, a word might stick out and remain a
bit awkward. This is the case with the word mzee in English. The Oxford
Dictionary online (http://oxforddictionaries.com/) will tell you that this
word was borrowed from Kiswahili and means ‘an older person, an elder’.
To express phonotactics even more precisely, we often need the notion
of syllable. It is this notion that we turn to next.
42
Syllable
Vowels are quite central to the notion of syllable. For a syllable we
need at least a vowel (or diphthong). There are words that consist of
just one syllable made of just one vowel. The first person pronoun
I is an example of one such word. In general, we don’t have words
consisting of just a consonant, although in some languages some
consonants can be syllabic. And in English we can say to a noisy child
/ʃʃʃʃ/ or sometimes confirm we are listening by saying /mmmm/ (as
you will see when reading Chapter 8 in Roach (2009)). Very often
syllables are made up of a vowel and one or more consonants. The
most prototypical syllable has the structure CV – one consonant
followed by one vowel – and in some languages such as Japanese this
is the predominant syllabic structure, as noted by Yule (2020). However,
other syllabic structures are also possible, for example CVC, or CCV,
or CCVC, or even CCCVC. Different languages might impose different
constraints on what sounds can go at the beginning (the technical
term is onset) or at the end (the technical term is coda) of syllables.
For example, only some consonants are allowed in a CCCV syllable
in English (a sequence of more than one consonant is often called
consonant cluster). You can read more about this in Yule (2020).
Learning activity
• Are there restrictions on the distribution of consonants in syllable codas? You
will find Chapter 8 in Roach (2009) useful here.
• One important question is how to divide words into syllables; in particular,
when there is one consonant or more at the border of two syllables within a
word, how does one decide which syllable the consonant should go to? Read
about this in Roach (2009) (see Section 8.3 in particular). Try to write down
in your own words the principles behind the segmentation of words into
syllables.
• Try to identify the onset, nucleus (peak) and coda in the following words:
drum, dream, screech.
We rarely say sounds in isolation. Sounds are run together as parts of

words, which are also rarely pronounced in isolation but run together
in sentences. In connected speech, our speech organs prepare for the
next words while they are still producing the previous ones. And as a
result one sound in one word can affect the sound in a neighbouring
word. A number of such changes are possible. Here we will describe
briefly only one, but you should read about this in the sources
mentioned in the reading sections above.
Sounds in connected speech

If you are saying a word that ends in /s/ or /z/ and this is following
a word that begins with /ʃ/ or /j/ the final /s/ tends to turn into /ʃ/
whereas the final /z/ tends to turn into /ʒ/. This should be clearer in
an example, given by Roach (2009, 111). In connected speech ‘this
shoe’ might end up being pronounced [ðIʃ ʃuː], whereas ‘those years’
might sound [ðɘʊʒ jIɘz]. When changes like this happen it is as if
one sound has become more similar, or has assimilated to another.
43
The phenomenon is called assimilation. You can read more about

assimilation in Yule (2020) and in more detail in Roach (2009). The
examples we used here come from the latter source.
In this chapter we talked about the sound patterns of English. We
started talking about words as well. Our focus here was phonological
so we discussed what words are possible in English. In the next chapter
we will start talking about words in more detail: we will talk first about
how they are built before focusing more on their meaning.
Learning outcomes
• discuss the central notions of phonology, for example phoneme,
allophone, syllable
• demonstrate understanding of phonotactics and be able to discuss
some of the phonotactic constraints of English
• demonstrate understanding of the principles governing the division
of English words into syllables.

1. Discuss the distinction between phonetics and phonology. In what
way do these areas of study contribute to our understanding of how
languages work?
2. Discuss, giving appropriate English examples, the notion of
allophone. Why is this notion important to a grammatical
description of a language?
44
Chapter 6: The grammar of words
Essential reading
[ISBN 9781474428972].
2020) seventh edition [ISBN 9781108499453] Chapters 5–7.
Further reading
Bauer, L. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2003) second revised edition [ISBN 9780748617050].
Booij, G. The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Morphology. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2012) third edition [ISBN 9780199691838].
Plag, I. Word-Formation in English. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2018) second edition [ISBN 9781316623299]. [OL]
Introduction
Our aim in this part of the course is to introduce you to the ways in
which linguists study the structure of words. The field of linguistics that
deals with word structure is called morphology. In the next chapter
we will look at how words are combined into sentences. The field that
deals with sentence structure is called syntax.
Sometimes the two areas together are called grammar. The term
grammar, however, has many uses. One linguistic dictionary, for
example, lists the following definitions:
1. The branch of linguistics dealing with the structures of words
and sentences, commonly divided into morphology (word
structure) and syntax (sentence structure).
2. Any particular approach to this study. This is the sense found in
labels like traditional grammar and transformational grammar.
3. A particular description of the grammatical facts of a language.
4. A book containing such a description.
(Trask, 2000, 61)
This dictionary entry reminds us that we can approach the study of
grammar in many different ways. Indeed, there have been various
approaches to language study through the centuries, and there are a
number of approaches that linguists explore today. In this guide we try
to be as neutral as possible, but in your reading you will probably come
across a number of grammatical frameworks and theories.
One distinction, though, is very important and we want to highlight
it here. All modern approaches to the study of language strive to be
45
descriptive. What this means is that they try to study language as

they find it in the actual speech of actual people, or in written texts.
Sometimes linguists rely on their own knowledge of a particular
language, that is, they rely on their linguistic intuitions.
In previous centuries, however, and especially in eighteenth-century
England, scholars of language often adopted a prescriptive approach.
This means that they disapproved of certain ways of speaking and
tried to correct them, or in other words to prescribe the right usage.
One example of this is the famous admonition not to split infinitives
in English. You can find other similar examples in the discussion in
Chapter 7 of Yule (2020).
Learning activity
• In your opinion, why do contemporary linguists reject prescriptivism? Is
there any area of language practice where prescriptive approaches might be
justified?
• Has language use ever been ‘prescribed’ to you (for example, have you been
told not to use double negatives, not to begin a sentence with a conjunction,
etc.)? In what context? How was the prescription justified?
Reading advice
Before we go on to discuss morphology in more detail, a word on the
required reading. We suggest that you read first through Yule (2020)
as this is the more accessible source. You might then wish to read all
the way through Carstairs-McCarthy (2018) once, without taking notes.
Then work your way through this chapter. As you go along, go back to
your reading and try to think about the notions and issues discussed in
more depth.
The notion of word

As we said, one of the concerns of grammarians is to establish what
words are made of. Before we try to find out what the building blocks
of words are, however, we need to point out that the notion word itself
is difficult to define.
Learning activity
• Are cat and cats one word or two?
• What about cat, catty and catcall: one, two, three words or more? And how
many words are there in catty and catcall?
• How many words are there in ‘It’s raining cats and dogs’?
One reason there are difficulties with the notion of word is that we use
it for a number of distinct phenomena. To solve this problem linguists
have introduced some other terms that can help distinguish the
different linguistic units illustrated above. (We will continue to use the
term word rather loosely, when it isn’t crucial to make the distinctions
we explain here, or when we don’t want to commit ourselves to a
particular categorisation.) Cat and cats for example, seem to refer to
the same type of object in the world (a small animal with four legs
that people often keep as a pet, according to the Longman Dictionary)
46
but one of the words has an added -s which indicates ‘more than one’.
Because cat and cats mean the same and belong to the same word
class (both are nouns), linguists say that they belong to the same
lexeme. They are different forms of that lexeme, however; one for
singular and one for plural. In other words, they are different word-
forms of the same lexeme. A lexeme, then, is an abstract kind of word
which comprises a number of actual instantiations, or word-forms. You
will find these concepts discussed in more detail in Carstairs-McCarthy
(2018).
Cat and catty, on the other hand, mean different things: one is a noun
and the other is an adjective; one refers to a small animal and the other
to the quality of being unkind or mean (as in a catty remark). We would
not want to say that cat and catty belong to the same lexeme.
So to solve the ambiguity of the notion word, linguists have come up
with other, more narrowly defined terms. Apart from lexeme and word-
form, you will also come across notions like grammatical word, lexical
item, phrasal word and others. There is a discussion of these notions
at the beginning of Chapter 4 of Yule (2020) and also in Chapter 10 of
Carstairs-McCarthy (2018).
Derivation
Cat and catty may not belong to the same lexeme, but they are clearly
related since catty contains cat-. We usually say that catty is derived
from cat. But what about the -ty in catty? It cannot stand on its own, so
it cannot be a word itself. And yet we can find it in other words: mousy,
rabbity, snaky, spidery, nerdy, officery. (These examples are taken from
Adams (2001). Note that according to the spelling rules of English
the word catty has a double “tt” but we ignore this here.) We also
recognise that it means roughly ‘like’ – ‘like a mouse’, ‘like a rabbit’, etc.
And -y is not an isolated phenomenon. In words like reopen, reorganise,
repopulate, redo we find the string re- which cannot stand on its own,
but appears in a large number of words and means something like ‘do
again’.
We need a name for this unit of language which can be more than a
sound, but is less than a word. Linguists call such units morphemes.
Some morphemes only go at the end of words (like -y) and they are
called suffixes, and some, like re-, only go at the beginning of words,
and they are called prefixes. A general term for both suffixes and
prefixes is affix. Affixes are attached to stems (so cat- in catty is, strictly
speaking, in morphological terms a stem). Stems themselves can be
complex, for example catty- is the stem in cattily and cattiness.
Morphemes that cannot be used on their own are called bound
morphemes, whereas those that can are called free morphemes.
Learning activity
• How many morphemes are there in the following words:
1. respond 2. warmth 3. deceive 4. entry.
Try to identify them as prefixes, suffixes and stems. Which are free and which
are bound?
47
• We haven’t discussed the word catcall. Do you think this word also consists of
a base and an affix? Why/why not?
• Morphological processes like affixation are often used to create new words
out of old ones. When does the need for a new word arise?
The process of creating lexemes out of other lexemes by adding affixes

to them is called derivation. But this is not the only word-formation
process in English. Other processes which you will learn about from
your reading are compounding, blending, clipping, backformation,
conversion. And word-formation is not the only way to enrich the
vocabulary of a language. The word stock of all languages is also
expanded by borrowing words from other languages, or simply by
inventing completely new words from scratch.
Learning activity
The following are reported as new words recently added to the English
vocabulary by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). Try to describe the
morphological process (if any) by which they have been created.
vuvuzela a long horn blown by fans at soccer matches in South

Africa
staycation a holiday spent in one’s home country rather than
abroad, or one spent at home and involving day trips to
local attractions
microblogging the posting of very short entries or updates on a blog or
social networking site, typically via a mobile
defriend another term for unfriend; namely remove (someone)
from a list of friends or contacts on a social networking
site
geoengineering the deliberate large-scale manipulation of an
environmental process that affects the earth’s climate, in
an attempt to counteract the effects of global warming
dubstep a form of dance music, typically instrumental,
characterised by a sparse, syncopated rhythm and a
strong bassline.
cheeseball a person who lacks taste, style, or originality

We haven’t mentioned compounding yet, but it is an important word-
formation process of English. To learn more about it you can start with
the explanation in Chapter 5 in Yule (2020) and then go on to read
Chapter 6 in Carstairs-McCarthy (2018).
Learning activity
Summarise the distinction between compound words (like blackboard, or
greenhouse) and phrases (like black board, or green house). Although we often
write compound words as one word and phrases with spaces between the
words, is this a reliable criterion to use when trying to distinguish between them?
Why/why not?
Earlier in this chapter we said that cat and cats refer to the same entity
in the world and, since they mean the same and belong to the same
48
word class, they are not two different lexemes but rather word-forms
of the same lexeme. However, we didn’t try to explain the difference
between them in more detail. We come back to this in the next section.
Inflection
You can probably guess by now that we would like to call the -s at the
end of cats a morpheme. It is in fact a bound morpheme because it
cannot be used on its own. If we add the morpheme -s to an English
noun we get the plural of this noun.
Compare the following dog and dogs, bag and bags, exercise and
exercises. We say that the noun is inflected for plural. Morphological
processes like the addition of the plural affix -s that create forms of
lexemes rather than new lexemes fall under the label of inflection.
Inflection is frequently expressed in languages via affixes, just
like derivation. Inflection, however, serves to signal more abstract
meanings which are often called grammatical meanings. In many cases,
we can link inflection to the place and function of words in sentences.
For example, a present tense verb in English has to agree with a third
person singular subject by the addition of the morpheme -s, as in The
cat sits on the window sill all day. Inflection never changes the word
class of a lexeme, so verbs remain verbs after being inflected, nouns
remain nouns, and so on.
As in derivation, affixation is not the only morphological process
associated with inflection. For example, the past tense of many English
verbs is expressed through a regular affixation process; compare arrive
with arrived, pack with packed, wave with waved and many others. We
would often say that past tense is expressed via the addition of a past
tense morpheme (often spelled “-ed”). In some verbs, however, the past
tense is expressed via changes in the root vowel, for example in sit and
sat, run and ran. Your reading will help you familiarise yourself with
other inflectional processes.
49
Learning activity
• When we have changes to the root vowel, is it appropriate to talk about a past
tense morpheme?
• We have mentioned some of the grammatical meanings that are regularly
expressed morphologically for various word classes in English. For example,
we pointed out that English nouns have plural forms, whereas English verbs
have past tense forms. But we were not exhaustive in our description. What
other morphological forms are associated with verbs, adjectives and adverbs?
• Derived words can also be inflected and when they are, the derivational
suffixes are usually closer to the stem than the inflectional ones. Look at the
examples below and analyse the words into stems, derivational affixes and
inflectional affixes:
• reestablished
• undid
• parliamentarisms
• enlarging.
• Did you encounter any difficulties in your analysis?
We have discussed morphemes, but we glossed over some

complexities which we would like to focus on more here. We said,
for example, that the plural of most English nouns is expressed by
the addition of the suffix -s. Using spelling in this case is misleading,
however. Generally, when we discuss words and morphology we have
to be careful not to allow spelling to lead our judgements. In the next
section we turn our attention to the fact that a single morpheme might
come in several slightly different forms.
Morphemes and allomorphy

If we pay close attention to how words are actually pronounced, we
should realise that plural is expressed not by the addition of one
uniform -s, but rather by the addition of one of a small number of
(similar) sounds.
Learning activity
Listen carefully to the sounds at the end of the following pairs of nouns:
Singular Plural
cat cats
rock rocks
tap taps
dog dogs
play plays
toad toads
house houses
crutch crutches
badge badges
What is the sound at the end of the plural noun in the second column?
Your answers might depend a little on the variety of English you speak.
50
In standardised British English pronunciation the sound at the end

of cats, rocks and taps is /s/, at the end of dogs, toads and plays is /z/
and at the end of houses, crutches and badges is /iz/. The more general
rule here has to refer to phonology: after a voiceless consonant we
have a voiceless consonant, after a vowel or a voiced consonant we
have a voiced consonant, and after a sibilant (that is, after /s/, /z/, /ʃ/,
/tʃ/ or /dʒ/) we have /Iz/. So phonologically, we have three different
realisations of the plural morpheme. We can predict which realisation
will appear if we know the final sound of the stem that we are adding it
to. And in all cases the meaning is the same: ‘more than one’. In all cases
we want to say that the noun has been inflected for plural number. The
way linguists get round this complication is to say that we are dealing
with one morpheme, but with three different forms of that morpheme.
These forms are called allomorphs. In this case we have phonologically
conditioned allomorphy. A more general term for a specific realisation
of a given morpheme is morph. In other words, just like the phoneme,
the morpheme is an abstract unit. The issue of allomorphy is touched
upon in Chapter 6 of Yule (2020) and is also discussed in Carstairs-
McCarthy (2018), see for example Sections 3.4–3.5.
Learning activity
• The past tense morpheme (usually spelled -ed) also exhibits allomorphy. Make
a dataset of English past tense verbs (try to include verbs that end in different
consonants and verbs that end in vowels) and identify the allomorphs of -ed.
• What about other ways of indicating plural like oxen (the plural of ox)
or phenomena (the plural of phenomenon). Would you say that these
are allomorphs of the plural morpheme, or that they are separate plural
morphemes? Why/why not?
• In this chapter we have used the term stem, but in your reading you will
probably find base and root used as well, sometimes with very similar
meanings. It is a good idea to pay close attention to how these terms are
used and defined by different authors. Use a dictionary of linguistic terms to
familiarise yourself with a range of available definitions.
• Create a dataset of words that contain -able or -ible; for example, comfortable,
durable, changeable, edible, understandable, corruptible, convertible, discernible.
Do you think we are dealing with one morpheme here, or with more than one
morpheme? How did you decide? Remember to think of pronunciation, rather
than spelling.
Derivational affixes are often explained in terms of what words they attach to
(for example, verbs) and what words they produce (for example, nouns). The
suffix -ment, for example, derives nouns out of verbs: achieve – achievement,
appoint – appointment, entice – enticement. Choose some other derivational
affix of English, collect examples containing that affix and try to determine
what words it attaches to and what words it produces.
Learning outcomes
• demonstrate an understanding of the theoretical notions used in
the study of word structure in English and be able to discuss them
using appropriate examples
51
• demonstrate a good knowledge of the basic word-formation and

inflectional processes of English
• demonstrate the skills to conduct morphological analyses over
datasets from English
• discuss the debates and difficulties in the study of morphology.

1. Discuss the distinction between inflection and derivation. Is this a
necessary and valid distinction in the study of word structure? Why/
why not? Support your answers with examples.
2. The morpheme is often defined as ‘the smallest meaningful unit of
language’. Is this a good definition? Support your argument with
examples.
3. a. Below is a list of English words. Analyse these words into
their constituent morphemes and determine whether these
morphemes are stems, prefixes or suffixes. What difficulties did
you encounter in your analysis?
i. predetermine
ii. prejudge
iii. preconceive
iv. deceive
v. receive
vi. ran.
b. Using your analyses as a reference point, discuss more generally
the notion of morpheme.
52
Chapter 7: The grammar of sentences
Essential reading
Burton-Roberts, N. Analysing Sentences: An Introduction to English Syntax.
(London: Routledge, 2016) fourth edition [ISBN 9781138947344]
Chapters 1–5 and 11.
Further reading
Börjars, K. and K. Burridge Introducing English Grammar. (London:
Routledge, 2019) third edition [ISBN 9781138635319].
(London: Routledge, 2016) fourth edition [ISBN 9781138947344]
Chapters 6–10.
Eggins, S. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. (London and
New York: Continuum, 2004) second edition [ISBN 9780826457868].
Tallerman, M. Understanding Syntax. (London and New York: Routledge,
2015) fourth edition [ISBN 9780415746984].
Introduction
In the last chapter we looked at words, discussing them in ways that
seemed to suggest that words can be studied in isolation of the
context in which they are used. There is, of course, a lot that can be said
about words in this way, although some of the topics we discussed
(like inflectional morphology) are linked to their behaviour in larger
structures. People don’t use words in isolation, they use them in
sentences. In this chapter we will look at the rules that govern sentence
construction.
Before we start, it is important to underline that syntax is a large area
of linguistic enquiry. Within it, there are many theories with different
views on fundamental issues, controversies and unresolved problems.
Even in a discussion of the fundamentals, like the one here, we have
made some choices (for example, about the terminology we have
used) that other sources might disagree with. We have tried to keep our
exposition as theory-neutral as possible and have attempted to select
required reading sources that are also largely neutral. In the further
reading section we have included books that are more open about
their affiliations to theory; for example, some of the sources here tend
to adhere more to a generativist school of thought (this is perhaps
the most widespread way of thinking about syntax and language, and
you can read about some of its fundamental tenets in Radford (2009)),
while others introduce a more functional approach; for example,
Eggins (2004) presents Systemic Functional Grammar which is often
used by discourse analysts and applied linguists.
53
Structure
First, we need to convince you that there are indeed rules, and words
are not just put together randomly. Let’s take a small collection of
words like the ones in (1):
(1) a. good
b. dogs
c. bad
d. hit
e. boys.
Imagine we asked you to make a sentence out of this collection of
words. If there are no rules, then you should be able to put the words in
any order whatsoever and get good sentences. For example, all of the
following should be good sentences:
(2) a. Good bad hit boys dogs.
b. Bad hit good dogs boys.
c. Dogs boys hit good bad.
d. Bad boys dogs hit good.
You would probably agree that these sentences sound odd and you
are unlikely to hear them or read them: they are ungrammatical. In
linguistics ungrammatical examples are usually prefixed with an
asterisk as shown in (3) below:
(3) *Good bad hit boys dogs.
What these ungrammatical sentences tell us is that there are some
ways of putting words together that appear to be illegitimate, that is,
they break some rules. To decide what the rules are, linguists usually do
a number of things: they look at sentences out there in the real world,
sentences they find in books and newspapers or on the web, or hear
from those around them and try to describe what is possible. They also
play with sentences like we did above to find out what is impossible.
For instance, to describe what is wrong with example (3) we might say
that adjectives (like good and bad) need to be placed before nouns
(like boys and dogs) and can’t be placed before verbs (like hit). Any rule
we decide to formulate is a hypothesis: we need to keep looking at
sentences and manipulate them to see whether our hypothesis stands.
What we wanted to convince you of here is that words cannot be put
together randomly. Some words need to be placed before or after
some others.
Learning activity
• Take a short English sentence (for example, ‘I put the flowers on the table with
effort’) and try to move the words around. Are there words that seem to stick
together?
• In this same sentence, are there words or groups of words that you can omit
and still have a good sentence; that is, are there parts of the sentence that are
not obligatory?
54
Certain words tend to group themselves together and stick to each

other. By that we mean that they are often found together in sentences
and can be hard to separate.
Adjectives and nouns, for example, are often found together. In
English, adjectives, if present, are placed before and not after nouns.
Linguists call stable groupings of words phrases and use special tests
(constituency tests) to uncover them. Before we develop the idea that
there is a level of structure between the word level and the sentence
level, that is, that there are phrases, we need to pause for a moment
and talk about syntactic categories of words (or, as the traditional label
would have it, parts of speech).
Syntactic categories
We have been talking about nouns and adjectives, but we haven’t really
explained what these labels mean. You are probably familiar with such
labels from school or from studying foreign languages. Still, it might be
a good idea to remind yourself what they are and how we determine
what category a particular word belongs to. Modern linguistic
understanding of categories like verb, adjective, noun, determiner,
adverb, etc. might differ from what you have learnt before. What
category a word belongs to is both a morphological and a syntactic
issue, so you will see it discussed in books covering both areas. You have
probably already read a little bit about this topic in Chapter 7 of Yule
(2020). Now could be a good point to expand on this reading. You will
find material on this topic in Chapter 3 of Burton-Roberts (2016).
Learning activity
• Practise deciding on the syntactic category of words in sentences. For
example, determine the syntactic categories of the words in the following
sentences:
(4) a. The big red fox quickly ate the yellow chicken.
b. I put the flowers on the table with effort.
c. Deciding on syntactic categories is difficult.
• Give reasons for your decisions. Your arguments will probably be syntactic
(something like it is a noun because it can be modified by an adjective) and
morphological (it is a noun because it can have a plural form with -s). There are
also semantic arguments (it is a noun because it denotes a thing) but linguists
consider these to be least important because they are very unreliable.
Phrase structure
In the section above we made the point that there is a level of structure
that is intermediate between a sentence and a word. We didn’t develop
this idea in any great detail, however. We will try to do so here. Let’s
start with a very simple demonstration. Read the following sentence
aloud, pronouncing clearly, as if you are dictating it to someone and
want them to hear each part equally well:
(5) The big red fox quickly ate the yellow chicken.
You probably paused at various points as you were reading the
sentence. If you were reading very slowly, you might have paused at
each word boundary.
55
However, if you were a bit quicker, your pauses might have been at the
junctions indicated with vertical lines in (6):
(6) The big red fox | quickly ate | the yellow chicken.
It is very unlikely that you would have read this sentence with pauses at
other junctures, for example as in (7):
(7) The big red | fox quickly | ate the yellow | chicken.
What you are doing when reading like this is instinctively grouping
words in ways which make sense. The words the, big and red belong
with the word fox which they seem to modify. When reading you keep
them together because they seem to form some unit of meaning. But
these words act as a unit in other ways too. Imagine you were telling a
story about the big red fox that involved a number of sentences. After
a while you might get tired of repeating the big red fox all the time and
you might want to refer to the animal with just it, or he, or she, that is,
with a pronoun. You may then say something like:
(8) She quickly ate the yellow chicken.
The pronoun she is substituted for the whole group of words the big
red fox. If you tried to replace only the noun with a pronoun, the result
would be awkward:
(9) *The big red she quickly ate the yellow chicken.
This shows that the big red fox forms a unit, a constituent. In many
approaches to syntax you will see this unit called a phrase.
In most phrases one of the elements is more important, or prominent,
than any other. In our example this is the noun fox. One way to show
that this element is important is to show that it is obligatory while
the others are optional. If we omit the word fox from the sentence
the result will be ungrammatical (see (10-a)). If we omit the adjectives
big and red the sentence is still fine (see (10-b)). The most important
element of a phrase is called the head of the phrase.
(10) a. *The big red quickly ate the yellow chicken.
b. The fox quickly ate the yellow chicken.
At this point you will probably ask about the definite article the (the, a
and words similar to them like some or this are called determiners by
some grammars). It is difficult to skip the word the when we use it with
a singular noun (although it can be replaced by the indefinite article
a, for example). However, in the plural we can use a noun without
an article (Foxes eat yellow chickens) whereas we can’t use an article
without a noun. (Inevitably, we simplify things here. Some linguists
have advanced arguments that determiners, and not nouns, should be
heads. The arguments in favour and against are complex and go well
beyond the scope of our discussion, however. )
There are a number of ways to show what phrases a sentence consists
of. One widely accepted method is to use square brackets, for example
we could indicate our noun phrase (often abbreviated NP in linguistics)
in the following way:
(11) [NPThe big red fox] quickly ate the yellow chicken.
Another way to show phrases is to use trees. We will not try to analyse
the whole sentence here, but you will find plenty of examples in your
reading. We could draw a tree for our NP in the following way: (By
56
assuming that all the elements of the NP hang off one node we simplify
again. Your reading will introduce you to more sophisticated analyses.)
S
NP ...
Art Adj Adj Noun
the big red fox
Another way to say the same thing is to express it as a phrase

structure rule.
(12) NP → Art Adj Adj N
Phrase structure rules are re-write rules: they tell us that whatever is
to the left of the arrow can be re-written (or is the same) as whatever
is on the right. Trees tell us what the structure of sentences is. Phrase
structure rules can be interpreted as recipes for making sentences (or
generating them, as linguists often say).
Learning activity
• Practise finding the head in a few phrases, for example, the ones below:
(13) a. the fresh green grass
b. the very fresh green grass
c. quickly ate
d. very quickly ate
Draw trees and write phrase structure rules that show the structure of these
phrases. Are there any issues with deciding on the structure of phrases? Draw
on your reading here.
We introduced phrase structure using primarily the noun phrase to

exemplify the key concepts involved. However, you will learn about the
other phrases that can be found in English sentences, for example, verb
phrases (VPs), prepositional phrases (PPs) and others.
Constituency tests
In the previous section, we argued that the big red fox is some kind
of unit, or constituent of the sentence because we can replace this
whole group of words with a single pronoun. Pronoun substitution
can be used as a test to find constituents. But we need more tests.
One, because not all kinds of phrases can be replaced by pronouns.
And two, because some tests are unreliable in some circumstances,
or can give contradictory results as they can be sensitive to different
levels of structure. Here we will show one more test. You will find fuller
descriptions in your reading (for example, Chapter 1 in Burton-Roberts
(2016), or you can look up Chapter 5 in Tallerman (2015)).
To test for syntactic constituents we can use a particular sentence
structure of English: the cleft sentence. A cleft sentence is a sentence
that has the following schematic structure:
57
(14) It is X that Y.
Here are some examples of cleft sentences:
(15) a. It is the driver that wants to stop the car.
b. It is the car that has stopped.
c. It is John that Anna loves.
Cleft sentences allow us to emphasise certain elements of the
sentence. When we use a cleft sentence, there is an implicit contrast
which we can, of course, make explicit, as in:
(16) a. It is John that Anna loves, and not Billy.
But what is useful to us here is the fact that the unit that goes in the
slot indicated with X in (14) is a phrase. Let’s see what phrases we can
find in our old sentence using this test:
(17) a. It is the big red fox that quickly ate the yellow chicken.
b. It is the yellow chicken that the big red fox quickly ate.
c. It is quickly that the big red fox ate the yellow chicken.
Semantic roles and syntactic functions

So far we have learnt how to identify the constituents of sentences with
the help of constituency tests and have identified these constituents
as being a certain kind of phrase according to the head of the phrase.
However, there is more that can be said about constituents. They
perform functions in sentences. These functions (or the functional
analysis of sentences) will be one of the topics of this section. The
functions often correlate (but do not fully coincide) with certain
semantic relationships between the entities referred to by a sentence.
In other words, we can associate constituents of sentences with certain
semantic roles. We will start by presenting a sketch of these semantic
roles.
Compare the sentences in (18):
(18) a. John pushed Mary.
b. Mary pushed John.
c. Mary was pushed by John.
Sentence (18-a) describes a certain state of affairs where John
performed a certain action – that of pushing Mary. Mary was subjected
to that action. John is an agent, whereas Mary is what is known as a
patient of the event described by the sentence. Sentence (18-b) is very
similar to (18-a), but the word order is different. However, this different
word order in English makes all the difference. Now it is Mary who is
doing the pushing and is the agent, whereas John is the one being
pushed and is the sufferer, or patient, in the situation described. The
semantic roles of John and Mary change, and so does the syntactic
function performed by the NPs John and Mary. In (18-a) the NP John
is the subject of the sentence. How do we know? Your reading will
suggest some tests (see Burton-Roberts (2016) for example). One way
to know a subject of a sentence is to make it into a tag question and
identify the phrase that the pronoun in the tag refers to. If we turn (18-
a) and (18-b) into tags we will get the following:
(19) a. John pushed Mary, didn’t he?
58
b. Mary pushed John, didn’t she?

In (19-a) the pronoun refers back to John, whereas in (19-b) the
pronoun refers back to Mary.
At this point we might form the hypothesis that subjects are always
agents and agents are always subjects. Let’s examine (18-c) with this in
mind. Let’s identify the subject first, using the tag question test:
(20) Mary was pushed by John, wasn’t she?
The tag clearly refers to Mary. The NP Mary is the subject of (18-c). If
our hypothesis was right, Mary should also be the agent. But this is
not the case: the sentence represents Mary as the patient, not as the
agent in the state of affairs. (18-c) is a passive sentence. It means the
same as (18-a). You will find more on passive and active sentences in
your reading (for example Yule 2020, Börjars and Burridge 2019 and
elsewhere).
There are some topics which we will not cover here, but which will
become familiar to you from your reading. For example, we have
mentioned that adjectives modify nouns (or, in other words, give
some additional information about the entities denoted by the
nouns). You will learn that these are modifiers. There are other
modifiers in addition to adjectives. Apart from modifiers there are also
complements (see Chapters 2 and 5 in Burton-Roberts (2016), for
example).
For expositional purposes we have used noun phrases in this chapter,
but bear in mind that in many cases we have simplified the discussion
of the properties of noun phrases. You will learn more about noun
phrases, but you will also learn about prepositional phrases and
adjectival phrases; but most importantly, you will learn about verb
phrases.
The activities here and in the textbooks you read will help you not just
understand the theory, but also learn to apply the theoretical notions
to specific data. You can test some of your skills with the sample
examination questions below.
Learning outcomes
• demonstrate an understanding of the aims and purposes of the
study of syntax in contemporary linguistics
• discuss the structure of sentences in terms that are valid in
modern linguistics and support your analyses with valid syntactic
argumentation
• demonstrate skills of sentence analysis in terms of phrases, syntactic
functions, and semantic roles, present arguments to support your
analyses and explain any problematic points in the analysis
• demonstrate a good working knowledge of the structure of a
range of phrases of English (NP, VP, PP) and be able to draw phrase
structure trees to reflect these phrases.
59

1. Analyse the sentences below in terms of phrase structure:
a. The green box fell on the red table.
b. The children danced very well.
c. I saw the man with the glasses.
Explain how you reached your analysis. Comment on any
problematic points in the analysis.
2. Discuss the distinction between modifiers and complements. Use
appropriate English examples in your answer.
60
Chapter 8: The meaning of words
Essential reading
Riemer, N. Introducing Semantics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2010) [ISBN 9780521617413] Chapters 1–3 and 5.
Further reading
Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1986) [ISBN 9780521276436].
[ISBN 9781137571823] Chapter 9. [OL]
Murphy, M. L. Lexical Meaning. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2010) [ISBN 9780521677646].
Murphy, M. L. Semantic Relations and the Lexicon. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2008) [ISBN 9780521070584].
Introduction
In this chapter we move on to discuss meaning. The area of linguistics
that deals with meaning is called semantics. We will devote two
chapters to semantics: this is the first one and will deal mainly with the
meaning of words, or lexical semantics. The next chapter will focus
more on the meaning of sentences, or sentential semantics.
We will continue to talk about meaning in later chapters, namely in the
chapter Pragmatics and discourse. There we take up a slightly different
understanding of meaning and talk about how speakers use language
in specific situations to achieve their goals and what some of the
principles of efficient communication are. In other words, the notion of
meaning can have a number of different interpretations in linguistics.
To start getting acquainted with some of the ways meaning has been
talked about it might be useful to read Chapter 1 of Riemer (2010).
Although we have divided this guide to reflect the usual distinctions in
linguistics into areas of study (morphology, syntax, semantics, etc.), in
reality these divisions are sometimes difficult to make. There are many
areas where syntax and semantics have similar concerns or interface,
just like syntax and morphology do. So, although we have suggested
reading for each chapter, you will be able to bring some of your
reading from other chapters to the issues discussed here. We indicate
some instances of this, but you will probably notice many more.
61
The meaning of meaning

It is obvious to any speaker of a language that words mean things. If
asked what the word chair means, speakers will probably try to find an
object that they perceive to be a chair and will point to it. So in some
sense, words point to entities in the world. This is one way of looking
at the meaning of words: words relate to objects in the world. To put it
differently, the meaning of a word could be whatever entity or entities
it points to in the world (that is, the reference of a word). However, it
will be difficult to account for all words in this way. How about words
that seem to talk about non-existent things, like unicorns? Does the
word unicorn mean nothing just because there isn’t an actual object in
the world for it to refer to? And how about pairs of sentences like:
(1) a. The Morning Star is the Morning Star.
b. The Morning Star is the Evening Star.
The first of these sentences states something we can agree with but
will not find very informative. The second, however, might truly tell
us something we didn’t know before: that the two expressions the
Morning Star and the Evening Star actually refer to one and the same
entity, namely the planet Venus. So there must be something more to
meaning than reference: linguists call this sense. You can read more
about sense and reference in Riemer (2010, 90ff.). It would seem that to
account for the meaning of words we need both sense and reference.
It is important to point out, however, that the notions of sense and
reference to some extent overlap with some larger philosophical
debates about word meaning. Some scholars believe that meaning is
a relationship between linguistic units and the world out there. Others
think that linguistic units are related not to the real world, but rather
to the concepts we have in our minds. These are complex debates
and inevitably we can’t describe them here in much detail. However,
you will find more about this in the books listed in the further reading
section above. If you are interested in the philosophical debates
surrounding word meaning and meaning in language in general, we
also recommend Chapman (2006).
There is another distinction that can be made when it comes to
meaning: what Yule (2020) calls conceptual meaning and associative
meaning. Whereas conceptual meaning is a bit like reference,
associative meaning is something else: linguists sometimes call it
connotation. Associative meanings relate to the emotional and
evaluative elements we load words with. For example, you might
associate the word December with cold and long dark nights, or with
celebrations and presents, or indeed with heat and summer if you live
in the Southern hemisphere. Depending on your associations, you
might attach to the word December a generally positive or a generally
negative emotional force.
In the sections to follow, we outline some of the major approaches
to word meaning. This area of study often impinges on philosophy
and especially the philosophy of language. If you want to explore this
area further, you could start with Chapman (2006). For more in-depth
studies of lexical semantics we refer you to Cruse (1986) and Geeraerts
(2010).
62
One meaning or many

When we talk about the meaning of words, we often talk as if each
word has only one meaning. This is rarely the case. As we said before,
words are almost never used on their own. When we use them in
sentences they often display different meanings depending on the
context. Lexicographers try to collect all the different meanings of
words. A quick look in a dictionary should convince you that very
few words have only one meaning. A simple word like chair has
the following meanings according to the Oxford Dictionary Online
(adapted from the entry accessed 11.11.2011):
1. a separate seat for one person, typically with a back and four
legs.
• (the chair) short for electric chair
2. the person in charge of a meeting or of an organization (used as
a neutral alternative to chairman or chairwoman):
• she’s the chair of a research committee
• the post of a chairperson:
• he was due to step down after a three-year stint in the chair
3. a professorship:
• he held a chair in physics
4. chiefly British, a metal socket holding a rail in place on a railway
sleeper.
This ability of words to carry with them a number of meanings is called
polysemy and you can read more about this in Yule (2020) and in more
detail in Section 5.3 of Riemer (2010, 160ff.).
The last of these meanings listed in the example above might have
given you pause for thought. What do chairs we sit on and metal
sockets that hold rails on railway sleepers in place have in common?
When we look at the meanings listed in dictionaries we sometimes
see how one of them relates to another: the most important person
in a meeting (the chair) sits perhaps on a prominent chair. It is this link
between the different meanings that encourages us to talk about one
lexeme with a number of meanings. But at other times the meanings of
a word are so different that we don’t even want to say this is the same
word anymore. In such situations we might want to say that we are
dealing with more than one lexeme.
When we have two lexemes that sound the same/are spelled the same
but whose meanings appear to be totally unrelated to each other, we
talk about homonymy. You can read about this in Yule (2020) and in
more detail in Section 5.3 in Riemer (2010).
It is not always easy to decide whether we have polysemy or
homonymy.
Learning activity
Below you will find some meanings of bank the way they are listed in the
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. What we have not shown here,
however, is whether the dictionary listed these as the meanings of one
polysemous lexeme bank or whether some meanings belong to one lexeme bank1
63
and some to a second, homonymous lexeme bank2. Look at the meanings and
try to decide for yourself how they should be grouped and how many lexemes
you think we are dealing with here. Then check your intuitions with two or three
dictionaries. Did the dictionaries themselves treat bank differently?
a. a business that keeps and lends money and provides other financial
services
b. land along the side of a river or lake
c. a large mass of clouds or mist
d. a place where human blood, etc. is stored until someone needs it
e. a large number of machines, television screens, etc. arranged close
together in a row.
• Check a few other words in the dictionaries you have available to you. For
example, look up the nouns head, pool and tap. Do the dictionaries attribute
different meanings to these words, do they take different decisions with respect
to the distinction between polysemy and homonymy? Dictionaries usually
include introductory parts where they sometimes explain what principles were
behind the decision-taking process of the people who wrote them.
Polysemy is not always immediately obvious to speakers of a language.

Speakers are very attuned to context and use cues to home in so
quickly on the meaning that is needed in each particular case, that in
practice they don’t become aware of any of the irrelevant meanings.
The exception to this is humour: we often make puns and jokes that
exploit the multiplicity of meaning, or polysemy of words.
Meaning and lexical relations

If you were to ask a speaker of English to explain what a word like angry
means they might impersonate an angry person, or they might try to
define the property of being angry in some way, for example, by telling
you that someone who is angry is in a very agitated and unhappy
emotional state, might shout or want to throw things and that typically
the cause of all this is something they find unacceptable, immoral, etc.
But speakers are even more likely to offer words with similar meanings
like peeved, annoyed, upset, livid, outraged. Alternatively, they might try
to define angry by pointing out what it definitely does not mean, by
saying for example not calm, not serene.
In the last two instances, speakers will be exploiting the fact that some
words have almost the same meaning, and some have the opposite
meaning to each other; that is, they will be exploiting the fact that the
meanings of words can be related to each other. In many of the sources
you might come to read, such relationships between the meanings of
words are called lexical relations.
We mentioned two relations: that of similarity (the technical term
is synonymy) and that of contrast or oppositeness (the term is
antonymy).
With respect to synonymy, it is important to remember that languages
generally obey the law of economy: two words rarely have the same
meaning, there usually is something which sets synonyms apart. It
could be the degree to which they encode a certain property, for
example. Annoyed is less strong than angry which in turn is less strong
64
than livid. Apart from degree, two words with a similar meaning might
have different connotations; for example, plump is generally positive,
whereas fat is generally negative. Words may belong to different
registers; for example, peeved is informal whereas angry can be used
both in informal and in formal discourse; you are likely to find palpate
in medical discourse whereas touch is not marked in this way and can
appear anywhere, including in casual conversation. See Section 5.1.5 in
Riemer (2010, 150ff.) for further examples.
Learning activity
What distinguishes the synonyms below from each other? Use one of the
synonyms in a sentence. Can you substitute the other synonyms? Does the
substitution change the meaning of the sentence? Are there contexts where one
of the sentences is appropriate, but the same sentence with a synonym is not?
You may want to check your intuitions with a suitable dictionary.
a. clever, smart, bright, brilliant, brainy, cunning
b. walk, stroll, wander, stride, stagger
c. doctor, quack
d. violin, fiddle
e. tap, faucet.
As for antonymy, the important thing to remember here is that there

are different kinds of antonyms. There are pairs like open and closed
where the two words exhaust all the possibilities: if we don’t take
into account science fiction or metaphorical language, a door, for
example, is either closed or open. If we say that a door is closed then
it is not open, and if we say that it is open, then it can’t be closed.
This is different from pairs like hot and cold. If something, say a cup of
water, is not hot it may be the case that it is not cold either; it might be
lukewarm, for example. This distinction is expressed in Section 5.1.1 in
Riemer (2010) in terms of gradability: antonyms like open and closed are
non-gradable, whereas antonyms like hot and cold are gradable.
Learning activity
Examine the antonyms below. Are they gradable or non-gradable?
a. dead, alive
b. happy, unhappy
c. come, go
d. short, tall
e. thin, thick
f. black, white.
There are two more sense relations we would like to mention here:
hyponymy and meronymy.
Hyponymy is known as the ‘kind of’ relation. It obtains between words
like dog and animal – a dog is a ’kind of’ animal; if something is a
dog, it is an animal. Dog is called a hyponym of animal, and animal
is a superordinate of dog. You can read more about hyponymy in
Yule (2020) and in Section 5.1.3 in Riemer (2010, 142ff.). It is easy to
represent hyponymy with a tree structure like the one below:
65
animal
dog cat cow pig fish
poodle terrier hound spaniel collie
Meronymy, on the other hand, is the ‘part of’ relationship. Words like
arm and body are in a meronymic relationship: the arm is a part of
the body. The arm has parts itself: for example, the hand is part of the
arm. And the finger is a part of the hand. You can read more about
meronymy in Section 5.1.2 of Riemer (2010).
Learning activity
One of the properties of semantic relations is transitivity. You have probably
encountered this property in your reading already (for instance, in Riemer (2010,
141–142)). You can also look it up in glossaries of terms (Riemer (2010) has a
glossary) or in dictionaries of linguistic terms. Here is a very brief summary. Let’s
take a relation R and assume that A is in such a relation to B, and B is in such a
relation to C. If the relationship is transitive, then A will be in this relation to C.
Transitivity is not a property of lexical relations only. ‘Bigger than’ is a transitive
relation. If a number X is bigger than Y and Y is bigger than Z, then X is bigger
than Z.
Construct examples of hyponymy and meronymy, or take the examples we have
used above, and check whether hyponymy and meronymy are transitive.
Lexical relations are not the only way to talk about meaning, however.
Linguists have adopted a number of approaches, and we introduce you
to two of them next: componential analysis and prototypes.
Componential analysis
We discussed meaning in terms of sense and reference. In this section
we will talk about meaning in a somewhat different way. We will talk
about the meaning of a word as the sum of some smaller elements
or components. The easiest way to explain what we mean is to give
an example. Think about the meaning of the following words: man,
woman, boy and girl. What definitions can you formulate for the
meaning of each word? Here are definitions adapted from a popular
dictionary of English:
• man: an adult male human
• woman: an adult female person
• boy: a male child
• girl: a female child.
What we can see immediately is that there is something that is
common to all the definitions: being human. The definition of man
makes this explicit, but it is there in the other definitions too, because
‘human’ is something which is part of the meaning of both ‘person’
and ‘child’. We could say that ‘human’ is a component in the meaning
of all these words. The definitions of man and woman share another
66
component, again made explicit by the dictionary: that of being adult.

By contrast, both boy and girl contain the component ‘child’ (in other
words, NOT adult). Man and boy share the component male, whereas
woman and girl share the component female. We can summarise this
visually in the following way:
human adult female
man + + –
woman + + +
boy + – –
girl + – +
We have represented each of our components as a binary feature,
that is, a feature that could have one of two values: + or – . This is
possible because male can be represented as ‘not female’ and ‘adult’
can be represented as ‘not child’. However, which label we choose
for our components is arbitrary; we could have just as easily used a
component +/– child, or +/– male.
Learning activity
Propose a componential analysis of words that name various types of
publications, for example: article, book, pamphlet, leaflet, monograph, newspaper,
magazine, journal. Did you encounter any difficulties? How about words like
angry, annoyed, amused, perplexed, livid, furious?
From your reading, try to list some shortcomings of this approach to lexical
semantics.
You will have seen from this activity and from your reading that
approaches to lexical semantics are not perfect. It is important to keep
this in mind as you explore this area of study.
Prototypes
Prototypicality is another way you can think about the meaning of
words. It is linked, to some extent, to the difficulties people might
have in constructing a definition of words which will describe their
meaning exactly and precisely (you might have had similar difficulties
with the task we set you above). Let’s take the word bird. When people
think of birds, they often think of flying. And yet there are birds that
can’t fly: penguins and ostriches for example. We also associate birds
with wings. But bats have wings (and fly) and yet they are not birds. So
even though some properties are thought to be very typical of birds, it
seems you can be recognised as a bird without having all of them, but
perhaps a less typical one. Difficulties with definitions aside, research
has shown that people quite consistently think of some representatives
of a certain category (like bird) as being more typical of it. For example,
you will see mentioned in Yule (2020) that for many speakers of English
the most typical bird is the robin. In other words, we could talk about
prototypical and less prototypical examples of a certain category.
Prototypicality can be a useful notion when you discuss colours as well.
We seem to have some idea of what a typical ‘red’ colour should look
like, what a typical ‘yellow’ colour should look like, etc. When faced
with a certain colour, we usually decide what to call it with reference to
67
these exemplary colours (prototypes) in our minds. Some shades are

not very clear examples, and we are aware of this: we talk about them
using words like reddish and yellowish. You can read about prototypes
in Yule (2020) and, again in more detail, in Chapter 7 of Riemer (2010).
But before you read about prototypes it might be useful to review what
Riemer (2010) says about definitions in Section 2.6.
Learning activity
Test the prototype theory on some of your friends and family. Make a list of
seven or eight vegetables, fruits, or trees. Then ask some of your friends and
family to rate the words on your list in terms of prototypicality. For example, they
might choose one of the elements on the list as ‘most prototypical’ and one as
‘least prototypical’ and then group the others into ‘very prototypical’, ‘not at all
prototypical’, etc. Once you have asked a number of people, you might find that
a consensus is emerging, namely, that many people agree which one is the most
typical and which one the least typical vegetable, fruit or tree. If you don’t have
access to a sufficient number of proficient English speakers you might have to
conduct this test in a different language. And your list might contain vegetables/
fruits/trees that are specific to your area or culture. That doesn’t matter: the
principle is the same.
In the last section we turn our attention not so much to an approach to

lexical semantics, as to the issue of what company words keep.
Collocation
Linguists have noticed that some words tend to appear next to (or
collocate with) certain other words. So, for example, if you want to
say in English that you will use toothpaste and a toothbrush to make
your teeth clean, it is more usual that you will say brush teeth rather
than clean teeth. In some languages, you will use a verb which is more
like clean than like brush. If you want to say that you will plan your
day, you will say make a plan rather than do a plan or some other verb.
Again, in some languages the verb used is more like do. To some extent
collocations are random and unmotivated. You can read more about
collocations in Yule (2020). Collocation is also discussed in Riemer
(2010, 57).
Learning activity
In the table below, indicate with a cross which adjective collocates with which
noun. You can double check your intuitions in a dictionary.
milk fish butter bread eggs

rancid
stale
addled
curdled
rotten

Speakers of English as an additional language may find collocations
especially difficult to master.
68
Learning outcomes
• discuss with reference to particular words the complexities around
the definition of ‘meaning’
• understand and discuss critically a number of approaches to lexical
semantics (sense and reference, prototypicality, compositional
analysis)
• demonstrate an ability to apply the notions and ideas present in
these approaches to data
• demonstrate more grounded theoretical understanding of how
dictionary entries are constructed and use dictionaries to check
intuitions about words or to construct interesting data sets
• demonstrate an increased sensitivity to words and their meanings,
especially in terms of the relations and distinctions between the
meanings of different words.

1. Explain how the notion of ‘prototype’ has been applied to word
meaning. What are the strengths and weaknesses of approaching
word meaning in terms of prototypicality?
2. Explain the distinction between sense and reference. Why do some
linguists believe that both sense and reference are necessary to
account for the meanings of words?
3. What relationships can you find between the meanings of the
following words (discuss each group separately):
a. building, house, mansion, apartment, shack, bungalow;
b. jump, hop, leap, skip;
c. friendly, hostile.
In each case, explain your reasoning. With reference to the examples
given here, are there things about the meaning of words that
cannot be explained through lexical relations alone?
If you don’t know the meaning of any of the words mentioned
above, please consult the following list of definitions from the
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English:
• apartment: a set of rooms on one floor of a large building,
where someone lives
• building: a structure that has a roof and walls, typically used for
people or animals to live and work in
• bungalow: a small house with one floor
• friendly: behaving towards someone in a way that shows you
like them and are ready to talk to them or help them
• hostile: angry and deliberately unfriendly towards someone and
ready to argue with them
69
• house: a building that someone lives in, especially one that has
more than one level and is intended to be used by one family
• hop: to move by jumping on one foot
• jump: to push yourself up in the air, or over and away from
something, etc. using your legs
• leap: to jump high into the air or to jump in order to land in a
different place
• mansion: a very large house
• shack: a small building that has not been built very well
• skip: to move forward with quick steps and jumps.
70
Chapter 9: The meaning of sentences
Essential reading
Saeed, J.I. Semantics. (Oxford: Wiley & Sons, 2015) fourth edition
Further reading
Hurford, J. R., B. Heasley, and M. B. Smith Semantics: A Coursebook.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) second edition
[ISBN 9780521671873] Chapter 4.
Introduction
In the last chapter we talked about the meaning of words. It is a
complex and important topic and, as you saw, it relates to interesting
and important philosophical questions about the link between words,
the outside world, and concepts in the mind. However, we don’t use
words on their own. We put words together in larger structures. In
grammar we call these larger structures sentences.
Sentences are not easy to define, as you will see if you open a
dictionary of linguistic terms like Crystal (2018). Very generally, though,
they are structural units; for example, we could say that they have a
subject and a predicate, or give other descriptions of their make-up, as
we did in the chapter on syntax. We often think of them as the largest
structural linguistic unit, the one which is not used to make up other
structural units. Our task in this chapter is to point out some of the
ways in which linguists have thought about the meaning of sentences.
After a chapter on word meaning, however, it will be fair of you to
ask: Isn’t it enough to know the meaning of words to understand the
sentences in which they come together? Our first task in the next
section will be to convince you that we need to devote some time to
sentences, rather than simply rely on knowing words. We will then talk
about what we mean when we talk about meaning, and discuss some
aspects of sentence semantics.
This is a vast subject, however. We have selected some readings (see
the Essential reading section above) that we expect you to go through,
and have suggested some where you can extend your knowledge
of the topic. We don’t expect you to cover everything in the Further
reading section, but we want to give you the opportunity to delve
deeper in the topics that interest you.
Words and sentences

Let’s come back to the question we posed above: is it enough to know
the meaning of words in order to know the meaning of sentences?
After all, as we saw in the chapter on the nature of language, we don’t
71
need to learn individual sentences when we learn to speak a language,

but we do need to learn words.
So why discuss what sentences mean? Think briefly of the following
pair of sentences:
(1) a. The lecturer teaches the student.
b. The student teaches the lecturer.
These two sentences are composed of the same words, but have
different interpretations. We can give more examples. Consider a
sentence like the following:
(2) Mary saw the man with the telescope.
This sentence has at least two interpretations, or meanings. On one of
these interpretations Mary sees a man, who is carrying a telescope. On
the other Mary is using the telescope to see the man (who is perhaps
too far to be seen with the naked eye).
These two interpretations do not depend on the meanings of the
words that make up this sentence, but rather on what structure we
assume the sentence has in each case. When we think of a structure
where the prepositional phrase with the telescope modifies man we
attribute the sentence the first meaning we mentioned. We sketch this
structure in (3) below.
(3) S
NP VP
Mary
V NP
saw
NP PP
the man with the telescope
Alternatively, we might assume a structure where the prepositional

phrase with the telescope modifies saw and then we arrive at the second
meaning we mentioned above. We sketch this alternative structure in
(4) below:
(4) S
NP VP
Mary
VP PP
V NP with the telescope
saw the man

Given these observations, we must conclude that the meaning of
sentences depends not just on the meaning of words, but also on the
72
rules of putting words together, that is, on some of the rules we saw in
the chapter on syntax.
Even this is not enough, though. Sentences are rarely used in isolation,
except perhaps in books on linguistics. They are usually used by
someone in a particular situation. We need to make some further
distinctions in the next section.
Sentences, utterances and propositions

If you listen carefully to an everyday conversation, you will
probably soon notice that people don’t really speak in well-formed,
grammatically complete sentences. Often this is so because they don’t
need to. If someone asks ‘What subject do you study?’ you can simply
reply ‘English’. You don’t need to say ‘I study English’. Linguists who
investigate language in use often use the term utterance rather than
sentence for the turns we take in conversation.
Utterances are usually produced by a particular person at a particular
time, with a certain intonation, facial expression, body language, etc.
Without any doubt it can be very important for the meaning of an
utterance to know who said it, to whom, in what context and with
what intention. Take a sentence similar to the one we used above: Mary
saw the man with the telescope. If you say this to another person, they
will be wondering about your communicative intentions. Perhaps it
is common knowledge that John gave Mary a telescope as a birthday
present and you want to announce that the telescope has come in
very useful. Or maybe it’s common knowledge that if Mary sees the
man who comes into her garden every Monday morning she will tell
the police about his existence, and you want to warn your interlocutor
that this is now likely. In other words, utterances are embedded in
a particular context and situation. This is why we often don’t notice
ambiguities in sentences like the one above: we quickly home in on the
right interpretation.
We can summon more reasons to make a distinction between
sentences and utterances. If someone, having heard what you have
said, wants to pass on the message, they may also say at some other
point in time Mary saw the man with her telescope. This will be a
different utterance, but the same sentence, as the one said by you. The
sentence Mary saw a man with her telescope has meaning even when
we don’t assume any context of use, when we ignore who uttered it
and at which point in time, when it is taken in isolation. It is this, often
called linguistic, meaning that we are interested in in this chapter. We
will talk more about situated meaning and speakers’ intentions in the
next chapter, where we move on to the discipline of pragmatics. We
will continue to use the term sentence, but we might wish to abstract
even further. Consider the sentences in (5):
(5) a. Mary saw John yesterday.
b. Yesterday Mary saw John.
What (5-a) and (5-b) show is that we can have two different sentences
with the same meaning. They may differ in terms of emphasis, but
in essence the situation they describe is the same. Sometimes the
term proposition is used to denote the meaning of the sentence
73
independent of the precise wording. The sentences in (5-a) and (5-b)

express the same proposition, and are paraphrases of each other.
In this chapter we will invite you to become familiar with some ideas
that surround propositions and sentences. We will use another popular
introduction to semantics: that by John I. Saeed listed in the Essential
reading section above. It covers not only the topics of this chapter, but
some of the topics of the preceding and following chapters. Although
we don’t expect you to read all of it, it could be useful to peruse the
topics that you are interested in, or those you want to get to know
more extensively. It might be useful to start with Chapter 1 from the
book, as it covers some of the issues we have already touched on.
The meaning of meaning again

Just as with words, we have to start with basic questions like What is the
meaning of sentences (or propositions)? Where do we find this meaning
and how can we describe it? Even though the meaning of sentences is
intuitively easy for speakers of a language to perceive, it is not at all
easy for linguists to define.
Sentences describe situations. If you say, for example, It rained in
London yesterday you will convey the information that on a certain day,
namely the day before the day you uttered your statement, there was
precipitation in the capital city of the United Kingdom. To understand
this sentence means to be able to say whether it is true or not – in other
words, to know what the truth conditions attached to this sentence are.
The meaning of the sentence is its truth value.
Of course, we don’t know whether all possible sentences that all
possible speakers have ever produced or will produce are true or false.
But if we can understand a sentence, we will be able to say what the
world must be like for that sentence to be true.
Learning activity
Write down truth conditions for the following propositions:
1. There is snow on the grass outside.
2. I read that chapter with great concentration.
3. With great concentration, I read the chapter.
4. Either John or his friend will come to the party tonight.
In response to the first question in the learning activity above you might have
said, for example, that the first sentence will be true if there is indeed some
vegetation that can be called ‘grass’ outside of the location of the speaker, and if
there is a substance called ‘snow’ on that grass. We show how the notion ‘truth’
can help us account for the meaning of sentences in the next section.
Meaning as truth
Once we determine that the meaning of a sentence is its truth value we
can start saying more about the semantic relations between sentences.
The first thing to note is that there are sentences that are always true
and some that never are. A sentence like (6) is always true:
74
(6) The prime minister of Britain is the prime minister of Britain.

[6] resembles mathematical statements like 2 = 2. It is not a very
informative statement because in our world we take it for granted that
entities are identical to themselves. Statements that are always true
are called tautologies. (7), on the other hand, is never true, that is, it is
always false.
(7) The prime minister of Britain is not the prime minister of Britain.
Statements that are always false are called contradictions.
Like words, sentences can also be synonymous: if one of them is true,
then the other one is necessarily also true. The sentences in (8) are an
example of this.
(8) a. I enjoy reading the book.
b. Reading the book gives me pleasure.
Two sentences can contradict each other, for example the sentences in
(9) cannot both be true (assuming there is only one book on one table):
(9) a. I haven’t read the book on the table.
b. I just finished reading the book on the table.
The truth of one sentence may necessarily follow from the truth of
another, a logical relationship called entailment. For example, (10-a)
entails (10-b).
(10) a. The dodo is extinct.
b. There are no living dodos in the world.
One of the most interesting relationships between sentences, however,
is that of presupposition. To say that one sentence presupposes
another is to say that if we take the first sentence to be true, we also
have to accept the truth of the second. Let’s give an example:
(11) a. The Prime Minister of Great Britain is a man.
b. Great Britain has a Prime Minister.
If we assume that (11-a) is true, then we must accept that (11-b) is
also true. That Britain has a Prime Minister seems to be a background
assumption of the sentence in (11-a). If you want to dispute the truth of
the sentence in (11-a) you will have to say something like (12-a). If you
want to challenge the presupposition that (11-a) gives rise to, you will
have to say something like (12-b) or (12-c).
(12) a. The Prime Minister of Great Britain is not a man.
b. I thought Great Britain doesn’t have a Prime Minister?
c. Great Britain doesn’t have a Prime Minister.
Presupposition looks a bit like entailment, but the two relationships
are distinct. One of the differences between them is that entailments
do not survive negation, whereas presuppositions do. You might have
noticed this already. In (12-a) we offered the negation of the sentence
in (11-a), but this didn’t make the presupposition disappear. Let us
repeat the relevant example below.
(13) a. The Prime Minister of Britain is a man.
b. The Prime Minister of Britain is not a man.
c. Great Britain has a Prime Minister.
75
(14) a. The dodo is extinct.

b. The dodo is not extinct.
c. There are no living dodos in the world.
(13-b) is the negation of (13-a) and they can’t both be true, but
nonetheless they both presuppose (13-c). Whether we assert that the
Prime Minister of Great Britain is a man, or deny this, our statement still
makes the assumption that Great Britain has a Prime Minister.
This doesn’t happen with entailment. If we assume that the dodo is
extinct, then it follows that there are no living dodos in the world.
Therefore (14-a) entails (14-c). But if we change our mind and declare
that the dodo is not extinct, then it cannot be the case that there are no
living dodos in the world. In other words, (14-b) does not entail (14-c).
Assuming that sentences can be assigned a truth value also allows
us to use the power of logic to construct valid arguments out of our
statements. For example, logic tells us that if a proposition is true,
then the negation of this proposition is false. This is often expressed
as a table like the one in (15) where p and q are propositions, T stands
for true, F stands for false and the symbol ¬ is the logical symbol for
negation:
(15)
P ¬P
T F
F T
The table expresses in more formal language the following
generalisation: if a proposition p is true, then the negation ¬p of that
proposition is false, and the other way round: if a proposition p is false,
the negation ¬p of that proposition is true.
In Chapter 4 of Saeed (2014) you will find the truth tables for logical
operators like conjunction (the logical symbol is ∧), disjunction (the
logical symbol is ∨), material implication (the logical symbol is →) and a
few others.
Learning activity
• Study Chapter 4 of Saeed (2014) carefully and then answer the following
questions: Fill in the truth table for the conjunction below:
p q p^q
T T
T F
F T
F F
• Find the two propositions in the sentence The baby was hungry and the
toddler was crying and assign to them the letters p and q. Make a table which
shows all the possible values for p and q (the table will be very similar to the
table for the conjunction above). Given the different truth values for the two
propositions in the sentence, when is the sentence true and when is it false?
Does the language connective and and the logical connective ∧ work in the
same way?
76
• Examine the sentence The baby was hungry and I fed her in the same way.
Does the language connective and have the same meaning in this sentence?
In logic, p ∧ q is the same as q ∧ p, in other words whenever p ∧ q is true,
q ∧ p is also true. In language this is often the case with the connective and.
Compare, for example, The baby was hungry and the toddler was crying with
The toddler was crying and the baby was hungry. Would you agree that the
order of the propositions doesn’t matter? What about our other example: are
the two sentences The baby was hungry and I fed her and I fed the baby and she
was hungry equivalent? Why (not)?
In the next section we will examine a semantic relationship that has

fascinated many linguists. We start the discussion here and continue it
in the next chapter.
Presupposition
As your reading will suggest (Saeed 2014) there are different triggers
for presupposition. Frequently, a presupposition arises because a name
(like Mary), or a definite description (like the Queen of France) has been
used. So if you say (16-a) you presuppose (16-b).
(16) a. The Queen of France is bald.
b. There is a Queen of France.
A presupposition can be triggered by words, frequently verbs, as in the
example below:
(17) a. I stopped smoking five years ago.
b. I used to smoke.
If you say (17-a) you presuppose (17-b), and this presupposition is
triggered by the verb stop. Imagine someone who you know never
smoked pronouncing (17-a) – your reaction will probably be to say
something along the lines of: What do you mean, you never used to
smoke?
Presuppositions can also be triggered by particular syntactic
constructions, one of which is the cleft sentence construction shown in
(18-a).
(18) a. What really annoyed me was that he hadn’t listened
to a word I said.
b. Something really annoyed me.
Saying (18-a) triggers the presupposition in (18-b).
Learning activity
What is the presupposition triggered by the sentences below and what is the
presupposition trigger? These examples are amongst those cited and discussed in
Levinson (1983, 181–184), see also the references therein.
a. John saw the man with two heads.
b. It was odd how proud he was.
c. John managed to open the door.
d. Joan began to beat her husband.
e. Carter returned to power.
f. It was Henry that kissed Rosie.
77
Presuppositions are defeasible. Here is an example from Levinson

(1983, 190).
(19) a. John didn’t manage to pass his exams.
b. John tried to pass his exams.
c. John didn’t manage to pass his exams, in fact he didn’t even try.
Usually verbs like manage shown in (19-a) trigger the presupposition
that an attempt has been made, along the lines of (19-b). But we
can embed (19-b) in a larger sentence like (19-c) and cancel the
presupposition.
Another example, also discussed in Levinson (1983, 204) and in your
reading, shows another important property of presuppositions: we
can’t always account for them on the basis of the meaning of words
or constructions. It seems that sometimes presuppositions disappear
because of what we know about the world we live in. This example is
given in (20) below:
(20) a. Sue cried before she finished her thesis.
b. Sue died before she finished her thesis.
c. Sue finished her thesis.
The sentence in (20-a) presupposes the one in (20-c), since it is
generally the case that the proposition in before-clauses becomes
a background statement which is assumed to be true, namely, a
presupposition.
When we change the verb in (20) from cry to die, however, that is, when
we take the sentence in (20-b), the presupposition disappears. Our
knowledge of the world tells us that a person cannot do anything after
they die, so if Sue died before she finished her thesis, she cannot in fact
have finished her thesis. In other words, our knowledge of the world
cancels the presupposition triggered by the temporal clause.
This raises the question of whether presuppositions are not really
a pragmatic phenomenon (one that relates to speakers’ intentions)
rather than a semantic one. Presuppositions challenge the distinction
between semantics and pragmatics. This is why we continue their
discussion in the next chapter Pragmatics and discourse.
Learning activity
On the basis of your reading so far, outline the distinction between semantics and
pragmatics. You can come back to this question after you have worked through
the material suggested in the next chapter.
So far in this chapter we discussed what is known as a truth-

conditional approach to the meaning of sentences, conceived of
sentence meaning as a proposition that can be given a truth value
and to which certain truth conditions can be attached. We discussed
various semantic relationships that may exist between propositions
(like entailment and presupposition) and touched upon the distinction
between semantics and pragmatics.
78
Learning outcomes
• demonstrate knowledge and critical understanding of the truth-
conditional approach to semantics
• discuss truth conditions and semantic relationships between
sentences (like paraphrase, entailment, presuppositions) in terms of
truth conditions
• demonstrate understanding and be able to discuss the distinction
between semantics and pragmatics.

1. What is the semantic relationship between the A and the B sentence
in each row?
A. The sheep ate a cucumber. B. The sheep ate a vegetable.

A. The sheep ate a vegetable. B. The sheep ate a cucumber.
A. The sheep ate a cucumber and B. The sheep munched on a tomato
munched on a tomato. and ate a cucumber.
A. The government of Belgium B. Belgium has a government.
resigned.
Using these sentences as examples, explain how truth-conditional

semantics can help us account for these relationships or is
challenged by them.
2. Explain the distinctions often made between the notions of
sentence, utterance and proposition. Why do linguists need to
make these distinctions?
79
Notes
80
Chapter 10: Pragmatics and discourse
Essential reading
MA: Wadsworth, 2017) 11th edition [ISBN 9781337559577] Chapter 5.
Further reading
Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with Words. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1975) second edition [ISBN 9780674411524]. Edited by
J.O. Urmson and Marina Sbisà.
Brown, P. and S. C. Levinson Politeness: some universals in language use.
[ISBN 9780761957737].
[ISBN 9781137571823] Chapter 10. [OL]
Cutting, J. Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students. (London:
Goffman, E. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior. (New York:
Pantheon Books, 1967) [ISBN 9780140600025].
Longman, 1995) [ISBN 9780582291515].
Introduction
In this guide so far, we have concentrated on meaning by considering
words, parts of words, sentences and phrases. When we were
considering semantics, for example, we concentrated on conceptual
meaning, focusing on the words themselves and the rules of their
combination, but not taking account of other factors. In order to
broaden our understanding further, in this chapter we will develop our
knowledge and begin to consider contextual meaning. In addition,
we will consider what speakers actually intend to communicate in
the things that they say (or do not say) and how we know what their
communicative intentions are. The study of what speakers mean comes
within an area of linguistic theory known as pragmatics. As the study
of pragmatics involves a consideration not only of what is said, but also
what is not said, this indicates that, as speakers or writers of a language,
we have to rely on knowledge that we already have and knowledge
that we assume that our hearers or readers share with us.
To illustrate some aspects of pragmatic theory, first we define some
key concepts and terminology. Next, we outline some key theoretical
approaches: Speech Act Theory, Grice’s Maxims and Politeness
theory. By studying these three areas, you will develop a basis for
understanding what speaker meaning can involve. You should note
that this is not a comprehensive view of the field of pragmatics; rather
it is an introduction to guide your reading and further study. 81
Let us start by considering five key concepts and associated

terminology:
• Context
• Deixis
• Reference
• Bridging inferences
• Presupposition.
Use these explanations as an introduction to the concepts, ensuring
that you research them further. We will begin by considering context as
this is the key underpinning concept upon which pragmatic theories
are built.
Context
When we refer to context, we are taking account of factors which are
additional to the conceptual meaning of the words that are being
spoken or written. These additional factors may be sub-divided into
three types of context:
• situational context: what speakers know is around them
• background knowledge: what speakers know about themselves
and the other participants and about the world
• linguistic context or co-text: the words and phrases surrounding a
word. This allows speakers to make judgements about what a word
is likely to mean.
Yule (2020) gives a useful example to illustrate these points. If, for
example, someone refers to the homonym bank you would probably
know which type of bank they were referring to on the basis of the
other words that occurred with it (for example, steep, overgrown). If, on
the other hand, someone said they had to go to the bank to apply for
a mortgage, you would be more likely to think they were visiting the
institution that deals with money. The situational or physical context
would refer to the building or location with, perhaps, bank written on
the outside. This may involve our mental representation rather than
an actualisation. Our background knowledge includes an awareness
of what is likely to occur at different types of banks (for example,
transactions involving money, or getting wet if we fall into a river).
Learning activity
Is it possible to understand what someone says without being given details of the
context? Why/why not?
Our next two concepts involve the way in which we refer to things and
people and how that depends on shared knowledge and things we
may already have said.
Deixis
Deictic references are pointing words which we use to position
ourselves in relation to what we are saying. They rely largely on physical
context for their understanding. Pronouns such as my, mine, you, your,
we, ours, us, ours are deictic because you have to know who is who in
82
order to understand them. We may point to people and things: that

shop, this house, it is big, give it to him, those girls. We may also point to
a location: here we are, over there; or to a point in time: yesterday, next
year, etc. Once again, context is key because next year or next week will
involve knowing when the utterance was said (or written) (see Fromkin
et al. 2017 and Yule 2020).
Reference
This describes the way in which speakers and writers refer to
something they have already mentioned or know about. There are
several strategies we use to do this. We can look or point backwards,
for example: Look at the plane. It is coming into land. In this example, it is
an anaphoric reference, pointing backwards to something which has
already been mentioned, the plane. On the other hand, if we say: Here is
the plane, coming into land, the word here is an example of cataphoric
reference as it is pointing forwards, to what we are about to describe
(the plane). If we stay within a text, as we do in our example: Look at
the plane. It’s coming into land, the reference is known as endophoric
reference. If we step outside, it is known as exophoric. The classic
example to illustrate the latter strategy would be to draw on the novel,
Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, where the narrator, Jane, describes the
outcome of her relationship with Mr Rochester and writes: Reader, I
married him. The narrator steps outside of the book to address the
reader directly (see Carter et al. 2008, 155).
The next two concepts both involve not being explicit in some way,
perhaps intentionally for reasons of economy and because it isn’t
necessary (or assumed not to be necessary). We may also avoid being
explicit, however, because it is in our interests to do so.
Bridging inferences
The notion of making inferences describes the process of deriving
information which allows a hearer or reader to understand the
utterance or sentence, based on the context and background
knowledge that the speaker or writer assumes will be known. In the
following example, an inference needs to be made, which allows the
hearer or reader to connect the two sentences in (1):
(1) The train was delayed. There was signal failure.
In most contexts, a hearer or reader would infer (2):
(2) The train was delayed because there was signal failure (as signal
failures in general tend to slow down the progress of trains).
This is what we call the bridging inference which lets us connect what
has happened (signal failure) to a consequence or event (the delayed
train). Speakers and writers will assume that hearers or readers will be
able to make inferences even if they are not told about things explicitly.
Learning activity
• Consider the following:
a. Elaine got some sandwiches out of her bag. The sandwiches were
squashed.
b. Elaine got the food container out of her bag. The sandwiches were
squashed.
83
c. A cigarette butt was thrown into an empty gasoline container. The fire
caused great damage to surrounding buildings.
Comment on the inferences you would make if you came across any of the
examples above.
• Why do you think that, in conversation, utterances we hear involve us having to
make bridging inferences or assuming (as speakers) that our hearers will do so?
Presupposition
In the chapter on the meaning of sentences we presented a primarily
semantic approach to presupposition. We pointed out that this
phenomenon cannot be accounted for in an entirely semantic
approach, because when talking about presupposition we might want
to take the speakers’ intentions into account, as well as their world
knowledge and their awareness of the background knowledge they
share with their interlocutors. In other words, presupposition is another
area which demonstrates that speakers and writers make assumptions
about the knowledge that their co-participants or readers have. For
example, if someone who is answering a telephone call says to you: It’s
your daughter calling, the presupposition is that you have a daughter.
As we saw in the chapter on the meaning of sentences, one key
point about presuppositions is that they remain constant even when
negated. So in the example above, if the person answering the phone
call says to you It’s not your daughter calling, the presupposition (that
you have a daughter) remains in place.
It is often the case that presuppositions allow us to be more concise in
our interactions with others. On the other hand, presupposition is an
extremely useful strategy in courtroom trials, advertising or newspaper
reporting (to name just a few areas) because people are often steered
into accepting assumptions that are not being made explicit.
Learning activity
Consider the following, identify the presuppositions, and then make some
comments about them:
Lawyer to defendant: At what time, Mr Jones, did you meet the defendant on
the night in question?
Advertisement: It’s about time you bought an anti-ageing cream that
works.
Political election We will address the needs of the forgotten majority.
campaign:

We have spent some time outlining some key concepts which describe
how speakers and writers interpret what is being said or written. We
will now move on in our investigation of meaning to think further
about what we are doing when we say particular things. In the
following sections, we outline three pragmatic theories. In addition to
the primary works of scholars who developed the theories, good, clear
explanations can be found in (Thomas, 1995), (Cameron, 2001) and
(Cutting, 2014). We will start with the work of John Austin.
84
Speech acts
Speech Act Theory revolves around the idea that when we are speaking
we are also doing something, something over and above transmitting
information. In 1962 the linguistic philosopher John Austin wrote a
book entitled How To Do Things With Words in which he advanced
exactly this thesis. Speech acts often involve a set of verbs called
performative verbs: when these are used you are not just saying
something, you are also doing something as well. Here are a few
examples (with the performative verbs in italics):
(3)
a. I promise to take you out tomorrow.
b. I apologise for my behaviour last night.
c. I name this ship the Queen Betty.
d. I sentence you to six years in prison.
e. I bet you five pounds Arsenal win tonight.
f. I warn you: she is difficult.
An informal test for whether a verb is performative or not is to insert
the word hereby before it: if the sentence works or sounds right, then
the verb is a performative one.
Learning activity
• What characteristics do you notice about the tense of the verb and the
subject?
• Can you think of some other performative verbs?
Even if an utterance doesn’t contain a performative verb, it is still a

type of speech act. If I say: writing the essay was hard work, I am stating
(performative verb); I’m just unlikely to say: I state that writing the essay
was hard work. Speech acts also demonstrate that the context is key.
For example, it is all very well to argue that by uttering: I pronounce
you man and wife or I sentence you to life imprisonment you are doing
something as well as saying something, but unless you are in the
appropriate situation (and in the appropriate role), you won’t be
performing the act that is implied. You can name a ship or anything
you like Queen Betty but unless you have the authority vested in you to
do so and you are in the right context (that is, you have been asked to
crack a bottle of champagne over a newly built ship about to depart
on its maiden voyage or you are acting in a play) your speech act will
not be successful in naming a ship. Speech acts such as these are
only successful if they are uttered by a particular person in a specific
context. These are known as ritual performatives (Thomas, 1995, 37).
Thus, as we are establishing, context is a crucial factor in determining
meaning in any utterance. Furthermore, what is said (or written) in one
situation may have a completely different effect or meaning in another.
Austin took his theories further and developed another classificatory
system for the acts we perform through language:
Locution what someone says (the words)

Illocution what is meant by what is said
Perlocution the effect on the hearer (or reader) 85
The most important one of the three listed above is illocution or

what is known as the illocutionary force of an utterance. Here we
are describing what is actually meant by the words that are uttered.
A classic example would be a group of people in a room when one
person says: it’s cold in here. What are they intending to communicate?
That they are cold but also they may be indirectly hoping someone
will close a window or door. Once again, context is key. If the person is
a lecturer in a room full of students they may be expecting someone
to get up and close a window. If, on the other hand, they are a guest in
someone’s house they may be simply hoping the host takes the hint
and closes the window. Of course, in this particular situation, politeness
strategies may come into play as well, a point we will consider further
in the final section of this chapter. First, however, we go on to consider
the work of another linguistic philosopher, H.P. Grice.
Grice and the Cooperative Principle

The linguistic philosopher H. Paul Grice proposed that, most of the time,
when we are interacting with others, we are cooperating with them:
Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it
occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in
which you are engaged. Grice (1975, 45) quoted in Cameron (2001, 75)
This is known as the Cooperative Principle. Cooperation in what we

say (or write) is underpinned by adherence to four maxims:
The maxim of Quantity Your contribution should be as informative as

necessary for the situation; no more and no
less.
The maxim of Quality Don’t deceive those you are interacting with.
Don’t say anything you know to be untrue or
for which you lack evidence.
The maxim of Relevance Make your contribution relevant.
The maxim of Manner Be clear and don’t obscure things; be as brief
as necessary and orderly or logical.
You should note that Grice is not giving us instructions telling us how
to behave in conversations. He is highlighting what speakers assume
to be in play during conversations. The maxims therefore operate
as a type of baseline for a conversation, allowing hearers to make
inferences based on speaker intention and implied meaning. This is
called conversational implicature. This does not mean, however,
that the conversational maxims are adhered to all of the time. On the
contrary, there are many occasions on which they are not, but when
this happens, hearers (or readers) consider whether the non-adherence
is signicant in itself – in other words, whether we can make certain
inferences when they are not adhered to.
We can draw on an example from Fairclough (2003, 61) to illustrate
this point. He describes a situation where he may be asked to provide
an academic reference for a job applicant. If he writes: the candidate is
well-dressed and punctual, we can argue that he is flouting the maxims
of quantity and relevance: he is not providing enough information and,
moreover, he is not being particularly relevant. However, it is likely that
Fairclough wants to draw attention to something and there is meaning
86 in what he writes, meaning which goes beyond the literal.
Learning activity
• What do you think Fairclough is implying in his reference and what do you
think the recipient of the reference is likely to infer? Note: you should take
care with the meaning of the terms imply and infer. These are easily confused.
Do some research on these two terms to ensure that you are clear as to how
they should be used.
• Identify the maxims which have been flouted in the following:
(4) ‘I’m starving’ says someone who is hungry

(5) A: Where is she going to?
B: Somewhere in Spain
(6) A: Do you want to go to a movie?
B: I have a lot of work to do
Violating the maxims, on the other hand, involves intentionally deceiving
hearers (and readers), knowing they will be misled by what you seem to imply. As
Cameron (2001, 78) points out, flouting the maxims involves drawing attention to
something you want noticed; violation is not meant to be noticed. The following
example, taken from a Peter Sellers film involving the Pink Panther, a hotel
receptionist and a little dog sitting beside the desk, illustrates violation nicely:
(7) A: Does your dog bite?

B: No
A: [bends down, strokes dog, gets bitten] Ow! You said your dog doesn’t bite!
B: That isn’t my dog. (from Cutting 2002, 40)
Learning activity
What maxim has been violated here? Why?
Politeness is another factor which may be relevant when we

are considering adherence to the maxims and perhaps this is a
consideration in the Fairclough example above. It is therefore worth
thinking about the concept of politeness and some of the theories that
have been proposed concerning this topic.
Politeness theory
Politeness theory was developed by Brown and Levinson (1987) and
revolves around the concept of face, which was developed in earlier
work by Goffman (1967). As Scollon and Scollon (2001, 45) put it:
Face is the negotiated public image, mutually granted each other by
participants in a communicative event.
Face refers to a person’s self-respect and self-esteem, which they will
try to preserve for themselves publicly. We generally try not to upset
those we are interacting with and, at the same time, we try to preserve
our own face as well. Interaction in various situations thus involves
strategies which minimise what are described as face-threatening
acts (FTAs). Communication, however, can be a risk, but it is something
that we all do and sometimes it isn’t possible to avoid FTAs. Brown
and Levinson (1987) identified two types of face: positive face and
negative face. Positive face refers to our desire to be liked, admired,
ratified and approved of by others. Negative face concerns our desire
87
to avoid being imposed upon and to have freedom to act as we wish.

Note that negative face does not mean you are being impolite! In order
to minimise the threat to someone’s face, we can use positive politeness
strategies which take account of positive face needs or negative
politeness strategies which take account of negative face needs.
A negative politeness strategy will demonstrate the speaker is aware
they are imposing. Imagine you are asking the assistant in the sweet
shop for some change when you are not buying anything. You might
say something like: I’m sorry, but if you have enough change, could you
possibly change this ten pound note into two fives for me? You start with
an apology and also allow for a possible refusal if the shop assistant
doesn’t have enough change. A positive politeness strategy, on the other
hand, will show solidarity or friendship, often highlighting shared goals.
Imagine you and a flatmate are faced with an untidy flat on a Saturday
morning. You could say something like: I know it’s a hassle but if we clean
up together, we can do it really quickly and then chill out for the rest of the
weekend, thus emphasising that you both feel the same and that working
together will allow you both to realise your goal quite quickly.
We threaten a person’s negative face if we are not concerned about
whether we impose on them. If you order someone to do something,
for example, this may involve threatening their negative face. So
might giving advice or making suggestions, but this will depend on
the situation. We threaten a person’s positive face when we don’t take
their feelings or needs into account. Criticising someone might be
one example where this happens; being disapproving or complaining
could be others. However, contextual factors are very important. If, for
example, there is an emergency, perhaps the building where you are
working is on fire, you are hardly going to be worrying about politeness
strategies! It is likely you will just shout at people to get out!
Learning activity
Can you think of some other factors which will determine politeness strategies or
the degree to which one takes care to avoid face-threatening acts?
Learning outcomes
• explain why what speakers actually mean involves more than simply
the words they say
• discuss some of the main concepts associated with pragmatics
• explain different pragmatic theories, distinguishing between them.

1. Are pragmatic principles universal? Illustrate your discussion with
examples from the research available.
2. Discuss the difference between violating Grice’s maxims and
flouting them. Illustrate your discussion with examples.
88
Appendix A: Sample examination paper

Time allowed: three hours
Answer THREE questions (all three questions carry equal marks).
Do NOT present substantially the same material in any two answers,
whether on this paper or in any other parts of your examination.
Appendix A1 is attached at the end of this paper.
1. In 1991, ANNE PAKIR called English ‘a killer language’. Using
this quotation as a starting point, discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of the use of English as a global/international
language. Your answer must be supported by study and reading
you have done.
2. When languages come into sudden contact, grammar is said to
change more quickly than vocabulary. Discuss, illustrating with
reference to the numerous invasions of Great Britain. Consider both
lexical and grammatical changes.
3. Explain the work of BROWN & LEVINSON, using examples to
illustrate their theories. Do you agree that politeness is a ‘universal’
concept? Why or why not?
4. The English language has changed little structurally (including
spelling) in the last 200 years. Discuss the extent to which the
slowing down of change is a result of prescriptive approaches.
5. What use is the concept of ‘phoneme’ for the study/description of a
language?
6. What is the phonetic difference between a consonant and a vowel?
Discuss and illustrate.
7. Analyse each of the following alternations in relation to word
formation processes. You should also give at least one further
example, illustrating a word formation process not identified in the
dataset.
(a) little black dress → LBD

(b) obviously → obvs
(c) a platform → to platform
(d) spoon, fork → spork
(e) silly → silliest
(f ) hand, car, wash → hand car wash
(g) vapour → to vape
8. Discuss and illustrate the difference between inflection and
derivation, taking into account the connection between
morphology, phonology and syntax.
9. What is the difference between a constituent and a phrase? Discuss
and illustrate.
10. Explain how the Language Acquisition Device is at work in the case
of young children acquiring two languages. Your discussion must
be supported by reference to literature in this area.
89
11. Explain the concept of universal grammar. How is it possible to

have a universal grammar when each language has different
grammatical rules?
12. How can children acquire patterns of language for which they have
not heard examples? Explain the concept of ‘poverty of stimulus’.
13. Is animal communication any different from human
communication? Explain and discuss, drawing on your reading to
support the points you make.
14. Discuss how a teacher’s lecture might appear to violate Grice’s
conversational maxims. Create examples to illustrate your points.
15. Appendix A1 is a news item from a weekly UK publication called
The Week and appeared in its 28 October 2017 issue. The Week is a
magazine which provides a summary of the previous week’s news
reporting of notable events. The news item summarised (‘Smokers
help sustain our health service’) originally appeared in The Times, a
UK Newspaper.
Analyse and discuss the six underlined words in the article by
performing a morphemic analysis on them. In addition, choose any
two further words from the passage. Discuss and analyse them.
The six underlined words are:
(a) Discrimination
(b) Presumably
(c) Self-inflicted
(d) Illnesses
(e) Discourage
(f ) Overstated
16. Consider the following complaints received by the BBC about the
use of ‘so’ as discourse marker:
(i) ‘I have been increasingly irritated over the last couple of years by
the increasing use of the word ‘so’ when prefacing a sentence’
(ii) ‘I don’t think “so” is an appropriate word with which to begin a
sentence.”
(iii) ‘Every time I hear it, the hair on my neck rises and my teeth bare
in a grimace’
(iv) ‘ The misplaced “so” has invaded everyday speech like some
noxious weed in an untended garden.’
Note the use of emotional language in discussions of language use.
What approach to grammar are these complaints evidencing?
END OF PAPER
Appendix A1 is attached on the following page.
90
Appendix A1
Smokers help Pity the smokers, said Dominic Lawson. Harried by governments
for years, this "beleaguered minority" now faces a new and
sustain our ''especially cruel" form of discrimination: in Hertfordshire, NHS
bosses have decreed that smokers should no longer be referred
health service for non-urgent surgery. Apparently, the public supports the
Dominic Lawson policy, presumably because they think smokers, with their
The Times self-inflicted illnesses are a drain on the NHS. Yet the opposite is
true: smokers prop up the NHS. Tobacco taxes generate £9.5bn
a year for the Treasury. That figure exceeds, by around £4.9bn,
the cost of treating smoking-related illnesses, and the cost of
putting out smoking-related fires and cleaning up fag ends. By
dying young, smokers save the Government another £9.8bn a
year, in unpaid pensions and care costs. As for the argument
that smokers are harming the health of others, this may have
been overstated. Two major studies have found no link between
second-hand smoke and elevated cancer risk. Of course, we
should discourage people from taking up a toxic habit – but
smokers don't deserve to be further penalised: they are mainly
only hurting themselves.
91
Notes
92
Appendix B: Examiners’ comments on the sample examination paper
Appendix B: Examiners’ comments on

the sample examination paper
Advice to candidates on how Examiners calculate

marks
It is important that candidates recognise that in all papers, three
questions should be answered in order to get the best possible mark
(ensuring that the rubric for the paper has been followed accordingly).
Examiners follow a simple mathematical formula when awarding a
final overall mark: they give each answer a mark out of 100 (up to three
answers only, as required by the examination paper); they then total all
available marks; and finally they divide the total by three, thus giving
an average overall mark.
So, if your first answer is given 57%, your second answer is given 56%,
and your third answer 50%, then the calculation will look like this:
57 + 56 + 50 = 163
163 ÷ 3 = 54.3
Overall mark: 54%
Two good essays and no third essay will always bring the mark
down. So, if in the example above a third answer was not given, the
calculation would look like this:
57 + 56 = 113
113 ÷ 3 = 37.6
Overall mark: 38%
In this case, even if the candidate had written a ‘poor’ third answer
getting a mark of 40% their overall mark would be higher than not
attempting an answer at all:
57 + 56 + 40 = 153
153 ÷ 3 = 51
Overall mark: 51%
Note in the example above how the 40% mark, while low, still enables
the candidate to achieve an overall mark in the Lower Second category,
which is in keeping with their first two marks of 57% and 56%. Not
answering a third question would see the candidate lose considerable
marks and drop two whole classes. It could also mean the difference
between a pass and a fail.
Candidates are thus strongly advised to give equal attention across
the paper, plan their time accordingly, and attempt to provide three
answers of roughly the same length and as full as possible. Candidates
are also reminded that it is totally unnecessary to copy out the
question again into the answer book; a question number in the margin
is sufficient enough, and this will also save valuable minutes.
93
Candidates are further reminded to pay strict attention to the advice

and guidance that appears in the handbook and the subject guides
regarding examinations and methods of assessment, particularly the
following cautions regarding the use of pre-prepared material:
• as advised in the handbook section ‘Examination preparation and
answering examination questions’, ‘it is not a good idea to prepare
model answers to possible examination questions […] there is likely to
be a greater sense of engagement with your ideas and material if you
are writing an argument which you have genuinely just constructed
in the examination room (even if all the information contained in that
argument is material you have prepared and remembered from your
revision)’;
• as advised in the subject guides, simple regurgitation in the
examination of illustrative material in the subject guides will be
regarded as plagiarism and heavily penalised. Examiners will always
look unfavourably at examinations that are composed of answers
that draw solely on the illustrative material provided in the subject
guides.
All candidates are further advised to consult Appendix B of the
Regulations for a full description of the Assessment Criteria used by the
English programmes.
Introduction
A key feature of the English Programme is that every subject guide
contains a past paper from a recent year, which aims to provide
students with a sample of the examination paper they are expected to
take at the end of the course. The subject guides also provide a copy
of the corresponding Examiners' commentaries, which would typically
comment on what candidates did well and what was less successful.
In addition, the VLE gives you access to a number of past papers and
Examiners’ commentaries.
We have included a sample examination paper in the guide to
help you gain familiarity with the format and types of questions
likely to be asked. It seems only fair to offer some sample examiner
comments regarding some of the ways in which the questions might
be approached. Please note: you should not interpret the comments
below as ‘model answers’ to these, or any other, questions on the
English programme. Our aim on the programme is to encourage critical
engagement with the material you study, to invite argument and
exploration.
General remarks
In the report that follows we give some attention to each examination
question in the paper. There may be more or less commentary on a
particular question depending on how popular it was and the range of
answers it attracted.
Before looking at the examination questions in more detail, we would
like to reiterate the importance of ensuring that you carefully read and
understand what the essay question is asking you to do. Each year,
94
the examiners notice that instead of answering the question that has
been set, an essay is presented which is only very loosely connected
to what you have been asked to do. This indicates the likelihood that a
pre-prepared essay has been written on topics thought to come up on
the examination paper. Preparation such as this is helpful, but only to
a certain extent. When you produce only prepared answers, it is clear
to the examiners that you are not applying your knowledge because
the question will never be answered closely enough. Examiners
want to see that you can apply your knowledge, using your informed
judgement and analytical skills. They want to ascertain if you can
link theory to practice and present a knowledgeable discussion. If
you include everything you have read about a topic in your answer,
whether or not it is relevant to what has been asked for in the question,
you are unlikely to gain high marks and may even fail on that particular
question.
As ever, we repeat a point that we always make every year: it is almost
always the case that candidates who read widely do better in
assignments or examinations. (This point has been emphasised
because it is so important.) By contrast, candidates who have not
read or studied much beyond the course materials often present very
general answers which show little or no evidence of studying the
programme.
Finally, the examiners pass on the following advice each year: you
should ensure your English language and spelling skills are adequate
for the examination. Handwriting also needs to be as clear as possible.
Examiners understand that you may be nervous and need to write
quickly (and they make allowances for this), but you should ensure that
your examination answers are legible. As has been the case in previous
years, sometimes it was very difficult to read what had been written.
This is the sixth year that this course has been examined. The examiners
are pleased to report that there were quite a few candidates who
gained high marks and there were also a sizeable number of good
quality examination scripts. Overall, the examiners thought that the
quality of many of the scripts provided evidence of appropriate reading
and study, plus an ability to think critically and/or apply theory to
practice. Critical engagement is always rewarded because that is the
aim of education at this level, whatever the field of study.
Although it would seem that, overall, candidates have heeded the
point made in previous years about the requirement to answer three
questions, there were still one or two scripts submitted this year with
less than three attempted questions. This is disappointing. Answering
less than the required three questions leads to a high chance of
examination failure, as each question carries equal weight. You should
ensure that your studies allow you to answer three questions at least.
In addition, you should also make sure that you organise yourself
sufficiently in the examination so there is time to answer each of the
three questions equally. Each year it is evident to the examiners
that a few candidates do not manage their time effectively during the
examination: in such cases, a very brief essay or poor-quality answer is
usually presented for the third question.
95
It is also disappointing when it is evident that candidates have not

studied enough for an examination at this level. As in previous years,
there were also a number of very general scripts this year. These types
of scripts contain little or no evidence of knowledge gained from study
of the course materials. This year, the majority of ‘general’ scripts were
for the following questions: Question 1 (English as a global and killer
language); Question 2 (the effect of invasions on English); and Question
13 (animal and human communications). There is no doubt that these
kinds of questions cannot be successfully answered without relevant
reading and study. Examiners will consider and reward a candidate’s
opinion (provided it is an informed opinion); however, an answer that
displays little evidence of appropriate study will not gain good marks.
Indeed, a general answer, which any competent adult could present,
will not be sufficient and often fails to achieve a pass mark. With this
in mind, the value of participating in the online learning forum, and
interacting with tutors and other students cannot be emphasised
highly enough. Put simply, it is vital to your learning experience,
especially at the Level 4 stage. Developing critical thinking skills will
follow on from discussions with other students and tutors, increasing
your chances of success in the examination. All students studying this
level 4 course should aim to participate on the forum regularly.
Candidates should also consider the following criteria which examiners
use in their assessment:
• Link relevant theory to practice or to an example of practice.
• Study beyond set texts: read widely.
• Give your informed opinion.
• Use terminology correctly and appropriately.
• Support your answer (see the first bullet point).
• Present clear explanations.
• Ensure you answer the specific question.
• Avoid excessive, very general commentary as it does not enhance
the essay.
Comments on specific questions

Question 1
In 1991, ANNE PAKIR called English ‘a killer language’. Using this quotation
as starting point, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the use of
English as a global/international language. Your answer must be supported
by study and reading you have done.
This question was quite popular (and no, ‘killer language’ is not a
compliment, as was pointed out in some scripts). There were some
very general answers, where candidates discussed the use of English
in the world with what appeared to be very little reference to any
reading and study. Slightly better answers included not just reference
to relevant reading, but also specific examples to illustrate points.
Much better answers included reference to language shift/death (the
‘killer language’ in the rubric), advantages of a lingua franca, cultural
and economic considerations, references to the decline of the British
Empire and the position of the USA in the world order.
96
Question 2
When languages come into sudden contact, grammar is said to change more
quickly than vocabulary. Discuss, illustrating with reference to the numerous
invasions of Great Britain. Consider both lexical and grammatical changes.
This answer was attempted by a few students. Students have to
understand the importance of reading the question, addressing
and answering it, particularly in a question such as this one. Exam
questions should not be thought of as a springboard for students to
write a prepared essay on the subject of, for example, the history of
the English language. While some aspects of such an essay would be
relevant, it would have to be organised in such a way that all of the
relevant points converged towards addressing the essay question.
However well-written and/or well-informed, an essay that does not
address grammatical changes, or fails to deal with lexis, is less likely
to achieve high marks. A clear, explicit answer to the essay question is
always welcome as a summary in the last paragraph.
Question 3
Explain the work of BROWN & LEVINSON, using examples to illustrate their
theories. Do you agree that politeness is a ‘universal’ concept? Why or why
not?
This question was very popular. Most candidates were familiar with
Brown and Levinson’s theory, although a few expressed positive and
negative politeness in terms of being nice or not being very nice. Also
variable was how well candidates were able to explain Brown and
Levinson’s concept of face-threatening acts, and to illustrate politeness
strategies with plausible examples. Here again, a full answer needed
to address the question of the universality of politeness: some scripts
made only a passing mention of universality (or did not mention it at
all).
Question 4
The English language has changed little structurally (including spelling) in
the last 200 years. Discuss the extent to which the slowing down of change is
a result of prescriptive approaches.
This question was not attempted by many candidates. A good answer
would make reference to the connection between the results of
the codification of the English language and its connection with
prescriptivist approaches, and would place these results in contrast
with other, more dramatic changes in the history of the English
language.
Question 5
What use is the concept of ‘phoneme’ for the study/description of a
language?
A good answer would look at the usefulness of the phoneme in the
study of the sounds of English. Familiarity with Roach’s textbook
would be very helpful in answering this question successfully. Moving
beyond phonetics, the role of generalisation and abstraction could also
be discussed with reference to other languages. Very good answers
would also discuss the International Phonetic Alphabet and the work of
pioneering phoneticians.
97
Question 6
What is the phonetic difference between a consonant and a vowel? Discuss
and illustrate.
This question attracted a few answers. Some other scripts erroneously
considered phonetic vowels to be coextensive with vowel graphemes
(whereby English would have 5 vowels: a-e-i-o-u). However, the
majority of the answers were well-informed and well-written, and
many included diagrams illustrating articulators and a discussion of
the Voice-Place-Manner classification. Vowels were less successfully
classified, but while this classification would be an advantage, a
discussion of the phonetic differences would be sufficient for obtaining
high marks.
Question 7
Analyse each of the following alternations in relation to word formation
processes. You should also give at least one further example, illustrating a
word formation process not identified in the dataset.
(a) little black dress → LBD

(b) obviously → obvs
(c) a platform → to platform
(d) spoon, fork → spork
(e) silly → silliest
(f) hand, car, wash → hand car wash
(g) vapour → to vape
The question was very popular. There was some recurrent confusion in the
analyses of conversion, compounding and backformation. Additionally,
loanword/borrowing is not a clear instance of word formation process.
The description of backformation needs to show that this involves an initial
erroneous analysis by analogy, which over time becomes established.
Candidates were rewarded for presenting a linked essay (rather than a list)
and for providing an analysis of each word rather than simply identifying
the processes involved. On a number of scripts, a word from the dataset was
missing: candidates need to be mindful of this and ensure every word in the
dataset is examined, and that the additional examples are provided. In this
respect, the use of examples that go beyond textbook illustration is always
rewarded.
Question 8
Discuss and illustrate the difference between inflection and derivation,
taking into account the connection between morphology, phonology and
syntax.
This question attracted a few answers. Most showed an awareness of
the differences between these two morphological processes, and could
illustrate them as well as relate them to word formation processes.
Differences were more apparent in the discussion of the interfaces
with the different components. Candidates could discuss the phonetic/
phonological interface, but syntax was often missing from the answer.
98
Question 9
What is the difference between a constituent and a phrase? Discuss and
illustrate.
This question was attempted by a few candidates, but not always
successfully. Notably, those candidates that showed evidence of
engagement with material discussed in their tutor groups performed
better than those who did not. A discussion of candidates’ own
example sentences was expected, although it was not necessary to
provide tree analysis. Candidates had to show an awareness of certain
tests that serve to identify strings of words that operate as a single unit
at a certain level.
Question 10
Explain how the Language Acquisition Device is at work in the case of young
children acquiring two languages. Your discussion must be supported by
reference to literature in this area.
A few candidates attempted this question. Answers ranged from
very general misinformed commentary where writers cautioned
against small children learning/acquiring two languages (because
they would get mixed up) to more critical, informed scripts drawing
on, for example, Lightbown and Spada or articles on raising children
bilingually. Some answers only looked at the language acquisition
device but failed to discuss bilingualism scenarios. As ever, answers
based on clear evidence of reading and appropriate study were
rewarded.
Question 11
Explain the concept of universal grammar. How is it possible to have a
universal grammar when each language has different grammatical rules?
This question required a discussion of the notion of universal grammar
(UG), which was not attempted by many candidates. A good answer
would consider the evidence (or lack thereof ) for UG, its putative
connection to innateness and language acquisition, and perhaps some
typological universals. The work of behaviourists could also be brought
into the discussion to provide historical contrast and augment UG’s
significance.
Question 12
How can children acquire patterns of language for which they have not
heard examples? Explain the concept of ‘poverty of stimulus’.
This question involves a discussion of the logical problem of language
acquisition, with the poverty of stimulus concept right at the centre of
such a problem. The answer needs to consider the interaction between
nurture and nature in (first) language acquisition, particularly the role
played by language input.
Question 13
Is animal communication any different from human communication? Explain
and discuss, drawing on your reading to support the points you make.
Traditionally, this is a very popular question. A few candidates did not
appear to have carried out much relevant study and consequently
99
made very general comments about, for example, what noises cats
and dogs make, contrasting these with human communication. Many
others referred to appropriate introductory reading of the course text
(Yule). This was acceptable, but better answers are expected to use Yule
as a stepping stone for further discussion. For higher marks, candidates
needed to demonstrate reading beyond Yule, in addition to providing a
critical commentary and informed perspective.
Question 14
Discuss how a teacher’s lecture might appear to violate Grice’s
conversational maxims. Create examples to illustrate your points.
This question was attempted by a few candidates. Most were able
to identify the maxims correctly. What proved rather more difficult
was showing how the maxims would operate in practice. There
was frequently confusion between violating and flouting, and
non-observance was often not mentioned. On the other hand, a
few candidates were able to provide plausible examples from a
hypothetical teacher’s lecture to illustrate violation.
Question 15
Appendix A1 is a news item from a weekly UK publication called The Week
and appeared in its 28 October 2017 issue. The Week is a magazine which
provides a summary of the previous week’s news reporting of notable
events. The news item summarised (‘Smokers help sustain our health
service’) originally appeared in The Times, a UK Newspaper.
Analyse and discuss the six underlined words in the article by performing a
morphemic analysis on them. In addition, choose any two further words from
the passage. Discuss and analyse them.
The six underlined words are:
(a) Discrimination
(b) Presumably
(c) Self-inflicted
(d) Illnesses
(e) Discourage
(f) Overstated
This question was very popular. Answers ranged from less good
scripts which were presented as a list rather than an essay and/or the
misanalysis of some of the words. Sometimes words seem as if they can
be divided into more morphemes than they can (e.g. discrimination).
Higher marks were given where a linked essay was presented and a
plausible explanation demonstrated why the words were analysed in a
specific way (i.e. why alternative analyses were discarded).
Question 16
Consider the following complaints received by the BBC about the use of ‘so’
as discourse marker:
i. ‘I have been increasingly irritated over the last couple of years by the
increasing use of the word “so” when prefacing a sentence’
ii. ‘I don’t think “so” is an appropriate word with which to begin a sentence.’
100
iii. ‘Every time I hear it, the hair on my neck rises and my teeth bare in
a grimace’
iv. ‘The misplaced “so” has invaded everyday speech like some noxious weed
in an untended garden.’
Note the use of emotional language in discussions of language use. What
approach to grammar are these complaints evidencing?
An answer to this question required a discussion less of the linguistic
pattern identified (‘so’ as a discourse marker) than about the complaints
provided in the rubric. The use of emotional language could be linked
to (perception of ) language change and the particular outlook on
language that such comments evidence.
101
Notes
102
Appendix C: Bibliography
Adams, V. Complex Words in English. (Harlow: Longman, 2001)
[ISBN 9780582239647].
Aitchison, J. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) Canto edition
[ISBN 9780521785716].
Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with Words. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1975) second edition [ISBN 9780674411524]. Edited by
J.O. Urmson and Marina Sbisà.
University Press, 2003) second revised edition [ISBN 9780748617050].
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 1996) [ISBN 9780333609842].
Booij, G. The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Morphology. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2007) second edition [ISBN 9780199226245].
Börjars, K. and K. Burridge Introducing English Grammar. (London:
Brown, P. and S. C. Levinson Politeness: some universals in language use.
(London: Routledge, 2016) fourth edition [ISBN 9781138947344].
[ISBN 9781137545718].
Cameron, D. Verbal Hygiene. (London: Routledge, 1995)
[ISBN 9780415103558]. [Available in the Online Library]
[ISBN 9780761957737].
[ISBN 9781474428972].
Carter, R., A. Goddard, D. Reah, K. Sanger, and N. Swift Working with
Texts: A core introduction to language analysis. (London and New York:
Routledge, 2008) third edition [ISBN 9780415414241]. Edited by Adrian
Beard.
Chapman, S. Thinking about language: Theories of English. (London: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2006) [ISBN 9781403922038]. [Available in the Online Library]
Clark, E. V. First Language Acquisition (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2009) second edition [ISBN 9780521732932].
Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1986) [ISBN 9780521276436].
Crystal, D. English as a Global Language. (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2012) second edition [ISBN 9781107611801].
Crystal, D. The Stories of English. (London: Penguin 2005)
[ISBN 9780141015934].
Crystal, D. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. (Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, 2008) sixth edition [ISBN 9781405152976].
[ISBN 9781138891753].
103

[ISBN 9781137571823]. [OL]
Cutting, J. Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students. (London:
Cutting, J. Pragmatics and Discourse: A resource book for students. (London
and New York: Routledge, 2007) second edition [ISBN 9780415446679].
de Saussure, F. Course in General Linguistics. (Duckworth, 1983)
[ISBN 0715616706]. Translated and annotated by Roy Harris.
Dixon, R.M.W. Making New Words. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014)
[ISBN 9780198712374].
Eggins, S. An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. (London and
New York: Continuum, 2004) second edition [ISBN 9780826457868].
Fairclough, N. Analysing Discourse: Textual analysis for social research.
(London and New York: Routledge, 2003) [ISBN 9780415258937].
Freeborn, D. From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in
Language Variations Across Time. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
2006) third edition [ISBN 9781403998804].
MA: Wadsworth, 2017) 11th edition [ISBN 9781337559577].
Geeraerts, D. Theories of Lexical Semantics. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2010) [ISBN 9780198700319].
Goffman, E. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior. (New York:
Pantheon Books, 1967) [ISBN 9780140600025].
Graddol, D., J. Cheshire, and J. Swann Describing Language. (Milton Keynes:
Open University Press, 1994) second edition [ISBN 9780335193158].
Gramley, S. The History of English. (London: Routledge 2018) second edition
[ISBN 9781138501096]. [VLE]
Grice, P. ‘Logic and conversation.’ in Cole, P. and J. L. Morgan (eds) ‘Speech
Acts’, (New York: Academic Press, 1975) Volume 3 of Syntax and
Semantics [ISBN 9780127854236] pp.41–58.
Huddleston, R. and G. K. Pullum A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar.
Hurford, J. R., B. Heasley, and M. B. Smith Semantics: A Coursebook.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) second edition
[ISBN 9780521671873].
York: Routledge, 2015) third edition [ISBN 9780415638449]. [OL]
Kretzschmar, W.A. Jr. The Emergence and Development of English.
Ladefoged, P. and S. Ferrari Disner Vowels and Consonants: An introduction
to the sounds of languages. (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) third
edition [ISBN 9781444334296].
Ladefoged, P. and K. Johnson A Course in Phonetics. (Boston, MA:
Wadsworth, 2014) seventh edition [ISBN 9781285463407].
Levinson, S. C. Pragmatics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983)
[ISBN 9780521294140].
Lieber, R. Introducing Morphology. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2015) second edition [ISBN 9781107480155].
104
Lightbown, P. M. and N. Spada How Languages Are Learned. (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2013) fourth edition [ISBN 9780194541268].
Mangum, W. ‘Animal communication: The “language” of honey bees’ in Behrens,
S. J. and J. A. Parker (eds) Language in the Real World, (London and New York:
Routledge, 2010) [ISBN 9780415774680] pp.255–273.
McArthur, T. and R. McArthur (eds) The Concise Oxford Companion to the English
Language. (Oxford University Press, 1998) [ISBN 9780192800619].
McArthur, T., J. Lam-McArthur and L. Fontaine (eds) Oxford Companion to the
English Language. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018) second edition
[ISBN 9780199661282].
Meisel, J. M. First and Second Language Acquisition: Parallels and Differences.
(Cambridge University Press, 2011) [ISBN 9780521557641].
Murphy, M. L. Semantic Relations and the Lexicon. (Cambridge: Cambridge
Murphy, M. L. Lexical Meaning. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)
[ISBN 9780521677646].
Peccei, J. S. ‘Language and age’ in ‘Language, Society and Power: An Introduction’,
(London and New York: Routledge, 2011) third edition [ISBN 9780415576598]
pp.135–153.
Plag, I. Word-Formation in English. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018)
second edition [ISBN 9781316623299]. [OL]
Plag, I., S. Arndt-Lappe, M. Braun and M. Schramm Introduction to
English Linguistics. (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2015) third edition
[ISBN 9783110378382].
Prodromou, L. ‘From corpus to octopus’ IATEFL Newsletter (137), 1997, pp.18–21.
Radford, A. An Introduction to English Sentence Structure. (Cambridge: Cambridge
Riemer, N. Introducing Semantics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)
[ISBN 9780521617413].
Cambridge University Press, 2009) fourth edition [ISBN 9780521717403].
[ISBN 9781118430163].
Scollon, R. and S. W. Scollon Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach.
(Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001) [ISBN 9780631224181].
Tallerman, M. Understanding Syntax. (London and New York: Routledge, 2015)
fourth edition [ISBN 9780415746984].
Longman, 1995) [ISBN 9780582291515].
Todd, P. and J. Aitchison ‘Learning language the hard way’, First Language 1(2),
1980, pp.122–140.
Trask, R.L. The Penguin Dictionary of English Grammar. (London: Penguin, 2000)
[ISBN 9780140514643].
Yule, G. The Study of Language. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020)
seventh edition [ISBN 9781108499453].
105
Notes
106

Glossology Goldsmiths

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noun

Convenor: Gabriel Ozón, The University of Sheffield

Published by: University of London

Course learning outcomes and assessment criteria........................................ 1

Speech organs .........................................................................................................................35

Course learning outcomes and

Chapter 1: Introduction to the course

Scope of this guide

In the examination simple regurgitation of the illustrative material

This guide is intended as a model of how you might organise your

• demonstrate solid understanding of linguistic theory and research

Suggested study timetable

Weeks Syllabus content

How to approach the examination

Choosing the question

Reading the question

Writing essays and examination answers in linguistics

Chapter 2: The nature of language

Following on from this activity, we could make an observation, for

What is 'a language'?

(1) a. Elaine put the book on the table

The creative aspect to human language also means that we can

The differences between animal communication

In the last section, we drew attention to the ability of humans to come

These examples, which are all covered by Yule (2020), indicate to

we have recommended a book which discusses both in an accessible

First language acquisition

To accomplish the feat of language acquisition a child needs to be

The critical period

The critical period: the case of Genie

Learning (spoken) language the hard way: the case of Vincent

Second language acquisition

What determines whether a second language will be learned as

Can animals learn a language? Experiments and

Explaining language acquisition

Other explanations have been advanced since. An influential one is

will be applicable. The chapters will consider areas of linguistics such

Sample examination questions

Chapter 3: The origins of English

English through the ages: a short time-line for

Old English 500–1100 difficult for the modern reader,

The Indo-European language group

English German Swedish Finnish

The history of English

Cities: Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow, London, York

The invasions of Britain

The history of place-names is a continuing indication to us as to which

Middle English 1100–1500

Early modern English 1500–1800

Modern English 1800–present day

English as a world language

• those with English as a second language (ESL): for example, the

English is a world language, but will it remain so?

The above is a powerful quote which encapsulates issues to do

Facts and figures:

Why has the English language become so important?

What are the benefits of having a world language?

The future of English

Sample examination questions

Chapter 4: The sounds of English

Phonetics: the sounds speakers make

Having introduced a system for transcribing sounds we will talk in

Speech sounds are vibrations, or waves, transmitted most frequently

(14) a. The dodo is extinct.