PHILOSOPHY IN GENERAL

PHILOSOPHY
ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITION
➢ philo meaning “love” or “friendship” and sophia meaning “wisdom.” Thus, philosophy means
“LOVE OF WISDOM.”

TECHNICAL DEFINITION
➢ “the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes, and principles acquired by the aid of
human reason alone (Bittle, 1984).”

➢ Men have the tendency to wonder (plato)

➢ Men also have the tendency to doubt (rene de cartes)
➢ Men do philosophize because of his/her experience (karl jaspers)
➢ Men’s love for wisdom (socrates)

PHILOSOPHY IS A SCIENCE
➢ Science is about acquiring a certain kind of knowledge. Philosophy is a science because the
questioning is given more importance than the answers to the questions, since answers can
become questions themselves. (Babor,2007)

PHILOSOPHY IS A SCIENCE OF BEINGS

➢ As a science of beings, it covers all the things that can be reached by the human mind. This
includes man, the world, God, everything that is, or becomes, or is known.

PHILOSOPHY SEARCHES FOR THE ULTIMATE REASONS, CAUSES AND PRINCIPLES OF BEINGS.
➢ This means that philosophy studies the ultimate “whys and wherefores” of beings.

PHILOSOPHY USES THE POWER OR NATURAL LIGHT OF REASON.

➢ The study of philosophy help us acquired by the aid of human reason alone. Meaning,
philosophy doesn’t base its knowledge on authority, but solely on the reasoning power of the
human mind.

DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
A. PRACTICAL DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
LOGIC
➢ (Questions related to Reasoning)
➢ Logic attempts to resolve the following questions: “What makes good arguments good and
bad arguments bad?”

ETHICS
➢ (Questions related to Morality)
➢ Ethics attempts to resolve questions like: “What makes my action right or wrong, and how
could I know it?”. “Is there a norm good and evil?

AXIOLOGY
➢ (Questions related to Values)
➢ Axiology attempts to resolve questions like: “How are values experienced?” “What are the
kinds of value?”
AESTHETICS
➢ (Questions related to Beauty and Taste)
➢ Aesthetics attempts to resolve questions like: “What are the essential characteristics of
beauty?” “What is aesthetic value?” “Do the arts provide knowledge?”

SEMANTICS
➢ (Questions related to Values)
➢ Axiology attempts to resolve questions like: “How are values experienced?” “What are the
kinds of value?”

B. SPECULATIVE DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY

EPISTEMOLOGY
➢ (Questions related to Truth and Knowledge)
➢ Epistemology attempts to resolve questions like: “What is knowledge?” “What is fact?” “What is
truth?”

THEODICY
➢ (Questions related to God)
➢ Theodicy attempts to resolve questions like : “Does God exist?” “Why God allows evil?”

COSMOLOGY
➢ (Questions related to Universe)
➢ Cosmology attempts to resolve question like: “How did the world begin and where will it end?”

PSYCHOLOGY
➢ (Questions related to Soul)
➢ Psychology attempts to resolve question like: “Is there really a soul?”

METAPHYSICS
➢ (Questions related to Being and Existence)
➢ Metaphysics attempts to resolve the following questions: “What is being?” “Why is there being
rather than non-being?” “What is existence?” “What is essence?”

PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION
PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION
➢ refers to the careful examination of life situation. An individual reflects philosophically when
he builds on previous actions, events and or decisions.
➢ Reflection is vital in ensuring that our actions and decisions are well thought out and are done
with due regard for their implications and consequences on others, our surroundings, and
ourselves.
➢ “The unexamined life is not worth living”. SOCRATES

EXAMPLE OF PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION

➢ When buying clothes
➢ Posting your feelings and opinion in the social media.

THE FOUR PRINCIPLES

PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY
➢ In simple terms, this principle means “everything is what it is”. What is not is not.
PRINCIPLE OF NON-CONTRADICTION
➢ This principle states that it is an impossibility for a particular thing to be and not to be at the
same time at the same respect.

PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE

➢ This principle explains that everything must be “either be or not be” or “either is or is not”.
There is no middle ground thus the term “excluded middle”.

PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON

➢ This principle states that there is sufficient reason for the being and existence of everything.
Conversely, nothing exists without any reason at all.

PARTIAL AND HOLISTIC THINKING

HOLISTIC THINKING
➢ Refers to a perspective that considers large-scale patterns in systems. This is often
described as looking at the “big picture” when describing and analyzing a situation or a
problem.
➢ requires an individual to have an open mindset and the ability to get the general sense
regarding a situation.
➢ A holistic perspective enable a person to step back and consider the general aspects of a
certain problem.
It gives rise to a more appreciative aspect about life, as we are able to look at life in its
totality.

PARTIAL THINKING
➢ way of thinking that focuses on the specific aspects of the situation.

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING (OPINION FROM TRUTH)

OPINION
➢ is a belief, impression or judgment about something by not necessarily based on fact.
➢ it prevails personal view of a person.

TRUTH
➢ it is something that has been proven by facts or sincerity.
➢ in science, truth is based on facts-as something that is observable
➢ in philosophy, truth is considered as a kind of quality and value.

➢ Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry

➢ Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance
➢ Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value.
➢ PROPOSITIONS are statements about the world or reality and may or may not carry truth.

WHAT IS TRUTH AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

➢ Truth is important to clarify knowledge, since it is through knowing that we are able to
determine what is true.
KNOWLEDGE
➢ is the clear awareness and understanding of anything that surrounds you. It is a product of
questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is comprised of
ideas and beliefs that we know to be true.

CLAIMS
➢ statements that are not evidently or immediately known to be true.
➢ Further examination is required to establish its truthfulness

TRUTHFUL STATEMENTS
➢ Statements that are based on facts
➢ Science considers truth as something observable and empirical. While, Philosophy has
various views.

DOUBT
➢ Has a very important purpose
➢ Doubt helps determine the truth
➢ Claims, evidence, and experience is scrutinized and analyzed
➢ Nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove it.

Discovering truths about oneself is merely the FIRST step toward exploring knowledge and truth.

WAYS ON DETERMINING TRUTH

➢ A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses
➢ A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts- If you think that there are still doubt in
your mind, you can do an investigation to some other experts or research to fully seek the
truth.
➢ Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief- This is getting everyone to
agree on something with nobody opposing or against on that statement.
➢ Statements can also be true through actions

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FALLACY AND BIAS

TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
FALLACY OR FAKE ARGUMENT
➢ are group of statements that appear to be arguments to support the conclusion.

BIAS
➢ refers tendencies or influences which affect the views of the people. When looking at an
opinion you must be aware of bias so that you can objectively and critically examined points
of view.

TYPES OF FALLACY
ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
➢ Argument against the Person
➢ “Do not listen to his opinion he is a fool.”

ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM
➢ Appeal to Force
➢ “If this peace agreement will not be signed by the government, then we will have no recourse
but go to war.”

ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
➢ Appeal to Emotion
➢ “Please, let me in. I was just late because I have to attend to my son who is sick.”

ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM
➢ Appeal to Popularity or Bandwagon
➢ “Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you should go find one!”

TYPES OF BIAS
CORRESPONDENCE BIAS OR ATTRIBUTE EFFECT
➢ You judge a person’s personality based on the actions.

CONFIRMATION BIAS
➢ Tendency to look for a readily accept information which fits one’s own beliefs or views that go
against it.
➢ “How can I accept his view that there is no God? I am a Christian!”

FRAMING
➢ Judging an incidence without looking at the other side.

HINDSIGHT
➢ The phenomena which occur has a pattern and can be predicted, such is usually based in
historical evidence.

THE HUMAN PERSON

➢ Philosophers, believe that the human being is not just a mere animal and that there is
something in the human that sets him or her apart from other beings which these special
traits make a human as a distinct individual person.

HUMAN AS A PERSON HAS THE FOLLOWING TRAITS:

1. Has AWARENESS OF SELF which refers to the person having a clear perception of oneself,
including his thoughts, emotions, identity and actions. (Abella 2016)
2. Has SELF DETERMINATION, refers to the capability of a person to make choices and decisions
based on their own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal-oriented and
self-directed; we are persons because we act and we are aware of our actions. (Abella 2016)
3. EXTERNALITY, person is able to reach out and interact with others. (Abella 2016)
4. Has DIGNITY, this refers to the innate right to be valued and respected, Philosophers consider
all humans as having an inherent worth or value. (Abella 2016)

OUR BODY IS COMPOSED OF:

SOUL
➢ According to Steph (2018), the soul causes the body to live; indeed, it is the soul that animates
the body. In addition, the soul is the animator of the body, and the body acts as the matter to
the soul.
➢ 3 ASPECTS OF THE SOUL (plato)
o Logos/logistikon – mind or reason
o Thymos/thumetikon – emotion
o Eros/epithumetikon – desire

SPIRIT
➢ Aside from the physical characteristics, another aspect of the human that defines us as
persons is the spirit, and this is the intangible element that enables us to exercise thought,
possess awareness, interiority and the capacity to reach out to the world and to other
persons. (Abella 2016)

THE HUMAN PERSON IS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT (ABELLA 2016).

EMBODIMENT
➢ Embodiment gives us the opportunity to do all the things that human person does, but we
cannot always say that our own body is limitless. As we called human person as embodied
spirit, we also embrace the idea that there are things that we cannot do and there are
limitations which make us a human as well.

HUMAN NATURE AND LIMITATIONS

TRANSCENDENCE
➢ Transcendence originated from the latin words trans, meaning "go beyond," and scandare,
meaning "climb.’’
➢ the power/ your ability to surpass your limits
➢ “fulfilling a goal”
➢ In totality, a man is a physical body, a living soul and a spirit.

LIMITATIONS
➢ Body
➢ Social and
➢ Environmental

POSIBILITIES
➢ Transcendence

THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY
➢ is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and
its non-human contents.
➢ Environmental philosophers tackle issues such as humanity’s role in the natural world, the
interaction between nature and human activities, and humanity’s response to environmental
changes.

VIEWS OF PHILOSOPHICAL ENVIRONMENT

ANTHROPOCENTRISM
➢ focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the means
by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive. This view believes that humans
are the most important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use
its resources.
BIOCENTRISM
➢ believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all other
organisms have inherent value and should be protected.
➢ This view advocates ethical treatment of animals.

ECOCENTRISM
➢ places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. This view believes that
humankind is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a
significant role as stewards or guardians of nature.

ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS
➢ is one philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the
natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-being of people and other
organisms living in it.
➢ How can humanity address the damage inflicted on the environment?

ENVIRONMENTALISM
➢ Advocates to address the growing environmental problems

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
➢ A moral approach that analyzes the relationship between humans and the environment

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
➢ is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
➢ It contains within it two key concepts:
1) the concept of "needs", in particular the essential needs of the world's poor; and
2) the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs.

THREE IMPORRTANT PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABILITY

ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY
➢ refers to maintaining the state of the environment.

ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY
➢ refers to prudence in decision-making regarding the use of resources to ensure that there is
minimum to zero waste.
➢ Prudence is the ability to regulate one's actions and behavior.

EQUITY
➢ demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so
that the next generation will be able to use them.
➢ Prudence and frugality can guide us in our use of resources
➢ Frugality is being thrifty with the use of one's resources..

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
➢ the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also
the value and moral status of, the environment and this non-human contents.
VALUE
➢ Something has intrinsic value. if it has inherent worth in itself
➢ Something has instrumental value. if something is considered as a means towards achieving a
certain end.

VIEWS ON THE ATTRIBUTION OF MORAL CONSIDERATION

ANTHROPOCENTRISM
➢ only humans are assigned intrinsic value.
➢ considers human beings as the center of moral consideration.

PANTHOCENTRISM
➢ extends intrinsic value and thus moral consideration to higher forms of animals or intelligent
animals such as dogs and chimpanzees who are sentient
➢ Sentient: having the power of perception by the senses; conscious.
➢ Sentient beings therefore have the capacity to feel pain, and thus, suffering..

BIOCENTRISM
➢ is the view that not only humans and animals, but also plants should be morally considerable.
➢ Intrinsic value is assigned to living things.

ECOCENTRISM
➢ regards ecosystems as holistic entities that should be given moral consideration
➢ Ecosystem: the community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components
of their environment interacting as a system
➢ This view reduces all living beings as mere members of the ecosystem
➢ Intrinsic value is assigned to the ecosystem as a whole.
➢ Thus an action is right and therefore, moral, when it has the tendency to preserve the integrity,
stability of the biotic community; and wrong when it does the opposite.

ALDO LEOPOLD
➢ an American conservationist, forester, and philosopher
➢ "That land is a community is the basic concept of ecology, but that land is to be loved and
respected is an extension of ethics."

ECOLOGY
➢ a science that deals with the relationships between groups of living things and their
environments.

THEORIES IN RADICAL ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY

DEEP ECOLOGY
➢ is an ecological and environmental philosophy which presupposes that all living things
possess equal intrinsic value regardless of their usefulness or utility to other beings

ARNE NAESS
o Founder of deep ecology
o "Each living being is understood as a goal in itself, in principle on an equal footing with
one's own ego.”
SOCIAL ECOLOGY
➢ is an offshoot of the movement against domination of existing hierarchical structures in
society that pre-empt the development of the full nature of an individual
➢ Man has two natures: his first nature (biotic nature) and his second nature (human nature).

MURRAY BOOKCHIN
o Proponent of Social Ecology
o "Until human beings cease to live in societies that are structured around hierarchies as
well as economic classes, we shall never be free of domination...”
o "...however much we try to dispel it with rituals, incantations, ecotheologies, and the
adoption of seemingly, 'natural' ways of life.”

ECOFEMINISM
➢ Feminism: the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities
➢ believes that a society characterized by a mentality that tolerates the oppression of women is
directly linked with its tendency to tolerate the abuse of the environment and degradation of
nature.

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT
o Feminist philosopher. Author of "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman"
o "I do not wish them [women] to have power over men; but over themselves."

YNESTRA KING
o Ecofeminist theorist
o Author of "The Ecology of Feminism and the Feminism of Ecology"

PRUDENCE AND FRUGALITY

PRUDENCE
➢ covers good judgment, considering the consequences of an action, using common sense and
discretion, exercising caution, and conforming to reason and decency

FRUGALITY
➢ The quality of being thrifty, sparing or economical in the consumption of resources and
avoiding waste, lavishness, or extravagance

WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM

➢ Around 931 million tons of food goes to waste each year.
➢ 61% comes from households, 26% from food service and 13% from retail.
➢ Reducing waste could have social, economic and environmental benefits.
➢ The UN Sustainable Development Goals aim to halve food waste by 2030.