Lesson 1 - Truth and Opinion: Lesson 2 - Methods of Philosophizing

MODULE 2
Lesson 1 – Truth and Opinion

Lesson 2 – Methods of Philosophizing
Lesson 3 –Evaluate Truth from Opinion
PHILOSOPHY was born out of man’s desire to

know, to interpret and to understand the world.
It came into being from a persistent attempt to

arrive at the real KNOWLEDGE hence at
TRUTH.
In discussing truth, it is important to clarify

KNOWLEDGE since it is through KNOWLEDGE
that we are able to determine what TRUTH is.
Complete the phrase:
I know that
I know why
I know how
What we know comprises of our KNOWLEDGE pertains to
ideas and beliefs that we know to be true.
Man is believed to have KNOWLEDGE of a thing when he

can explain, identify, give examples, point out, relate or
associate an idea or concept to other ideas or concepts.
If he claims that he knows the sceneries in Baguio A person is

knowledgeable when he can demonstrate his KNOWLEDGE,
of Where and How to get to Bagiuo.
There are STATEMENTS however that they are not evidently

or immediately known to be TRUE.
I know that my adviser is the best teacher in school

Rene Descartes stated,
- “Doubt everything that can be doubted.”

- Philosophers who ponder upon the urgency of
knowledge doubted everything that is to know about
themselves and the world.
In Philosophy - Systematic doubt is employed to help
determine the Truth – this means that every statement claim
evidence or experience are analyzed and scrutinized
nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and
evidence to prove that it is indeed is TRUE.
Basis of Determining the Truth (Roberto Abella)
1. A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.
Let us investigate the nature of Lets revise this statement to make it
KNOWLEDGE by a simple example easier to analyze and scrutinize:
starting with the very obvious things Let’s rewrite this statement so that we
that we know about ourselves: can review and analyze them further:
I am alive Am I alive?
I have a body Do I have a body?
I can breath Can I breathe?
Let’s assume that the truthfulness of Now answer these questions;

this statement have yet to be If you have answered YES to all
determined these questions then we can conclude
Using DOUBT as starting point with certainty, these statements about
yourself are true.
2. A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
If you claim that you are a Filipino then you have to use all
the facts that will guide you in searching for TRUTH.
Ex. You say that you are a Filipino/ I am a Filipino

Then, you may use dictionary and look up for the word
Filipino.
We assume that what is stated in the Dictionary is the actual

meaning of the word if the definition applies to you then it
simply means that you are a Filipino.
3. Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common
belief
This is another way in determining what is true but this

approach has certain limitations/ getting everyone to agree
on something may not make the belief true, however you
may use other evidence to determine its veracity or
truthfulness
4. A statement should be proven through an action to determine
its truth.
Skills in Computer - Quality of the product will speak itself

5. Claims and beliefs should be subjected to tests to
determine truth.
Any claims should be subjected to test, to prove its validity,

when you say that you have understood the lesson well then
one way to prove it is if you pass the test.
Remember TRUTH lies at the hearts of any inquiry.

Discovering TRUTH about oneself is the first step in
exploring KNOWLEDGE and TRUTH.
As we encounter different information from various resources,
Philosophy can help us filter them to determine the truthfulness
through its claims through the use of:
Systematic Doubt
Senses
Facts
Actions
Tests
Your turn to describe to determine the truthfulness of this
statement:
I am a good student.
Apply a Systematic Doubt in analyzing this statement and let’s see

if you understand our Lesson.
“If you would be a real seeker

after truth, it is necessary that
at least once in your life you
doubt, as far as possible, all
things”
Rene
Descartes
Lesson 2 – Methods of Philosophizing
Methods of
Philosophizing
• is to introduce methods or ways of looking

at truth and what will be considered as mere
opinions.
• is to think or express oneself in a
philosophical manner.
• considers or discusses a (matter) from a
philosophical standpoint.
A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
• - The word “phenomenon” comes directly from the Greek
(Φαιομενών, phainomenon), meaning appearance.”
• Immanuel Kant, German philosopher, had used the same
word to refer the world of experience.
• Husserl intends a similar meaning except for the crucial
fact that for him, it does not imply contrast between the
appearance and some underlying reality, between the
phenomenon and the “noumenon” or “thing-in-itself.”
• That, according to Husserl, is where the trouble starts,
when one supposes that what one experiences is not or
might not be the truth.
• - is the scientific study of the essential structures of

consciousness.
• By describing those structures, Husserl believes that we can find
certainty, which philosophy has always sought.
• This process entails a method or series of continuously revised
method – for taking up a peculiarly phenomenological
standpoint, “bracketing out” everything that is not essential,
thereby understanding the basic rules or constitutive process
through which consciousness does it work of knowing the
world.
• is the thesis that consciousness is intentional. Every act of
consciousness is directed at some object or another, possibly
a material object or an ideal object.
• The phenomenologist can distinguish and describe the nature
the intentional acts of consciousness and the intentional
objects of consciousness, which defined through the content
of consciousness.
• Notably, one can describe the content of consciousness and
accordingly, the object of consciousness without any
particular commitment to the actuality or existence of that
object.
• Thus, one can describe the content of a dream in much the
same terms that one describes the view from a television or a
scene from a novel
B. Existentialism: On Freedom
One’s search for truth might be based on one’s
attitude or outlook.
Take for instance, existentialism.
Unlike Phenomenology, existentialism is not

primarily a philosophical method.
Neither is it exactly a set of doctrines but more of

an outlook or attitude supported by diverse
doctrines centered on certain themes:
These themes include:
1. The human condition or the relation of the individual to

the world;
2. The human response to that condition;
3. Being, especially the difference between the being of

person (which is existence) and the being of other kinds of
things;
4. Human freedom
5. The significance (and unavoidability) of choice and

decision in the absence of certainty and;
6. The concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against

abstractions and false objectifications
Sartre, a French Philosopher, emphasizes the
importance of free individual choice, regardless of the
power of other people to influence and coerce our
desires, beliefs, and decisions.
He argued that consciousness (being for itself) is such

that it is always free to choose (though not free to
negate (or reject) the given features of the world.
One is never free to negate that situation and to (try to)

change it.
To be human, to be conscious is to be free to imagine,

free to choose and responsible for one’s life.
• Soren Kierkegaard – insisted that the

authentic self was the personally chosen
self, as opposed to public or herd identity.
• Nietzsche took this view of opposition of

the genuine individual versus the public
herd identity
Philosopher’s idea of self:

• The notion of authenticity is not new.
• Socrates already concerned himself with the

authenticity of the self – the geniuses of his
thoughts and actions, “the good of his soul.”
• He sought not mere opinions but knowledge in

particular, and prescribed not just right action but
virtue, being “true to oneself.”
• St. Augustine was concerned with the spiritual

nature of the “true” self as opposed to the
inauthentic demands of the desire and the body.
• Jean Jacques Rousseau was adamant about the

essential goodness of the “natural” self in contrast
to the “corruption” imposed by society.
• One may be shy or assertive, but such behavior
is always a choice and can always resolve to
change.
• One can be Asian or American, but it is an open
question how one will make of oneself,
• how these will be made into handicaps or an
advantage,
• become challenges to be overcome, or excuses
doing nothing.
C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
• Postmodernism has come into vogue as the name
for a rather diffuse family of ideas and trends that
in significant respect rejects, challenges, or aims to
supersede “modernity” the convictions,
aspirations, and pretentions of modern Western
thought and culture since the Enlightenment.
• Postmodernism is not a philosophy. It is at best a
holding pattern, perhaps a cry of despair.
• It rightly talks about world philosophy, the
philosophy of many cultures, but such talks is not
a philosophy either.
• For instance, reality cannot be known nor described
objectively by postmodernist.
• Richard Rorty an American philosopher notably
developing themes from pragmatism and certain
quarters of analytic philosophy and bringing these
together with
• Continental themes, challenged the modern rationalist
presumption that philosophy or any branch of
knowledge can find secure foundations or achieve
genuine representation of reality.
• – believe that humanity should come at truth beyond
the rational to the non-rational elements of human
nature, including the spiritual.
• Postmodernists consider that to arrive at truth,
humanity should realize the limits of reason and
objectivism.
• Beyond exalting individual analysis of truth,
postmodernists adhere to a relational, holistic
approach.
• Moreover, postmodernists value our existence in the
world and in relation to it.
D. Analytic Tradition
• “Can language objectively describe

truth?”
• For the Philosophers of this tradition, language
cannot objectively describe truth.
• For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher,
language is socially conditioned.
• We understand the world solely in terms of our
language games – that is, our linguistic, social
construct.
• Truth, as we perceived it, is itself socially
constructed.
• Analytic philosophy is the conviction that to some
significant degree, philosophical problems, puzzles and
errors are rooted in language and can be solved or
avoided by sound understanding of language and careful
attention to its workings.
• Analysis refers to a method; owing a great deal to the
pioneers.
• Critics are apt to point these concerns-they might say-
this fixation with language and logic as one aspect of the
trivialization of philosophy with which they charge the
analytic movement.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning
Logic and critical thinking serve as paths to freedom
from half-truths and deceptions.
• Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and opinions or
personal feelings.
• In making rational choices, first, we suspend beliefs
and judgment until all facts have been gathered and
considered.
Two basic types of Reasoning
• Deductive reasoning – general to specific
• Inductive reasoning - particular to general
• Major Premise: All Filipino students are smart.
• Minor Premise: John is a Filipino.
• Conclusion: Therefore, John is smart.
• Fill in the blank
• 1. All philosophers are wise.
• 2. Confucius is a ___________________.
• 3. Therefore, Confucius is a philosopher.
• Arrange Major Premise, Minor Premise, Conclusion
• 1. But the president of the republic of the Philippines is a human being
• 2. All human beings are mortal

• 3. Therefore; the president of the Philippines is mortal.
• 1. So the white rat is not studied by psychology;
• 2. The white rat is not man;
• 3. but man is studied by psychology;
F. Fallacies
D. Fallacies
1. Argumentum ad Hominem (Argument against the Person)
This is a fallacy used when people convince others that
someone’s argument should be rejected because of the person's
personal background, history, nationality, race, socio-economic status,
family, associations, religion, and other circumstances.
This argument is considered fallacious because the rightness or
wrongness of a claim should not be affected by the background of the
person claiming it.
Eg. Of course he believes that the government is flawed, he is a
rebel and a Communist!
2. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to force)

This is an argument used by people who want to win a
conflict by issuing threats to their opponents.
Eg. If this peace agreement will not be signed by the government,
then we will have no recourse but to go to war.
D. Fallacies
3. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to pity)

This fallacy is also called appeal to emotion. It is an argument
used by people who want to win people over by manipulating their
emotions.
Eg. All these charges are baseless; this is just plain harassment—
can’t you see how this is affecting my family?
4. Argumentum ad populum (Bandwagon fallacy)
This fallacious argument is a favorite marketing strategy by
advertising agencies. It is used by appealing to the popular sentiment
of the public.
Eg.
Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you should go find
one!
‘’5. Fallacy of Division
Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.
Eg. You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely
you can do better in this course!
Lesson 3 –Evaluate Truth from Opinion
Lesson 3: Evaluate Truth and Opinion
• A.My brother is a selfless • B.My brother give me the

person because he gave me last piece of pizza.
the last pizza even though he
has not eaten yet.
FACTS are statements that can be checked or backed up
with evidence, it is verifiable from observation and
experience.
It is perceived the one senses that his brother gave him the
last piece of pizza therefore it fits into the category of facts
since it contains information that is easily verifiable.
FACTS are the basis in determining the TRUTH:
Ex. The Philippines as proven in geographical and

anthropological properties, is a country in Southeast Asia.
OPINION
- is an expression based on Facts, Emotions, Beliefs and Views
- Is usually not based on conclusive evidence but instead on an
inclination or an intuition which brings an individual to a
conclusion.
-Are also basis for making arguments and convincing people that
a certain claim is a fact?
-Ex. My girlfriend is beautiful – Opinion is base on feeling
In distinguishing TRUTH from OPINION we have to keep this

in mind:
FACTUAL is undisputed, objective, universal exact and constant
are manifestation of TRUTH.
It implies that it can be proven as TRUE.
KNOWLEDGE must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance.
CONCLUSSION it is a judgment based on certain facts. The facts that form
the basis of conclusion may not be disputed but the conclusion itself may still
be question.
BELIEFS are statements that express convictions there are not easily and
clearly explain by FACTS.
If the person says, “I believe that God exists,” it will be difficult to prove this
his statement if we rely on facts. To judge the truthfulness of a belief one
must considered person’s experiences and views.
EXPLANATION – when statement goes beyond facts and provides reason

why the statement is TRUE then that is an EXPLANATION - makes things
more understandable by providing details or supporting ideas.
ARGUMENTS are statements that provide reasons or convince the reader or

listener that an opinion is truthful. ARGUMENTS are made with the
assumption that the truth of the claim is yet be determined
Kindly Answer the Statement:
1. Asia is largest continent in the world.
2. Jose Rizal is the best hero in the Philippines.
3. According to Miss World Organization records, Megan

Young was the first Filipina to be crown as Miss World.
4. Two plus two equals four (2 + 2 = 4)
5. Socrates is the most intelligent person ever lived.

“Be a free thinker and don’t
accept everything you hear
as truth, be critical and
evaluate what you believe
in.”
Aristotle

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MODULE 2

Lesson 1 – Truth and Opinion

PHILOSOPHY was born out of man’s desire to

It came into being from a persistent attempt to

In discussing truth, it is important to clarify

Man is believed to have KNOWLEDGE of a thing when he

If he claims that he knows the sceneries in Baguio A person is

There are STATEMENTS however that they are not evidently

I know that my adviser is the best teacher in school

- “Doubt everything that can be doubted.”

Let’s assume that the truthfulness of Now answer these questions;

Ex. You say that you are a Filipino/ I am a Filipino

We assume that what is stated in the Dictionary is the actual

This is another way in determining what is true but this

Skills in Computer - Quality of the product will speak itself

Any claims should be subjected to test, to prove its validity,

Remember TRUTH lies at the hearts of any inquiry.

Apply a Systematic Doubt in analyzing this statement and let’s see

“If you would be a real seeker

• is to introduce methods or ways of looking

• - is the scientific study of the essential structures of

Take for instance, existentialism.

Unlike Phenomenology, existentialism is not

Neither is it exactly a set of doctrines but more of

1. The human condition or the relation of the individual to

2. The human response to that condition;

3. Being, especially the difference between the being of

5. The significance (and unavoidability) of choice and

6. The concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against

He argued that consciousness (being for itself) is such

One is never free to negate that situation and to (try to)

To be human, to be conscious is to be free to imagine,

• Soren Kierkegaard – insisted that the

• Nietzsche took this view of opposition of

Philosopher’s idea of self:

• Socrates already concerned himself with the

• He sought not mere opinions but knowledge in

• St. Augustine was concerned with the spiritual

• Jean Jacques Rousseau was adamant about the

• “Can language objectively describe

• 2. All human beings are mortal

2. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to force)

3. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to pity)

• A.My brother is a selfless • B.My brother give me the

FACTS are the basis in determining the TRUTH:

Ex. The Philippines as proven in geographical and

In distinguishing TRUTH from OPINION we have to keep this

EXPLANATION – when statement goes beyond facts and provides reason

ARGUMENTS are statements that provide reasons or convince the reader or

1. Asia is largest continent in the world.

2. Jose Rizal is the best hero in the Philippines.

3. According to Miss World Organization records, Megan

4. Two plus two equals four (2 + 2 = 4)

5. Socrates is the most intelligent person ever lived.

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