Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721

This article is also available online at:

www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

A performance model for impact crushers

S. Nikolov *

Centre Terre et Pierre, 55 Ch. dÕAntoing, B-7500 Tournai, Belgium

Received 3 May 2002; accepted 17 August 2002

Abstract
In this paper we develop a performance model for impact crushers. The product size distribution is obtained as a function of the
crusherÕs rotor radius and angular velocity, the feed rate and the feed size distribution. The model is based on the standard matrix
formulation that includes classification and breakage matrices. It can be applied to both hammer and vertical-axis impact crushers
with the help of the corresponding estimations for the impact energy per unit mass.
Here we propose classification and breakage functions for impact crushers taking into account the dynamic character of the
impact breakage. The classification function has the form of a cumulative Weibull distribution and incorporates a minimum
breakable size of the particles depending on the impact energy and the feed rate. The breakage function is modelled as the sum of
two Broadbent–Callcott distributions. It is assumed to depend on the impact energy and the feed rate through the proposed ex-
pression for the proportion of the fine fraction in the product.
The model predictions are compared with experimental data for limestone treated in a pilot-plant hammer crusher. The vari-
ations of the product size distribution resulting from changes in the rotor velocity and the feed rate are investigated.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Crushing; Modelling; Simulation

1. Introduction available commercial codes for simulation of ore pro-

Nowadays, impact crushers are widely used for
comminution operations because of their high size-
reduction ratio, easy modification of the product and a
relatively simple design. On the other hand, the predic-
tion of the behaviour of mineral processing plants
through modelling and simulations is the more and
more employed as a reliable, time- and cost-saving
approach for development, analysis and optimisation of
crushing circuits. In this context, the availability of
relevant mathematical models for impact crushers is
important for a successful simulation of such plants.
Despite its importance, however, the modelling of the
comminution behaviour of impact crushers received
little attention in the literature. There have been some
recent attempts to develop performance models for this
type of crushers, for example by Csoke and Racz (1998)
and Attou et al. (1999), but nevertheless, a significant
amount of work remains to be done. In addition, the
*
Tel.: +32-69-88-42-66; fax: +32-69-88-42-59.
E-mail address: svetoslav.nikolov@ctp.be (S. Nikolov).
0892-6875/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 2 - 6 8 7 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 7 4 - 7
cessing plants still lack specific models for impact
crushers, which obviously reduces their field of appli-
cation.
In this work we develop a performance model that
can be applied to all types of impact crushers. Our goal
is to predict the product size distribution, provided that
the crusherÕs rotor velocity and radius as well as the feed
rate and size distribution are known before hand. The
specific ore properties and the crusherÕs design are taken
into account through a reasonable number of adjustable
parameters.
Here, the standard model for cone and jaw crushers
developed by Whiten and White (1979) is taken as a
starting point. Because of the specificity of the impact
breakage, this model cannot be used for impact crushers
in its original form. While the general scheme of the
breakage process in cone and jaw crushers (see Fig. 1) is
still applicable in our case, the classification and the
breakage functions that describe the fragmentation
process from statistical point of view should be recon-
sidered.
The fragmentation process in cone and jaw crushers
is relatively slow and is based on the application of a
compression stress on a part of the particlesÕ surface.
716 S. Nikolov / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721
Fig. 1. Scheme of the breakage process in cone and jaw crushers.
Alternatively, the impact breakage takes place at a much
shorter time scale and implies a dynamic crack propa-
gation that leads to a much faster failure of the particles.
According to Austin (1984), the impact generates com-
pressive and tensile shock waves travelling throughout
the particle. The presence of a significant, rapidly
growing tensile stress helps the particles to break from
within. In addition, the particle breakage theory pro-
posed by Oka and Majima (1970) states that larger
particles should break more easily because they contain
larger micro-cracks compared with the smaller ones.
In order to account for the dynamic character of the
impact breakage, we replace the standard classification
function for crushers with a cumulative Weibull distri-
bution depending on the impact energy. Thus, impor-
tant parameters for the performance of impact crushers
such as the rotor radius and velocity as well as the feed
rate are naturally incorporated in our model on the basis
of simple particle dynamics considerations.
Next, the breakage function for crushers proposed by
Whiten and White (1979) is replaced with the sum of
two Broadbent–Callcott distributions representing the
fine and the coarse fractions in the product. The pro-
portion of the fine fraction in the product is assumed to
increase with increasing the rotor velocity and to de-
crease with increasing the feed rate, which is in accord
with the experimental observations.
The model predictions are compared with experi-
mental data for limestone treated in a pilot-plant ham-
mer crusher. Throughout the text, vectors (f ) and
matrices (C) are denoted by underlined symbols.
2. Model development
2.1. Mass balance
A schematic representation of the size-distribution
model developed for cone and jaw crushers by Whiten
(1972) and later improved by Whiten and White (1979)
is shown in Fig. 1. The particles are characterized by
their size distribution, which is represented in a discrete
form by the vectors f (feed) and p (product) respec-
tively. The classification operator C (a diagonal matrix)
computes the probability of breakage for each particle
size. The breakage operator B (a lower triangular ma-
trix) governs the redistribution of the broken particles in
the preliminary defined size classes.
The feed particles are selected for breakage by C.
Those that do not break pass unchanged in the product.
The debris of the broken particles are redistributed by
means of B and are eventually subjected to further
fragmentation together with the new feed material. Ac-
cording to Whiten (1972), the product size distribution p
can be expressed as follows:
1
p ¼ ðI  CÞ  ðI  B  CÞ f ð1Þ
1
where I is the identity matrix and ðÞ denotes the in-
verse of a square matrix.
More recently, Csoke and Racz (1998) developed a
model for hammer crushers with the basic assumption
that the feed particles are subjected to a single breakage
after impact with the hammer bars. This results in the
following mass balance equation:
p ¼ B  C  f þ ðI  CÞ  f ð2Þ
The above equation corresponds to a scheme where the
classification and the breakage matrices are connected in
series without the feedback shown in Fig. 1. Conse-
quently, Eq. (2) does not contain the inverse matrix
appearing in Eq. (1). Attou et al. (1999) extended the
approach of Csoke and Racz and considered two dif-
ferent breakage processes in hammer crushers. In his
model, the particles can break either after impact with
the hammer bars of the rotor or after collision with the
internal walls of the crusherÕs chamber. The mass bal-
ance of this model is an extension of Eq. (2) and does
not incorporate the possibility for further fragmentation
of the debris issued from breakage of parent particles.
We performed numerical simulations with both mass
balance laws (1) and (2) and found that Eq. (2) is in-
compatible with the definition of the breakage and the
classification matrices. Actually, it predicts that the
product contains a non-negligible fraction of feed par-
ticles having a probability of breakage of 100%, which is
physically impossible because the proposed equations
do not account for particles agglomeration.
For this reason, we use the standard mass balance law
(1), which implies that the debris issued from breakage
of parent particles can be subjected to further frag-
mentation. We believe that the assumptions incorpo-
rated in Eq. (1) are applicable in the case of impact
crushers with the argument that most of the feed parti-
cles are indeed subjected to more than one fragmenta-
tion due to the particle–wall and the particle–particle
collisions.
2.2. Impact energy per unit mass
Consider the impact between a single particle and a
crushing bar attached to the rotor of a hammer crusher.
Given that the rotor mass is much greater than the mass
of a single particle in the feed, and that before impact the
linear velocity of the crushing bar is much more impor-
 S. Nikolov / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721
tant than the particle velocity, the kinetic energy asso-
ciated with a single particle is negligible compared with
that of the rotor. Considering the conservation of linear
momentum of the system particle-crushing bar before
and after impact, Attou et al. (1999) derived the fol-
lowing expression for the impact energy per unit mass:
E ¼ 0:5  ðR þ 0:5  Hb Þ2  x2 ð3Þ
where R (m) is the rotor radius, Hb (m) is the height of
the impact surface of the crushing bars and x (s1 ) is the
rotor angular velocity.
In vertical-axis crushers, the particles are fed to a
horizontal turning table (rotor) with radially oriented
guides and are projected towards the crusherÕs walls by
the centrifugal forces. Unlike in hammer crushers, here
most of the fragmentation takes place at the crusherÕs
walls rather than at the rotorÕs periphery. With the as-
sumption that the particle energy does not change dur-
ing its flight from the rotor periphery to the crushing
walls, i.e., the particle–particle interactions are neglected
in a first approximation, Nikolov and Lucion (2002)
derived the following expression for the impact energy
per unit mass:
E ¼ R2v  x2 ð4Þ
1
where Rv (m) and x (s ) are the rotor radius and an-
gular velocity respectively. The notation Rv is used to
distinguish between the impact energy for hammer and
vertical-axis crushers given with Eqs. (3) and (4) re-
spectively.
It is interesting to note that for the same rotor ra-
dius, the impact energy per unit mass provided by
hammer crushers is lower than that provided by vertical-
axis crushers. This could explain the fact that vertical-
axis crushers produce more fines and perform better
when finer granulate must be reduced in size, which is
most probably due to the higher level of impact energy
reached in these machines.
2.3. Classification function
In their model for cone and jaw crushers, Whiten and
White (1979) compute the components of the classifi-
cation matrix C with the help of the following classifi-
cation function:

m
di  k2
Ci ðdi Þ ¼ 1  ð5Þ
k1  k2
where Ci ðdi Þ is the probability of breakage for a particle
of size di (mm), k1 (mm) is the minimum size of particles
that undergo breakage, k2 (mm) represents the maxi-
mum particle size found in the product (i.e., all particles
in the feed with size di > k2 are broken); m is a shape
parameter.
In Eq. (5), both k1 and k2 depend explicitly on the
crusher setting, which is a static variable and is not re-
717
lated to any movement of the crusher parts and the
particles. With their experiments on impact fracture of
single particles, King and Bourgeois (1993) demon-
strated that the probability of impact breakage for a
given particle depends mainly on its size and the impact
kinetic energy, which is clearly a dynamic variable that
includes the velocity of impact. Therefore, we have to
define another, more suitable classification function re-
flecting the dynamic character of the impact breakage.
The experiments performed by King and Bourgeois
(1993) as well as by Kapur and Fuerstenau (1995) show
that the probability of impact breakage for single par-
ticles in function of the impact energy is well described
by the Weibull distribution proposed by Weichert
(1988). Attou et al. (1999) adapted this distribution as a
classification function for impact crushers in the fol-
lowing form:


a k n
Ci ðdi Þ ¼ 1  exp  s  di  E ð6Þ
Q
where E (J/kg) is the average impact energy per unit
mass, Q (t/h) is the feed rate; a and s depend on the
specific crusher design and size; k and n are related to
the material properties of the granulate. In Eq. (6) the
breakage probability for particles with size of several
dozens of microns is not exactly zero at given feed rate
and rotor velocity, which is in contradiction with the
experimental evidence. Moreover, Eq. (6) is an almost
step-like function of the particle size when applied to
typical size distributions. Actually, Eq. (6) has been fit-
ted to experimental data for breakage of identical par-
ticles with different impact energies while the inverse
problem (breakage of particles with different size with
the same impact energy) has not been investigated. Ac-
cording to Eq. (6), a very limited number of particles
should have breakage probabilities different from one or
zero, which is unrealistic.
In order to deal with these problems, Nikolov and
Lucion (2002) recently proposed a new classification
function in the form:
"
k #
di  dmin
Ci ðdi Þ ¼ 1  exp  ð7Þ
dmin
where dmin (mm) is the minimum size of the particles that
undergo breakage for the given operating conditions
and k controls the shape of the classification function.
The probability of breakage for particles smaller than
dmin is Ci ðdi Þ ¼ 0 by definition.
Eq. (7) is actually a cumulative Weibull distribution
that can be derived from physical considerations related
to brittle fracture of solids. Similarly to Eq. (5), the
classification function (7) contains a minimum break-
able size but does not contain a predefined upper size of
the particles in the product. This is in accord with the
fact that the product issued from impact crushing has
718 S. Nikolov / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721
broader size distribution compared with that issued
from cone or jaw crushing.
Our basic assumption is that the minimum breakable
size dmin for impact crushing is a function of both the
impact energy and the feed rate. Higher rotor velocity or,
equivalently, higher impact energy per unit mass E, leads
to a finer product size for the same feed rate and size.
Therefore, dmin should decrease with increasing of E.
As for the influence of the feed rate on dmin , an in-
crease in the feed rate, keeping the feed size unchanged,
results in higher frequency of the particle–particle col-
lisions. As each collision dissipates energy, the average
impact energy will decrease at higher feed rates and that
would result in a coarser product, i.e., a greater value for
dmin . Taking into account these considerations, we can
write:
 

n 
Q0 E The breakage distribution function for crushers de-
dmin ¼ dmax  exp  c0 þ c1  ln 
Q E0
ð8Þ
where Q and E are the feed rate and the average impact
energy per unit mass respectively; Q0 and E0 are refer-
ence feed rate and reference impact energy respectively;
dmax (mm) is the maximum particle dimension in the
feed; n is a material parameter; c0 is a rate constant and
c1 accounts for the intensity of the particle–particle in-
teractions.
The dependence of dmin on the feed rate is modelled
with a logarithmic function because of the fact that rel-
atively important variations in the feed rate do not
change significantly the product size distribution ob-
tained with impact crushers. In addition, at reference
feed rate Q ¼ Q0 , lnðQ0 =QÞ ¼ 0 so that all other model
parameters can be identified independently on c1 . It is
noted that c1 should depend, among the other factors, on
the volume enclosed between the rotor and the crusherÕs
internal walls. A larger volume of the fragmentation
chamber leads to a lower volume fraction of solids for
the same feed rate and particle size and therefore, the
particle–particle interactions are less frequent.
The parameter 0 < n < 1 specifies the relationship
between the impact energy per unit mass and the mini-
mum breakable size dmin and controls the saturation
value of dmin for given granulate properties and crusher
design.
The parameter k in Eq. (7) controls the shape of the
classification function and hence, the shape of the
product size distribution. Greater values for k corre-
spond to a higher breakage probability for the large
particles. Therefore, k can be expected to decrease with
increasing the impact energy. In this work, we assume
that k depends directly on the rotor velocity. As the
impact energy is proportional to the second power of the
rotor velocity, the dependence of k on the impact energy
can be written as:
rffiffiffiffiffi
E
k ¼ k0  k1 ð9Þ
E0
where k0 and k1 are material coefficients.
2.4. Breakage function
According to Karra (1982), the breakage distribution
function bij represents the fraction of the debris created
from breakage of identical parent particles of size dj and
passing through a screen with mesh size di . It is assumed
that the shape of the size distribution of the debris is
independent on the size of the parent particles. As
mentioned in a review paper by Kelly and Spottiswood
(1990), this is true for almost all of the experimentally
studied product size distributions obtained by crushing
or grinding of a large number of different minerals.
rived by Whiten and White (1979) reads:

m
l
di di
bij ðdi ; dj Þ ¼ /  þ ð1  /Þ  ð10Þ
dj dj
where / denotes the mass fraction of the fine product; m
and l are material coefficients accounting for the shape
of the fine and the coarse product size distributions re-
spectively.
The form of Eq. (10) reflects the fact that the
breakage function for crushers is better represented as
the sum of two probabilistic distributions. According to
Kelly and Spottiswood (1990), this is due to the presence
of two different breakage mechanisms at a microscopic
level: shatter and cleavage. An important remark is that
the proportion of the product fine fraction / in Eq. (10)
is assumed to be independent on the operating condi-
tions. The size distributions of the fine and the coarse
products are modelled with a power-law function that
cannot be derived from a known statistical distribution.
In a recent work, Nikolov and Lucion (2002) used the
classification function given with Eq. (7) together with
the breakage distribution function (10) to simulate the
performance of hammer crushers. The results of the
simulations suggest that the assumption of a constant
fine product fraction / in Eq. (10) may be too restrictive
to correctly describe the changes in the product size
distribution obtained from impact crushing with differ-
ent rotor velocities and feed rates. Here we propose a
breakage function consisting of the sum of two Broad-
bent–Calcott distributions:
(

m 
di
bij ðdi ; dj Þ ¼ 1:582 /  1  exp 
dj
"

l !#)
di
þ ð1  /Þ  1  exp 
dj
ð11Þ
 S. Nikolov / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721 719

where /, m and l have the same meaning as in Eq. to 0.74, 2.6 and 0.55 respectively. The values of the
(10). The normalisation factor is computed as 1=½1 parameters necessary to compute the shape of the clas-
exp tð1Þ ¼ 1:582. sification function are fixed to k0 ¼ 1:35 and k1 ¼ 0:1.
The cumulative distribution function derived by We have performed simulations for two sets of ex-
Broadbent and Callcott (1956) is actually a normalised perimental data taken at different feed rates, namely
Weibull distribution starting from a particle size d ¼ 0 Q ¼ 2 and 7 t/h. At fixed feed rate, the products ob-
and, as already explained, not only provides a better fit tained with three different rotor velocities (x ¼ 540; 720;
to the experimental data but can also be obtained from 900 rpm) have been analysed. It is important to note
physical considerations related to brittle fracture. that except for the rotor velocity and the feed rate, all
As for the proportion of the fine product /, Na- other model parameters have been kept unchanged for
rayanan and Whiten (1988) found that during impact all performed simulations.
breakage of single particles, / increases with increasing The experimental and simulated size distributions of
the energy intensity while m and l remain virtually un- the products obtained with different rotor velocities at
changed. In the case of impact crushing, this means that feed rate of 2 t/h are compared in Fig. 2. The corre-
/ increases with increasing the rotor velocity. On the sponding size distributions obtained at feed rate of 7 t/h
other hand, / should decrease with increasing the feed are depicted in Fig. 3.
rate because higher frequency of the particle–particle It is seen that the model is able to predict the product
interactions involves lower average impact energy in the size distribution with a reasonable accuracy even when
crushing chamber. Taking into account that 0 < / < 1 important variations in both the rotor velocity and the
by definition, we can express the above arguments in a feed rate are imposed. At fixed feed rate, higher rotor
mathematical form as follows:
 
 rffiffiffiffiffi
Q0 E
/ ¼ 1  exp  c2 þ c1  ln  ð12Þ
Q E0
where c2 is a rate constant; for simplicity, c1 is assumed
to be the same as in Eq. (8).
The breakage matrix B is constructed with the
method outlined in King (2000). Let the size distribution
of the granulate is obtained with a series of N screens
with mesh sizes Di (i ¼ 1; N  1); DN ¼ 0 by definition.
Then di is the representative size of particles with di-
mensions Di > di > Diþ1 . The non-zero components Bij
of the breakage matrix B can be computed using Eq.
(11) as shown in King (2000):
Bij ¼ bði1Þj ðDi1 ; dj Þ  bij ðDi ; dj Þ
ð13Þ
Bjj ¼ 1  bjj ðDj ; dj Þ
Fig. 2. Measured (symbols) and predicted (curves) product size dis-
tributions for different rotor velocities at feed rate Q ¼ 2 t/h.

3. Results

The model developed in the previous section has been

implemented in an in-house FORTRAN code. It has
been validated with experiments performed on a ham-
mer crusher with rotor diameter and width of 0.65 and
0.45 m respectively. The rotor radius is R ¼ 0:325 m; the
height of the rotorÕs impact bars is Hb ¼ 0:1 m. The
material used is limestone from the region of Tournai,
Belgium. The feed has been calibrated by screening and
its size ranges from 14 to 20 mm. The maximum particle
dimension in the feed is dmax ¼ 26 mm. The reference
feed rate Q0 and the reference impact energy E0 are
taken to be 2 t/h and 300 J/kg respectively. The rest of
the parameters in Eq. (8) are identified as follows:
c0 ¼ 1:4, c1 ¼ 0:12 and n ¼ 0:35. The parameters of the Fig. 3. Measured (symbols) and predicted (curves) product size dis-
breakage function (Eqs. (11) and (12)) m, l and c2 are set tributions for different rotor velocities at feed rate Q ¼ 7 t/h.
720 S. Nikolov / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721
velocity produces a finer product size distribution. Al-
ternatively, an increase in the feed rate results in a
coarser product at fixed rotor velocity. The results also
confirm that the product size distribution issued from
impact crushing is broader than that obtained with cone
or jaw crushers.
The influences of the rotor velocity and the feed rate
on the minimum size of the particles that undergo
breakage dmin are shown in Fig. 4. It is seen that dmin
strongly depends on both the rotor velocity and the feed
rate and ranges from 3.8 to 7.8 mm for the given op-
erating conditions.
The evolution of the proportion of the fine fraction /
in the product with rotor velocity and feed rate is shown
in Fig. 5. It increases with increasing the rotor velocity
and decreases with increasing the feed rate as expected
and ranges from 0.35 to 0.59 for the given operating
conditions.
For comparison, when the model of Whiten and
White (1979) is used for simulation of the behaviour of
short-head cone crushers, the values for /, m and l are
often fixed to 0.2, 0.5 and 2.5 respectively. A greater
value for the fine fraction / in our case reflects the well-
known fact that the product issued from impact crush-
Fig. 4. Evolution of the minimum breakable size dmin with rotor ve-
locity and feed rate.
Fig. 5. Proportion of the fine fraction in the product / as a function of
rotor velocity and feed rate.
ing contains more fines than that obtained with cone or
jaw crushers.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, we have developed a performance
model for impact crushers that is able to predict the
product size distribution at steady-state operating con-
ditions and contains a reasonable number of para-
meters. The specific behaviour of impact crushers is
modelled through classification and breakage functions
that both depend on the rotor radius and angular ve-
locity as well as on the feed rate. The introduction of
variable minimum size of the breakable particles and
proportion of fine fraction in the product seems to be
very important for successful modelling of the impact
crushing.
The simulation results are in a good agreement with
the experiment and show that at higher rotor velocity
the product size distribution becomes finer, provided
that the feed rate and size are kept unchanged. Alter-
natively, higher feed rate at constant rotor velocity re-
sults in a coarser product.
The model can be easily implemented in the existing
commercial codes for mineral processing simulations. It
can be used for prediction of the steady-state perfor-
mance of hammer and/or vertical-axis impact crushers
integrated in complex flowsheets. Further work is re-
quired to adapt the model for unsteady and transient
operating regimes.
Acknowledgements
The Belgian Walloon Region government and the
European Community have jointly funded this research
as an Objective 1 European project. The author thanks
Dr. A. Attou for his contributions at the early stage of
the project, Mr. Chr. Lucion for the useful discussions
as well as Mr. R. Lemaire for providing the experi-
mental results.
References
Attou, A., Clepkens, O., Gustin, R., 1999. Modelisation de la
fragmentation de matiere solide dans un concasseur a chocs a
axe horizontal. In: C.T.P. Report TP.909.99. pp. 19–28.
Austin, L.G., 1984. Concepts in process design of mills. Mining
Engineering 36, 628–635.
Broadbent, S.R., Callcott, T.G., 1956. A matrix analysis of process
involving particle assemblies. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Series A 249, 99–123.
Csoke, B., Racz, J., 1998. Estimation of the breakage and selection
functions for comminution in hammer mill. In: Proceedings of the
9th European Symposium on Comminution, Albi, France, 1. pp.
393–401.
 S. Nikolov / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 715–721
Kapur, P.C., Fuerstenau, D.W., 1995. A model analysis of the impact
grinding of single particles. In: Proceedings of the 19th Interna-
tional Mineral Processing Congress, Colorado, USA, 1. pp. 125–
130.
Karra, V.K., 1982. A process performance model for cone crushers. In:
Proceedings of the 14th International Mineral Processing Congress,
Ontario, Canada, III. pp. 6.1–6.14.
Kelly, E.G., Spottiswood, D.J., 1990. The breakage function; What is
it really? Minerals Engineering 3 (5), 405–414.
King, R.P., 2000. Technical notes 5, Crushers. In: Continuing
education course on simulation and modeling of mineral processing
plants, University of Utah Internet course. p. 5.
King, R.P., Bourgeois, F., 1993. Measurement of fracture energy
during single particle fracture. Minerals Engineering 6 (4), 353–367.
Narayanan, S.S., Whiten, W.J., 1988. Determination of comminution
characteristics from single-particle breakage tests and its applica-
721
tion to ball-mill scale-up. In: Transactions (C) IMM, 97. pp. C115–
C124.
Nikolov, S., Lucion, Chr., 2002. Modelling and simulation of particle
breakage in impact crushers. In: Proceedings of the 10th European
Symposium on Comminution, Heidelberg, Germany, C3.2, pp. 1–
10.
Oka, Y., Majima, W., 1970. A theory of size reduction involving
fracture mechanics. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 9, 429–439.
Weichert, R., 1988. Correlation between probability of breakage and
fragment size distribution of mineral particles. International
Journal of Mineral Processing 22, 1–8.
Whiten, W.J., 1972. A model for simulating crushing plants. Journal of
South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 72 (10), 257.
Whiten, W.J., White, M.E., 1979. Modeling and simulation of high
tonnage crushing plants. In: Proceedings of the 12th International
Mineral Processing Congress, Sao Paulo, Brasil, 2. pp. 148–158.