Man and His Environment

Understanding the part we play in the world we live in…

 Ecology
 Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms
AND between organisms and their environment.
What is our relationship with the
world around us?

Everything is related in some way.

All relationships are purposeful
Relationships may change over
time.
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
Recall…
(pg 1 of notes)
 The Abiotic Environment
Physical features that make up the abiotic or
non-living environment include:

• Light intensity
• Temperature
• Amount of water available
• Oxygen content
• Salinity of soil and/or water
• pH of soil and/or water

Think: What are some ways these factors

can affect organisms in the ecosystem?
 The Biotic Environment

The living or biotic environment comprises of all the

living organisms that an organism interacts with.

Examples of interactions between organisms

- Feeding (Predator-Prey relationship)
- Competition (for limited resources)
- Symbiosis (mutualism – e.g. pollination by insects)
- Parasitism (e.g. tapeworms, leeches)
- Disease (e.g. bacterial infection)
 Example of biotic interactions:
Competition

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7EAK
wrRXco
All organisms in a community are interdependent. This means
that the life of each organism is dependent on or influenced by
the other organisms around it.
 How to create an ecosystem?

Activity:
Design an
Ecosystem
(Indoor Garden)

In your designed ecosystem, how will you regulate the abiotic

factors in a way that is cost-effective and sustainable?
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
Energy Flow in Ecosystems

 Energy enters the

ecosystem from one
main source – The Sun

 Light energy is
converted to chemical
energy during
photosynthesis

 Chemical energy is
passed on within
molecules (chemical
nutrients – e.g.
carbohydrates, proteins
and fats)
 Energy and Nutrient Flow

Energy and nutrients are transferred in the

following direction via feeding.

Producers
Living organisms in
an ecosystem can
be categorised into Consumers
the following groups:

Decomposers
 Energy and Nutrient Flow

Producers
• Convert light energy from the Sun into chemical
energy in food via photosynthesis
• All food chains start with producers.
• Examples include green plants and green algae.
 Energy and Nutrient Flow
Consumers
• Obtain energy by feeding on other organisms
• Three types:
• Primary consumers (herbivores): Animals that feed
on plants.
• Secondary consumers (carnivores): Animals that
feed on primary consumers.
• Tertiary consumers (carnivores): Animals that feed
on other carnivores.
 Energy and Nutrient Flow

Decomposers
• Obtain energy by breaking down dead organisms,
faeces and excretory products
• The decomposition process releases inorganic
nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen, for
nutrient cycling.
• Examples of decomposers include fungi,
bacteria.
 Energy and Nutrient Flow

Trophic Level

Trophic level: Each level or organism in a

food chain

grass grasshopper toad snake

primary secondary
producer tertiary
consumer consumer
consumer

Generally, food chains do not have more

than four trophic levels. Why?
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy flow is a non-cyclic process

• Energy cannot be recycled

• Energy enters an ecosystem in the form of light energy

from the Sun

• Light energy is converted to chemical energy in

photosynthetic organisms
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy flow is a non-cyclic process

• Energy is transferred from organism to organism in the

ecosystem.

• A large amount of energy is mainly lost to the

environment.

• Hence, energy must be continuously supplied to the

ecosystem by the Sun.
Non-cyclic energy flow in an ecosystem
Energy transfer along trophic levels is inefficient

Approximately 10% of net energy production at one trophic level (level in a food
chain) is passed on to the next trophic level.

Approximately 90% of the energy from that trophic level will be lost to the
environment.
Energy transfer along trophic levels is inefficient

These are the reasons why a large amount of energy is lost

from one trophic level to the next:

• Energy is needed to carry out life processes (e.g.

transport of substances)

• Heat is lost to the surroundings during respiration.

• Not every part of the organism gets eaten.

• Not everything consumed is digested by the consumer

(e.g. cellulose from plants cannot be digested by humans)
Activity: Life or Death Food Chain Decision

The Question
A small group of people are stranded on a barren desert island. They
have 500 bushels of wheat and one cow. What should they do to survive
for the greatest length of time? Explain and justify your choice.

A. Eat the cow and then eat the wheat.

B. Drink the cow’s milk, eat the cow and then eat the wheat.
C. Don’t feed the cow, drink the cow’s milk, eat the cow when milk
production ceases, and then eat the wheat.
D. Feed the wheat to the cow and drink the milk.
E. Feed the wheat to the cow, drink the milk, and then eat the cow.
F. Eat the wheat and then eat the cow.
Challenge: Life or Death Food Chain Decision

There are 2 main points to consider:

 If the cow is alive, it is burning calories through respiration converting

organic molecules into waste products and heat. These energy
conversions decrease the amount of energy made available for food.

 Energy transfer from one trophic level to another is extremely

inefficient. If the cow eats the wheat, then approximately 90% of the
energy in the wheat will be lost as heat and cow faeces and will be
unavailable to the people.
 Challenge: Life or Death Food Chain Decision
The recommended choices are…

A. Eat the cow and then eat the wheat.

This allows for consumption of the cow’s energy before much of it is
wasted by cellular respiration

B. Drink the cow’s milk, eat the cow and then eat the wheat.
This allows for harvesting the energy in the cow’s milk. It may be a better
choice than A if the cow is milked right away. But if the cow continues
producing milk over time (Choice C) then it will probably waste energy in
the process (biosynthesis requires energy, energy is lost whenever
converted) and it will continue losing energy as heat via cellular
respiration.

Choices D and E are not good because of the previously discussed

inefficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.. Choice F keeps
the cow alive , burning off calories.
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains,
Food webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
 Energy and Nutrient Flow

Food Chain
Food chain: A series of organisms through which
energy is transferred in the form of food

grass grasshopper toad snake

primary secondary
producer tertiary
consumer consumer
consumer

It illustrates the feeding relationships between

organisms. A food chain always begins with a
producer.
 Energy and Nutrient Flow

Food Web

Food web: Interlinked food chains

caterpillar

green plant grasshopper spider bird

aphid ladybird
Exploring ecosystems:
Coastal food web

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVJ5BKcAhAg

Question:

Why is it important to study food chains/food webs?

Ecological Pyramids

Ecological pyramids

Pyramid of Pyramid of Pyramid of

numbers biomass energy

Ecological pyramids can be used to compare

the trophic levels of a food chain.
Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of numbers
• Allows the comparison of the number of organisms
present in each trophic level at a specific point in time
• Constructed based on the number of organisms at
each trophic level
hawks (10)
trophic level 4

trophic level 3 snakes (300)

trophic level 2 rabbits (4 500)

trophic level 1 grass plants (2 700 000)

 Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of biomass

• Allows the comparison of the dry mass of organisms

present in each trophic level at a specific point in time

hawks (5 kg)

snakes (50 kg)

rabbits (500 kg)

grass (5000 kg)

Ecological Pyramids

Most ecological pyramids are pyramid-shaped, but

there are exceptions.
A pyramid of numbers can be inverted if:
• organisms in one trophic level are
parasitic on organisms of another
trophic level, and
• many small organisms feed on a
large organism.

A pyramid of biomass can be oddly shaped if:

• organisms in one trophic level have a high
reproductive rate.
 Phytoplankton has a smaller biomass than zooplankton in the
pyramid, but it has a high reproduction rate.
Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of energy
• Represents the total energy in each trophic level
of a food chain over a certain period of time

hawks (10 kJ)

tertiary consumer

secondary consumer snakes (100 kJ)

primary consumer rabbits (1 000 kJ)

producers grass plants (10 000 kJ)

Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of energy

The pyramid of energy is always broad at the base

and narrow at the top because energy is lost as we go
down the food chain.

Energy lost Hawks (10 k J)

Snakes (100 kJ)

Rabbits (1 000 kJ)

Grass (10 000kJ)

Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
 Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem

Nutrient Cycling

• Nutrients like carbon and nitrogen can be recycled.

• These nutrients are obtained from the abiotic environment

(e.g. air, soil)

• Nutrients are continuously recycled in a balanced

ecosystem, cycling between the biotic and abiotic
environment through different processes
 Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem
The carbon cycle

Why is the carbon cycle important?

• It ensures a continuous supply of carbon dioxide

for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis converts energy
from the Sun into chemical energy in food.
• It enables energy to flow through the ecosystem.
Carbon compounds carry the trapped solar energy
from one organism to another in the food chain.
 Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem

The carbon cycle

Carbon is constantly removed from and released

into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.
Hence, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
environment is fairly constant.
 Processes in the carbon cycle
Transfer carbon
REMOVE carbon RELEASE carbon Preservation of
from one
dioxide from the dioxide to the carbon within an
organism to
environment environment organism
another
Respiration

Photosynthesis Decomposition Feeding Fossilisation

Combustion
Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem

The carbon cycle

photosynthesis feeding

death
 The carbon cycle - processes

 Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide in atmosphere  Carbon compounds in plants

 Feeding:
Carbon compounds in one trophic level  Carbon compounds
in next trophic level
 Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem

The carbon cycle

respiration

death
respiration death

decomposition

combustion
 The carbon cycle - Processes

 Respiration:
Carbon compounds (e.g. glucose)  Carbon dioxide

 Decomposition:
Carbon compounds in dead tissue  carbon dioxide

 Combustion of fossil fuels:

Carbon compounds in fossilized material  carbon dioxide
 Nutrient Cycling in the Ecosystem

The carbon cycle

respiration

photosynthesis feeding

death
respiration death

decomposition

combustion
Carbon Sinks

What is a carbon sink?

A carbon sink is an area that stores carbon

compounds for an indefinite period.

It stores more carbon than it releases.

Carbon Sinks

Oceans as carbon sinks

Oceans are the largest carbon sinks on Earth.

The carbon dioxide that dissolves in the ocean’s water
is absorbed and used by phytoplankton and algae in
photosynthesis.
A portion of the carbon compounds found in oceans is
buried in the seabed and is in the form of fossil fuels
such as natural gas and oil.
 Carbon Sinks

Forests as carbon sinks

Forests are also important carbon sinks.

Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by the plants
and used in photosynthesis.
A large amount of carbon compounds is stored in
trees.
Remains of dead trees form coal – a fossil fuel.
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
Ecological field techniques:
Investigating ecosystems

Sampling techniques help

to achieve a realistic
estimate of population
numbers.

2 common ecological field

techniques are used to
determine population size:
- Quadrat sampling
- Transect sampling
Quadrat sampling

 A quadrat is a sampling unit

of known area. They are
usually taken using square
frames of size 1m2.

 Quadrats should be placed

randomly so that a
representative sample is
taken.
Transect sampling
 A transect is a straight line that is
stretched over an area that we
want to study.
 This approach is useful when
recording changes in the species
composition or population
numbers where some sort of
transition or environmental
gradient exists
 (e.g. an intertidal area like a sea
shore or mangrove, or an area
next to where a pollutant is known
to be spreading).
Types of transect sampling
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
 Pollution
 Pollution is the release of substances, which cause harm to
living organisms, into the environment. Substances that
cause pollution are called pollutants.

 Non-biodegradable pollutants cannot be broken down by

microorganisms.

 When pollutants that are non-biodegradable enter water

bodies, they may be stored in the fatty tissues of organisms
that consume them as they are insoluble in water and
cannot be excreted easily from the body.
Bioaccumulation

 Bioaccumulation is the increase in the concentration of non-

biodegradable pollutants within an individual organism over time.
 When the concentration increases to a very high level, the organism
may experience symptoms of illness or even death.
 Biomagnification/Bioamplification
Bioaccumulation of toxins can be made much worse due to the effect of
biomagnification.

 Biomagnification/Bioamplification is the increase in the

concentration of non-biodegradable pollutants along trophic levels a
food chain.
 1 15
5
1
45
1 15
5

5 15
1
Mercury poisoning at Minamata Bay, Japan in 1971.

Villagers ate the

contaminated fish
and suffered from
mercury poisoning.

A plastic factory
discharged waste Fish caught
water containing contained high
mercury into concentrations
Minamata Bay. of mercury.

Mercury was
absorbed by the The water weeds
water weeds. were eaten by fish.
FYI: Mercury poisoning

The Cove: Mercury Rising (2:20 – 6:00)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bTD_MusLWTM
 Water pollution –
Sewage and inorganic waste

1. Bacteria and viruses from sewage cause water-borne diseases

like cholera and typhoid

2. Inorganic waste (e.g. mercury and lead) dumped into waters

can cause poisoning (e.g. Minamata disease in 1950’s Japan)

3. Inorganic substances like phosphates and nitrates, which are

found in sewage and inorganic fertilizers), can lead to
eutrophication
Eutrophication
[eu=healthy/good, trophication=nutrition]…so
how exactly is this considered pollution?

Definition: Eutrophication is the process where

water receives excess nutrients like phosphates
and nitrates, which causes excessive growth of
algae and floating plants.
This leads to a rapid decrease in oxygen levels
in water bodies.
On the surface…
What lies
beneath…
How eutrophication occurs
 Untreated sewage and inorganic fertilisers contains nutrients such as
phosphates and nitrates.

 Inorganic fertilisers that are not absorbed by plants may dissolve in ground
water, or get washed by rainwater into water bodies like rivers and lakes.

 Phosphates and nitrates are beneficial nutrients for algae and water plants. As a
result, the populations of algae and floating water plants increase rapidly.

 The overgrowth of algae and floating water plants prevent sunlight from
reaching the submerged plants. Submerged plants are unable to
photosynthesise.

 The submerged plants die and are decomposed by bacteria and fungi.

 Bacteria multiply rapidly and use up oxygen in the water.

 Due to low oxygen levels, other organisms such as fish die.

Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
 Environmental Biotechnology
 To minimise the effects of pollution, we need to develop
technologies that prevent the release of pollutants into the
environment
 Environmental biotechnology is the use of biological science
to provide environmentally friendly solutions to reduce
pollution.
 Sewage treatment – Key points
Use of biotechnology to treat sewage
1) Air is pumped through the sewage mixture in tanks, to enable
microorganisms to undergo aerobic respiration (which requires
oxygen)
2) Thus, microorganisms are able to break down organic
pollutants into harmless substances.

https://www.yo
utube.com/wat
ch?v=YW6GBc
iRHLg
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Energy flow in ecosystems
3. Representing energy flow: Food chains, Food
webs, Ecological Pyramids
4. Nutrient Cycling: Carbon Cycle
5. Studying the environment: Introduction to
ecological field techniques
6. Impact of Man on the environment
7. Environmental biotechnology
8. Conservation
Conservation
Conservation is the protection and preservation of
natural resources in the environment.
Reasons for conservation:
Maintaining biodiversity

Maintain a large gene pool

By cross-breeding organisms with

favourable genetic material, we can
improve the quality and yield of
agricultural produce (e.g. disease-
resistant plants)
 Reasons for conservation:
Maintaining biodiversity

Economic purposes: Food,

raw material, medicine

Plants and animals are major

sources of food and raw
material. Many tropical plants
are sources of medicinal
drugs (e.g. quinine which is
an anti-malarial drug)
 Reasons for conservation:
Maintaining biodiversity

 Maintain a stable and balanced ecosystem to prevent

disruptions to food chains and nutrient cycles
Reasons for conservation:
Maintaining Biodiversity

Scientific
research on
wildlife provides
useful information
to humans
 Conservation measures:
Preventing overfishing
 Fish are important sources of protein
 Overfishing or indiscriminate fishing must be prevented
in order to ensure that there is a sustainable yield for
each species.
 Conservation measures:
Management of fisheries
Sustainability can be ensured through…
 Banning the use of drift nets which trap all forms of
marine life
 Using nets with a certain hole size to ensure young fish
are not trapped
 Regulating entry of fishing ships into fishing grounds and
limiting the period of fishing
 Banning the harvesting or fishing of endangered species
 Raising endangered species in hatcheries and releasing
them into fishing grounds where the fish populations are
decreasing
 Conservation measures:
Forest conservation
 Forests are carbon sinks
 Forests provide habitats for many different species of
organisms
 Forests influence the climate. A large amount of moisture is
found in the air above forests due to the loss of water from
leaves. When forests are cleared, the region’s climate may
become hotter.
 Trees hold on to soil, helping to control soil erosion
 Timber is used for housing and furniture, fuel, pulp for paper,
medicines, etc.
 Conservation measures:
Management of timber production
In order to conserve forests, we need to prevent tree felling, which is the
indiscriminate cutting down of trees. This may lead to deforestation.

 Laws ensure that tree felling is selective and occurs at a regulated rate.

 Young trees are not felled

 New trees are planted to replace the ones cut down. This is called
reforestation.

 Some land is designated as forest reserves, with laws that prevent any
activities that may harm the ecosystem.
What is our relationship with the
world around us?

Everything is related in some way.

All relationships are purposeful
Relationships may change over
time.