Wave and Oscillation - Mech

Outline Chapter3- Wave and Oscillation
1 Wave and Oscillation
2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation:- Loaded spring
2 / 14
Wave and Oscillation
If a motion repeats itself in equal interval of time then the motion is

said to be periodic motion. The displacement of the particle in such a
motion can always be expressed in terms of sine or cosine. Hence the
periodic motion often called harmonic motion.
If a particle in periodic motion moves back and forth over the same
path the motion is said to be oscillatory or vibratory.
3 / 14
Simple Harmonic Oscillation:- Loaded spring
The to and fro motion of a body in which
the acceleration of the body is directly
proportional to the displacement from
mean position and always toward the
mean position is called simple harmonic
oscillation.
Consider a horizontal spring of force
constant k whose one end is attached to a
rigid support and the next end is attached
to a body of mass m rest on a friction-less
Figure 1: Oscillation in loaded
level surface as shown in figure 1.
spring
4 / 14
Simple Harmonic Oscillation:- Loaded spring (contd.)
Consider the spring is stretched to a distance A from its mean position

and then released. The force exerted by the spring on the body at any
position x from the mean position is given by Hook’s law as
Fspring = −kx (1)
This is the resultant force exerted on the body. This force is also
called restoring force or elastic force.
But from Newton’s second law of motion
d2 x
Fresultant = m (2)
dt2
5 / 14
Hence
d2 x
m = −kx
dt2
d2 x k
=⇒ 2 = − x (3)
dt m
r
k
Let ω0 = angular velocity of the particle, the equation (3)
m
becomes
d2 x
= −ω02 x (4)
dt2
Equation (4) represents the differential equation of the motion of the
body attached to the spring.
6 / 14
dx
Here, = v is the velocity of the body at any time t.
dt
2
d x dv dv dx dv dv
So, 2 = = = v=v
dt dt dx dt dx dx
and equation (4) becomes
dv
v = −ω02 x =⇒ vdv = −ω02 xdx (5)
dx
Integrating both sides, we get
1 2 1
v = − ω02 x2 + c
2 2
Where c is constant of integration.
7 / 14
Now when the displacement x is maximum, the velocity v will be

zero. The maximum displacement is called the amplitude and
represented by A. Hence the displacement x is maximum. i.e. at
extreme position x = ±A and v = 0, so that
1 1
0 = − ω02 A2 + c =⇒ c = ω02 A2
2 2
Hence
1 2 1 1
v = − ω02 x2 + ω02 A2
2 2 2
8 / 14
p
v = ω0 A2 − x2 (6)
dx p
=⇒ = ω0 A2 − x2
dt
dx
=⇒ √ = ω0 dt (7)
A2 − x2
Integrating equation (7), we get
x
sin−1 = ω0 t + φ
A
=⇒ x = A sin (ω0 t + φ ) (8)
Where φ is another constant of integration called the phase constant

or initial phase.
9 / 14
Equation (8) is the solution of equation (4). When time t of equation

(8) is replaced by t + 2π
ω0 , then the new displacement is
x0 = A sin(ω0 t + 2π + φ ) = A sin(ω0 t + φ ) = x
2π
That means the body’s position is repeated after every time. So
ω0
this is called time period of oscillation and given by
r
2π m
T= = 2π (9)
ω0 k
The maximum displacement A is called the amplitude of the

oscillation and φ is called the phase angle.
10 / 14
The velocity in term of time is given by
v = ω0 A cos(ω0 t + φ ) (10)
The kinetic energy and potential energy of the body in term of

position are
1 1 1
K(x) = mv2 = mω02 A2 − x2 and U(x) = kx2

2 2 2
The kinetic energy and potential energy of the body in term of time
are
1 1 1
K(t) = mv2 = mω02 A2 cos2 (ω0 t + φ ) = kA2 cos2 (ω0 t + φ )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
and U(t) = kx = kA sin (ω0 t + φ )
2 2
1
The total energy E0 = K + U = kA2
2
11 / 14
Figure 2: Energy versus position graph
12 / 14
Figure 3: Energy versus time graph
13 / 14
The kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and minimum at

1
extreme position. The maximum kinetic energy Kmax = kA2 and the
2
minimum kinetic energy Kmin = 0. The average kinetic energy
Kmin + Kmax 1 2
Kave = = kA .
2 4
The potential energy is maximum at extreme position and minimum
1
at mean position. The maximum potential energy Umax = kA2 and
2
the minimum potential energy Umin = 0. The average potential energy
Umin + Umax 1 2
Uave = = kA .
2 4
The graphs of K and U versus x and t are as shown in figures 2 and 3.
14 / 14
Outline
1 The Compound (Physical) Pendulum
2 / 14
The Compound (Physical) Pendulum
The physical pendulum (also called a
compound pendulum) is a rigid body
of any shape capable to oscillate in a
vertical plane about a horizontal axis
passing through it.
The point of intersection of vertical
plane and horizontal axis is called point
of suspension S in figure 1. C is the
center of mass of the pendulum. The
distance between the point of suspen-
Figure 1: Oscillation of compound
sion S and center of mass C is calledpendulum
length of the pendulum. It is denoted by l.
3 / 14
The Compound (Physical) Pendulum (contd.)
The compound pendulum can be converted into a simple pendulum by

concentrating the whole mass of the pendulum at a point. When the
mass of the compound pendulum is concentrated at a point to form a
simple pendulum such that the time period of the resulting simple
pendulum is equal to that of the compound pendulum, then the point
of concentration is called point of oscillation O in figure 1. The
distance between the point of suspension S and point of oscillation O
is called length of equivalent simple pendulum and denoted by L.
4 / 14
Now the rigid body (physical pendulum) be displaced from

equilibrium position by a small angle θ at any time t. The restoring
torque τ for an angular displacement θ is given by
τ = −mgl sin θ
Negative sign shows couple is oppositely directed to the displacement

θ.
Now, if I be the moment of inertia of a body about an axis of rotation
d2 θ
and 2 is its angular acceleration.
dt
5 / 14
From Newton’s second law of motion, the restoring torque is
d2 θ
τres = I
dt2
Therefore
d2 θ
I = −mgl sin θ
dt2
d2 θ mgl
=⇒ 2 = − sin θ (1)
dt I
For a sufficiently small angular displacement, sin θ ≈ θ (in radian).

Then equation (1) is reduced to
d2 θ mgl
2
≈− θ (2)
dt I
6 / 14
Comparing the equation (2) with the equation of simple

r harmonic
mgl
oscillation a = −ω02 x, the angular frequency ω0 = .
I
Hence the time period of the compound pendulum is given by
s
2π I
T= = 2π
ω0 mgl
Now, if IG is the moment of inertia and K is the radius of gyration of

the compound pendulum about the horizontal axis passing through the
center of mass are parallel to the axis passing through the center of
suspension. Then using the theorem of parallel axes
I = IG + ml2 = mK 2 + ml2 = m K 2 + l2

7 / 14
Hence the period of oscillation is

s s s
m K 2 + l2 K 2 + l2

K 2 /l + l
T = 2π = 2π = 2π
mgl gl g
s
L
=⇒ T = 2π (3)
g
Thus the time period of pendulum is same as that of simple pendulum

K2
of length L = + l. This length is therefore called the length of
l
equivalent simple pendulum or reduced length.
Now consider a point O on the other side C on a line with SC
K2 K2
produced such that SO = l + or CO = . The point O is called
l l
8 / 14
the center of oscillation or the point of oscillation corresponding to

the center of suspension S.
Now if the pendulum is inverted and made to oscillate about the
centre of oscillation, then the new time period T 0 will be obtained by
K2
substituting in place of l in equation (3)
l
Hence, v
u 2
u K
u 2 + K 2 /l s
K /l l + K 2 /l
T 0 = 2π
t
= 2π =T
g g
9 / 14
Thus the time period about the center of oscillation is same as the time
period about the center of suspension. Hence the point of suspension
and point of oscillation are interchangeable or reciprocal to each other.
Rearranging equation (3) we get
T 2g
l2 − l + K2 = 0 (4)
4π 2
This equation (4) is quadratic in l, that means for each value of time
T 2g
period l has two roots l1 and l2 (say), such that l1 + l2 = 2 and
r 4π
l1 + l 2
l1 l2 = K 2 . That means T = 2π .
g
10 / 14
Both sum and product of length l1 and l2 are positive. Therefore for
any value of time period T there are two points at distances l1 and l2
from the center of gravity and on the same side of it. There mus be
two other points on the other side of the center of gravity for which
the time period will be same. Hence there are four points collinear
with center of gravity about which the time period is the same. The
graph of T versus l is as shown in figure 2.
11 / 14
Figure 2: The time period versus length of compound pendulum
12 / 14
Condition for minimum time period:

From equation (3)
4π 2 K2

2
T = +l
g l
Differentiating T with respect to l we get,
4π 2 K2

dT
2T = − 2 +1
dl g l
dT
For T be minimum =0
dl
Which gives
K2
− +1 = 0
l2
13 / 14
=⇒ l2 = K 2
=⇒ l = ±K
i.e. the time period will be minimum if l = ±K.

Then s
2K
Tmin = 2π
g
But the time period will be maximum i.e. infinite when l = 0.
14 / 14
Outline
1 Damped Harmonic Oscillation
2 / 16
Damped Harmonic Oscillation
If no frictional force acts on the oscillation, it would oscillate

indefinitely. But in actual practice, the oscillator almost always lies in
resting medium (air, oil etc) and the amplitude of oscillation gradually
decreases to zero as a result of friction. The motion is said to be
damped by friction and is called the damped harmonic motion. The
resistive force is called damping force.
Consider horizontal spring of force constant k loaded with mass m
and is set to oscillate
r freely. The angular frequency of oscillation is
k
given by ω0 = 2π . When some resistive (damping) force acts on
m
the spring then the load experiences two forces: one is the restoring
force Fspring = −kx and the other is the damping force Fdamp . In
3 / 16
Damped Harmonic Oscillation (contd.)
general the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the load

dx
and directed opposite to the motion, i.e. Fdamp = −bv = −b , where
dt
b is some positive constant. The resultant force exerted on the load is
dx
F = Fspring + Fdamp = −kx − b
dt
d2 x
But from Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma = m , therefore
dt2
d2 x dx
m 2
= −kx − b
dt dt
d2 x b dx k
+ + x=0 (1)
dt2 m dt m
4 / 16
b b
Let = 2γ, so that γ = is called the damping constant. The
m 2m
1 m
reciprocal of damping constant i.e. τ = = is the relaxation
2γ b
k
time. We have, = ω02 . Now equation (1) reduces to
m
d2 x dx
2
+ 2γ + ω02 x = 0 (2)
dt dt
Equation (2) is the differential equation of damped harmonic

oscillation. To solve the equation, let’s assume a trivial solution,
x = Aeαt . Substituting this solution in the above equation, we get
α 2 Aeαt + 2γαAeαt + ω02 Aeαt = 0
5 / 16
=⇒ α 2 + 2γα + ω02 = 0
q
−2γ ± 4γ 2 − 4ω02 q
=⇒ α = = −γ ± γ 2 − ω02
2
=⇒ α = −γ ± β (3)
with r
1
q
2 2
β = γ − ω0 = − ω02 (4)
4τ 2
According to equation (3) α has two values; −γ + β and −γ − β . So
the equation (2) must have two solutions; x1 = A1 e(−γ+β )t and
6 / 16
x2 = A2 e(−γ−β )t . The complete solution is the linear combination of

these two solutions i.e.
x = x1 + x2 = A1 e(−γ+β )t + A2 e(−γ−β )t
= A1 e−γt+β t + A2 e−γt−β t = A1 e−γt eβ t + A2 e−γt e−β t

x = e−γt A1 eβ t + A2 e−β t (5)
7 / 16
Case I: Over damped motion If the damping force is very high, then
1
γ ω0 i.e. 2 > ω02 and β is a real. The solution is
4τ
given by equation (5). But A1 and A2 are constants to be
determine from the initial condition.
In this case the frictional force or damping is so large
such that oscillation do not take place.The amplitude
decreases without any oscillation. The situation is
called over damping or aperiodic or inharmonic.
8 / 16
1
Case II: Critically damped motion In this case β = 0 i.e. = ω02
4τ 2
To avoid the breakdown of the soluton, if the damping
force is normal, γ is slightly greater than ω0 , and β is
still real but very small.
Now equation (5) reduces to

x = e−γt A1 eβ t + A2 e−β t
(β t)2 (β t)2

−γt
=e A1 1 + β t + + · · · + A2 1 − β t + −·
2 2
9 / 16
In this limit when β → 0 terms containing β 2 and

higher order power of β may be neglected. Hence
x = e−γt (A1 + A1 β t + A2 − A2 β t)
= e−γt [(A1 + A2 ) + (A1 − A2 ) β t]
= e−γt (M + Nt)
where M = A1 + A2 and N = (A1 − A2 ) β . The

amplitude decreases even faster than that in Case I. This
situation is called critically damping.
10 / 16
Case III: Under damped motion (Damped oscillating motion) If the

damping force is very low, such that γ ω0 i.e
1
< ω02 . As a result, β becomes a complex, i.e.
4τ 2
q q q 2
2 2
β = γ − ω0 = − ω0 − γ = i ω0 − γ 2 = iω
2 2
s
k b2
q
ω = ω02 − γ 2 = − 2 (6)
m 4m
11 / 16
Now the equation (5) becomes
x = e−γt A1 eiωt + A2 e−iωt

= e−γt [A1 (cos ωt + i sin ωt) + A2 (cos ωt − i sin ωt)]
= e−γt [(A1 + A2 ) cos ωt + (A1 − A2 ) i sin ωt]
= e−γt (C cos ωt + D sin ωt)

−γt
p
2 2
C D
=e C +D √ cos ωt + √ sin ωt
C2 + D2 C2 + D2
= ae−γt (sin φ cos ωt + cos φ sin ωt)
i.e. x = ae−γt sin(ωt + φ ) (7)
12 / 16
√ C
where, a = C2 + D2 , cos φ = √ ,
C + D2
2
D
sin φ = √ , C = A1 + A2 , and D = i(A1 − A2 )
C 2 + D2
According to equation (7) the amplitude part ae−γt
decreases exponentially with time and finally it
becomes zero but motion is still periodic with angular
frequency ω and phase angle φ . This situation is called
under-damping. The displacement versus time graph is
as shown in figure 1.
13 / 16
Figure 1: Different type of damping situation
14 / 16
The time interval between two successive maxima and minima in the
damped oscillator is known as period of the motion and is given by
2π 2π
T=r =r
1 k b2
ω02 − − 2
4τ 2 m 4m
The frequency of damped oscillator is given by
s
1 1 k b2
f= = − 2
T 2π m 4m
From equation (7) the amplitude of damped oscillating motion at any

instant t is ae−γt
15 / 16
If b = 0 or damping is negligibly small, the motion of the oscillator is

undamped and the frequency is called the natural frequency and is
given by r
1 k
f0 =
2π m
Also the natural time period is given by
r
1 m
T = = 2π
f0 k
16 / 16
Outline
1 Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillation
2 / 14
Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillation
When a body is displaced and then released, the body oscillates with
its own natural frequency given by
r
k
ω0 = (in absence of frictionl force)
m
s
2
k b
and, ω = − (in presence of small frictionl force)
m 2m
The damping can be overcome by applying some oscillating external
force on the oscillating body. As a result, its own frequency
immediately dies out and the body starts to oscillate with the
frequency of external oscillating force. This type of oscillation is
called forced or driven harmonic oscillation.
3 / 14
Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillation (contd.)
The equation of motion of forced (driven) oscillator is given by

Newton’s second law F = ma in which F is the sum of restoring force
dx
−kx, the damping force −b and the applied external oscillating
0
dt
force is Fext = F0 eiω t (for simplicity). Where F0 and ω 0 are the
amplitude and angular frequancy of the external force.
The resultant force experienced by the body is
dx 0
F = Fspring + Fdamp + Fext = −kx − b + F0 eiω t
dt
4 / 14
d2 x
But from Newton’s second law of motion, we have, F = m ,
dt2
therefore
d2 x dx 0
m 2
= −kx − b + F0 eiω t
dt dt
d2 x b dx k F0 0
2
+ + x = eiω t (1)
dt m dt m m
b k F0
Let = 2γ, = ω02 and = f0 .
m m m
Now the equation (1) reduces to
d2 x dx 0
2
+ 2γ + ω02 x = f0 eiω t (2)
dt dt
5 / 14
where b is some positive constant, k is the force constant of the

spring, m is the mass of the load, γ is the damping constant.
The equation (2) represents the differential equation of forced
oscillation. To solve this equation, let’s assume a trivial solution
0
x = Aei(ω t+φ ) (3)
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation and φ is the phase angle to

be determined. Substituting the value of x in equation (2).
6 / 14
We get
0
0

d2 Aei(ω t+φ ) d Aei(ω t+φ ) 0
0
+ 2γ + ω02 Aei(ω t+φ ) = f0 eiω t
dt2 dt
02 i(ω 0 t+φ ) 0 0 0
=⇒ −ω Ae + i2γω 0 Aei(ω t+φ ) + ω02 Aei(ω t+φ ) = f0 eiω t
0 0 0 0
=⇒ −ω 02 Aeiω t eiφ + i2γω 0 Aeiω t eiφ + ω02 Aeiω t eiφ = f0 eiω t
=⇒ −ω 02 Aeiφ + i2γω 0 Aeiφ + ω02 Aeiφ = f0
=⇒ −ω 02 A + i2γω 0 A + ω02 A = f0 e−iφ = f0 (cos φ − i sin φ )
=⇒ ω02 − ω 02 A + i2γω 0 A = f0 cos φ − if0 sin φ

(4)
7 / 14
Equating the real and imaginary part of equation (4), we get
ω02 − ω 02 A = f0 cos φ

(5)
2γω 0 A = −f0 sin φ (6)
Squaring and adding equation (5) and (6), we get

2
ω02 − ω 02 A2 + 4γ 2 ω 02 A2 = f02 cos2 φ + f02 sin2 φ
h 2 i
=⇒ ω02 − ω 02 + 4γ 2 ω 02 A2 = f02
f0
=⇒ A = q 2 (7)
ω02 − ω 02 + 4γ 2 ω 02
8 / 14
Dividing equation (6) by equation (5), we get
2γω 0 A −f0 sin φ sin φ 2γω 0 2γω 0

= =⇒ = − =⇒ tan φ =
ω02 − ω 02 A f0 cos φ cos φ ω02 − ω 02 ω 02 − ω02
2γω 0

−1
=⇒ φ = tan (8)
ω 02 − ω02
Therefore,equation (3) becomes
2γω 0

f0 0 −1
x= q exp i ω t + tan
ω02 − ω 02
2
+ 4γ 2 ω 02 ω 02 − ω02
(9)
Equation (9) gives the displacement of the load at any time in the
forced oscillation.
9 / 14
Case I:- For no damping i.e. free oscillation, γ = 0, and the

amplitude A becomes
f0
A= 2
(10)
ω0 − ω 02
The amplitude goes to infinity as ω 0 ≈ ω0
10 / 14
Case II:- The amplitude has maximum value at a frequency of external

oscillating force. To get the maximum amplitude, we have
dA
=0
 dω 0 
d  f0
=⇒ =0
dω 0
q 2
ω02 − ω 02 + 4γ 2 ω 02

1 h 2 2 i− 3
=⇒ f0 − ω0 − ω 02 + 4γ 2 ω 02 2 2 ω02 − ω 02 (−2ω 0 ) + 8γ 2 ω 0 = 0

2

=⇒ −4ω 0 ω02 − ω 02 − 2γ 2 = 0
=⇒ ω02 − ω 02 − 2γ 2 = 0
q
=⇒ ω 0 = ω02 − 2γ 2 (11)
11 / 14
Hence the amplitude is maximum when the frequency of

external oscillating force is equal to
s
k b2
q
ω 0 = ω02 − 2γ 2 = − 2
m 2m
This situation of maximum amplitude is called resonance.
That means, the resonance is the phenomenon of making the
amplitude maximum by matching the frequency of external
oscillating force with the frequency of free or natural
oscillation.
12 / 14
The maximum amplitude is
f0
A( max) = q 2
ω02 − ω02 − 2γ 2 + 4γ 2 ω02 − 2γ 2
f0
=q 2
ω02 − ω02 + 2γ 2 + 4γ 2 ω02 − 8γ 4
f0
=q
4γ 4 + 4γ 2 ω02 − 8γ 2
f0
=q
4γ 2 ω02 − 4γ 4
f0
=⇒ Amax = q
2γ ω02 − γ 2
13 / 14
That means the maximum amplitude (the amplitude at resonance)

decreases as damping increases. The amplitude A versus frequency of
external oscillating force ω 0 is as shown in figure 1
Figure 1: Amplitude versus external frequency of oscillating force
14 / 14

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Outline Chapter3- Wave and Oscillation

1 Wave and Oscillation

2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation:- Loaded spring

If a motion repeats itself in equal interval of time then the motion is

Consider the spring is stretched to a distance A from its mean position

Fspring = −kx (1)

Integrating both sides, we get

Where c is constant of integration.

Now when the displacement x is maximum, the velocity v will be

Where φ is another constant of integration called the phase constant

Equation (8) is the solution of equation (4). When time t of equation

The maximum displacement A is called the amplitude of the

The velocity in term of time is given by

The kinetic energy and potential energy of the body in term of

Figure 2: Energy versus position graph

Figure 3: Energy versus time graph

The kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and minimum at

1 The Compound (Physical) Pendulum

The compound pendulum can be converted into a simple pendulum by

Now the rigid body (physical pendulum) be displaced from

Negative sign shows couple is oppositely directed to the displacement

From Newton’s second law of motion, the restoring torque is

For a sufficiently small angular displacement, sin θ ≈ θ (in radian).

Comparing the equation (2) with the equation of simple

Now, if IG is the moment of inertia and K is the radius of gyration of

Hence the period of oscillation is

Thus the time period of pendulum is same as that of simple pendulum

the center of oscillation or the point of oscillation corresponding to

Figure 2: The time period versus length of compound pendulum

Condition for minimum time period:

i.e. the time period will be minimum if l = ±K.

1 Damped Harmonic Oscillation

If no frictional force acts on the oscillation, it would oscillate

general the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the load

Equation (2) is the differential equation of damped harmonic

α 2 Aeαt + 2γαAeαt + ω02 Aeαt = 0

x2 = A2 e(−γ−β )t . The complete solution is the linear combination of

= A1 e−γt+β t + A2 e−γt−β t = A1 e−γt eβ t + A2 e−γt e−β t

In this limit when β → 0 terms containing β 2 and

= e−γt [(A1 + A2 ) + (A1 − A2 ) β t]

where M = A1 + A2 and N = (A1 − A2 ) β . The

Case III: Under damped motion (Damped oscillating motion) If the

Now the equation (5) becomes

x = e−γt A1 eiωt + A2 e−iωt

= e−γt [A1 (cos ωt + i sin ωt) + A2 (cos ωt − i sin ωt)]

= e−γt [(A1 + A2 ) cos ωt + (A1 − A2 ) i sin ωt]

= e−γt (C cos ωt + D sin ωt)

i.e. x = ae−γt sin(ωt + φ ) (7)

Figure 1: Different type of damping situation

From equation (7) the amplitude of damped oscillating motion at any

If b = 0 or damping is negligibly small, the motion of the oscillator is

1 Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillation

The equation of motion of forced (driven) oscillator is given by

where b is some positive constant, k is the force constant of the

where A is the amplitude of the oscillation and φ is the phase angle to

=⇒ −ω 02 Aeiφ + i2γω 0 Aeiφ + ω02 Aeiφ = f0

=⇒ −ω 02 A + i2γω 0 A + ω02 A = f0 e−iφ = f0 (cos φ − i sin φ )

=⇒ ω02 − ω 02 A + i2γω 0 A = f0 cos φ − if0 sin φ

Equating the real and imaginary part of equation (4), we get

2γω 0 A = −f0 sin φ (6)

Squaring and adding equation (5) and (6), we get

Dividing equation (6) by equation (5), we get

2γω 0 A −f0 sin φ sin φ 2γω 0 2γω 0