238 W. Tang et al.
/ Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 233–247
Fig. 5. Spectroscopy techniques: (a) X-ray spectroscopy; (b) infrared spectroscopy; (c) Raman spectroscopy; (d) X-ray diffraction analysis.
Fig. 6. Ultra-sonic testing of concrete (echo analysis) (detection of defects).
Improved autogenous self-healing of fiber reinforced concrete was
also investigated by assessment of transport properties in a num-
ber of studies [6,16–19]. These class of test methods have also been
utilized to examine the efficiency of the improved autogenous
healing thorough ongoing hydration [105] as well as ongoing crys-
tallization by use of some type of Pozzolan [32,35] or expansive
additives, geo-materials and chemical agents [40,45]. As for auton-
omous self-healing, assessment of transport properties have been
used to investigate the autonomous self-healing capability of con-
crete containing two-component healing agents in two different
sets of capsules [77,78,80]. The capsule-based autonomous self-
healing in bacteria-based concrete has also been investigated
through examination of transport properties [68,73]. This class of
test methods have also been employed to investigate other cap-
sule-based [2,87] as well as tubular [65] autonomous self-healing
approaches.
3.2.2. Resistivity and continuity
Another important set of properties of concrete which associ-
ates directly to the durability of concrete structures is the continu-
ity of the matrix as well as its resistance against degradation.
Popular test methods in this class are ultrasonic measurements,
corrosion test and frost/salt scaling. In ultrasonic testing (UT) of
concrete (Fig. 6), very short ultrasonic waves are transmitted into
the concrete matrix to detect internal flaws and discontinuities.
High penetrating power and sensitivity of ultrasonic waves allow
detection of extremely small flaws deep inside the material. UT
can also provide some estimation of the size, orientation and shape
of the defects. However, one drawback of UT is that it is very
sensitive to the existence of water in the matrix. In fact, water
absorption through micro-cracks may be falsely attributed to the
self-healing mechanism by UT. This is of particular significance in
case of autogenous healing where presence of water is always
required [106]. Corrosion test is an established testing method
for concrete which allows monitoring and detection of corrosion,
or areas where corrosion is likely to take place, inside the concrete
matrix and, as a result, evaluates the vulnerability of the concrete
against corrosion. Finally, frost/salt scaling refers to the
vulnerability of concrete to deterioration due to freeze–thaw
phenomenon or upon contact with de-icing salt. This is of
particular significance in road and marine structure.
Unlike assessment methods for transport properties, resistivity
and continuity examinations have not been popular test methods
to evaluate efficiency of self-healing approaches. Abd-Elmoaty
employed UT to evaluate the efficiency of autogenous healing in
polymer modified concrete [49]. UT has also been used to investi-
gate the improved autogenous self-healing effect through ongoing
crystallization using some type of Pozzolan [35,106]. In addition,
corrosion test has been employed to investigate improved autoge-
nous healing by addition of calcium nitrate fibers to the matrix by
Dry and Corsaw [107]. Pelletier et al. investigate the autonomous
healing effect triggered by encapsulated sodium silicate using
corrosion test [72]. Finally, the efficiency of improved autogenous
self-healing through ongoing hydration has been evaluated using
frost/salt scaling test by Sisomphon et al. [105].
3.3. Assessment of regained mechanical properties
One of the main reasons why concrete is the most widely used
construction material worldwide is that it possesses outstanding
mechanical properties, such as high strength and stiffness. Howev-
er, existence of cracks in the concrete matrix may significantly
weaken these properties. For this reason, one of the major
approaches to investigate the efficiency of self-healing effect in con-
crete is to assess mechanical properties of concrete after the healing
process has occurred. In this way, comparison of regained mechan-
ical properties with those of a reference sample specimen provides
some information on the efficiency of the healing mechanism. The
most common test methods for assessment of regained mechanical
properties in self-healed concrete comprises some popular
mechanical test methods such as 3-point and 4-point bending tests,
compression test, tensile test, horizontal deformation and impact
loading test. There are also two non-mechanical test methods