Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Optimization of mortar self-healing performance-based on response surface

methodology: A multifactor analysis of zeolites, crystalline admixtures, and
water-to-binder ratio
Hong-Feng Li, Xiang Ma , Guang-Zhu Zhang *
School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 15004, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To address the issue of concrete structures being prone to crack failure, this study employs the response surface
Response surface methodology method (RSM) to evaluate the impact of adding zeolites and crystalline admixture (CA) on the self-healing
Self-healing concrete performance of mortar. Initially, zeolite amount, CA amount, and the water-to-binder ratio (W/B) are consid­
Zeolites
ered as response factors, using ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), electrical resistivity, and the self-healing rate as
Crystalline admixtures
Water-to-binder ratio
the response target values. UPV and electrical resistivity are used to monitor self-healing process, while self-
healing rate quantifies healing of cracks. Subsequently, through designing experiments with RSM, a regression
model is established, achieving multi-objective optimization of the mortar self-healing rate, and experimental
validation is carried out for the optimized combinations. Finally, the mechanical properties of mortar specimens
are studied, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) are used to analyze the
microstructure and crystal phase composition of the crack healing fillers. The quadratic polynomial model has a
high degree of fit, and the error between the measured and predicted values is less than 10%, indicating the
reliability of RSM in determining the optimal mix parameters for mortar self-healing. The SEM and XRD results
further confirm that the moisture released by zeolites promotes the activation reaction of CA, generating a larger
amount and more densely structured calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. Moreover, the research results show
that although incorporation zeolites diminishes mortar specimens’ strength, incorporation zeolites promotes the
generation of C-S-H gel within the cracks, attributable to activation reaction of CA, ultimately promoting crack
healing and improving the strength of the mortar. Based on optimization analysis, the optimal amounts of ze­
olites, CA, and W/B were determined to be 20%, 4%, and 0.45, respectively.

1. Introduction Therefore, the advent of self-healing concrete technology presents a

Concrete, due to its superior mechanical and durability properties, is
extensively applied in various fields such as construction, bridges, tun­
nels, and hydropower projects [1,2]. However, when concrete is
exposed to atmospheric conditions for a long time, it is subject to the
influences of freeze–thaw cycles, high-chloride substance erosion, and
thermal shrinkage strains caused by temperature changes, leading to
structural damage and cracking. The appearance of cracks allows
harmful substances to penetrate into the concrete, damaging its internal
structure, and further causing the deterioration of components, thereby
reducing the service life of the materials [3]. Considering the constraints
and costs related to traditional manual repair methods, these techniques
struggle to effectively address the issue of concrete cracks [4].
more adept resolution to these aforestated challenges.
In recent years, the field of building materials has seen a wide
application of various self-healing technologies. For instance, the inte­
gration of microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP)
technology in concrete [5,6] has allowed for effective self-healing of
cracks. In addition, technologies like microcapsules [7,8] and vascular
systems [9,10] function as carriers for healing agents, gradually
releasing these agents to repair cracks upon concrete damage. Besides,
the inclusion of fibers in cement-based composites can generate a
bridging effect [11,12], thereby aiding in the autogenous repair of
micro-fractures within the concrete matrix. Shape memory alloys pre­
sent another approach, capable of repairing cracks via self-deformation
or swelling under environmental stimuli. Despite the demonstrated

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangks@nefu.edu.cn (G.-Z. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134015
Received 28 June 2023; Received in revised form 27 October 2023; Accepted 28 October 2023
Available online 3 November 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
H.-F. Li et al.
practical feasibility of above healing methods, the broad adoption is
currently restricted by high costs and intricate processing procedures. As
a result, the pursuit of cost-effective and user-friendly concrete crack
repair techniques remains a pressing need in contemporary research.
Crystalline admixtures (CA), as a type of self-healing additive for
concrete cracks, have garnered substantial interest within the sphere of
civil engineering [13]. The reactive chemicals present in CA undergo
reactions with hydration products of cement, forming microcrystals
such as ettringite and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. These mi­
crocrystals possess the ability to infiltrate pores and crevices, thereby
enhancing compactness and durability, and contributing to the extended
lifespan of concrete structures. In addition, research has found that CA is
a hydrophilic additive [14], which can perform its own activation re­
action more effectively under the influence of water. Therefore, to
augment the self-healing capacity and the mechanical properties of
concrete integrated with CA, it is necessary to provide more moisture in
the cement mortar matrix. This action is anticipated to stimulate the
activation reaction of CA. The internal curing technique seems to ach­
ieve the purpose of enhancing the self-healing ability of CA in the con­
crete matrix. Internal curing technology is considered an effective
method for replenishing the internal moisture of the matrix [15], serving
as a “reservoir” for storing moisture and timely providing ample mois­
ture for the mortar matrix. This can be achieved by incorporating pre-
soaked curing materials into the cement matrix, effectively addressing
the issue of insufficient moisture. In past studies, more researchers have
been focusing on and conducting studies on the effects of various in­
ternal curing materials on reduce for autogenous shrinkage in cement-
based materials, including zeolites [16], porous ceramics [17], super­
absorbent polymers (SAP) [18], and expanded perlite aggregates [19].
Researchers have found that internal curing materials promote self-
healing effect of CA on mortar and simultaneously enhance self-
healing performance of the mortar. For instance, Byoungsun et al.
[20] investigated the interactions between CA and SAP as internal
curing materials and explored their synergistic effect on the self-healing
performance of mortar cracks. Based on water flow tests and crack
healing tests, it was found that the interaction between CA and SAP
significantly improved self-healing capabilities. Upon reaching a crack
width of 0.256 mm, the water flow decreased by 100 %. However, the
cracks in the control group specimens were still not fully healed after 56
days. Wang et al. [21] used porous ceramics as internal curing agents for
CA to carry out quantitative analyses on the width and area of cracks.
Observations post a 28-day period of aquatic immersion indicated that
pre-cracked specimens containing porous ceramics and CA demon­
strated better surface crack healing effects. Feng et al. [15] discussed the
impact of encapsulating CA in lightweight aggregate (LWA) on self-
healing ability of concrete cracks. The experimental outcomes eluci­
dated that encapsulating CA in lightweight aggregate can enhance the
repair efficiency of concrete cracks. Upon a curing duration of 7 days in a
water environment, the specimens with added CA showed a crack
healing rate of 42.44 %. In contrast, the specimens without added CA
showed relatively poor healing effects, with a healing rate of 23.28 %.
Unfortunately, SAP as an internal curing agent can absorb hundreds of
times its own weight in water, the large pores formed by the release of
water significantly reduce the strength of the material [22]. On the other
hand, the complexity of the encapsulated lightweight aggregate pro­
duction process poses a problem, porous ceramics and expanded perlite
aggregate as internal curing materials have lower inherent strength,
which leads to a reduction in mortar strength, decrease in mixing uni­
formity, damage to durability, and a decrease in bonding strength, etc.
[19,23]. Therefore, to fully exploit the advantages of internal curing
materials in enhancing self-healing performance of mortar cracks by CA,
it is a need to further explore new internal curing materials to solve these
problems.
As a porous volcanic aluminosilicate mineral, zeolite exhibits
excellent internal curing properties, capable of absorbing 33 % of its
own mass in water [24]. This feature is used by researchers to alleviate
2
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015
the occurrence of autogenous shrinkage in concrete. For instance, the
study by Zhang et al. [25] shows that the internal curing property of
zeolite contributes significantly to the reduction of the matrix’s autog­
enous shrinkage, thereby augmenting the material’s relative humidity.
Kazemian et al. [26] conducted an in-depth investigation on the role of
zeolite as an internal curing agent in enhancing the hydration process of
ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). The heat generated during
hydration was assessed by observing the temperature evolution of UHPC
over time. The results indicate that after 28 and 56 days of curing, in the
mixtures incorporated with zeolite, the hydration level demonstrated an
elevation of 21 % to 26 %, respectively, than that in mixtures without
zeolite. This suggests that the zeolite’s internal curing mechanism can
substantially augment the degree of hydration in cement particles.
Additionally, Zheng et al. [16] used zeolite as an internal curing agent in
cementitious materials and assessed its impact on the internal curing
performance of cementitious materials. Above study found that the in­
ternal curing effect manifested by zeolite effectively curtails the satu­
ration duration associated with the humidity of the cement paste, with
the internal relative humidity increasing from 87.8 % to 92.0 % at 28
days. The aforementioned studies suggest that the porous nature of
zeolite offers excellent internal curing effects, which seems to contribute
significantly to the activation reaction of CA.
In multi-factor research on concrete self-healing, determining the
optimal content of each factor to obtain excellent self-healing perfor­
mance is crucial. To achieve this goal, numerous scholars have under­
taken in-depth investigations to determine the optimal mix ratio of
different factors through experimental means. Techniques such as arti­
ficial neural networks (ANN) [27], Genetic Algorithms [28], and
response surface methodology (RSM) [29] are used to determine the
optimal mix ratio that can achieve the best healing capacity after being
affected by various factors. Among them, RSM, owing to its capacity to
formulate precise mathematical models for the attainment of peak per­
formance and the development of the most cost-effectively designed
mixtures in accordance with performance metrics, it has found extensive
application in cement-based materials [13,30]. In addition, RSM can not
only reveal the significance of variables but also analyze the interactions
between various factors. In recent years, this method has been widely
applied in concrete research, formulation of precise and suitable models
for the design of mortar mix proportions. For example, Hou et al. [31]
used RSM to construct an optimization model, considering the rela­
tionship between variables (water-cement ratio, magnesium-
phosphorus ratio, and sand content) and responses (setting time and
compressive strength), thereby improving the performance of mortar in
rapid repair applications. Li et al. [32] used RSM to examine how
various constituents impact the rheological characteristics of self-
compacting mortar, optimized the mortar mix ratio through regression
models, and achieved improvements in workability and compressive
strength. He et al. [33] used RSM to analyze the effect of concrete micro-
crack time and extent on mechanical properties and crack healing,
providing a quantitative description of the changes during the healing
process and establishing a micro-crack extent control model.
While existing studies have explored the impact of CA and zeolites on
the durability and crack healing performance of concrete, research on
the optimal dosages and healing mechanisms remains relatively limited.
Moreover, few studies have applied RSM to the process of self-healing
modification and optimization in mortar with internally mixed CA.
Therefore, to investigate the impact of zeolites, CA, and W/B on the self-
healing of mortar cracks. This study proposes using the RSM method,
adopting ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), electrical resistivity, and crack
microscopy observation as the three experimental means to discuss the
impact of zeolites, CA, and W/B on healing performance. By varying the
dosages of zeolites, CA, and W/B, the study aims to optimize the self-
healing effect of mortar cracks, thereby obtaining the optimal mixture
design scheme. Based on RSM analysis, the innovative points of this
study are as follows: Firstly, this study constructs a polynomial regres­
sion model through response surface optimization experiments, treating
H.-F. Li et al.
zeolites amount, CA amount, and W/B as independent variables, to
ascertain the impact of above variables on the self-healing performance.
Secondly, RSM is applied to construct a precise prediction model, used
to determine the optimal combination of zeolites amount, CA amount,
and W/B ratio, and experimental verification is conducted on the
optimal combination determined by the RSM model to prove the accu­
racy and reliability of the model prediction. The optimization results can
provide more targeted optimization schemes for practical engineering
applications. Finally, through microscopic analysis by scanning electron
microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), the mechanism of self-
healing action of internally mixed CA mortar cracks by water pro­
vided by zeolites as internal curing agents has been revealed.
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Materials
The cement used in this study was ordinary Portland cement (OPC),
purchased from Anhui Conch Cement Co., Ltd. Standard manufactured
sand was used. The sand used in this paper was manufactured according
to the ISO 679:2009 standard [34]. The density and water absorption of
the sand is 2580 kg/m3 and 0.57 %, respectively. The permeable crys­
talline admixtures (CA) were a gray powder, purchased from Zhong De
New Asia Building Materials Co., Ltd. Previous research findings indi­
cate that water absorption rate of natural zeolites was typically around
26 % [35], which may limit the internal curing effect of zeolites.
Therefore, to improve the pore structure of zeolites and thus enhance
their internal curing effect, calcined zeolites are used as internal curing
materials. Calcination is performed in a muffle furnace at 500 ℃ for 30
min. The diameter of the zeolites ranges from 1 to 2 mm. The chemical
compositions of Portland cement, zeolite, and CA are shown in Table 1.
The polycarboxylate superplasticizer (SP) was added to make flow­
ability of mortar between 200 and 220 mm.
2.2. Application of response surface methodology (RSM)
2.2.1. Principle of RSM
RSM is a predictive and evaluative tool based on mathematical
principles and statistical methods, used to analyze the interaction be­
tween factors and responses. By analyzing the experimental results, RSM
establishes regression models using quantitative values, thereby
analyzing, and optimizing factors affecting mortar performance [31,36].
This study uses the Central Composite Design (CCD) for experimental
design and uses Design Expert-13 software to establish the model, which
includes 2k factorial points, 2k axial points, and c central points (k is the
number of factors, c is the number of central experiments) [32]. As
shown in Fig. 1, the RSM analysis method usually includes three steps: 1)
Pose the problem, 2) Establish and fit the model, 3) Optimize and solve
the model under constraints.
2.2.2. Design of the RSM experiment
In order to analyze the self-healing performance of mortar cracks and
obtain the optimal healing effect, this study designed an experimental
scheme involving 3 factors, 3 levels, and a total of 20 test points, with
the number of experiments determined by Eq. (1). Among them, zeolites
amount, CA amount, and water-to-binder ratio (W/B) were used as three
response factors, with the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) value, elec­
Table 1
Chemical composition of the material. wt. (%).
Material Chemical composition (mass %)
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
OPC 64.14 18.55 4.41 3.23
CA 65.84 19.84 4.47 3.33
Zeolites 42.58 36.81 8.01 1.00
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Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015
trical resistivity, and self-healing rate as responses. Previous research
indicates that as zeolite is a porous material, addition of zeolite more
than 20 % reduces the compressive strength of the specimens [37,38]. In
studies about CA as a self-healing agent being added to cement matrix, it
showed that the proportion of CA is controlled at 2–4 %, it not only
improves the mechanical properties of the specimens but also enhances
the healing effects of cracks [13]. The purpose of this study is to
investigate the impact of internal curing water released by zeolite on the
healing effects of CA in the cement matrix. Numerous studies have
demonstrated that for ordinary concrete with a W/B ratio of above 0.4,
CA can provide good healing capabilities in a cement matrix [39].
Therefore, in this study, in order to ensure that CA provides excellent
healing in the cement matrix consider using 0.4 and 0.5 as the target W/
B ratio for this study. In summary, in the experimental process, zeolites
replaced 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % of the standard sand (by weight), CA
replaced 2 %, 3 %, and 4 % of the cement (by weight), and the values of
W/B were 0.4, 0.45, and 0.5. The value of α was 1.682 to ensure the
accuracy of the model, and the values and coding levels of actual factors
can be seen in Table 2. It included a total of 14 groups of factorial ex­
periments and 6 groups of central point tests to estimate the experi­
mental error.
N = 2k + 2k + c (1)
Where k is the number of experimental factors, 2k is the factor point, 2k
is the axial point, and c is the number of experiments at the center point
[40].
In the CCD, experimental variables include 8 factorial points, 6 axial
points, and 6 central points, as shown in Fig. 2. Correspondingly, a total
of 20 experiments (N) were conducted for three factors according to Eq.
(1). During the experiment, tests were conducted in alignment with the
predetermined checkpoints in the experimental schema. Subsequently,
the data gathered from these test points were analyzed using response
surface methodology. Response surface analysis primarily uses
nonlinear fitting methods to derive the optimum value through fitting
equations. For the relationship between interaction factors, a quadratic
polynomial can be used for fitting, as shown in Eq. (2). The fitting
equation not only facilitates a more in-depth understanding of the
experimental results but also contributes to the optimization of the
experimental scheme. The experimental design of this study is shown in
Table 3.
∑k ∑k ∑∑
y = β0 + β xi +
i=1 i
β x2 +
i=1 ii i
βij xi xj + ε (2)
i<j
where y represents predicted response value, xi represents the inde­
pendent values of each variable (i.e., CA, zeolites, and W/B), ε repre­
sents the experimental error, β0 represents the value of the intercept, βi
are the first-order (linear) model coefficients, βij represents the inter­
action model coefficients, and βii represents the second-order
(quadratic) model coefficients [12].
2.3. Specimen preparation
All mortar specimens were prepared to the dimensions of 50 mm ×
50 mm × 50 mm, and the specific process of mortar preparation was
carried out as follows: 1) The calcined zeolites were submerged in water
for 12 h. To guarantee full water absorption of the zeolite particles, the
SO3 MgO Others Loss on ignition
3.03 2.04 2.07 2.53
3.12 1.24 2.12 0.04
2.10 7.29 1.91 0.30
H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Fig. 1. Modeling process based on CCD. Notes: Ele. R represents electrical resistivity; CCD stands for Central Composite Design; ANOVA stands for Analysis
of Variance.

Table 2 ± 2 ℃) for 24 h. The specimen is then transitioned into a standard curing

Design of Factors and levels in CCD. chamber, operating under a stable environment of 20 ± 2 ℃ with a
Factors units code Levels relative humidity not less than 96 %, to undergo the curing process. The
Actual − 1 0 +1 -α α preparation and testing process of specimen is shown in Fig. 3. Table 4
presents the mixing ratios for all the tested specimens.
Content of zeolites % A 10 15 20 6.59104 23.409
Content of CA % B 2 3 4 1.31821 4.68179
Water binder ratio – C 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.36591 0.53409
(W/B) 2.4. Experimental method

2.4.1. Mechanical performance test

pre-soaking water volume was the total amount of water absorbed by
the zeolite in 48 h. 2) OPC, CA, superplasticizer and remaining water
were placed in the mixer and mixed at low speed for 30 s. 3) The pre-
soaked zeolites and standard sands were introduced into the mixer,
which was then operated at a low rotational speed for a duration of 1
min. 4) The mixer was stopped for 30 s, and the cement slurry that was
not stirred at the bottom of the mixing pot was fully mixed with a
scraper. 5) The cement slurry was then subjected to an additional 2 min
of high-speed mixing. After the mixing, the mixture is cast into the
mould. Following this, vibration was applied to facilitate compaction.
The mould was subsequently enveloped with a polyethylene film to
maintain humidity, and demolded after curing at room temperature (20
The compressive strength of the mortar specimens is tested according
to ASTM C109-21 standard [41]. The specimens are tested for
compressive strength at a loading rate of 2.4 KN/s on a universal testing
machine after 3, 7, and 28 days of curing age. According to ASTM C293/
C293M − 16 standard [42], for 28 days, the specimens are subjected to
flexural strength tests at a loading rate of 50 N/s. Three specimens are
chosen for each group of mixtures for testing, and the average of the
obtained results is analyzed. Eq. (3) is the calculation formula for the
bending strength of specimen.
ff =
Fl
(3)
bh2

Fig. 2. Schematic of CCD. Notes: A represents the content of zeolites; B represents the content of CA; C represents W/B.

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H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Table 3 AASHTO T 358 and ASTM C597-22 [43] respectively. For each group of
Experimental Design. mixtures, three specimens are selected for analysis, with the ensuing
Test Specimen Zeolites (%) CA (%) W/B results being represented as the mean value.
A B C

ZC01 10 2 0.4 2.4.3. Crack healing observation

ZC02 20 2 0.4 The evaluation of crack self-healing capacity is performed by
ZC03 10 4 0.4 measuring the healing rate of the specimen’s fissures. After a curing age
ZC04 20 4 0.4 of 14 days, the specimens were subjected to a pre-cracking procedure.
ZC05 10 2 0.5
ZC06 20 2 0.5
The experimental setup and schematic diagrams for inducing cracks in
ZC07 10 4 0.5 the mortar specimens are shown in the Fig. 4. The steps involved in the
ZC08 20 4 0.5 pre-cracking process are delineated below: Firstly, a steel wire (10 mm
ZC09 6.59104 3 0.45 in diameter, 60 mm in length) is placed at the central point of bottom of
ZC10 23.409 3 0.45
the specimen. Then, the specimen is subjected to a compressive load
ZC11 15 1.31821 0.45
ZC12 15 4.68179 0.45 using a pressure machine at a loading rate of 5 KN/s. The loading stops
ZC13 15 3 0.36591 when the applied load reaches 65.9 KN, i.e., 65 % of the ultimate load,
ZC14 15 3 0.53409 and a clear crack appears on the specimen’s surface. Consequently, a
ZC15 15 3 0.45 crack with width of 100–300 μm can be obtained. Finally, the crack
ZC16 15 3 0.45
formations are examined employing an OLYMPUS-SZ61 stereo micro­
ZC17 15 3 0.45
ZC18 15 3 0.45 scope (Olympus, Japan) and measured and recorded in conjunction with
ZC19 15 3 0.45 image analysis software (Vistarimage). Crack images of the specimens
ZC20 15 3 0.45 pre-cracked for 0, 7, and 28 days are observed at the same location, each
image size is 640 × 480 pixels. The observed images are binarized [44],
the results are shown in Fig. 5. The healing rate η is calculated according
Where: ff is flexural strength of the specimen (MPa); F is the failure load to formula (4):
(N); l is the span between the endpoints (mm); h and b are the height
(mm) and width (mm), respectively. η=
A0 − At
(4)
A0
2.4.2. UPV and electrical resistivity test
Where η is the healing rate, A0 and At are the areas of the crack before
To evaluate the self-healing effect of the mortar, the UPV value and
and after healing, respectively.
electrical resistivity changes of the pre-cracked specimens were tested
using the HC-F900 concrete crack defect tester and the HC-X6 rebar
2.4.4. X-ray diffraction
corrosion detector respectively at 7 and 28 days of healing age. The UPV
To identify the crystal phase composition of the healing filler, XRD
value and electrical resistivity were tested according to the standards of
tests were conducted on specimens healed for 28 days using a Japanese

Fig. 3. Specimen preparation and testing procedure.

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H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Table 4
Concrete mixture designs.
Mixture code Water (g) Cement Light aggregate
(g)
Sand Zeolites CA W/B Superplasticizer (g)
(g) (g) (g)

ZC01 268 656.6 1206 134 13.4 0.4 1.0

ZC02 268 656.6 1072 268 13.4 0.4 2.0
ZC03 268 643.2 1206 134 26.8 0.4 1.0
ZC04 268 643.2 1072 268 26.8 0.4 2.4
ZC05 335 656.6 1206 134 13.4 0.5 –
ZC06 335 656.6 1072 268 13.4 0.5 –
ZC07 335 643.2 1206 134 26.8 0.5 –
ZC08 335 643.2 1072 268 26.8 0.5 –
ZC09 301.5 649.9 1251.56 88.44 20.1 0.45 –
ZC10 301.5 649.9 1026.44 313.56 20.1 0.45 0.74
ZC11 301.5 661.29 1139 201 8.71 0.45 0.55
ZC12 301.5 638.51 1139 201 31.49 0.45 0.29
ZC13 245.16 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.36591 2.3
ZC14 357.84 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.53409 0.26
ZC15 301.5 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.45 0.26
ZC16 301.5 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.45 0.26
ZC17 301.5 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.45 0.26
ZC18 301.5 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.45 0.26
ZC19 301.5 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.45 0.26
ZC20 301.5 649.9 1139 201 20.1 0.45 0.26

Fig. 4. Images of the introduced cracks: (a) experimental setup and (b) schematic diagram.

Fig. 5. Binarization result images: (a) The specimen pre-crack at 0 d, and (b) the specimen healed at 28 d.

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H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

XRD tester (scanning angle: 10-70◦ , scanning speed: 6◦ /min). The self- factors are valid (F-value > 14), with a P-value < 0.0001, indicating that
healing filler was scraped out from the cracks with a scraper. The the models are extremely significant. The lack-of-fit data (P-value >
samples were soaked in anhydrous ethanol for 24 h to stop cement hy­ 0.05) indicate that the chosen model does not have a significant effect on
dration. Then samples have been dried in an oven at 40 ◦ C for 48 h. For the error. Referencing Table 6, it is clear that the three variables (zeolite
XRD tests, samples ground to 40–60 mesh with a sieve, and stored in a amount, CA amount and W/B ratio) significantly influence the UPV
sealed bag. value response, electrical resistivity, and self-healing rate. Moreover, the
interactions also have certain effects on the response results. The order
2.4.5. Scanning electron microscope of factors’ impact on 7 d and 28 d UPV value is respectively: A > C > A2
To observe the micro-morphology of the healed fillers at the crack > B > B2 > BC > AC > C2 > AB and B > B2 > A2 > A > C > AB > C2 > BC
site, SEM observation of the filler at the crack site of the specimen was > AC. The order of factors’ impact on 7 d and 28 d electrical resistivity is
conducted after 28 days of healing age. The self-healing filler was respectively: A > C > B2 > A2 > B > BC > C2 > AC > AB and B > A > C >
scraped out from the crack with a scraper. Then dried in an oven at 40 ◦ C C2 > B2 > AB > A2 > AC > BC. The order of factors’ impact on 7 d and 28
for 48 h. The SEM observation was carried out using TM250FEG d self-healing rate is respectively: A > B > AB > C > BC > B2 > A2 > AC
(Quanta, USA) and the results were collected under an accelerating > C2 and B > A > C > AB > B2 > A2 > AC > BC > C2. Among them, the
voltage of 10/20 kV. impact of CA on the UPV value, electrical resistivity, and self-healing
rate of the specimens is most significant. This is due to the addition of
3. Results and discussion CA, which reacts with the hydration products of cement to produce more
C-S-H gel, resulting in better healing effects for the mortar specimens.
3.1. Response surface methodology This ultimately increases the self-healing rate. Moreover, the study by
Oliveira et al. [13] also found that the activation reaction of CA makes
3.1.1. Results of the response surface model experiment the internal matrix of cement more compact, playing an excellent role in
The results of the RSM experiment are shown in Table 5. The pore filling. In summary, CA has the most significant impact on UPV
experimental data indicate that both of zeolites and CA amounts have value, electrical resistivity, and self-healing rate. In Table 6, there is no
significant impacts on the UPV value, electrical resistivity, and self- significant difference in P-value between zeolites (A) and CA (B). For
healing rate of mortar specimens. Otherwise, the W/B ratio also being mortars blended with zeolites, the addition of zeolites increases
a factor have been affected on above test results. It is worth noting that porosity, which leads to changes in porosity within the mortar matrix.
previous studies reported that low and high W/B ratios can adversely Consequently, there is a significant impact on the UPV value and elec­
affect the self-healing effect of mortar specimens [45]. trical resistivity. Simultaneously, the addition of zeolite releases parts of
free water that reacts with unhydrated cement particles in the matrix,
3.1.2. Variance analysis resulting in ultimately having a significant effect on the healing rate. For
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is commonly used to test the signifi­ mortars mixed with CA, the addition of CA improves the compactness of
cance of the impact of different factors on experimental results, mainly the mortar matrix. Eventually, CA has a significant impact on UPV value
by examining the P-value to reflect whether the impact of each factor on and electrical resistivity. The activation reaction of CA within the
the response is significant. In order to determine the significant effects of cement matrix also enhances the crack healing effect. Ultimately, the
zeolite amount, CA amount, and W/B on the durability and crack experimental results confirmed that the P-values of zeolite (A) and CA
healing rate of mortar, the least squares method is used to fit the (B) on UPV value, electrical resistivity and self-healing rate were less
response surface model and perform variance analysis on the experi­ than 0.05, indicating no significant difference in P-value. For UPV value
mental results. The results of the variance analysis are shown in Table 6. and electrical resistivity, it should be highlighted that the W/B plays a
In variance analysis, the significance of factors is tested using the size pivotal role in modulating the hydration level within the matrix. The
of the P-value. When P < 0.05, it indicates that the factor is significant; if higher the W/B, the lower UPV value and electrical resistivity of the
P < 0.01, it indicates that the factor is extremely significant [46]. As specimen [47].
shown in Table 6, the models chosen for variance analysis of all three
3.1.3. Fitting accuracy analysis
This study examined the accuracy of the fitting model (as shown in
Table 5 Table 7) and found that the correlation coefficient (R2) of the quadratic
Experimental Results. model was close to 1, indicating a strong correlation between experi­
Mixture code UPV value Electrical resistivity Self-healing rate mental values and predicted values, which confirms precision and
(m/s) (KΩ.cm) (%) dependability of the quadratic model [48]. In addition, the adjusted
7-day 28-day 7-day 28-day 7-day 28-day correlation coefficient (Adj-R2) is close to Pred-R2, with a value less than
ZC01 3810 4319 59.16 151.13 75.01 77.63 0.2. Additionally, each model manifests C.V. below 10 %, with the Adeq
ZC02 3669 4453 51.37 153.27 78.26 81.21 Precision exceeding 4, all of which indicate that the model has high
ZC03 3858 4487 60.87 154.46 82.59 85.25 fitting accuracy and reliability. Therefore, the constructed quadratic
ZC04 3723 4512 55.74 155.12 90.23 93.01
ZC05 3714 4236 55.79 149.19 78.73 80.11
regression model in the current investigation bears statistical signifi­
ZC06 3601 4358 51.42 152.23 79.91 86.13 cance, demonstrating precise predictability and an exemplary level of
ZC07 3691 4387 56.94 152.89 81.38 87.87 fit, and can accurately predict the response values of UPV, electrical
ZC08 3621 4412 50.14 153.56 89.99 96.91 resistivity, and self-healing rate. Table 8 shows the coefficients of the
ZC09 3849 4269 62.34 150.58 81.43 82.13
fitted equation derived from the application of the least squares method,
ZC10 3663 4464 52.07 154.94 86.35 91.11
ZC11 3689 4231 56.93 150.46 74.21 80.21 and fitting equations for 7 d and 28 d UPV value, 7 d and 28 d electrical
ZC12 3746 4468 58.45 153.87 88.93 94.16 resistivity, as well as 7 d and 28 d crack self-healing rate were estab­
ZC13 3779 4585 55.71 155.94 80.77 84.53 lished according to Eq. (2), as shown in Eq. (4) to (9).
ZC14 3630 4447 50.19 153.21 84.53 86.75
ZC15 3648 4531 52.68 152.84 82.18 86.21 7− dayUPVvalue=3670.93− 56.51A+14.27B− 50.05C+6.12AB+11.62AC
ZC16 3678 4587 52.12 152.48 81.56 84.99 − 13.13BC+26.38A2 +12.77B2 +8.18C2
ZC17 3670 4503 52.98 152.78 82.47 84.21
(4)
ZC18 3661 4499 53.23 152.99 83.25 85.64
ZC19 3674 4565 54.13 152.65 82.94 84.99
ZC20 3691 4573 53.89 153.97 81.45 85.60

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H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Table 6
ANOVA results.
Source UPV value (m/s) Electrical resistivity Self-healing rate (%)
(KΩ⋅cm)
7-day 28-day 7-day 28-day 7-day 28-day
F-Value P-Value F-Value P-Value F-Value P-Value F-Value P-Value F-Value P-Value F-Value P-Value

Model 38.43 <0.0001 26.94 <0.0001 26.80 <0.0001 17.43 <0.0001 33.11 <0.0001 49.45 <0.0001
A-Zeolites 158.43 <0.0001 30.99 0.0002 136.71 <0.0001 44.65 <0.0001 54.43 <0.0001 127.73 <0.0001
B-CA 10.10 0.0099 53.20 <0.0001 5.78 0.0370 59.24 <0.0001 211.21 <0.0001 279.77 <0.0001
C-W/B 124.28 <0.0001 28.70 0.0003 39.15 <0.0001 26.68 0.0004 6.81 0.0260 23.11 0.0007
AB 1.09 0.3210 5.59 0.0397 0.0072 0.9340 5.90 0.0356 15.49 0.0028 6.56 0.0283
AC 3.93 0.0757 0.0190 0.8932 0.4178 0.5326 0.3294 0.5787 0.1341 0.7218 1.75 0.2151
BC 5.01 0.0492 0.0637 0.8058 5.26 0.0447 0.0090 0.9265 5.16 0.0465 0.0980 0.7606
A2 36.43 0.0001 61.98 <0.0001 23.72 0.0007 1.21 0.2972 2.13 0.1750 1.91 0.1966
B2 8.54 0.0152 74.19 <0.0001 30.81 0.0002 6.37 0.0302 2.17 0.1717 4.61 0.0574
C2 3.50 0.0909 1.85 0.2032 1.20 0.2988 10.54 0.0088 0.0115 0.9166 0.0036 0.9534
Residual
Lack of fit 1.54 0.3244 0.3566 0.8589 2.25 0.1976 1.25 0.4048 3.30 0.1082 3.10 0.1201
Pure error

28− dayUPVvalue=4543.23+46.42A+60.82B− 44.67C− 25.75AB− 1.50AC

− 2.75BC− 63.91A2 − 69.92B2 − 11.05C2
(5)

7 − dayElectricalresistivity = 53.20 − 3.03A + 0.6229B − 1.62C + 0.0288AB + 0.2188AC

(6)
− 0.7762BC + 1.23A2 + 1.40B2 − 0.2763C2

28 − dayElectricalresistivity = 152.97 + 1.01A + 1.17B − 0.7836C − 0.4813AB + 0.1137AC

(7)
− 0.0188BC − 0.1624A2 − 0.3728B2 + 0.4793C2

7 − daySelf − healingrate = 82.33 + 2.12A + 4.18B + 0.7501C + 1.48AB − 0.1375AC

(8)
− 0.8525BC + 0.4084A2 − 0.4119B2 − 0.0300C2

28 − daySelf − healingrate = 85.29 + 3.04A + 4.50B + 1.29C + 0.9000AB + 0.4650AC

(9)
− 0.1100BC + 0.3622A2 + 0.5619B2 + 0.0157C2

3.1.4. Relationship between predicted and actual values

A scatter diagram was constructed, employing the actual values on
Table 7
the abscissa and the predicted values on the ordinate. The results from
The validation results of the fitted model.
Fig. 6 show that each data point is distributed around a line approxi­
Response R2 Adj-R2 Pred- C.V. AdeqPrecision mating y = x. The minor discrepancy between predicted and actual
R2 (%)
values signifies that the established model exhibits commendable fitting
7-day UPV value 0.9719 0.9466 0.8525 0.4481 21.1243 accuracy. Furthermore, Fig. 7 provides a radar chart comparison be­
28-day UPV value 0.9604 0.9248 0.8788 0.6934 16.6205 tween the model’s predicted values and experimental results. It offers a
7-day Electrical 0.9602 0.9244 0.7516 1.75 17.8719
resistivity
more intuitive illustration, demonstrating that the experimental out­
28-day Electrical 0.9401 0.8862 0.7061 0.3666 15.8187 comes closely align with the model’s numerical predictions.
resistivity Fig. 8 presents the effect trajectories of various variables on UPV
7-day Self-healing 0.9675 0.9383 0.7949 1.29 21.5321 value, electrical resistivity, and self-healing rate using response surface
rate
methodology. Fig. 8 (a) and (b) show the UPV value change trajectories
28-day Self-healing 0.9780 0.9582 0.8656 1.16 25.1313
rate for the specimens healed for 7 days and 28 days, respectively. It was
observed that for the UPV value of the specimens healed for 7 days,
Notes: Adj-R2: Adjusted R2; Pred-R2: Predicted R2; C.V.: Coefficient of Variation;
zeolites and W/B were the most significant influencing factors. As the
Adeq Precision: signal-to-noise ratios.

8
H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

curing age progresses, CA significantly increased UPV value of speci­
mens healed for 28 days, while the effect of changes in W/B on UPV
value decreased. Fig. 8 (c) and (d) represent the electrical resistivity
change trajectories for the specimens healed for 7 days and 28 days. In
the specimens healed for 7 days, zeolites play a significant role, while
the electrical resistivity of the specimens healed for 28 days increases
sharply with the increase of CA content, making CA the most significant
factor in enhancing electrical resistivity among the three factors. Fig. 8
(e) and (f) illustrate the crack healing effect change trajectories for
specimens subjected to healing durations of 7 and 28 days respectively.
Despite exhibiting similar trajectories, but the self-healing rate at 28
days is superior to that at 7 days. Moreover, the incorporation of CA
exerts a profound influence on self-healing rate, promoting it positively.
With the increase of CA, the self-healing rate gradually increases.
3.2. Response surface curvature analysis
The response surface provides a vivid illustration of the interplay
between two factors and its subsequent impact on the response value. An
augmented curvature of the response surface typically denotes a sub­
stantial influence resulting from the interaction of UPV value, electrical
resistivity, and self-healing rate. Conversely, a less pronounced curva­
ture indicates a less significant interaction effect [49]. The following are
the response surface results of zeolites amount, CA amount, and W/B on
UPV value, electrical resistivity, and self-healing rate.

Table 8
the coefficients of the factors in the fitted equation.
7-day UPV value 28-day UPV value 7-day Electrical resistivity 28-day Electrical resistivity 7-day Self-healing rate 28-day Self-healing rate

Constant 3670.93 4543.23 53.20 152.97 82.33 85.29

A(Zeolites) − 56.21 46.42 − 3.03 1.01 2.12 3.04
B(CA) 14.27 60.82 0.6229 1.17 4.18 4.50
C(W/B) − 50.05 − 44.67 − 1.62 − 0.7836 0.7501 1.29
AB 6.12 − 25.75 0.0288 − 0.4813 1.48 0.9000
AC 11.62 − 1.50 0.2188 0.1137 − 0.1375 0.4650
BC − 13.13 − 2.75 − 0.7762 − 0.0188 − 0.8525 − 0.1100
A2 26.38 − 63.91 1.23 − 0.1624 0.4084 0.3622
B2 12.77 − 69.92 1.40 − 0.3728 − 0.4119 0.5619
C2 8.18 − 11.05 − 0.2763 0.4796 − 0.0300 0.0157

Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental and predicted: (a) the 7 d UPV value; (b) the 28 d UPV value;(c) the 7 d electrical resistivity; (d) the 28 d electrical resistivity; (e)
the 7 d self-healing rate; (f) the 28 d self-healing rate.

9
H.-F. Li et al.
Fig. 7. Comparison of predicted and actual values for (a) UPV value; (b) electrical resistivity; and (c) self-healing rate.
3.2.1. The influence of various factors on UPV value
The UPV response surface of the mortar specimens designed by RSM
after 7 d and 28 d of healing is shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9 (a) and (d) show
the effects of the interaction between zeolites and CA on the UPV value
of the specimens after 7 d and 28 d of healing age, respectively. With a
fixed CA content, the UPV value decreases with increase in zeolites
content after 7 d of healing age, and the minimum wave speed reduces to
3601 m/s. Statistical variance analysis reveals a substantial impact of
zeolites on UPV value. When zeolites content is fixed, the UPV value
changes little with the increase in CA content, and the response surface
tends to be flat. This suggests that zeolites are the main factors affecting
the UPV value after 7 d of healing age, possibly due to the incorporation
of zeolite sand introducing extra pores, increasing the number of pores
in the mortar matrix. This leads to a reduction in the UPV value. With the
increase in both of zeolites and CA content, the UPV value of the spec­
imen significantly increases after 28 d of healing age. According to the
variance analysis in Table 6, the effects of zeolites and CA on the UPV
value are extremely significant, and the interaction between the two is
also significant. This may be due to the release of absorbed water from
zeolites with age, which promotes the generation of C-S-H gel from the
CA activation reaction, thereby promoting crack healing and improving
the UPV value. This phenomenon was confirmed in the SEM analysis.
Fig. 9 (b) and (e) show the effects of the interaction between zeolites and
W/B on the UPV value after 7 d and 28 d, respectively. With a fixed W/B,
the UPV value of the specimen decreases (negatively correlated) with
the increase in zeolites content after 7 d of healing, and the surface is
steeper. When the zeolites content is fixed, the UPV value also decreases
with the increase in W/B, and the trend of surface changes is similar.
10
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015
This phenomenon reflects the significance of various factors, which is
consistent with the variance analysis results. This might be because,
during the 7 d healing age, with the increase in W/B, the degree of
hydration reaction of the cement weakens, the generated hydration
products correspondingly decrease, thereby reducing the internal den­
sity of the mortar matrix. This change eventually leads to a decrease in
the UPV value. Observing Fig. 9 (e), it can be found that with a fixed W/
B, as the content of zeolites increases, the UPV value of the specimen
after 28 d of healing age first increases and then tends to stabilize, with
the maximum wave speed reaching 4587 m/s. When the zeolites content
is fixed, the UPV value remains essentially unchanged with the increase
in W/B. This might be because during the 28 d healing age, due to the
occurrence of cement hydration, the change in W/B has no significant
effect on the UPV value. As the curing age increases, zeolites gradually
release absorbed water, which promotes the hydration reaction of
cement. These hydration products can heal cracks and fill the internal
pores of the mortar, ultimately leading to an increase in the UPV value.
The study by Pandieswari et al. [50] also confirmed that the water
released by zeolites promotes the hydration reaction of cement, and
these hydration products can fill the internal pores of the mortar matrix.
Fig. 9 (c) and (f) show the effects of the interaction between CA and W/B
on the UPV value of the specimens after 7 d and 28 d of healing age,
respectively. With a fixed CA content, the UPV value of the specimen
decreases with the increase in W/B after 7 d of healing age, when W/B is
fixed, the change in CA has a smaller impact on the UPV value. When W/
B is 0.4 and the CA content is 4 %, the UPV value of the specimen is the
highest, with a maximum value of 3768 m/s. Observing Fig. 9 (f), it can
be observed that as the specimen heals for 28 days, the UPV value
H.-F. Li et al.
Fig. 8. Impact trajectory diagrams of different factors on the response: (a) the impact on the 7 d UPV value; (b) the impact on the 28 d UPV value; (c) the impact on
the 7 d electrical resistivity; (d) the impact on the 28 d electrical resistivity; (e) the impact on the 7 d self-healing rate; (f) the impact on the 28 d self-healing rate. (A:
zeolites; B: CA; C: W/B).
gradually increases with the increase of CA, and the curve is more
jittery, finally tending to be flat, while the influence of W/B on UPV
value is not significant, which is consistent with the variance analysis
results. This could be attributed to the fact that at the healing age of 7
days, when W/B is lower, the amount of free water inside the mortar
matrix is relatively small, the degree of cement hydration reaction in­
creases, and the number of hydration products increases, making the
inside of the mortar matrix denser, leading to an increase in UPV value.
Conversely, under high W/B conditions, the UPV value has been
decreased. Observing Fig. 9 (f), it can be observed that at the healing age
of 28 days, the activation reaction of CA contributes greatly to the crack
healing, ultimately leading to an increase in UPV value.
3.2.2. The influence of various factors on electrical resistivity
The electrical resistivity response surfaces of the mortar specimens
designed by RSM at 7 d and 28 d healing are shown in Fig. 10. Fig. 10 (a)
and (d) show the effects of the interaction between zeolites and CA on
the electrical resistivity of the specimens after 7 d and 28 d of healing
age, respectively. After 7 d of healing age, the electrical resistivity de­
creases with the increase in zeolites content and increases with the in­
crease in CA content, with zeolites having a greater impact and a steeper
surface. Variance analysis results show that the effects of zeolites and CA
on electrical resistivity are significant, mainly due to the introduction of
additional pores by adding zeolites and the activation reaction of CA
11
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015
promoting the filling of internal pores and crack healing. By observing
Fig. 10 (d), it can be seen that at 28 d of healing age, the electrical re­
sistivity of the specimens gradually increases with the increase in the
amount of zeolites and CA added, increasing by 1.94 % and 2.14 %
respectively. The variance analysis results also confirmed the significant
impact of zeolites and CA on electrical resistivity. This may be due to the
fact that the free water released by zeolites promotes the positive
contribution of the hydration reaction of cement and the activation re­
action of CA to crack healing. Fig. 10 (b) and (e) show the effects of the
interaction between zeolites and W/B on the electrical resistivity of the
specimens after 7 d and 28 d of healing age, respectively. After 7 d of
healing age, the electrical resistivity decreases with the increase in ze­
olites content. When the W/B is 0.5 and zeolite amount is 20 %, the
electrical resistivity of the specimen is the lowest, with the minimum
value being 50.14 KΩ⋅cm. This is mainly because the addition of zeolites
increases the internal pores of the matrix. The electrical resistivity in­
creases with the decrease of W/B, while the zeolite content remains
unchanged. When the zeolite amount is 20 % and W/B is 0.4, the elec­
trical resistivity of the specimens reaches the highest, with a peak value
of 155.12 KΩ⋅cm. This is mainly due to the fact that as previously
described, the decrease in W/B increases the degree of hydration reac­
tion of the cement inside the matrix, the number of hydration products
increases, making the interior of the mortar matrix denser, ultimately
leading to an increase in electrical resistivity. Observing Fig. 10 (e), after
H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Fig. 9. Three-dimensional response surface plots of UPV values: (a) the impact of zeolites and CA for 7 d; (b) the impact of zeolites and W/B for 7 d; (c) the impact of
CA and W/B for 7 d; (d) the impact of zeolites and CA for 28 d; (e) the impact of zeolites and W/B for 28 d; (f) the impact of CA and W/B for 28 d.

Fig. 10. Three-dimensional response surface plots of electrical resistivity: (a) the impact of zeolites and CA for 7 d; (b) the impact of zeolites and W/B for 7 d; (c) the
impact of CA and W/B for 7 d; (d) the impact of zeolites and CA for 28 d; (e) the impact of zeolites and W/B for 28 d; (f) the impact of CA and W/B for 28 d.

28 d of healing age, the electrical resistivity of the specimens increases
with the increase in zeolites content, and the surface is steep. Compared
with zeolites, W/B contributes less to electrical resistivity. This is
attributed to the fact that during the 28 d healing age, the internal curing
action of zeolites promoted the activation reaction of CA to produce C-S-
H gel, improving the effect of crack healing. Fig. 10 (c) and (f) show the
effects of the interaction between CA and W/B on the electrical
resistivity of the specimens after 7 d and 28 d of healing age, respec­
tively. After 7 d of healing age, when W/B remains constant, the elec­
trical resistivity increases with the increase in CA content. When the CA
content remains constant, the electrical resistivity slightly increases with
the increase in W/B, thus the magnitude is small and the response sur­
face tends to be flat. This is mainly because the partial moisture inside
the mortar matrix can promote the activation reaction of CA in the early

12
H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Fig. 11. Three-dimensional response surface plots of self-healing rate of cracks: (a) the impact of zeolites and CA for 7 d; (b) the impact of zeolites and W/B for 7 d;
(c) the impact of CA and W/B for 7 d; (d) the impact of zeolites and CA for 28 d; (e) the impact of zeolites and W/B for 28 d; (f) the impact of CA and W/B for 28 d.

stage, causing the cracks to have a certain healing effect. However, the
Table 9
hydration reaction of cement is not sufficient for healing effect at an
Best solutions for different response values.
early age. This is because the degree of cement hydration is relatively
weak in the early stage [51,52]. After 28 d of healing age, the electrical Dependent variable Limit Optimum Solution
Lower Limit Upper Limit Goal
resistivity approximately increases linearly with the increase in CA
content, the curve surface is steeper, and the maximum resistivity in­ 7-day UPV value 3601 3858 Maximum
28-day UPV value 4231 4587 Maximum
creases to 154.94 KΩ⋅cm. At the same time, W/B also increases its
7-day Electrical resistivity 50.14 62.34 Maximum
change in electrical resistivity. This observation can be primarily 28-day Electrical resistivity 149.19 155.94 Maximum
ascribed to the extension of the healing age, the activation reaction of 7-day self-healing rate 74.21 90.23 Maximum
CA continues to produce more C-S-H, making the interior of mortar 28-day self-healing rate 77.63 96.91 Maximum
matrix denser. In addition, as the curing age increases, the hydration
reaction of cement continues.
water, thereby promoting the hydration reaction of cement, but the
contribution to healing effect of cracks is relatively limited. Fig. 11 (c)
3.2.3. The influence of various factors on healing effect
and (f) respectively represent the influence of the interaction between
The response surface of the healing rates of mortar specimens at 7
CA and W/B on the healing rates at 7 d and 28 d. At 7 d of healing age,
d and 28 d is shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 11 (a) and (d) respectively represent
when W/B is kept constant, the increase in the amount of CA causes the
the influence of the interaction between zeolites and CA on the healing
healing rate to increase, with a maximum increase of 11.5 %. However,
rates of the specimens at 7 d and 28 d. When the amount of zeolites is
when the amount of CA is kept constant, although the healing rate
kept constant, the healing rate of the mortar gradually increases at 7 d as
gradually increases with the increase of W/B, the increase is relatively
the amount of CA increases. This observation elucidates that the amount
small. In the 28 d healing age. CA also promotes the healing of cracks,
of CA exerts a substantial impact on healing at 7 d. When the amount of
with a maximum healing rate increase of 10.3 %. In contrast, the in­
CA is kept constant, the healing rate also increases with the increase in
fluence of W/B on the healing rate is limited. This is mainly because the
the amount of zeolites, but the change is relatively small. Compared with
size of W/B mainly contributes to the hydration reaction of cement,
the specimens at 7 d, the specimens at 28 d of healing showed better
while the hydration products generated by the hydration of cement have
overall healing effects. CA plays a leading role in facilitating crack
a limited effect, and the activation reaction of CA has a certain healing
remediation, the increase zeolites content makes CA’s influence on crack
effect on cracks throughout the maintenance age.
healing more significant, variance analysis elucidates that interaction
In conclusion, from the F and P values obtained from the variance
between zeolites and CA exerts a substantial influence on crack healing.
This is attributed to the increase in zeolites content providing sufficient
moisture for the activation reaction of CA, promoting the activation Table 10
reaction of CA, generating more C-S-H to fill cracks, making healing rate RSM verification results under optimal conditions.
reach 96.91 % at 28 d, a 6.9 % increase from the healing at 7 d. Fig. 11 Response value Predictive value Actual value Relative error
(b) and (e) respectively represent the influence of the interaction be­
7-day UPV value 3857.724 3880.642 0.59 %
tween zeolites and W/B on the healing rates at 7 d and 28 d. From the 28-day UPV value 4589.370 4620.449 0.67 %
results, the results suggest that combination of zeolites and W/B has a 7-day Electrical resistivity 61.792 63.541 2.75 %
limited improvement on the healing rate, although W/B has some 28-day Electrical resistivity 155.300 153.216 1.34 %
changes, but its contribution to the healing effect of the cracks is not 7-day self-healing rate 90.232 91.225 1.09 %
28-day self-healing rate 96.315 97.009 0.72 %
significant. On the other hand, zeolites can release the absorbed free

13
H.-F. Li et al.
analysis, it is indicated that the impact of CA on the crack healing rate is
extremely significant (large F value, P < 0.0001), the impact of zeolites
is significant (P = 0.0111 < 0.05), while the impact of W/B is not sig­
nificant (P = 0.0947 > 0.05) [53]. This is attributed to the increase in CA
content leading to an increase in the amount of active substances in the
mixture. The active substances in CA chemically react with the cement
hydration products to form C-S-H gel to fill cracks, thereby improving
the crack healing effect. Therefore, the order of impact on the crack
healing effect is CA > zeolites > W/B. In addition, the interaction be­
tween CA and zeolites considerably influences the efficacy of crack
healing (P < 0.05). However, both the interaction of CA with W/B and
that of zeolites with W/B do not exert significant influence upon the
healing rate (P > 0.05), thereby substantiating the credibility of the
constructed predictive model.
4. Optimization results
To determine the optimal mixture ratio of each substance under the
best response, this study uses Design-Expert 13 software, based on RSM
to optimize the six response values. According to the data in Table 9, it is
found that the UPV value and electrical resistivity at 7 d and 28 d are
positively correlated with the pore structure and crack healing inside the
mortar matrix, which means that when these values are larger, the in­
ternal structure of the matrix is denser, and the healing effect is better.
When analyzing the self-healing effects at 7 d and 28 d, the closer the
healing rate is to 100 %, the better the healing effect. Therefore, in the
optimization process, the maximum self-healing rate is used as the
optimization condition. Through this method, the optimal mixing ratio
of each substance was determined to achieve the best healing effect.
Considering the six response values comprehensively, the optimal
conditions based on RSM were obtained: the ratios of zeolites amount,
CA amount, and W/B are 20 %, 4 %, and 0.45, respectively. Table 10
shows the predicted values of UPV, electrical resistivity, and healing
rate. In order to verify the accuracy of the RSM prediction, specimens
were prepared with the optimal mixing ratio to test the actual values of
each response. The experimental results showed that the measured
values of UPV, electrical resistivity, and healing rate have a high degree
of agreement with the predicted values, with a relative error of less than
10 % (see Table 10). This result confirms the accuracy and reliability of
the established prediction model.
Fig. 12. Strength at 7 d and 28 d of curing age: (a) Compressive strength and (b) Flexural strength.
14
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015
5. Mechanical and microscopic analysis
In this study, the optimal mixture ratios of zeolites amount, CA
amount, and W/B were determined to be 20 %, 4 %, and 0.45, respec­
tively. To analyze the mechanical and micro-properties of the mortar,
the following four types of specimens were selected. The specimens
without zeolites and CA, specimens with 20 % zeolites, specimens with
4 % CA, and specimens with 20 % zeolites and 4 % CA were labeled as
Control, 20Z, 4CA, and 20Z4CA, respectively. In addition, the value of
W/B chosen for all specimens was 0.45.
5.1. Mechanical properties
The compressive strengths of Control, 20Z, 4CA, and 20Z4CA spec­
imens at 7 d and 28 d of curing are shown in Fig. 12. Compared to the
control group, the compressive strength of the 20Z specimen decreased
by approximately 22 % and 8.3 % at 7 and 28 days, respectively. The
observed phenomenon can be ascribed to introduction of additional
porosity in mortar matrix by the addition of zeolites, thereby reducing
the compressive strength. However, at curing age of 28 d, the hydration
reactions happening within cement matrix and free water released by
zeolites promoting these reactions led to a denser internal structure of
the mortar matrix, thus somewhat compensating for the decrease in
compressive strength at 28 d. Compared to the control group, the
compressive strength of the 4CA specimens increased by approximately
9.6 % and 19.4 % at 7 and 28 days, respectively. This can be attributed
to the reactive substances in CA reacting with the hydration products of
cement, generating dense C-S-H gels that fill the pores, thereby further
enhancing the compressive strength. For the 20Z4CA specimens,
compared with the 4CA specimens, the compressive strength decreased
by 8.8 % at 7 d of curing age, but increased by 3.6 % at 28 d. Although at
7 d of curing age, the pore-filling effect brought about by the activation
reaction of CA was not sufficient to counteract the decrease in strength
due to the additional porosity introduced by zeolites [37], at 28 d the
free water released by zeolites further promoted the activation reaction
of CA, generating more C-S-H gel, which led to an increase in
compressive strength at 28 d. Fig. 12 (b) shows the flexural strength
results at 7 d and 28 d of curing age, with the influences of various
factors on the flexural strength presenting similar trends to those of the
compressive strength. The mechanisms observed in the compressive
strength results also apply to the flexural strength results. Compared
with the control group, the specimens with zeolites added showed re­
ductions in flexural strength at both 7 d and 28 d of curing age.
H.-F. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015

Fig. 13. SEM images of fillers in cracks of specimens: (a) Control specimen; (b) 20Z specimen; (c) 4CA specimen; (d) 20Z4CA specimen.

5.2. Microstructure analysis

To investigate the microstructure, morphology, and crystal phase of

the filler in the mortar after the addition of zeolites and CA, mortar
specimens with the best mixture proportion were selected for SEM and
XRD tests after 28 days of healing age.

5.2.1. SEM analysis

Fig. 13(a)-(d) show the SEM images of Control, 20Z, 4CA and
20Z4CA specimens respectively. In the SEM images, the main observed
products from the cement hydration process are ettringite, portlandite,
and calcium silicate hydrate, represented by the symbols E, CH, and C-S-
H, respectively. In Fig. 13 (a), for the control group specimens, the
observation discerned the generation of Ca(OH)2 crystals, C-S-H, along
with a minor proportion of AFt, which were generated from hydration
reaction of cement. In Fig. 13 (b), an increased number of hexagonal
plate-like crystals can be observed at the crack site, which is mainly
influenced by the presence of zeolites. These are confirmed to be Ca
(OH)2 crystals, primarily because zeolites absorb some free water, and as
the cement hydration reaction progresses, the absorbed water is grad­
ually released, eventually promoting the cement hydration reaction and
generating more CH, a finding confirmed by Nagrockiene et al. [54].
Furthermore, a small amount of C-S-H was also observed. In Fig. 13 (c),
Fig. 14. XRD spectrum after 28 days of healing age.
for specimens containing 4% CA, compared with Control, an increased
amount of clustered C-S-H gel and rod-shaped ettringite crystals were
Specimens containing CA exhibited increased flexural strength, which
observed, this is due to the active substances in CA reacting with CH,
rose further with increasing curing age. This suggests that the inclusion
which further enhances the healing effect of the crack. In Fig. 13 (d), a
of CA has the potential to improve the flexural strength of the specimens.
larger number of more densely structured clusters of C-S-H gel and some
Furthermore, when zeolites and CA acted in combination, the specimens
rod-shaped AFt crystals were observed. This is due to the free water
at 28 d exhibited the best flexural strength.
absorbed by the zeolites being partially released during the cement

15
H.-F. Li et al.
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of self-healing mechanism of mortar cracks: (a) Control specimen; (b) 20Z specimen; (c) 4CA specimen; (d) 20Z4CA specimen.
hydration reaction, promoting the activation reaction of CA, thereby
increasing the generation of C-S-H gel. This effectively filled cracks and
formed a denser microstructure.
5.2.2. XRD test
Fig. 14 shows the XRD patterns of Control, 20Z, 4CA, and 20Z4CA
specimen, with observed crystal phases including C-S-H, ettringite, Ca
(OH)2. Compared to the control group, the specimen containing zeolites
exhibited a substantial augmentation in the intensity of Ca(OH)2
diffraction peak, indicating that the water released by zeolites enhanced
rehydration reaction of unhydrated cement particles [26]. For speci­
mens containing CA, the diffraction peak intensity of the C-S-H phase
was higher, while that of the Ca(OH)2 peak was lower. This is due to the
reactive substance in CA reacting with Ca(OH)2 to produce more C-S-H
and consume Ca(OH)2, resulting in a lower peak intensity. For the
20Z4CA specimens, compared to those only containing CA, the peak
intensity of Ca(OH)2 was lower, while that of C-S-H significantly
increased. This is attributed to the internal curing effect of zeolites,
which promoted the activation reaction of CA, resulting in more C-S-H.
Combined with the RSM results, this confirms that CA is the main factor
promoting self-healing of cracks, and the addition of zeolites enhances
the self-healing effect of CA.
Fig. 15 reveals the mechanism of the effect of both on the crack
healing of mortar specimens after the addition of zeolite and CA. As
shown in Fig. 15 (a), for the control group, because of the unhydrated
cement particles near the cracks, when water from the external envi­
ronment comes into contact with unhydrated cement particles, a hy­
dration reaction occurs, producing hydration products, resulting in
partially filling the cracks. However, this process contributes slightly to
the healing effect of the cracks. When zeolites are introduced into the
cement matrix, as shown in Fig. 15 (b), the free water absorbed by the
zeolites is partially released, further promoting the hydration reaction of
the unhydrated cement particles in the matrix. Therefore, compared to
the control group, more hydration products, especially CH crystals, can
be observed in the crack area, confirming that internal curing has a
certain effect on the healing effect. When CA is introduced into the
cement matrix, as shown in Fig. 15 (c), the CA in the matrix undergoes
an activation reaction due to the presence of active silica, producing
more numbers of C-S-H gel, resulting in a better healing effect. When
both of zeolites and CA are added to the matrix, as shown in Fig. 15 (d),
the water released by the zeolites provides more water for the activation
reaction in the CA within the matrix, which produced more quantity and
denser structural layer of C-S-H gel, ultimately enhancing the healing
effect of the cracks.
16
Construction and Building Materials 409 (2023) 134015
6. Conclusions
This study analyzed the influence of various factors on self-healing
performance of mortar by altering the proportions of zeolites amount,
CA amount, and W/B. The three-dimensional response surface estab­
lished by RSM revealed the impact of the interaction among zeolites, CA,
and W/B on the UPV value, electrical resistivity, and self-healing rate of
the mortar. A quadratic regression model was developed using RSM and
multi-objective optimization was conducted using the Desirability
function. Lastly, the self-healing mechanism of mortar was elucidated
through microscopic analysis. The summary is as follows:
(1) A quadratic polynomial model with good fitting effect and high
predictive accuracy was
established. The comparison of the correlation coefficient and the
test value with predicted value indicates that the model has high accu­
racy and reliability in predicting the UPV value, electrical resistivity,
and self-healing rate of mortar.
(2) Using RSM, the mortar specimens were designed and the effects
of zeolites amount, CA amount, and W/B on crack healing rate, UPV
value, and electrical resistivity were analyzed. The results show that CA
has a significant effect on the healing outcome, with zeolites being a
secondary factor, and W/B having a negligible effect. The addition of
zeolites and CA both improve UPV value and electrical resistivity, but
zeolites introduce additional pores, causing early UPV value and elec­
trical resistivity to decrease. The degree of influence on crack healing is
CA > zeolites > W/B. Furthermore, the interaction between zeolites and
CA plays a leading role in mortar UPV, electrical resistivity, and self-
healing rate.
(3) The optimal mix ratio conducive to the most effective self-healing
effect was delineated utilizing multi-objective optimization via RSM.
Under optimal conditions, zeolites amount, CA amount, and W/B are 20
%, 4 %, and 0.45, respectively. Verification experiments show that the
error between the outcomes predicted by the model and those obtained
from the validation experiment is less than 10 %, confirming the accu­
racy and reliability of the established prediction model.
(4) The interaction between zeolites and CA plays a leading role in
UPV value, electrical resistivity, and self-healing rate. The results show
that adding zeolites leads to a reduction in early compressive and flex­
ural strength, but partial recovery can be achieved as curing time in­
creases. In contrast, CA significantly improves the compressive and
flexural strength. Under the combined action of zeolites and CA, the
specimens exhibit superior mechanical properties compared to those
with zeolites and CA alone.
(5) SEM and XRD analysis reveals that the addition of zeolites and CA
significantly changes the microstructure and crystal phase of the mortar.
H.-F. Li et al.
Zeolites improve the self-healing effect but lead to a decrease in me­
chanical properties. On the other hand, CA activation reaction produces
C-S-H gel, which is beneficial for enhancing crack healing. Especially
when zeolite is added to the cement mortar with internally mixed CA, as
the water released from zeolite can promote CA to produce more
quantity and denser structure of C-S-H ultimately enhancing the healing
ability of CA. According to the RSM results, the water provided by ze­
olites promotes the healing ability of CA, this function plays a pivotal
role in bolstering CA’s efficacy in crack self-healing.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hong-Feng Li: . Xiang Ma: Methodology, Data curation, Writing –
review & editing. Guang-Zhu Zhang: Conceptualization, Supervision,
Validation, Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition,
Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
This research was financially supported by the Analysis and Testing
Center of Northeast Forestry University; Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central Universities Science [No.2572022DX10].
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