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A comparative study of strength and durability characteristics of concrete and

mortar admixture by bacterial calcite precipitation: A review

Article in Materials Today Proceedings · April 2023

DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.490

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 Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

A comparative study of strength and durability characteristics of

concrete and mortar admixture by bacterial calcite precipitation: A
review
Jan Nisar Akhtar a,⇑, Rizwan Ahmad Khan b, Rehan Ahmad Khan b, Mohammad Nadeem Akhtar c,
Blessen S Thomas d
a
Civil Engineering Section, University Polytechnic, A.M.U, Aligarh, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Z. H College of Engg. &. Tech., A.M.U, Aligarh, India
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Fahad Bin Sultan University, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
d
Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Frequently used concrete is the second most used material after water worldwide, but it is vulnerable to
Available online xxxx cracks, leading to decreased durability and service life. Self-healing techniques, including natural pro-
cesses, polymers, carbonated steel slag, S.C.M.s, biological/chemical, bacteria direct/liquid, and immobi-
Keywords: lization/encapsulation, have been studied. The most recent technique is Microbially Induced Calcium
Bacteria Carbonate Precipitation (MICCP), which uses ureolytic bacteria of the bacillus family to heal or fill cavi-
Compressive strength ties, fissures, and cracks by precipitating CaCO3. Researchers aim to enhance self-healing efficiency in
U.P.V
mortar and concrete by non-pathogenic bacteria, such as B. Megaterium, Subtilis, Aerius, Sphericus,
S.E.M
E.D.S
Cereus, Pseudoforms, Shewanella, and Sporosarcina pasteurii. Previous studies found that 105 cells/ml
Self-healing was the most effective concentration for concrete, while mortar specimens interacted better with bacte-
ria at various cell concentrations. Bacterial concrete at 105 cells/ml exhibited improved microstructure
interaction and densification due to the formation of ‘‘C.S.H.” gel and a depletion in C.H. bond with con-
fined pore space. Consolidated bacteria produced a copious volume of minerals that could fill the cracks
in the concrete, as observed in SEM and EDS studies. XRD analysis confirmed the increase in calcite com-
position at the bacteria’s concentration level of 105 cells/ml in cement concrete specimens. Bacterial con-
crete at this concentration level has the potential for sustained and strong concrete properties.
Ó 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advances in Construction Materials and Structures.

1. Introduction
The usage of concrete is placed second after water, which is the
main ingredient in the construction industry used either in roads,
bridges, underwater, parking, and commercial or residential etc.;
in which the amount of usage has been globally extended up to
4.08 billion tons [1]. Due to concerns about energy saving and
CO2 emissions from the cement manufacturing process, the use
of supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) has increased sig-
nificantly as the concrete industry has grown was due to the pres-
ence of considerable amount of silica and alumina (Table 1) [2]. It
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jannisarakhtar1977@gmail.com (J. Nisar Akhtar).
is observed that concrete and mortar admixture stays open under
vulnerable environmental pressure and is tough to withstand
under tensile forces, so this is required to retain and preserve them
[3]. Microcracks are an integral characteristic, which is also present
in mortar admixture similar to conventional concrete. These
microcracks were moved to expand under the external loading
and chemical reactions; as a result, the unwanted species pene-
trated the concrete and mortar matrix, causing the structure’s
durability to diminish. It is challenging to resist cracks in any struc-
ture, but it can be controlled by enhancing the water tightness
[1,4]. It was observed that the decline process caused by reinforc-
ing corrosion and freeze–thaw action has an impact on the service
life of concrete structures. These fissures are normally difficult to
manage in concrete structures; however, controlled cracking can

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.490
2214-7853/Ó 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advances in Construction Materials and Structures.

Please cite this article as: J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al., A comparative study of strength and durability characteristics of concrete
and mortar admixture by bacterial calcite precipitation: A review, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.490
J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
Chemical analysis of O.P.C., F.A., Micro silica, and Metakaolin (Sharma & Khan, 2021) [2].

Composition O.P.C. Codal Provision Fly Ash (% age) Codal Provision Silica Fume (% age) Codal Provision Metakaolin (% age) Codal Provision
SiO2 20.99 19–25 57.60 40–65 94.63 60–90 59.10 50–60
Al2O3 5.98 3–8 30.50 10–25 1.20 0.5–1.1 38.10 25–40
Fe2O3 4.10 1–5 3.72 03–05 0.87 1–3.5 1.25 0.7–1.0
CaO 60.78 60–66 1.10 0.2–1.5 0.42 0.02–1.5 0.25 0.2–4.5
MgO 0.96 0–5 0.38 0.1–0.28 0.90 0.05–0.65 ——— 0.18–0.5
Na2O 0.86 0–1 0.10 0.0–0.03 0.32 0.11–0.6 0.06 0.01–0.2
K2O 1.18 0–1 1.35 0.2–1.0 0.19 0.5–1.75 0.07 0.12–0.7
SO3 2.86 1–3 0.22 0.0–0.25 0.22 0.0–0.5 0.10 0.1–0.7
TiO2 0.25 3–5 1.72 0.5–1.5 ———— 0–0.03 0.83 0.5–2.0
MnO ———— ———— ——— —————— ———— ——— 0.0–0.02
Loss of Ignition 2.04 1–5 3.30 0.0–0.5 1.25 0.5–4.0 0.24 0.5–3.0

be employed to meet water proximity criteria [4]. To overcome healing was evaluated with the help of compressive, flexural, and
these problem, one of the well-known property of concrete is over- tensile strength, including ultrasonic pulse velocity assessment.
looked. This feature is the practice of self-healing, which is sepa-
rated into two groups, Autogenous self-healing and Autonomous 1.1. Literature review significance
self-healing. Concrete is capable of sealing micro-cracks on its
own in an atmosphere with suitable humidity, in this process dam- It was observed that numerous kinds of research had been done
age to a structure is repaired by the recrystallization of calcite. In on the properties of standard concrete and mortar admixture [20–
presence of the above natural process, only the cracks of the lim- 22,56]. But still, the impact of innovative bio-techniques based on
ited width of 0–100 lm can be restored. In Autonomous healing, bacterial healing of concrete and mortar through precipitation has
some important healing agents are substitutes for enhanced heal- not been explored to characterize its impact on the mechanical
ing efficiency i.e., epoxy resins, super absorbent polymers, syn- properties so far. There has been limited work on concrete/mortar
thetic fillers, and sodium silicate solutions are normally admixture incorporating bacteria summarized by a flow chart
examined in concrete by different researchers as healing agents. (Fig. 1) [23-26]. This review focuses on the durability characteris-
however, these materials be used to initially seal the damage in tics of bacteria-treated concrete and mortar admixture in the pres-
concrete and mortar, but it is still expensive and requires addi- ence of different cementitious materials.
tional maintenance. So, the microbial treatments are recom-
mended for restoring surface cracks in concrete [5]. This is due to
the fact that they are non-toxic and do not contribute to pollution. 2. Self-healing process, along with the healing agent
Thus, it is required to use a natural and pollution-free agent to con-
trol such healing disasters in concrete and mortar admixture, for During the natural healing process, many factors are examined,
which bacteria can be used as a promising agent compared to including temperature, degree of damage, freeze–thaw cycles,
others [5,6]. Utilization of bio-concrete not just upgrades the ser- mortar state, and age of the concrete in the presence of cementi-
vice life; among them, but also cuts off the preservation cost, tious material (Fig. 2), whereas the process of artificially restoring
which consequently translates into the reduction of construction cracks and fissures was introduced in 1994 and presented as an
work. Bio-concrete also minimized the consumption of cement in
terms of partial replacement of cementitious materials regarding
the preservation of energy utilization [7]. Bacterial concrete and
mortar heal to an extent by their non-remittance property, which
is proportionate to the calcium carbonate precipitation or ceasing
the cracks by hydrating the cementitious particles [8-10]. As the
crack propagates in concrete and mortar structure, water takes
place, and further hydration reactions appear because of unhy-
drated cementitious material. This healing phenomenon is known
as the Microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation‘‘ (MICCP)
[11,12], in which the presence of water is inescapable for re-
generating the chemical reaction under unreacted particles of clin-
ker. In this process, damage to a structure is repaired by the recrys-
tallization of calcite. The primary mechanism is that free accessible
CO2 in the air, dissolved in H2O, reacts with Ca2+ in the concrete
matrix, forming CaCO3 crystals that strike and extend on the crack
surface. This development of CaCO3 assists in reducing width of the
crack and final restoration of the concrete structure [13-15]. Bacte-
rial mineral precipitation significantly lowers the seepage qualities
of damaged concrete and improves durability. It was also identify-
ing that depending upon the type (Pathogenic or non-pathogenic)
and use of bacteria, concrete and mortar structure can sustain a
highly alkaline environment. Because of that pathogenic or non-
pathogenic bacteria could retain themselves in acidic as well as
basic environments. [16]. Numerous kinds of research have been
done to screen the bacterial species which can cause maximum
healing in concrete under the domination of cementitious material
[17-20]. In presence of the above literature the proficiency of self- Fig. 1. Experimental Research Work (Rais and Khan, 2021).

2
J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

artificial self-healing process. In which the healing agent (adhe-

sive) is encapsulated into the microcapsule, it can be saved in short
fibre while sometimes in long tubes. As the crack is generated, it
starts to break the microcapsule by releasing the healing agent
and, as a result, healing the cracks. Another way of healing the
cracks is introduced by incorporating the bacteria as a self-
healing agent in concrete and mortar specimens. These bacteria-
based concrete and mortar admixtures imply a simple mechanism
to seal the open cracks, which involves a precursor like (Ca
(C3H5O2)2 within bacteria inserted directly into the water or left-
over in the microcapsule, which can be encapsulated or may be
immobilized in the admixture. Once a crack is generated, the pres-
Deposition of calcite in RAC matrix
ence of CO2 available in the air has been dissolved in H2O, reacting
by Ca2+ makes CaCO3 crystal (Fig. 3) wherever soluble minerals,
once secured liquefy in water, dissipate along with the crack sur-
face and it was found that the cracks were completely healed.
[27,28] Different approaches and techniques have been imple-
mented till now and are arranged in Table 2. At the same time,
the implementation of various bacteria is shown in Table 3.

3. Crack creation along with self-healing process

Different studies review that the initial cracks generated on the Bacterial Precipitates of CaCO3
surface of the specimen succeeded for 28 days of curing at 28, 56,
90, and 120 days of age. Available literature highlighted that the Fig. 3. Bacterial Precipitates (Rais and Khan, 2022; Rais and Khan, 2021).
initial width of cracks was observed generally to be 0.2 to
0.8 mm in range outside the face of the specimen. For the investi-
gation of self-healing, the cracked specimens saved for healing Table 2
Techniques*/ approach conserves for self-healing efficiency.
incubation were properly submerged at 27 ± 2 °C for a maximum
of 56 days [24]. The healing efficiency was determined by the S. Method Width along with Reference
amount of Ca, and this variation of calcium was discovered by No crack depth
the E.D.S. investigation, which is shown in Table 4. 1 Natural Observed up to 60 lm Parks et al. (2010) [29]
Progression* wide crack recovered
2 Polymer* Revealed the cavity of Snoeck et al, (2014)
4. Results and analysis 138 lm wide restored [30]
3 S.C.M.s * Possibility of fissures Huang et al. (2014)
below 200 lm wide to [31]
4.1. Compressive strength be filled
4 Carbonated steel The crack healed along Pang et al, (2016) [32]
The impact on compressive strength in the presence of bacteria slag a 5 mm length
is shown in Table 3, which directly shows that the incorporation of 5 Other, Biological/ Healed the crack Stuckrath et al, (2014)
Chemical * 0.22 mm wide [33]
Bacillus subtilis makes a better concrete matrix to upgrade the
6 Microencapsulation Crack with a depth of Mostavi et al, (2015)
35 mm filled [34]
7 Bacteria Direct use A crack with a depth of Achal et al. (2013) [35]
27.2 mm was healed
(a) OPC

8 Bacteria as (liquid Healed 0.8 mm crack Luo et al, (2015) [36]

30 ml) width
9 Bacteria Maximum healing of Wang et al, (2014)
Immobilization / crack width 0.970 mm Wang et al, (2014)
Encapsulation* wide was reported Qian et al, (2015) [37-
39]
(b) Fly ash

compressive strength by 12% at 2.8x108cfu/ml [42], which was

increased by 14.92% at 105cfu/ml of standard concrete [43]. In con-
trast, different bacteria sustain their highest compressive strength
(c) Silica

in which megaterium gets 24% [44], Bacillus aerius retains 11.8%

fume

[41], AKKR5 produced 10% [40], and Sporosarcina pasteurii devel-

oped the highest of 35% at 105cfu/ml in the concrete specimen
[20]. Besides this, Bacillus cereus showed a 38% enhancement in
(d) Metakaolin

strength with 105-107 cfu/ml [48]. At the same time, the lowest
concentration of 104cfu/ml highlighted the increase in the strength
of 25% in cement mortar [45,46]. The presence of Ca(OH)2 carbon-
ation caused by mineral admixture increased the compressive
strength of concrete and mortar admixture. The slight increase in
strength observed in the natural process was due to the presence
Fig. 2. S.E.M. images of supplementary material (Sharma and Khan, 2021). of bacteria. The strength was further increased due to the continu-
3
J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3
Implementation of bacteria and strength parameters.

S. Bacteria classification Finest outcomes Bacteria Reference

No
1 AKKR5 Bacteria spores are of AKKR5, sufficient to enhance the strength by 10% compared to the 105cfu/ml Siddique et al, 2016 [40]
nominal mix.
5
2 B.Aerius The presence of Bacillus Aerius retains 11.8% strength compared to the strength achieved 10 cfu/ml Siddique et al, 2016 [41]
by the concrete incorporated by 10% R.H.A.
3 B.subtilis Lighter-weight aggregate concrete gets 12% more strength compared to the nominal mix 2.80  108 Khaliq and Ehsan, 2016 [42]
cfu/ml
Up gradation of 14.92% in compressive strength at 28 days was observed with a better 105cfu/ml Rao et al., 2013 [43]
acid attack factor
5
4 B. megaterium Higher grade concrete, i.e., 50 Mpa, achieved a rate of increase in strength was 24% 30 x10 Andalib et al, 2016 [44]
cfu/ml
5 Shewanella Species Shewanella species work out on compressive strength of mortar admixture achieved 25% 104cfu/ml Siddique et al, 2011 Ghosh
enhancement in strength compared to the control mix and Mandal 2005 [45,46]
6 Sporosarcina pasteurii Pasteurii gets the highest strength of 35% compared to the nominal mix 105 cfu/ml Chahal et al, 2012 [20]
Strength and durability performed better under the action of phosphate buffer solution NA Ramakrishnan et al, 2005
[47]
7. B.cereus The presence of bacteria highlighted the compressive strength up to 38% with the 105- Maheshwaran et al., 2014
observation of high chloride penetration resistance 107cfu/ml [48]
8 B.sphericus The healing efficiency associated with strength and durability was assessedin reference 105- Akhtar et al, 2020, Gavimath
to a higher concentration of precipitation of CaCO3 108cfu/ml et al, 2012 [19,49]
9 B.Pseudoforms Pseudoforms react as a self-healing agent without any change in their strength 109 cfu/ml Jonkers, 2007 [50]
10 B. flexus Bacillus flexus shows comparative results in terms of strength and durability NA Jagadeesha et al, 2013 [51]

*B. Refer to Bacillus.

Table 4
Elements under E.D.S. investigation for Recycle concrete with and without bacteria. (Rais and Khan, 2021).

Elements Ro R50 R100 BR50 BR100

Weight % age Atomic % age Weight % age Atomic % age Weight % age Atomic % age Weight % age Atomic % age Weight % age Atomic
% age
O 52.9 79.0 52.5 73.3 54.1 78.1 58.0 66.9 57.9 65.0
Ca 19.2 12.8 18.7 11.8 17.8 11.4 29.5 15.1 26.8 14.9
Si 10.6 4.9 18.8 9.6 9.4 5.3 4.3 4.7 4.2 4.6
K 4.3 0.5 2.4 1.3 3.9 0.9 NA NA NA NA
Mn 4.2 0.46 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Al 3.5 1.2 3.1 2.4 4.4 1.78 1.9 2.2 1.6 1.9
Mg 2.7 0.57 1.1 0.9 3.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 NA NA
Fe 2.6 0.6 3.3 0.7 4.0 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.3
Na NA NA NA NA 3.36 1.19 NA NA NA NA
C NA NA NA NA NA NA 3.9 8.5 7.6 12.7
S NA NA NA NA NA NA 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.8

* Letter R represents Recycle concrete, and B.R. indicates Bacteria Recycle concrete.

ous hydration of unhydrated cementitious particles, resulting in
filling the pores and cavities of the concrete and mortar matrix.
The maximum strength enhancement was 35% at 105cfu/ml [20]
in concrete specimen and 25% at 104cfu/ml in mortar specimen
[45,46], which may be encouraged in the strong bonding of the
concrete/mortar matrix because the un-reacted Ca(OH)2 that
remains in adhered mortar improves carbonation rate. In conclu-
sion, bacterial precipitation quickly restores the carbonation rate,
as shown in Fig. 3.
4.2. Flexural and tensile strength variation along with water
absorption
The flexural strength of concrete measures the tensile strength
to resist failure in bending. Through previous literature, the flexu-
ral strength development of concrete was observed with and with-
out bacteria, was recorded as 5.96 MPa and 5.08 MPa, showing an
increase of 17% in their strength [52,53]. When bacterial concrete
was used under a blended cement specimen the strength was
recorded as 7.63 Mpa [54]. This strength further continued to
8.6 MPa shows an increase of 40.98% when the bacterial concrete
was fused with 0.4% polyethylene fiber [55]. These mixes enhanced
the strength because of the presence of precipitated CaCO3. In par-
4
allel, the mechanical properties of concrete regarding tensile
strength have been evaluated to ensure the resisting power of
the material. The tensile strength development in concrete assures
the presence of bacterial activity not only in a fresh state but also
in a hardened state, and this was verified by incorporating bacteria
in conventional concrete to trigger the value of 6.3 MPa, as an
increase of 16% in strength [52]. While the incorporation of 0.4%
polyethylene fiber further raised the strength to 2.5 Mpa, an
enhancement of 78.57% was achieved in the presence of bacteria
[55]. This further points out that bacterial activity re-generates
the carbonation rate perceived at a given age. The property of a
material by virtue of which it can retain the amount of water itself
is also known as water absorption. Separately, fly ash, silica fume,
and Metakaolin reduces water absorption (Table 1), whereas the
calcite discharged through bacteria-filled microcracks enhances
the watertight character of the matrix, resulting in a decline in
water absorption. It was observed that bacterial concrete reduces
the water absorption from 1.26% to 0.23% cured for 28 days, while
the addition of bacteria in recycled aggregate activates the matrix
at a glance, recorded a reduction of 13.5% in the presence of micro
silica, and 9.5% in Metakaolin [25]. The degradation of water
absorption value in bacteria-treated M.S. and MK-based concrete
and mortar admixture is because of more fineness through
J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Metakaolin, and F.A. makes the matrix denser due to the carbona- gate concrete was assessed to be higher in the presence of bacteria
tion of calcium hydro-oxide [21,25]. compared to nominal concrete or blended cement concrete
[21,23,24]. The reason behind this was that the R.C.A. was finally
a porous material, and this property of material safeguards the bac-
4.3. Damage level vs. self-healing ratio
teria; ultimately, the bacteria become free from an anaesthetics
alkaline environment. While this technique has superior self-
Ultrasonic pulse velocity may spontaneously discrete the profi-
healing efficiency, which is correlated with damage level, as the
ciency of self-healing attained through movement by bacteria
damage level increases, so do the healing effect. This could be proof
within concrete. The damage level, as well as the healing ratio,
because the mechanism of bacteria will activate when it comes in
has been demonstrated through UPV values, which gives a slight
contact with cracks within the damage level in the appearance of
comparison between different types of concrete mixes (Fig. 4).
oxygen or moisture, originating the precipitation of CaCO3
Through investigation of natural and recycled aggregate concrete,
(Fig. 3). On the other hand, the crack was healed by precipitation
it was found that an impressive effect was achieved by a 50% addi-
caused by their metabolic activity [25]. The relation between dam-
tion of R.C.A [23] in damage level because the higher percentage
age level and healing ratio was more authentic and justified by the
(100%) of R.C.A. shows in-built fissures and cracks, making it con-
result. As the damage level increased, frequent microcracks devel-
sequently possible to have an additional density of microcracks
oped in the matrix expanded. For this, much more bacteria
enhanced throughout the damage process. UPV acknowledges the
reformed to precipitate and generate calcite of calcium carbonate
cavity present in the matrix and a continuous sinking, demonstrat-
to the enhanced self-healing ratio of concrete.
ing the appearance of cracks [24,25]. This is not the only way of
dropping UPV. values; other properties like Poisson ratio, fracture
4.4. Strength regains ratio
toughness, modulus of elasticity, etc., are also responsible for
decreased UPV values of concrete when the amount of R.C.A.
The recovery in compressive strength is expressed by the ratio
increases. At the same time, this effect of damage level was man-
of the healing strength of the compressive strength of uncracked
aged by incorporating micro silica, and was further improved in
strength as a percentage. The gain in strength or healing capacity
the presence of Metakaolin Fig. 4(a) [24,25]. The recovery of the
of the damaged concrete structure directly depends upon the fill-
matrix was better because micro silica, Metakaolin, and bacterial
ing or packing capacity of cracks and fissures from the source of
calcite deposition all worked well as fillers. Furthermore, the heal-
bacterial precipitation and interlocking of the concrete matrix
ing effect shows a pattern of increase in properties based on the
(Fig. 5). Recycled aggregate concrete under the influence of bacte-
viability of the bacteria in the concrete matrix Fig. 4. In light of
ria was more sound [24,25] compared to other concrete mixes
the foregoing studies, the healing efficiency of pure recycled aggre-
(Fig. 5 a). The carbonation of Ca(OH)2 during bacterial activity
was the primary cause, which resulted in magnification during
the self-healing process. But this phenomenon was not observed
in the agglomeration of micro silica and Metakaolin in the recycled
concrete mix, it is visible in Fig. 5(a), where Ca(OH)2 is consumed
(a) 28 days

during pozzolanic activity [21]. That’s why the healing capacity

was observed more in damaged concrete, where the viability of
bacteria is greater. Hence, due to the packing of cavities and cracks
through precipitation and simultaneously interlocking of the con-
crete matrix, strength was again increased back (Fig. 5 b) after
completing the healing incubation period of 56 days [24,25].

4.5. SEM with EDS analysis

Damage Level and Healing Ratio
The structural morphology was identified through the instru-
mental analysis technique to study the microstructural behavior
(b) 56 days

and performance of the matrix. With SEM., it was possible to pre-

dict the precipitation of CaCO3, the reaction product, the formation
of CSH gel, the identification of calcite, and a rich form of gypsum
in concrete (Fig. 6). With EDS., it was possible to predict the chem-
ical classification (Fig. 7). Through deep investigation of the nomi-
nal mix, recycled aggregate concrete, and concrete incorporating
blended cement, bacteria developed calcite crystals with a rhom-
Damage Level and Healing Ratio bohedral shape (i.e., a crystal having three axes of equal length
not intersecting at the right angle) and a crystal of laminar struc-
ture directly shows a well-defined interlocking of the matrix in
bacterial recycled aggregate concrete in the presence of micro sil-
(c) 120 days

ica (Fig. 6f) [24,53,54]. In contrast, precipitation, like a plated

shape, with CSH gel, was present in pure recycled aggregate con-
crete (Fig. 6e) [24,25].
Crystals wrapped in CSH. gel, and of the spindle shape were
found in recycled aggregate concrete in the presence of Metakaolin
Fig. 6 (h-i) [23]. The resultant outcomes show nucleation sites
Damage Level and Healing Ratio throughout calcite evolution. The forming microstructure of the
bacteria-treated recycled aggregate with and without MS & MK-
Fig. 4. Damage Level & healing effect of R.C.A. at different proportions (Rais and based concrete mix was denser [22,23], showing a better interac-
Khan, 2021). tion between the aggregate and cementitious particles due to min-
5
J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al.
(a) 28 days
Strength regain ratio
(b) 56 days
Strength regain ratio
(c) 120 days
Strength regains ratio
Fig. 5. Regain in strength investigation of R.C.A. at different proportions (Rais and
Khan, 2021).
eralization by bacteria (Fig. 7), revealed the element investigations
of bacterial recycled aggregate with and without MS & M.K. based
concrete of enormous precipitation, were O, C, and Ca (Table 4).
Which highlighted the presence of CaCO3 crystal as a healing pro-
duct, some of them, such as Si, Mg, Al, Fe, and S, were in lower per-
centages, which directly represents the hydration products in CSH.
gel, formation (Fig. 6). Table 4 shows that the increased percentage
of Ca was due to the presence of CaCO3 crystals (Fig. 3) that were
established through bacterial precipitation continuity in terms of
carbonation of Ca(OH)2 within the concrete matrix. [24,25].
5. Conclusions
The following important points have been evaluated in the pre-
vious studies on the durability properties of standard and recycled
aggregate with M.S. & M.K.- deploy concrete with and without
bacteria.
 Sporosarcina pasteurii and Bacillus megaterium contribute sig-
nificantly to the strength of mortar admixture, conventional
concrete, and recycled concrete, either alone or in combination
with micro silica and Metakaolin. The enhancement in proper-
ties attributed to concrete strengthening was achieved by the
collective action of filling the fissures and cavities with micro
silica and Metakaolin in the presence of bacterial CaCO3
precipitation.
 CaCO3 re-precipitation on the surface of cavities and cracks
caused by bacteria makes the matrix denser, as shown by the
CSH gel in the SEM investigation. This effect of absorption in
the property of recycled aggregate allowed a decrease in the
water absorption value.
6
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
(a) Nominal Mix (b) 50% R.C.A.
(c) 100% R.C.A. (d) 50% R.C.A. with Bacteria
(e) 100% R.C.A. with (f) 50% R.C.A. with Bacteria
Bacteria and micro silica
(g) 100% R.C.A. with Bacteria (h) 50% R.C.A. with Bacteria
and micro silica and Metakaolin
(i) 100% R.C.A. with Bacteria and Metakaolin
Fig. 6. S.E.M. analysis of recycled aggregate concrete at different proportions (Rais
and Khan, 2021).
 Evidence of upgrade in flexibility was perceived under calcite
crystal emergence in normal, blended cement-based and poly-
ethylene fiber concrete with and without bacteria, indicating
the hydration of unhydrated cementitious particles is still alive
in the presence of calcite precipitation at fresh as well as at later
ages.
 Consistently, the evolution of CaCO3 and the internal filling of
micropores in later ages was in accordance with the availability
of CO2 in the water environment, ensuring the enhanced resis-
tive power of the concrete mix exhibited the recovery in
mechanical properties in terms of its tensile strength.
 Bacteriologically treated micro silica-based recycled aggregate
concrete achieved the most comprehensive crack that filled
the width of 0.63 mm to ensure healing efficiency in Ca(OH)2.
Refinement in healing efficiency was not seen in regular con-
crete without bacteria. Still, while the concrete integrated with
bacteria, a positive approach was sighted to overcome the defi-
ciency of the standard concrete matrix. Also bacteria-treated
pure recycled aggregate concrete reduces healing efficiency,
this is overcome by incorporating micro silica at a 50% R.C.A.
J. Nisar Akhtar, R. Ahmad Khan, R. Ahmad Khan et al.
(a) Nominal Mix (b) 50% R.C.A.
(c) 100% R.C.A. (d) 50% R.C.A. with Bacteria
(e) 100% R.C.A. with Bacteria (f) 50% R.C.A. with Bacteria
and micro silica
(g) 100% R.C.A. with Bacteria (h) 50% R.C.A. with Bacteria
and micro silica and Metakaolin
(i) 100% R.C.A. with Bacteria and Metakaolin
Fig. 7. E.D.S. investigation of recycled aggregate concrete at different proportions
(Rais and Khan, 2021).
reduction. While the combination of 50% recycled aggregate
alone and with micro silica sustains 100% healing efficiency in
the presence of bacteria. In continuation, bacterial concrete
based on pure recycled aggregate in the presence of micro silica
and Metakaolin overcomes all deficiencies by getting 100% self-
healing properties. As a result, it was observed that crack heal-
ing efficiency with the increase in recovery of concrete proper-
ties was directly dependent on the viability of bacteria
preserved for an extended period in an elevated alkaline
environment.
 SEM with EDS analysis reveals the modulating properties of
microstructural concrete influenced by the bacterially formed
calcite crystal, which was responsible for extending durability
properties. Assessment of SEM with EDS has revealed that pro-
longed precipitation was the formation of a crystal of CaCO3,
which is accountable evolution of the self-healing phenomenon
in mortar admixture. The above investigation was found to be
not only durable for the long term but also showed an expense
reduction in their maintenance and renovation work. Also, a
forward step in energy saving with CO2 emission reduction.
7
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jan Nisar Akhtar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing, Investigation. Rizwan
Ahmad Khan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writ-
ing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Rehan Ahmad
Khan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing. Mohammad Nadeem
Akhtar: Writing – review & editing. Blessen S Thomas: Writing
– review & editing.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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