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 Cite this article Research Article Keywords: environmental engineering/
da Silva Trentin AW, Braun AB, Visentin C, Thomé A and Reddy KR Paper 1900037 pollution/sustainable development
Methodology for quantifying the social sustainability index for environmental projects. Received 15/02/2019; Accepted 19/11/2019
Environmental Geotechnics,
https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.19.00037 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Environmental Geotechnics

Methodology for quantifying the social

sustainability index for environmental projects
Adan William da Silva Trentin MSc Antonio Thomé PhD
Doctoral student, Graduate Programme of Civil and Environmental Professor, Graduate Programme of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Engineering, University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil (corresponding University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil
author: 91521@upf.br) (Orcid:0000-0001-8812-000) (Orcid:0000-0002-1247-7434)
Adeli Beatriz Braun MSc Krishna R. Reddy PhD
Doctoral student, Graduate Programme of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of
University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil (Orcid:0000-0002-2614-2547) Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA (Orcid:0000-0002-6577-1151)
Caroline Visentin MSc
Doctoral student, Graduate Programme of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil
(Orcid:0000-0001-5035-9060)

Currently, there is a growing interest among professionals in recognising the concepts of sustainability in the decision-
making of environmental remediation projects, a practice called sustainable remediation. The social aspect of sustainable
remediation is one of the most integral parts of triple-bottom-line sustainability. Currently, there are not many
methodologies available for the evaluation of social impacts for environmental remediation. The objective of this study is
to present a quantitative methodology for determining the social sustainability index for environmental remediation
projects. In this study, the methodology was applied to evaluate the sustainability of four potential remediation options
to remediate sediments contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls and pesticides, at a site located in Iowa, USA. The
remediation options included monitored natural attenuation, dredging of contaminated sediments, conventional capping
and modified cap employing a reactive core mat. The results obtained allow the quantitative identification of the social
sustainability index for each potential remediation option, and the best option from social considerations was identified
to be a modified cap employing a reactive core mat, with a social sustainability index of 0·26, and the least preferred
option was monitored natural attenuation, with a social sustainability index of 0·07.

Notation with site clean-up (Yasukada et al., 2016). While site remediation
Vcr value of the criterion is aimed at reducing risks to humans and ecosystems, the energy-
Vfinal final value for the requirement intensive activities and processes involved in remediation
Vind value of the indicator themselves may induce secondary negative impacts to the
Vreq value of the requirement environment and society (Harclerode et al., 2013; Reddy et al.,
Wcr weightage assigned to the criterion 2014; Sparrevik et al., 2011).
Wind weightage assigned to the indicator
Wreq weightage for the requirement A number of strategies and programmes have been developed that
take a more holistic view on remediation in order to provide
Introduction for a more sustainable remediation: the Contaminated Land:
Globally, more attention has been paid to the problem of Rehabilitation Network for Environmental Technologies (Clarinet,
contamination sites in the past few decades. Several contaminated 2002), the Green Remediation programme by the USEPA
sites have been identified in different countries and the risks (2008), the Report of the NICOLE Workshop (Nicole, 2009), the
associated with such contaminations are large. In Europe, there Sustainable Remediation Forum UK (Surf-UK, 2010, 2011), the
are more than 2·5 million potentially contaminated sites (Van Network for Industrially Contaminated Land in Europe (Nicole,
Liedekerke et al., 2014). The US Environmental Protection 2010) and the standard by the International Organization for
Agency (USEPA) has estimated several tens of thousands of Standardization (ISO, 2017). Many countries have established
contaminated sites in the USA (Reddy and Adams, 2015). The sustainable remediation networks that are linked to a central
global market for environmental remediation technologies international platform, the International Sustainable Remediation
reached US$65·2 billion in 2016. This market is estimated to Alliance (Bardos et al., 2018).
reach nearly US$82·7 billion in 2022 from US$67·8 billion in
2017 (Boots, 2017). With sustainable management practices gaining more importance,
the decision-making process is becoming more rational. The
The impacts of contaminated sites on both human health and concept of sustainable remediation has been increasingly
ecosystems have attracted considerable attention. Risks come not incorporated into the decision-making process (Reddy and
only from the sites but also from remediation activities associated Adams, 2015). Sustainable remediation is based on assessment of

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 Environmental Geotechnics Methodology for quantifying the social
sustainability index for environmental
projects
da Silva Trentin, Braun, Visentin, Thomé and Reddy

most remediation factors and process indicators and management Methodology

of the potential risks to humans and environmental health by
Social sustainability
identifying social, economic and environmental benefits and
The proposed assessment methodology uses a multicriteria
impacts of remediation alternatives and searching the overall
evaluation method called Mives. The assessment methodology was
benefit by means of the decision-making process (Chai and Lha,
based on social criteria and indicators, to evaluate the social
2018; Clarinet, 2002).
dimensions of sustainability in contaminated site remediation. The
social criteria used were listed in the Social Sustainability
The remediation of contaminated sites is often based on an
Evaluation Matrix (SSEM) (Reddy et al., 2014). Social indicators
assessment of the human and ecological risks involved, which are
were chosen from those by Contaminated Land: Applications in
determined using frameworks for selecting the best-suited
Real Environments (CL:AIRE, 2011), Naval Facilities Engineering
management (Zheng et al., 2019). Several approaches, guidelines
Command (Navfac, 2013), Hou et al. (2014), SSEM (Reddy et al.,
and case studies exist that focus on the inclusion of sustainability
2014) and Harclerode et al. (2015). The four major areas of social
principles into the decision-making of remedial actions for
aspects (socio-individual, socio-community, socio-economic and
contaminated sites.
socio-environmental) were further divided into subcategories.
Twenty-two indicators were chosen (as shown in Table 1),
A critical review was performed by Huysegoms and Cappuyns
following the proposed conditions by Reyes et al. (2014).
(2017) that analysed how the decision support tools evaluate the
sustainability of different remedial alternatives for contaminated
■ Accurate. The indicator should contain the minimum of
site remediation. Thirteen tools were analysed and the conclusions
uncertainty and be clearly described, focusing on a specific
presented by the authors identified several imbalances in the
aspect.
sustainability assessment method. There were inconsistencies in
the assessment of environmental, economic and social aspects,
favouring the environmental aspect more than the other two
Table 1. Social sustainability assessment indicators
aspects. According to Hou et al. (2018), sustainability assessment
methods typically encompass the triple-bottom-line aspects but Criterion Indicators
with a prime focus on the secondary environmental impacts, Socio-individual Overall health and happiness
which are not always quantitatively assessed in traditional Income-generating activities
decision-making tools. The most recently developed tools have Contaminant exposure (trespasser, worker)
Accident risk-injury
been addressing the issue with the inclusion of social aspects in
Recreational activity
sustainability assessment (Hou et al., 2018; Rosén et al., 2015; Socio-community Appropriateness of future land use with
Søndergaard et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2019). respect to the community environment
Enhancement of commercial/income-
The social aspect is one of the most integral parts of the triple- generating land uses
Enhancement of recreational facilities
bottom-line sustainability. Currently, there are not many
Degree of ‘grass-roots’ community outreach
methodologies available for the quantitative evaluation of social and involvement
aspects for environmental remediation. A social sustainability Time for completion of remediation and
assessment model based on value theory and multi-attribute opening of the park to the public
assumptions was used in the current investigation and Degree of improvement in aesthetic value
Socio-economic Economic impacts of the project on the
implemented using the Integrated Value Model for Sustainable
community
Assessment (Mives) (Pons et al., 2016). Damage to property
Effect on tourism
Mives is a multicriteria decision-making tool that has already Disruption of businesses and local economy
been presented to the scientific community and originally applied during construction/remediation
Employment opportunities during
to assess sustainability in construction and is currently applied in
construction/remediation
different fields: selection of urban pervious pavements, assessment Impact on fishing activities
of the environmental impact of industrial buildings and the Socio-environmental Impact on aquatic habitats
sustainability of concrete structures, rehabilitation of heritage sites Degree of consumption of natural resources
and sustainability assessment of urban agriculture in compact Degree to which the proposed project will
affect other media (i.e. emissions/air
cities (Aguado et al., 2012; Damians et al., 2018; Pons and
pollution resulting from soil or
Aguado 2012; San-José and Cuadrado 2010). groundwater remediation)
Effects of anthropogenic contaminants at
The main objective of this paper is to describe a quantitative ‘chronic’ concentrations
assessment methodology for determining social sustainability and Effects of anthropogenic contaminants at
‘acute’ concentrations
preferred remediation technology considering the social aspects.

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 Environmental Geotechnics Methodology for quantifying the social
sustainability index for environmental
projects
da Silva Trentin, Braun, Visentin, Thomé and Reddy

■ Traceable/auditable. Monitoring of steps taken to arrive at
measurements should be sufficient to ensure comparability of
data in the future.
■ Scientifically valid. The indicator should be based on a sound
scientific knowledge of the system that is described, and its
attributes and meanings must be well founded.
■ Clarity. The indicator should be simple and direct; its meaning
must be easy to understand, even for non-specialists who can
use it.
the Kenwood Ditch Outfall. The Kenwood Ditch Outfall is a 19 foot
(ft) by 10 ft (5·79 m by 3·05 m) box culvert that discharges into
South Lake during storm events. This sewer serves a drainage basin
comprising approximately 6 square miles (15·5 km2) of Cedar
Rapids, including residential and commercial areas.
The geology of the site consists primarily of quiet-water
sediments within North Lake. South Lake is dominated by the

After criteria and indicators were defined, an online survey was Indicator Criterion Requirement Mives
level level level score
developed on the Google Forms platform. This survey was sent
to several professionals from the industry and consulting Social Social Social
Social sustainability
companies and those who had taken graduate-level courses who indicator criteria
index
were knowledgeable about environmental remediation and
sustainability. This survey was sent along with an explanation of Indicator
value
the site to be remedied and the four remediation options being
considered. Each remediation option was rated on a scale of 1–4 Weighting Weighting Weighting
(1 being the best and 4 the worst) for each indicator that best indicators (Wind) criteria (Wcr) requirement (Wreq)
describes the impacts of remediation activity at the individual,
Value function
community, economic and environmental levels. After the rating (Vind)
of indicators (scale from 1 to 4), a final rating score was generated
based on the average score of respondents. To obtain a total score Vcr = Σ1i=1 Vind × Wind
for each remedial option, the scores were summed.
Vreq = Σmj=1 Vcr × Wcr

Using the survey results, the value function for each social indicator
Vfinal = Σmj=1 Vreq × Wreq
was determined according to the paper by Alarcon et al. (2011).
Using the raw score obtained for each social indicator into the value
function resulted in a value between 0 and 1 (Vind) for each indicator. Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the Mives methodology for
evaluating the social sustainability index
Next, the values of Vind were multiplied by values of the weightages
assigned to the indicators (Wind) and the products were summed to
obtain the value of the criterion (Vcr). Then, the values of Vcr and
values of weightages assigned to criteria (Wcr) were multiplied to
obtain the value of the requirement (Vreq). The value of the 380

requirement was further multiplied with the corresponding weightage

for the requirement (Wreq) to obtain the final value for the Cedar River

requirement (Vfinal). Finally, the value of the social sustainability 151

index for a remedial option was obtained by summing Vfinal under

each requirement. The social sustainability of the four remediation
options was assessed with the help of the Mives methodology, which 13

uses multi-attribute analysis (Figure 1). Cedar Lake Cedar Rapids, Iowa

Case study
Site description
Cedar Lake is an approximately 150 acre (60·7 ha) lake located just 380

north of downtown Cedar Rapids in Iowa (USA). The site location is 151
30

presented in Figure 2. Cedar Lake is divided into two main sections

30
roughly bisected by a railroad causeway. The portion north of the
causeway includes North Lake, whose size is approximately 80 acres
(32·4 ha), and West Lake, whose size is approximately 10 acres
(4·05 ha). The portion south of the causeway includes South Lake,
whose size is approximately 60 acres (24·3 ha).

Cedar Lake is currently fed from three sources: a small creek called Figure 2. Diagram of site location
McLoud Run, treated cooling water from Cargill Incorporated and

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 Environmental Geotechnics
delta deposit near the Kenwood Ditch Outfall, which consists of
coarser-grained sand and gravel deposits near the outfall, which
grade finer with distance.
Currently, Cedar Lake, and specifically North Lake, is used by the
public for fishing and paddling sports. There is a walking path
that borders North Lake, and several park benches and
recreational areas are located by the lake. Because of the
industrial sites and railroad lines along the south shore, access to
South Lake is more restricted.
Risk assessment
Currently, there are no established risk levels for sediments within
the Iowa Brownfield Assessment programme. In lieu of official
standards, samples were compared with the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (Noaa) Probable Effects
Concentration (PEC), Noaa Threshold Effects Concentration
(TEC) and the USEPA Region III Sediment Benchmarks. The
USEPA benchmarks were generally equivalent to the TEC and
only the PEC and TEC will be discussed in further detail. The
TEC is the concentration at which a negative environmental or
ecological impact may be observed, while the PEC is the
concentration at which a negative environmental or ecological
impact is likely to be observed. For the risk assessment, the PEC
was used as the screening level for defining the areas that require
remediation.
Multiple samples located within South Lake by the Kenwood
Ditch Outfall exceeded the PEC for either pesticides or
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The final area was determined
by using the halfway rule. Half the distance between a sample
exceeding the PEC and a sample below the PEC was determined
to be the edge of remediation. A total of 90 000 ft2 (0·836 ha) of
sediment exceeded the PEC for at least one contaminant of
concern and will require further remediation.
Remedial option evaluation
Four remediation technologies were found feasible and considered
for assessment: monitored natural attenuation (MNA), dredging of
contaminated sediments, conventional capping and a modified cap
employing a reactive core mat. The technology choice considered
the characteristics of the contaminants and contaminated site.
ALTERNATIVE 1: MNA
The MNA assumes that contaminant remediation will occur through
natural processes, including the degradation of contaminants through
microbial activity, as well as the natural burial of contaminated
sediments. Studies in the area have shown a decrease in contaminant
concentrations, indicating that natural attenuation is occurring in the
lake and will probably continue to occur.
Studies have indicated that the sediment deposition rate in the
lake is 1·5 cm/year. The benthic zone (ranging from the top
2 inches (5·08 cm) to the top 12 inches (30·5 cm)) should have
contaminant concentrations below the PEC for the protection of
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Methodology for quantifying the social
sustainability index for environmental
projects
da Silva Trentin, Braun, Visentin, Thomé and Reddy
human health and the environment. Taking this into account and
assuming that there are no other degradation processes occurring,
it is estimated that in 20 years the contaminated sediments would
be sufficiently buried. Therefore, a monitoring programme should
be in place during this period.
ALTERNATIVE 2: DREDGING OF CONTAMINATED SEDIMENTS
To determine the total volume of material to be dredged, it was
defined that there would be more probabilities of the occurrence
of deeper PCBs in site. This determination took into account the
initial year of use of PCBs (1929) and chlorinated pesticides
(1940).
Assuming a deposition rate of 1·5 cm/year over 89 years
(1929–2018), approximately 135 cm (4·5 ft) of sediment was
deposited in South Lake since the introduction of PCBs. A
conservative thickness of 5 ft (1·52 m) was used for the dredging
project. A total volume of 450 000 ft3 (12·7 Ml) will need to be
removed from the target area (90 000 ft2 (0·836 ha) × 5 ft (1·52 m)
thick), assuming a sediment density of 169 pounds (lb)/ft3
(2710 kg/m3), a total of 38 025 t will be dredged and require disposal
landfill. It was considered a landfill located 50 kilometres of the
place, being transported by trucks of 20 t. Taking into account the
number of trucks (ten trucks) and the number of trips of each truck
per day (four trips), the remediation would be complete in 48 d.
ALTERNATIVE 3: CONVENTIONAL CAPPING
Conventional caps can be used to isolate sediments physically
from the water column and prevent suspension and sediment
transport while also isolating the impacted sediments from local
biota. These caps have been used at many sites and are typically
constructed of sand, gravel or other aggregate (NJDEP, 2014).
Due to the location of the target area on a delta that experiences
periodic high flows, an armoured cap will need to be installed at
this location, particularly in the area directly adjacent to the
Kenwood Ditch Outfall. This armouring consists of a 4 inch
(0·102 m) layer of angular stones ranging in size from 3 to
4 inches (0·0762 to 0·102 m) (riprap). The target area is located
near shore and has shallow water depths, so sediments can be
placed with the use of a backhoe from shore and a barge is not
required. All cap materials can be sourced from a quarry located
approximately 12 miles (19·3 km) from Cedar Lake.
Since 195 500 ft3 (5·54 Ml) of sediment is being introduced into
South Lake, this same storage volume must be removed from a
different portion of the lake. Since North Lake has previously had
contaminants of concern above action levels, but it is known that
the top 2 ft (0·610 m) are below risk levels based on the 2016
study, 1 ft (0·305 m) of sediment will be removed across
195 500 ft2 (5·54 Ml) of North Lake in order to maintain a 1 ft
(0·305 m) clean benthic zone for the protection of human health
and the environment in North Lake. The sediments in North Lake
are generally finer-grained silts and clays and are therefore not
suitable for use in the cap. These sediments must therefore be
 Environmental Geotechnics Methodology for quantifying the social
sustainability index for environmental
projects
da Silva Trentin, Braun, Visentin, Thomé and Reddy

disposed of or reused at a different site. For the purposes of this
evaluation, the sediments to be dredged to maintain the storage
volume will also be disposed of as special waste due to the
potential of historic contamination.
ALTERNATIVE 4: MODIFIED CAP EMPLOYING A REACTIVE CORE MAT
The modified cap is similar in design to the conventional cap;
however, a reactive core mat consisting of granular activated carbon
in between two pieces of geotextile fabric would be placed directly
overlying the contaminated sediment. The reactive core mat contains
0·4 lb/ft2 (1·95 kg/m2) of granular activated carbon that acts to adsorb
any potential contamination, thereby limiting the exposure risk due to
ebullition and bioturbation. Directly overlying the 0·5 inch (12·7 mm)
thick reactive core mat would be 12 inches (0·305 m) of sand to act
as the benthic zone for aquatic organisms. Since the granular
activated carbon limits potential contamination from going through
the sand, the overlying gravel is not needed and only the riprap for
high flow armour will be placed.
excavated to account for the addition of sediment in South Lake. A
total volume of 123 750 ft3 (3·50 Ml) of sediment is being added to
South Lake. Therefore, a 1 ft (0·305 m) thickness will be removed
across 123 750 ft3 (3·50 Ml) of North Lake and disposed of as
special waste due to the potential of historic contamination.
Results and discussion
The social impacts were assessed based on the responses obtained
through an online survey. The overall score based on the
summation of the survey results is summarised in Table 2. A
lower score means a lesser negative impact. Among the four
remediation options, MNA received the highest score, indicating
that it has the greatest negative social impact, while modified
capping received the lowest score, showing it to have the least
negative social impact and, therefore, is the most preferred choice.
Since social sustainability is a subjective field, the results may
vary according to the sample size, involvement and experience of
respondents in the area of remediation and sustainability.

Again, since Cedar Lake is located within a floodplain and the net The social sustainability index for each remediation option evaluated
change in storage must be zero, sediments from North Lake must be was assessed with the help of the Mives methodology, which uses

Table 2. Overall score

MNA Dredging of contaminated sediments Conventional capping Modified cap employing a reactive core mat
Socio-individual 17 12 13 8
Socio-community 24 14 15 7
Socio-economic 15 18 17 9
Socio-environmental 15 15 12 8
Grand score 71 59 57 32

Table 3. Requirement, criteria and indicators and their respective weightages

Requirement Wreq: % Criterion Wcr: % Indicators Win: %
Social 100 Socio-individual 25 Overall health and happiness 20
Income-generating activities 20
Contaminant exposure (trespasser, worker) 20
Accident risk-injury 20
Recreational activity 20
Socio-community 25 Appropriateness of future land use with respect to the community 25
environment
Enhancement of commercial/income-generating land uses 15
Enhancement of recreational facilities 15
Degree of ‘grass-roots’ community outreach and involvement 15
Time for completion of remediation and opening of the park to the public 15
Degree of improvement in aesthetic value 15
Socio-economic 25 Economic impacts of the project on the community 20
Damage to property 15
Effect on tourism 15
Disruption of businesses and the local economy during 15
construction/remediation
Employment opportunities during construction/remediation 15
Impact on fishing activities 20
Socio-environmental 25 Impact on aquatic habitats 20
(SEn2) Degree of consumption of natural resources 20
Degree to which the proposed project will affect other media (i.e. 20
emissions/air pollution resulting from soil or groundwater remediation)
Effects of anthropogenic contaminants at ‘chronic’ concentrations 20
Effects of anthropogenic contaminants at ‘acute’ concentrations 20

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 Environmental Geotechnics
1·00
Socio sustainability index
0·80
0·60
0·40
0·20 0·11 0·11
0·07
0 facilitate the identification and understanding of social impacts
MNA Dredging and Conventional
disposal capping
Figure 3. Overall social sustainability assessment results
multi-attribute analysis. Table 3 shows the requirement, criteria and
indicators used for the overall social sustainability assessment of the
remediation alternatives in this study.
The quantitative value of each social indicator was obtained from
the social sustainability survey. After quantification of each
indicator, each value was normalised to a dimensionless scale of
0–1 using the value function of the concave form expressed,
according to the paper by Alarcon et al. (2011), and the final
score for each remediation option ranges from 0 to 1 (Figure 3).
The weightages assigned to the requirements, criteria and
indicators may vary depending on the preferences of stakeholders
and may influence the overall sustainability assessment.
As shown in Figure 3, MNA had the lowest social sustainability
index, as it is associated with the risk of exposing the community
as well as the surrounding environment to the contamination for a
longer duration of time. Also, the lake is used for recreational
purposes, which makes the social aspects crucial in the decision-
making process. In this study, the modified capping option had
the highest sustainability index, which means that is the best
remediation option for this case study according to social aspects.
Conclusions
Decision-making on the most sustainable technologies for
contaminated site remediation is based on several aspects, such as
economic feasibility, technology effectiveness and social issues.
The traditional methodologies present some limits, such as
difficulty in subjective judgements in the definition of weights of
the criteria and social indicators used in the assessment.
A methodology was developed in order to improve and support
decision-making for the selection of remedial techniques for
contaminated sites. The methodology compares the social
sustainability of remediation alternatives by considering societal
impacts in an overall assessment. The presented structure makes
interpretation of criteria and indicator scores more transparent and
allows decision makers and stakeholders to weight the remedial
effect based on societal impacts.
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Methodology for quantifying the social
sustainability index for environmental
projects
da Silva Trentin, Braun, Visentin, Thomé and Reddy
The study presents a social sustainability assessment of remediation
alternatives for the Cedar Lake sediment, which is contaminated with
PCBs and pesticides. Four remediation alternatives were considered
in this study: (a) MNA, (b) dredging and disposal, (c) conventional
capping and (d) modified capping with a reactive core mat. The
following conclusions can be derived from the study.
0·26 ■ This study presents a methodology for quantification of the
social sustainability index for contaminated site remediation
projects. The final results, through a quantitative approach,
Modified of each remedial option analysed.
capping
■ The final evaluation may change if factors such as the number
of respondents of the surveys are changed or if the
respondents have varied experience or knowledge about the
subject analysed.
■ Cedar Lake is used for recreational purposes, making social
sustainability crucial for its overall sustainability assessment.
Hence, modified capping can be considered the most
sustainable remediation option for the project.
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